Quaternary

Volume 4

Chapter 4

Neogene
Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review https://doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.38.2019.04
Published online 20 May 2020

of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Paleogene
Claudia María ALFARO–VALERO 1* , Jesús Bernardo RUEDA–GUTIÉRREZ 2 ,
Jhon Camilo MATIZ–LEÓN 3 , Miguel Angel BELTRÁN–LUQUE4 ,
1 calfaro@sgc.gov.co

Cretaceous
Gilbert Fabián RODRÍGUEZ–RODRÍGUEZ 5 , Gina Z. RODRÍGUEZ–OSPINA 6 , Servicio Geológico Colombiano
Dirección de Geociencias Básicas
Carlos Eduardo GONZÁLEZ–IDÁRRAGA7 , and Jaison Elías MALO–LÁZARO 8 Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53
Bogotá, Colombia
Abstract The Paipa geothermal system is located at 2525 masl in a terrain tilted from 2 jbrueda@sgc.gov.co
Servicio Geológico Colombiano
south to north towards the Chicamocha River, where the geology is dominated by Dirección de Geociencias Básicas

Jurassic
sedimentary rocks intruded by felsic magmas. The Miocene and Pleistocene volcanic Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53
Bogotá, Colombia
activity produced pyroclastic deposits and dome complexes. A deep saline sodium 3 jmatiz@sgc.gov.co
sulfate water, presumably originating from the infiltration of meteoric water followed Servicio Geológico Colombiano
Dirección de Geociencias Básicas
by dissolution of an evaporite, mixes with geothermal fluid. This process masks the Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53
chemical and isotopic composition of the geothermal component of fluid discharge in Bogotá, Colombia

Triassic
4 mbeltran@sgc.gov.co
hot springs, the temperatures of which reach 76 °C. Organic and magmatic/mantle con- Servicio Geológico Colombiano
tributions also affect the composition of the gas phase discharges. High concentrations Dirección de Geociencias Básicas
Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53
of radioactive elements are found in the area, mainly in El Durazno Intrusive, a highly Bogotá, Colombia
altered intrusion located to the west. Extensive outcrops of the Une Formation at high 5 gfrodriguez@sgc.gov.co

Permian
Servicio Geológico Colombiano
elevation (2900 masl) in the Tibasosa–Toledo Anticline represent the main recharge Dirección de Geociencias Básicas
zone. High angle faults (Las Peñas, Paipa–Iza, and Agua Tibia Faults) and the contacts Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53
Bogotá, Colombia
between the magmatic intrusions and the surrounding metamorphic and sedimentary 6 grodriguezo@sgc.gov.co
rocks control the permeability of the fractured reservoir. Northward, rising hot water Servicio Geológico Colombiano

Carboniferous
Dirección de Geociencias Básicas
encounters elevated permeability in sedimentary rocks, mainly in the Une Formation, Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53
Bogotá, Colombia
forming a sedimentary reservoir. The subsequent fluid outflow is facilitated by a nor-
7 cegonzalezi@sgc.gov.co
mal subvertical NW fault (Cerro Plateado Fault). Two main discharge zones, Instituto Servicio Geológico Colombiano
de Turismo de Paipa–Lanceros and La Playa, are controlled by intersections between Dirección de Geociencias Básicas
Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53
faults and permeable rocks.  Bogotá, Colombia

Devonian
Keywords: geothermal exploration, hot springs, geothermal conceptual model, Paipa 8 jmalo@sgc.gov.co
Servicio Geológico Colombiano
geothermal system. Dirección de Geociencias Básicas
Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53
Bogotá, Colombia
Resumen El sistema geotérmico de Paipa se encuentra a 2525 m s. n. m. en un terreno * Corresponding author

Silurian
inclinado de sur a norte hacia el río Chicamocha, donde la geología está domina-
da por rocas sedimentarias intruidas por rocas magmáticas félsicas. La actividad
volcánica del Mioceno y Pleistoceno produjo depósitos piroclásticos y complejos
de domos. Un circuito profundo de agua salina sulfatada sódica, presumiblemente
Ordovician

originado por la infiltración de agua meteórica seguida por la disolución de una

evaporita, se mezcla con fluido geotérmico. Este proceso de mezcla enmascara la
composición química e isotópica de la descarga acuosa de los manantiales termales,

Citation: Alfaro–Valero, C.M., Rueda–Gutiérrez, J.B., Matiz–León, J.C., Beltrán–Luque, M.A., Ro-
Cambrian

dríguez–Rodríguez, G.F., Rodríguez–Ospina, G.Z., González–Idárraga, C.E. & Malo–Lázaro, J.E.

2020. Paipa geothermal system, Boyacá: Review of exploration studies and conceptual model.
In: Gómez, J. & Pinilla–Pachon, A.O. (editors), The Geology of Colombia, Volume 4 Quaternary.
Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Publicaciones Geológicas Especiales 38, 36 p. Bogotá. https://
doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.38.2019.04
Proterozoic

1
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

cuya temperatura alcanza los 76 °C. Aportes de fuente orgánica y magmática/man-

télica también afectan la composición de las descargas en fase gaseosa. Concentra-
ciones altas de elementos radiactivos se encuentran en el área, principalmente en
El Durazno, una intrusión con alteración intensa ubicada al oeste. Extensos aflora-
mientos de la Formación Une localizados a mayor elevación (2900 m s. n. m.) en el
Anticlinal de Tibasosa–Toledo conforman la principal zona de recarga. Fallas de alto
ángulo (fallas de Las Peñas, Paipa–Iza y Agua Tibia) y los planos de contacto entre
intrusiones magmáticas y las rocas metamórficas y sedimentarias que las rodean
controlan la permeabilidad del reservorio fracturado. Más al norte, el flujo ascen-
dente causado por flotabilidad del agua caliente encuentra alta permeabilidad en
rocas sedimentarias, principalmente de la Formación Une, formando un reservorio
sedimentario. La circulación lateral posterior del fluido es favorecida por una falla
normal subvertical NW (Falla de Cerro Plateado). Dos zonas de descarga principales,
Instituto de Turismo de Paipa–Lanceros y La Playa, son controladas por la intersec-
ción entre fallas y rocas permeables.
Palabras clave: exploración geotérmica, fuentes termales, modelo conceptual geotérmico,
sistema geotérmico de Paipa.

