Metacognition

- refers to thinking about cognition (memory, perception, calculation, association,

etc.).

 Metacognition involves two types of knowledge: 1.) explicit, conscious, factual,

knowledge, and 2.) implicit/unconscious knowledge,
 The efforts of metacognition are aimed at developing learner autonomy,
independence, and regulated learners.

Motivational Factors in Learning

Motivation
- According to Green (1995, motivation refers to the initiation , direction, intensity
and persistence of human behavior.

Reward and Reinforcement

Reward
 It is that which follows an occurrence of specific behavior with the intention of
acknowledging the behavior in a positive way.
 It has often the the intent of encouraging the behavior to happen again.

Two Kinds of Rewards

1. Extrinsic rewards
- are external to, or outside of the individual.
2. Intrinsic rewards
- are internal to, or within the individual.

Reinforcement
-It is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior
following the addition of something to the environment.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation
 It is an evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some
obvious external incentive present.

Most explanations combine elements of Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory,

Bandura’s work on self-efficacy and other studies relating to locus of control and goal
orientation. Thus, it is thought that students are more likely to experience intrinsic
motivation if they:
a. Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control.
b. Believe that they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals.
c. Are motivated towards deep ‘mastery’ of topic.

Motivational Theories

Drive Reduction Theory

 It grows out of the concept that we have certain biological needs, such as hunger.

There are several problems, however that leave the validity of Driven Reduction
Theory:
1. It does not explain how Secondary Reinforcers reduce drive.
2. If the drive reduction theory held true we would not be able to explain how a
hungry human being can prepare a meal without eating the food before they
finished cooking it.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

 Suggested by Leon Fistinger, this occurs when an individual experiences degree
of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions.

Affective- Arousal Theories

Need Achievement Theory

 David McCielland‘s achievement motivation theory envisages that a person has
need for three things but people differ in degree in which the various needs
influence their behavior.

Interests Theory

 Holland Codes are used in the assessment of interests as in Vocational Preference

Inventory (VPI, Holland, 1985).

 One way to look at interests is that if a person has a very strong interest in one of
the 6 Holland areas, then obtaining outcomes in that area will be very strongly
reinforcing relative to obtaining outcomes in areas of weak interest.

Need Theories

Need Hierarchy Theory

 Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs theory is the most widely

discussed theory of motivation.
The theory can summarizes as thus:
a. Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior, only
unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot.
b. Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to
the complex.
c. The person advances to he next level of needs only after the lower level need is at
least minimal satisfied.
d. The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness, and
psychological health a person will show.

The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest, latest) are as
follows:
 Psychological
 Safety and Security
 Social
 Self-esteem
 Self actualization

IV. Developmental Dimensions of Learning

Child Learning vs Adolescent Learning vs Adult Learning
Development of Learning Strategies and Metacognitive Process

 Learning strategies refer to Student’s self generated thoughts, feelings and actions
which are systematically oriented toward attainment of their goals.
 Therefore, implementation of appropriate learning strategies is related to
student‘s self regulation behavior which in turn should be encouraged by
pedagogical designs.

Cognitive vs Behavioral vs Self-Regulating

Wart and Allan (1998) distinguish between three categories according to the kind of
resources used in the regulation of behaviors:

 Cognitive learning strategies: skills in rehearsing a material to be learned or in

organizing it into main theme.
 Behavioral learning strategies: preferences for seeking help from others for trial
and error or for written instructions.
 Self-regulating learning strategies: controlling emotions, motivation and
comprehension.