1. Introduction The Paipa geothermal system has had an intermediate–

The Colombian convective geothermal systems are located in
the Andean Region. At least 12 geothermal areas have been
identified (Figure 1a), which include (1) the Cerro Bravo–Cerro
Machín Volcanic Complex, which comprises the zones of Ne-
reidas–Botero Londoño and the Villa María Fault in the Nevado
del Ruiz Volcano, Laguna del Otún in the Santa Isabel Volcano,
Santa Rosa–San Vicente in the vicinity of the Paramillo de Santa
Rosa Volcano, and the Cerro Bravo Volcano and Cerro Machín
Volcano (Geocónsul, 1992); (2) the Chiles–Cerro Negro Volcanic
Complex; (3) the Azufral Volcano; (4) the Paipa–Iza geothermal
area; (5) the Cumbal Volcano; (6) the Galeras Volcano; (7) the
Puracé Volcano; (8) the Sotará Volcano; (9) the Doña Juana Vol-
cano; (10) and the Nevado del Huila Volcano. The geothermal
areas numbered 2 to 10 were identified through a national assess-
ment study of geothermal resources in Colombia (Organización
Latinoamericana de Energía, Instituto Colombiano de Energía
Eléctrica, Consultoría Tecnológica Colombiana & Geotérmica
Italiana, 1982). In addition, there are the (11) San Diego geother-
mal area and (12) Sibundoy Volcano, the geothermal systems of
which were identified from the hot springs national inventory
project (Servicio Geológico Colombiano, 2015). Currently, five
of those systems are being investigated for geothermal explora-
tion: Nevado del Ruiz by CHEC–EPM, ISAGEN, and the Servi-
cio Geológico Colombiano (SGC) (Alfaro, 2015); Chiles–Cerro
Negro by ISAGEN–CELEC (Alfaro, 2015); and the Azufral Vol-
cano, San Diego, and Paipa areas by the SGC (Alfaro et al., 2015,
2017; Rueda & Rodríguez, 2016). Other conductive geothermal
systems could be hosted in sedimentary basins having high con-
ductive heat flows, particularly in the Eastern Llanos, Eastern
Cordillera, Caguán–Putumayo, Catatumbo, and Cesar Ranchería
Basins (Figure 1b; Alvarado et al., 2008).
high exploration priority since the national assessment studies
of geothermal resources in Colombia (Organización Latino-
americana de Energía, Instituto Colombiano de Energía Eléc-
trica, Consultoría Tecnológica Colombiana & Geotérmica
Italiana, 1982).
The Grupo de Investigación y Exploración de Recursos
Geotérmicos of the SGC has carried out several exploration
studies in geology, geochemistry, geophysics, and modeling.
These results are integrated into a conceptual model presented
in this chapter.
2. Background
The Paipa geothermal system is located on the high plateau of
the Eastern Andean Cordillera, south of the town of the same
name and from the Chicamocha River to the west of the Tiba-
sosa–Toledo Anticline (Figure 2).
The first studies of this system included fluid geochemis-
try and geology (Bertrami et al., 1992; Boussingault & Rolin,
1849; Empresa Nacional de Uranio S.A. & Instituto de Asuntos
Nucleares, 1979, 1980; Ferreira & Hernández, 1988; Garzón,
2003; Hernández & Osorio, 1990; Navia & Barriga, 1929; Or-
ganización Latinoamericana de Energía, Instituto Colombiano
de Energía Eléctrica, Consultoría Tecnológica Colombiana &
Geotérmica Italiana, 1982;Renzoni & Rosas, 1967; Renzoni
et al., 1998).
At least three conceptual models of the Paipa geothermal
system have been proposed in the past. Based on geological ob-
servations and fluid geochemistry, Ferreira & Hernández (1988)
formulated a model with a magmatic heat source hosted in the
sedimentary sequence, inferred from the Olitas, Pan de Azúcar,
and El Durazno volcanic bodies. A reservoir of primary perme-

2
 a b e Gradient
hor °C/km
Region ffs
O
a 39.3
jir a
La Guajira Amazonía ua jir 35.3
G ua
La G 32.6
Atlántico
Andina La 30.5
Magdalena 29.0

ía
er
Caribe 27.6

ch
Cesar

n
26.6

re
Ra
Orinoquía

ho
25.7

r–

ffs
sa
24.9

O
Pacífico

Ce
24.1

inú
Lower

S
Sucre 23.3
Volcanoes Magdalena
Norte de Valley 22.5

Ca
Córdoba Bolívar Santander Sinú 21.8

tat
San Jacinto 21.0

um
20.1

bo
19.4

Ur
y
18.3

ab
á
alle
Antioquia 16.9

V
Santander Arauca
15.1

ena
l
gda
4

Ma
Chocó
11 Boyacá

le
Caldas Casanare
ra

Risaralda Cundinamarca Amagá

idd
lle
di

M
r

1 Vichada
Co

Llanos
n

ore
r

Quindío Chocó
te

Orientales
s

ffsh
Bogotá
Ea

Tolima

có O
Valle del
lley
Meta
a
Cauca

Cho
aV
n

Huila

atía
ale

P
10 Guanía
Cauca
agd

NN ca–
rM

Cau
87 Guaviare
ppe

Tumaco
U

Nariño
9
3 12
5 6 Vaupés
2 Putumayo
Caquetá Caguán–Putumayo

Temperature °C
0–20
20–30 Amazonas
Vaupés–Amazonas
30–40
40–50
50–60
60–70
70–80
80–95 Basin

Figure 1. Geothermal resources from Colombia. (a) Convective hydrothermal systems (Geocónsul, 1992; Organización Latinoamericana de Energía, Instituto Colombiano de Energía
Eléctrica, Consultoría Tecnológica Colombiana & Geotérmica Italiana, 1982; Servicio Geológico Colombiano, 2015) and inventory of hot springs (Servicio Geológico Colombiano,
2015). Geothermal areas: (1) the Cerro Bravo–Cerro Machín Volcanic Complex, (2) the Chiles–Cerro Negro Volcanic Complex, (3) the Azufral Volcano, (4) the Paipa–Iza geothermal
area, (5) the Cumbal Volcano, (6) the Galeras Volcano, (7) the Puracé Volcano, (8) the Sotará Volcano, (9) the Doña Juana Volcano, (10) the Huila Volcano, (11) San Diego geothermal

3
Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

area, (12) Sibundoy Volcano. (b) Geothermal gradient map (Alvarado et al., 2008).

Quaternary
4
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

Altitude
(masl)
Sochagota

73° 09' 00" W

73° 07' 30" W
73° 06' 00" W
73° 04' 30" W
Lake 3464
3353
3262
Pantano 3201
5° 45' 00" N de Vargas 3151
3107
South America Colombia Boyacá 3077
3048
3027
3023
2995

73° 12' W
73° 06' W
73° 00' W
2953
2916
5° 48' N Chicamocha River 5° 43' 30" N 2890
2856
Sochagota Lake
2835
2807
Alto
2795
Los Godos
2770
Honda Grande 2753
Creek valley 2745
2724
5° 42' N 5° 42' 00" N 2705
2697
Alto 2680
Los Volcanes 2658
2650
2631
2607
2599
5° 36' N 2584
5° 40' 30" N
2560
Tibasosa–Toledo 2548
Anticline 2528
2503
2491
0 2 4 6 8 10 km 0 1 2 3 km 2471
Tibasosa–Toledo 2453
Anticline

Figure 2. Location of the Paipa geothermal area.

 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model
ability occurs in the white sandstones of the Une Formation,
and shallow aquifers occur in the Labor y Tierna Formations.
A clay layer from the Churuvita Group forms the cap rock, and
a recharge zone infiltrates through the Une Formation. The dis-
charge zone is fed by deep fluids transmitted through NE–SW
deep normal faults, and the reservoir temperature is above 200
°C based on cation aqueous geothermometers.
According to Lozano (1990), from the integration of geo-
logical information and a resistivity survey performed by the
Instituto Colombiano de Energía Eléctrica (ICEL) and the
Electrificadora de Boyacá, a magmatic heat source is located
between 3 and 5 km depth, which is related to volcanism; the
system also has two reservoirs. The first is shallow and located
within the Guadalupe Group and its impermeable layer would
be the Guaduas Formation. The second reservoir is deeper (at
1000 to 1200 m) and thicker, and it is hosted in the Churuvita
Group and the Une Formation; its impermeable layer would be
the Conejo Formation. According to this work, the most inter-
esting area in the resource’s location has been identified from
the resistivity survey, which is located in the depression of So-
chagota Lake, where it is elongated in a NE direction and has a
resistivity between 10 and 20 Ω·m.
In the last 15 years, the SGC accomplished the following
studies: (1) geological mapping at a scale of 1:25 000 and a
structural model (Velandia, 2003), including a map of volcanic
units (Cepeda & Pardo, 2004); (2) chemical and isotopic char-
acterization of hot spring waters (Alfaro, 2002a, 2002b); (3) a
preliminary resistivity survey (Vásquez, 2002); (4) a radon sur-
vey (Alfaro & Espinosa, 2004); and (5) preliminary hydrother-
mal alteration and gas studies (Alfaro, 2005a, 2005b). From the
integration of those studies, a conceptual model was proposed
(Alfaro et al., 2005), in which the system is hosted in a volcanic
caldera and the heat source comprises cooling plutons that are
2.1–2.5 Ma. A deep reservoir likely occurs in fractured rocks
associated with basement faults (Paipa–Iza and Cerro Platea-
do Faults), which were also conduits for magmas. Shallower
reservoirs are potentially hosted in the sedimentary sequence,
which because of their lateral extension allow the geothermal
water to flow northwards up to the surface discharge zone. The
geothermal fluid has been heated to more than 300 °C by deep
circulation. The fluid discharge zone is structurally controlled
by fault intersections related to the rotation of blocks defined
by Velandia (2003). The outflow goes from south to north up
to the main discharge zone in the ITP–Lanceros sector. The hot
spring water is not representative of the reservoir fluid because
its chemical and isotopic composition is masked by mixing with
a low temperature saline sodium sulfate source and by a contri-
bution of an organic gas.
Complementary studies were performed by the SGC, most
of which were related to the geothermal exploration, including
uranium exploration (González et al., 2008), a cold and hot
springs inventory (Ortiz & Alfaro, 2010), surface hydrother-
Quaternary
mal alteration, isotopic investigation of groundwater (Alfaro,
2012), potential field surveys (Vásquez, 2012), a geoelectrical
survey (Franco, 2012), and a magnetotelluric study (González–
Idárraga & Rodríguez–Rodríguez, 2017, Anexo A). From these
new studies, an updated conceptual model was formulated
(Alfaro, 2015). The regional recharge likely comes from the
western flank of the Tibasosa–Toledo Anticline through the
Une Formation. El Durazno Intrusive is a magmatic intrusion,
and it could contribute some of the heat from radiogenic heat
due to the relatively high concentrations of 238U, 232Th, and 40K.
The most significant hydrothermal alteration on surface is of
the argillic and advanced argillic type in El Durazno Intrusive.
Geophysical contrasts in the complete Bouguer anomaly define
the Paipa–Toca Fault, which has a N–S direction, and a linea-
ment called the Firavitoba Fault, as previously identified by
Velandia (2003). The low resistivity anomalies from the shal-
low surveys are attributed to saline pore waters in the Churuvi-
ta Formation, south of the intersection between the Buenavista
and Rancho Grande Faults. Lastly, three resistivity structures
were identified: a very high resistivity zone that corresponds
to the center of the Tibasosa–Toledo Anticline, a shallower
low resistivity zone possibly related to a clay–rich layer or an
aquifer filled with saline water, and an intermediate resistivity
zone characteristic of the sedimentary rocks that could host a
geothermal reservoir.
3. Materials and Methods
This work is directed at developing a conceptual model based
on the integration of a 3D geological model that is constrained
by gravity and magnetic surveys, with magnetotelluric mod-
els. These were used to determine the lithologic and structural
controls on the localization of reservoirs of hot water and their
relation to igneous intrusions, which might be heat sources and
influence fluid flow through the hydrothermal system. Fluid
geochemistry, vertical electrical sounding, rock radioactive
elements analysis, soil temperature measurements, and geo-
chronologic data were integrated as part of the model. The in-
tegration of the results was performed through workshops with
participation from the scientific team comprising coauthors of
this chapter. The methods for the specific surveys can be found
in the references cited.
4. Results
4.1. Geology
The regional geology is represented in maps at a scale of
1:100 000, which show the predominance of Jurassic, Cre-
taceous, and Paleogene sedimentary units, with evidence of
volcanism represented by andesite rocks (Renzoni & Rosas,
1967; Renzoni et al., 1998).
5
ALFARO–VALERO et al.
The basement comprises metamorphic rocks (phyllites,
schists, and gneisses) intruded, at least in the sector where the
basement is exposed, by Paleozoic and Mesozoic plutons in-
cluding Chuscales, Otengá, Santa Rosita, and Aguachica. These
units are presumably overlain in the study area by the Devonian
– Carboniferous sedimentary sequences of the Tibet, Floresta,
and Cuche Formations (Mojica & Villaroel, 1984).
The Paipa area is locally covered by sedimentary sequences
of Cretaceous and Paleogene ages over a basement that does
not crop out in the studied area (Figure 3; Velandia, 2003). The
Tibasosa unit in the SE area comprises gray shales, limestones,
and sandstones. The Une Formation consists principally of
sandstones that are fine to coarse grained with conglomerate
lenses and intercalations of gray shales. The Churuvita Group
comprises shales and quartz sandstone. The Conejo Formation
comprises thick layers of black shales with layers of fine–
grained quartz sandstones. Thin layers of siliceous siltstones
and mudstones with phosphorite–rich layers that show intense
fracturing in outcrops compose the Plaeners Formation. Los
Pinos Formation comprises black and green siltstones and
thin to medium interlayers of sandstones. The Labor y Tierna
Formation comprises fine and coarse–grained sandstones. The
Guaduas Formation is made of interbedded claystones, quartz
sandstones, and coal layers. Quartz sandstones with layers of
claystone compose the Bogotá Formation. The Tilatá Forma-
tion is the youngest unit and comprises unconsolidated sandy
sedimentary deposits. Overlying the Tilatá Formation, there are
Quaternary alluvial deposits.
Several investigations of the Paipa Volcano (Ferreira &
Hernández, 1988; Garzón, 2003; Hernández & Osorio, 1990;
Navia & Barriga, 1929; Renzoni & Rosas, 1967) describe the
geology and geochemistry of this atypical volcanic center in
the Eastern Cordillera.
Cepeda & Pardo (2004) proposed the existence of a volca-
nic caldera and associated deposits comprising air fall, a debris
flow, pyroclastic flows, and rhyolitic flow domes (Figure 3).
The first episode involved the construction of a volcanic edi-
fice, which was followed by caldera collapse (Cepeda & Pardo,
2004). The products include block and ash flows, lavas, and
pyroclastic deposits.
Rueda (2017), based on Ferreira & Hernández (1988),
Garzón (2003), Hernández & Osorio (1990), and new field ob-
servations, added the domes unit to the geological map of the
Paipa area (Figure 3, red polygons) and divided it into three
areas, which are the alto Los Volcanes, Honda Grande Creek,
and alto Los Godos (figures 3, 4a, 4b). The rocks from the alto
Los Godos and some from the alto Los Volcanes are interpreted
as ignimbrites and were produced in the first volcanic episode
of the area (Cepeda & Pardo, 2004). However, the geomorpho-
logical, petrographic, geochemical, and geochronological data
indicate that these units comprise rhyolites and trachydacites,
with a calc–alkaline signature (Peccerillo & Taylor, 1976), and
6
they are classified as volcanic arc granites (VAG) in the Pearce
et al. (1984) diagram (Figure 4c–e). Anorthoclase, sanidine, al-
bite, and subordinate biotite and hornblende make up the phe-
nocrysts. The matrix is mostly cryptocrystalline, with varying
amounts of glass replacing the feldspar cores. Cepeda & Pardo
(2004) reported ages of 2.13 ± 0.39 to 2.29 ± 0.17 Ma for one
of the domes of the alto Los Volcanes. Ar–Ar ages indicate
effusive activity at 1.7 Ma for the alto Los Volcanes domes, 1.8
Ma for the Honda Grande Creek dome, and 2.7 Ma for the alto
Los Godos (Rueda, 2017). Fission track data in zircon show
evidence of volcanic activity between 5.9 and 1.8 Ma based on
the average of all grain ages (Bernet et al., 2016).
The volcanic caldera hypothesis (Cepeda & Pardo, 2004)
is now discarded because the basal unit (vitreous ignimbrite)
actually corresponds to emplacements of the dome structures.
Their geomorphology is not due to a caldera collapse but rath-
er to the eruption of two dome complexes (alto Los Volcanes
and alto Los Godos) on either side of the Honda Grande Creek
valley, which forms a depression between them (Rueda, 2017).
4.2. Structural Geology
The Paipa geothermal area is located in the axial zone of the
Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, which has been subject to tec-
tonic inversion and extension since the Cretaceous (Colletta et
al., 1990; Cooper et al., 1995; Dengo & Covey, 1993; Fabre,
1983). Velandia (2003) showed that the reactivation of old and
new structures is related to the compressive regime during the
Andean Orogeny. In the area of ​​interest, there are traces of a
transpressive tectonics in the Boyacá and Soapaga Faults. Ac-
cording to Velandia (2003), there are two structural styles in
the area (Figure 5). Thick skin style normal faults such as the
Cerro Plateado, Paipa–Iza, Las Peñas, and Agua Tibia Faults cut
the basement. Thin skin style structures comprise thrust faults
in the northwest area that include El Bizcocho, El Batán, El
Hornito, Canocas, Santa Rita, El Tuno, Rancho Grande, and
Buenavista Faults. All of them are reverse type structures.
The steep subvertical faults (e.g., Paipa–Iza and Cerro
Plateado) provide permeability for hydrothermal circulation
and magma ascent. Stratigraphic units (Plaeners Formation)
and fault intersections also form channels for fluid flow (Ve-
landia, 2003).
4.3. Hydrothermal Alteration
In the Paipa geothermal area, the surface hydrothermal al-
teration is mainly related to water–rock interaction involving
acidic low temperature waters. Intense acid alteration in El Du-
razno Intrusive is described by González et al. (2008). X–ray
diffraction analyses indicate igneous phases made of sanidine
and quartz and hydrothermal minerals made of kaolinite and
alunite. The acid hydrothermal alteration extends to shallow
 Q
Sochagota
Lake NgQt

73° 09' W
73° 08' W
73° 07' W
73° 06' W
73° 05' W
73° 04' W
Geological legend

aul
Pgb
5° 45' 30" N Klt Kc

áF
lt Kch

ac
Fau
NgQt ornito KPgg Sedimentary rocks Volcanic Rock

Boy
NgQt El H NgQt Kc and deposits
Klp

lt
Qhb

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Q
Q

Fa
Kpl Sand, silt, clays, and conglomerates El Durazno Intrusive and breccia

a
angular fragments of sandstones

ist
of alluvial, lacustrine, and
and coal in silky clay matrix

av
fluviolacustrine deposits.

n
ue
NgQt NgQt

B
5° 44' 30" N NgQv
Pgb Tilatá Formation Volcanic rocks and deposits

lt
a ult Sands with silts and conglomerates

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sF intercalations. Alluvial conglomerates
KPgg o ca downward and ash upward.

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Ba
Pgb Rhyolitic Domes

El
Bogotá Formation domes geometry
Quartz and lithic sandstones,
Qhb

lt
ult
with siltstones levels.
5° 43' 30" N El Durazno
Poorly selected layers of

Fau
KPgg

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Intrusive Kc ash and dome blocks with
Guaduas Formation metamorphic fragments

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Arcillolites, siltstones, coal beds,

co
Kch and quartz sandstones.

Lan

lt
Klt

u
l Biz
Kpl Klt Ash fall with pumice gradation

Fa
Klp

no
Alto Los Godos Labor y Tierna Formation

Tu
er
ault dome complexes Quartz sandstones, friable

ro

El
Rita F and well selected.
Santa

Pl
5° 42' 30" N

at
Klp

ea
d
Pa
Low density currents

o
ipa Los Pinos Formation
(Surge, ash fall)

Fa
–Iz
aF NgQv Black and gray shales with quartz

ult
au sandstones intercalations and thin layers
lt of siliceous siltstones
Honda Grande Ku
Ash and blocks flow
Kpl
Klp Alto Los Volcanes Creek valley (Poorly selected layers of
dome complexes Plaeners Formation metamorphic blocks and pumice)
Siliceous siltstone in thin or medium layers
5° 41' 30" N with some of phosphorites and
shales intercalations

Pa
ult
Ash, pumice, and lithic flows.

ip
Kc

a–
Iz
Conejo Formation

aF
Black and gray shales with some

au
fine sandstones intercalations

lt
Las Peñas Fault
Faults and lineaments

Agua Tibia Fa
Kch
Kpl Churuvita Group
5° 40' 30" N Black shales with quartz sandstones Fault
intercalations with glauconite

Ku Concealed fault
Kt
Une Formation
Quartz sandstones with Thrust fault
shales intercalations

Pa
Kt Concealed thrust
ipa fault
Tibasosa Formation
–Iz
5° 39' 30" N
a

Limestones, black shales, and Photogeological

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 km quartz sandstones.
Fa

lineament
NgQt
ult

Figure 3. Geological map edited from Velandia (2003), Cepeda & Pardo (2004), and Rueda (2017).

7
Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
 ALFARO–VALERO et al.

Alto Los Volcanes domes(Olitas)

Volcanic deposits

SE dome
Central dome
NW dome

SW dome

6 1000
15
Phonolite
c d e
Trachyte 5
Foidite Tephri- (Q < 20) Shoshonitic series
phonolite WPG
Na2O + K2O (wt %)

Trachydacite 4 100
10 (Q > 20) Hight–K
K2O (wt %)

Phonotephrite
Nb (ppm)

Trachy Rhyolite Calk–alkaline

andesite 3 series
Basaltic
Tephrite trachy
Basanite andesite
Traqui 2
5 basalt 10
Calk–alkaline series ORG
1 VAG +
Picro Basalt Basaltic Andesite Dacite
basalt Andesite syn–COLG
Tholeiitic series (Low–K)
0

40 50 60 70 80 50 55 60 65 70 75 1.0 10 100 1000

SiO2 (wt %) SiO2 (wt %) Y (ppm)

Figure 4. Expression and composition of the dome complex located in the geothermal area. (a) Alto Los Volcanes domes. (b) Alto Los
Godos domes. (c) TAS classification of rock composition. (d) K2O vs. SiO2 concentrations (Peccerillo & Taylor, 1976). (e) Tectonic origin
(Pearce et al., 1984). VAG: Volcanic arc granites (Rueda, 2017).

8
 a b
Sochagota

73° 30' W
73° 00' W
73° 09' W
73° 06' W
Lake
ne Santa Rosa
ne ncli
Santander li Sy ult
tic
An ios Fa Corrales 5° 45' N ult
co ed cá Duitama El Hornito Fa
u M ya
c ab L os Bo
Ar Paipa
Sotaquirá

ult
Arcabuco

Fa
a
ag
Sogamoso

ap
ult

Fault

So
ult

Fa

Tuta ult Rancho Grande

o
Fa

Fa
ch

Firavitoba s
n

ca
no
atá

izc

Ca
B

e
El

El

Iza

lin
nc
ult

Sy

ult
Fa

Toca
Pesca
ta

Fa
nja
Tota

ja
vis

ult

Tu
a

Lake

un
Fa
Tunja

T
en

5° 30' N

atá
Bu

iv
Santa Rita

Ch
5° 42' N Fault
Fault Pa
ipa
Lineament Fa –Iz
Ce

ult a
rro

Anticline
Pl
at

Syncline
ea
do

Flection hook
Fa
ult

Basin
Volcanic complex
Las Peñas
Town Fault
0 1 2 km
Study area

Figure 5. Structural geology of the Paipa geothermal area. (a) Regional framework. (b) Detailed map of the study area. The red arrows represent the direction of block rotation
(Velandia, 2003)

9
Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
ALFARO–VALERO et al.
depths (50 and 100 m) in core samples of 4 boreholes (Figure
6), and X–ray diffraction analysis has proven the existence of
alunite and kaolinite plus additional secondary minerals such
as muscovite, barite, dickite, pyrite, and tridymite (Rodríguez
& Alfaro, 2015).
X–ray diffraction of the volcanic deposits characterize ox-
idation and weathering that overprint hydrothermal alteration.
These comprise kaolinite veneer that covers the surface of py-
roclastic deposits and hematite–limonite that forms yellow and
reddish staining.
Xenoliths in the alto Los Volcanes sector show low intensi-
ty, high temperature alteration (Alfaro, 2005a). Some xenoliths
comprise sedimentary and rhyolitic clasts in which plagioclase
is replaced by epidote and cross cutting veins are filled with
chlorite and albite, indicating temperatures exceeding 220 °C
(Figure 7a–h). Metamorphic xenoliths containing biotite, adu-
laria, and quartz filled veins suggest hotter alteration tempera-
tures up to 320 °C (Figure 7i–l; Alfaro, 2005a).
4.4. Radiogenic Heat Production
From the concentrations of 238U, 232Th, and 40K measured by
gamma spectrometry in core samples from boreholes drilled
by SGC at El Durazno Intrusive (González et al., 2008), the
average heat production was estimated. The highest concen-
trations of 238U are found in boreholes 2 and 3, with values​​
of up to 159 mg/kg and 374 mg/kg, respectively. The highest
232
Th concentration was measured in borehole 2, with values​​
of 133 ppm. 40K concentrations are similar in boreholes 1, 3,
and 4, with concentrations up to 7%, but in borehole 2, the 40K
concentration is significantly lower (up to 1.16%) (Rodríguez
& Alfaro, 2015).
The radiogenic heat contribution of the boreholes was es-
timated using equation 1 (Beardsmore & Cull, 2001), which
establishes that the radiogenic heat rate generated is related to
radioactive decay rate and particle emission energy:
A = abundance in the rock (ppm of 238U, 232Th or
%40K) × ρ × A’(μW/kg),
(Equation 1)
where A is the rate of heat generation, ρ the density of the
rock, and A’ is the constant of heat generated by the decay of
238
U, 232Th, and 40K.
The results are scattered, and, for that reason, the box dia-
gram was used to represent these data (Figure 8). Borehole 2
has the highest average heat generation, with a value of 12.52
μWm–3, which is of the same order of magnitude as that for
the Copper Basin intrusion (10.3 μWm–3) (Middleton, 1979).
However, although the dimensions of El Durazno Intrusive are
unknown at depth, it is clearly much smaller.
10
4.5. Fluid Geochemistry
The Paipa geothermal area is characterized by abundant water
and gas discharges from hot springs (Figure 9); the summary
that follows of the geochemistry and isotope composition of
hydrothermal fluids is based on Alfaro (2002a, 2002b, 2005b).
These manifestations are distributed in two main discharge
zones: the ITP–Lanceros and La Playa sectors. The ITP–
Lanceros sector is located near the intersection of El Bizcocho
and El Hornito Faults in Quaternary deposits, and this area has
the largest number of hot springs and the highest flow rates.
The most representative of these is Pozo Azul, which is 56 °C
and flows at 6 L/s (Fonseca, 2018). In La Playa sector, approx-
imately 3.5 km to the south of the main discharge zone in the
Plaeners Formation, there are fewer springs, but they have the
highest temperatures, which are up to 76 °C; there is a low–
pressure steam vent at 75 °C.
The Salpa springs (named after a salt plant) have tem-
peratures of 21 °C and coincide with the Quaternary deposits
northeast of the ITP–Lanceros sector. El Hervidero spring is a
bubbling intermittent spring, which at 21 °C emerges through
deposits 1.5 km south of La Playa. The Olitas spring (23 °C) is
located in the alto Los Volcanes dome complex. The pH of most
waters is neutral, and the high TDS of the ITP–Lanceros, La
Playa, and Salpa buffers the pH. The exception is El Hervidero
spring, which is moderately acidic at pH = 3.7 (Table 1).
According to their chemical classification (Figure 10a),
the dominant thermal water type, including those from ITP–
Lanceros, La Playa, and Salpa springs, is sodium sulfate, with
high salinity (20 000 to 60 000 mg/l of total dissolved solids).
El Hervidero and Olitas are low salinity springs (<150 mg/l of
total dissolved solids) and are classified as sodium sulfate and
sodium bicarbonate types, respectively.
The pattern of dissolved species of Salpa springs is similar
to that for the hot springs in the ITP–Lanceros and La Playa
sectors (Figure 10b). The evidence of a mixing process is con-
firmed by linear trends in the Na–K–Mg diagram (Figure 11a)
and the stable isotope plots (Figure 11b). The highest tempera-
ture spring (El Batán) is the least affected by mixing.
The isotope composition of El Hervidero deviates from the
mixing trend (Figure 11b) and shows a very significant oxy-
gen–18 depletion that is possibly due to the 18O fractionation
between CO2 and H2O (Bertrami et al., 1992).
The highest oxygen–18 content corresponds to the Salpa
springs, and there is a direct correlation between sodium sulfate
concentration and 18O enrichment. This results not from high
temperature water–rock interaction but mixing (Alfaro, 2002b).
The end–member meteoric water composition is δD –75% and
δ18O –11%. The estimated recharge elevation is approximately
2800–2900 masl. From this, and considering that the Une For-
mation has good permeability, the Tibasosa–Toledo Anticline,
 Borehole–1 Depth (m) Sanidine % Quartz % Alunite % Muscovite % Kaolinite % Barite % Dickite % Pyrite %
P1–1 12 61.1 18.1 12 <2 8.5
P1–2 23 70.5 11.5 10.5 2.7 4.8
P1–3 32 7.7 80.9 9.1 2.3
P1–4 40 3.3 80.2 5.9 8.5 2.1
P1–5 50 17.1 11.3 35.7 24.7 9.4
P1–6 60 31.9 34.5 17.4 16.1
P1–7 85 16.9 27.9 7.4 16.9 4.4 11.6
P1–8 95 5.7 31 <2 8.2 9
P1–9 100 17.5 31 18.3 13.6 3.9 9.7
Borehole–2 Depth (m) Sanidine % Quartz % Alunite % Muscovite % Kaolinite % Barite % Pyrite % Tridymite %
P2–1 1 54.9 28.7 2.7 12.3
P2–2 12 45 39.4 4.1 8.8
P2–3 23 25.1 56.9 4.2
P2–4 32 56 30.5 10.9 2.5
P2–5 40 4.9 7.8 9.4 8.8
P2–6 50 7.6 51.3 7 14.6
P2–7 60 50.9 20 12.9 <2 4
P2–8 85 47.5 3.6 2 7.6 37.8
P2–9 95 61.3 2.2 4.6 6.1 3.5
P2–10 100 14.1 4.7 8.8 14.7 10.4 43.5
Borehole–3 Depth (m) Sanidine % Quartz % Pyrite % Muscovite % Barite % Dickite % Orthoclase %
P3–1 7 18.6 60.3 14.7
P3–2 14 71.1 21.6 5.9 <2
P3–3 21 65.2 29 5.5
P3–4 28 57.9 31.7 7.9
P3–5 35 46.7 36.1 5.8 5 <2 3.1
P3–6 42 54.1 27.4 3.1 4.9 2.2 5.2 3
P3–7 49 <2 27.6 3.5 2.1 <2 <2 62.6
P3–8 56 <2 15.1 6.4 4.1 <2 72.9
Borehole–4 Depth (m) Sanidine % Quartz % Alunite % Muscovite % Dickite % Orthoclase %
P4–1 6 62.8 9.5 6 17.5 2.4
P4–2 12 88.9 3.3 3.9
P4–3 18 63.1 13.4
P4–4 24 52.3 43.3 3.5
P4–5 30 82.6 11.2 5.7
P4–6 36 2.5 48.3 48.2
P4–7 42 67.3 <2 20.3 8.2
P4–8 48 44.5 26.8 26.3

Figure 6. Cores samples from boreholes drilled in El Durazno Intrusive. The mineral composition was determined from XRD analyses (Rodríguez & Alfaro, 2015).

11
Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
12
a b c d

Qtz
Ab
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

Ms
Ab
Bt

e f g h

Ill

Adl
Chl
Sme

i j k l

Ab
Ser

Pl
Ep Chl

Chl
Qtz

Pl Qtz

Figure 7. Secondary minerals identified in xenoliths and scanning electron microscopy images of vein filling minerals. (a) (Bt) Biotite. (b) (Ms) Muscovite. (c) (Ab) Albite. (d). (Qtz)
Quartz. (e) (Adl) Adularia. (f) (Ill) Illite. (g) (Sme) Smectite. (h) (Chl) Chlorite. Petrography in xenoliths in alto Los Volcanes. (i) (Ep) Epidote replacing (Pl) Plagioclase and (Ser) Sericite.
(j) (Chl) Chlorite in quartz vein. (k) Radial (Chl) Chlorite replacing feldspathic matrix. (l) (Ab) Albite in veins. Figure 7i–l in crossed nicols (Alfaro, 2005a).

80
Heat generation (µWm–3) 60
40
20
9.62
0
Borehole–1
Figure 8. Box diagram representing the estimated heat production for boreholes drilled at El Durazno Intrusive (Rodríguez & Alfaro, 2015).
located east of the study area, is likely the main recharge zone
(Alfaro, 2012; Malo & Alfaro, 2017).
Hot springs in ITP–Lanceros and springs in Salpa and El
Hervidero are characterized by continuous strong gas dis-
charge. The gas composition of some springs (Table 2) is
dominated by CO2, with a lower CH4 concentration than ex-
pected for geothermal fluids (CH4/CO2 < 0.0001) (Figure 12a),
which could be related to the input of low methane magmatic
gas or to oxidizing environments associated with protracted
interaction with aerated groundwater. The δ13CCO2 ranges be-
tween –4.7 and –4.9‰ in ITP–Lanceros hot springs, and it is
–6.7‰ in Salpa and –3.1‰ in El Hervidero. From this, the
most likely source of the CO2 is magmatic given that the man-
tle–derived values are –5 to –7‰ (Hoefs, 1978). The variation
of δ13CCH4 versus δ13CCO2 (Figure 12b) found in the Pozo Inun-
dado spring from the ITP–Lanceros sector and El Hervidero
shows that the origin of CO2 is magmatic and characteristic
of geothermal gases which ranges between –2 and –9‰ (Ono
et al., 1993). 13CCH4 ranges from –35.85 and –33.49‰; it does
not reflect the typical geothermal gases, for which the range
is between –30 to –24‰ (Ono et al., 1993). This composi-
tion could be due to the contribution of thermogenic methane,
Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model
Quaternary
12.52
9.70
8.28
Borehole–2 Borehole–3 Borehole–4
which is the component of natural gas in which the δ13CCH4
values range from –25 to –55‰ (Schoell, 1980). This sug-
gests that gases of two different origins have mixed (Alfaro,
2005b). Based on recent results for 3He/4He and 4He/20Ne, the
contribution from a mantle source is estimated to be between
35 to 55% (Figure 13).
Aqueous and gas geothermometers seem to be unreliable
due to the lack of equilibrated deep fluid in hot spring discharg-
es. The alkali geothermometers are not applicable, as the contri-
bution of the saline source is dominant, which is evident in the
triangular Na–K–Mg plot (Figure 11a). The source of elevated
concentrations of sodium, sulfate, and other ions species are
likely due the dissolution of an evaporite deposit. The SiO2 geo-
thermometers indicate temperatures up to 120 °C (Table 3), and
using a simple enthalpy–silica model (Truesdell & Fournier,
1977), the highest possible equilibration temperature is close
to 230 °C.
The results of the calculation of geothermometers based on
chemical composition and 13C in CH4/CO2 are shown in Ta-
ble 3. The calculated equilibration temperatures range widely
between 41–92 °C (CO2/H2 geothermometer) to 340–522 °C
(CH4/CO2 geothermometer) and none of them seem reliable.
13
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

Na Cl Na Cl
Sochagota
Lake
Ca HCO3
Ca HCO3
ITP
Mg Laceros SO4
5° 45' 30" N
t
l
Mg Salpa SO4
Fau

600 480 360 240 120 120 240 360 480 600 (meq/l)
600 480 360 240 120 120 240 360 480 600 (meq/l)
ac á

El Hornito Fault
Boy

lt
au
aF
ult
Fa

ist
n
atá

av
B
El

en
5° 44' 30" N

Bu
e Fault
u lt Rancho Grand
s Fa
ca
no
Ca Na Cl

ult
Ca HCO3

s Fa
5° 43' 30" N

cero
Mg La Playa SO4
Steam

Lan
Vent

Fault
300 240 180 120 60 60 120 180 240 300 (meq/l)

Tibia
Na Cl
Agua

5° 42' 30" N Santa Rita

Fault
Pa
ipa Ca HCO3
–Iz
aF
C

El
er

au
ro

lt Mg Hervidero SO4
Pl
at
ea
do

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 (meq/l)
Fa
ul
t

5° 41' 30" N
Na Cl
Pa
ipa
–Iz

Ca HCO3
aF
aul

Las Peñas Fault Olitas

t

Mg SO4
Pa
ip

1.1 0.88 0.66 0.44 0.22 0.22 0.44 0.66 0.88 1.1 (meq/l)
5° 40' 30" N
a–
Iza
Fa

Warm springs (20–50 °C)

ult
73° 08' 30" W

73° 07' 30" W

73° 06' 30" W

73° 05' 30" W

73° 04' 30" W

73° 03' 30" W

Hot springs (>50 °C)

Figure 9. Locations of hot springs. The Stiff diagrams show the predominance of sodium sulfate waters (Alfaro, 2002a).

4.6. Shallow Temperature Survey tracting the average ambient temperature, and the results are
presented in Figure 14.
A shallow temperature survey was conducted in the Paipa geo- The average normalized temperature is 4.9 °C. Two positive
thermal area. A total of 141 temperature measurements were anomalies (8.4 and 8.6 °C), well–defined by data, are observed,
recorded at the surface and to 20 and 150 cm depths away from they occur around the intersection of El Bizcocho, Santa Rita,
the immediate zones of influence of the hot springs (Rodríguez El Tuno, Paipa–Iza, and El Batán Faults, and another in the cor-
& Vallejo, 2013). The measurements were normalized by sub- ridor bounded by El Hornito and Canocas Faults. In the same

14
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
Table 1. Chemical and isotopic composition of hot springs from the Paipa geothermal system (Alfaro, 2002a, 2002b).

Electrical S Cat- S An-

Na K Ca Mg Li Sr B Fe Mn Cl SO4 HCO3 F Si SiO2 TDS d18O dD
T conduc- iones iones
ID Hot Spring pH
°C tivity (mS/ (‰) V–
cm) Concentration (mg/l)
SMOW

ITP–Lanceros

1 Pozo Azul 53.7 7.0 44500 13525 1500 90 18.0 18 4.8 5.20 0.3 1.8 5351 20187 2700 15.2 30 64 632.51 616.57 38652 –6.935 –67.05

Pozo Inun-
2 43.5 7.3 41400 11750 1400 77 17.0 18 4.4 5.30 0.4 1.5 4890 19687 2475 14 27 58 552.03 589.40 36094 –7.025 –66.5
dado

Manantial
3 Pozo Inun- 52.7 6.8 42900 12250 1500 77 18.0 18 4.6 4.80 0.4 1.7 5253 19750 2580 14.8 29 62 576.42 602.71 38024 –7.035 –68.15
dado

Pozo H.
4 63.4 7.2 42500 12500 1400 87 17.0 18 4.6 4.90 0.3 1.7 5138 19375 2520 14.7 30 64 585.14 590.67 36680 –7.46 –70.15
Lanceros

5 Ojo del Diablo 68.1 7.0 43200 12375 1562 175 21.2 18.2 5.7 5.10 0.2 1.6 5103 19250 2606 15.5 31.5 67.5 588.61 588.53 38848 –7.205 –68.2

6 Pozo Blanco 62.2 7.0 44100 13000 1500 100 17.0 20 4.6 4.90 0.4 1.8 5333 20937 2640 15.3 30 64 610.10 630.71 38218 –7.215 –67.9

Cuarto Máqui-
7 nas Tobogan 22.9 6.0 8320 1550 160 40 8.0 1.6 0.4 0.05 <0.2 <0.1 728 2870 298 0.48 7 15 74.16 85.24 5004 –9.56 –71.55
ITP

Fondo piscina
8 25.1 6.0 11130 2450 280 48 10.0 3.4 0.6 0.09 <0.2 0.6 1154 4187 479 0.29 7 15 116.93 127.65 8042 –9.365 –70.2
olimpica

Fondo piscina
9 30.2 6.3 27600 6883 810 100 20.0 10 1.6 2.10 <0.2 2.9 3009 13062 1402 1.4 10 21 326.70 380.06 21344 –8.49 –70.45
olimpica

Fondo piscina
10 25.9 6.1 9750 1975 230 50 10.0 2.2 0.4 0.60 <0.2 <0.1 985 3050 373 0.13 6 13 95.10 97.45 6922 –9.475 –71.5
olimpica

Motobomba
11 69.8 7.1 43300 12375 1550 175 22.5 18.1 5.8 5.10 0.3 1.6 5065 19812 2606 15.30 30.0 64.3 588.41 599.15 38750 –7.335 –69.05
Lanceros

La Playa

El Batán–Pis-
12 75.5 7.4 22000 5500 725 100 22.5 10.6 2.4 2.40 <0.2 0.2 2378 8250 1420 18.7 36.0 77.1 264.60 263.22 13500 –8.62 –68.95
cina La Playa

Vía Escuela
13 53.5 6.8 52300 5500 685 40 20.0 10 1.8 6.00 <0.2 0.2 6807 8750 2699 20 35 75 260.36 419.61 41813 –6.685 –67.6
La Playa

Salpa

Pozo Las
14 Marismas 21.5 6.3 55800 16926 1757 47.3 14.6 22.9 5.2 7.40 4.67 2.00 7095 26652 2989 5.76   31.6 784.55 804.69 63664 –6.36 –67.1
Salpa

Pozo principal
15 21 6.5 46000 13250 1637 175 22.5 18.0 4.7 5.30 0.2 1.7 5455 20812 2620 6.10 19.5 41.8 628.69 630.73 41612 –7.275 –69.65
Salpa

Olitas

16 Piscina Olitas 23.2 5.7 172.2 23.5 14.5 11.5 0.9 <0.1 0.6 0.03 <0.2 <0.1 1.3 17.5 93.7 3.2 46.0 98.6 2.04 2.11 92 –10.185 –73.35

 El Hervidero
17 El Hervidero 21.8 3.7 103.2 4.0 5.0 2.5 0.4 <0.1 <0.2 <0.05 1.0 <0.1 3.7 22.5 0.0 0.1 9.0 19.3 0.46 0.58 55 –14.52 –62.9

corridor, a groundwater well of approximately 97 m depth dis-
charges sodium bicarbonate water at 34.8 °C, which is consis-
tent with the temperature anomaly. Negative anomalies (low
temperature) occur in the Honda Grande Creek valley, which
extends around the alto Los Volcanes dome complexes. This
thermal pattern is possibly related to the permeability of the
soil, which is lower in the valley, where clay layers from the
weathering of pyroclastic deposits form an insulating barrier.
4.7. Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES)
The geoelectrical study, which employed a Schlumberger
array and 152 VES, penetrated to a maximum depth of 300
m (Franco, 2016). The survey area is characterized by low
(between 12 and 58 Ω·m) and very low resistivities (<12
Ω·m), which is illustrated in three plan maps, at 2500, 2350,
and 2200 masl. (Figure 15). The lowest resistivity anomaly
is found to the east of Sochagota Lake in the proximity of
the Salpa sector, which is the zone of the highest sodium sul-
fate concentration water (Alfaro, 2002a). An extensive NNW
trending anomaly occurs between El Hornito and Canocas
Faults (at 2500 masl) and extends to El Tuno Fault at 2200
masl. Other anomalies appear to be controlled by the Cerro
Plateado Fault and the corridor between El Batán and Bue-
navista Faults. At 2350 and 2200 masl, the anomaly related
to the Cerro Plateado Fault seems to extend laterally to the

15
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

1000
a b Hot springs (>50 °C) Salpa Springs
Warm springs (19–50 °C)
80 80 Sodium bicarbonate
Warm springs (19–50 °C)
60 60 100

40 40

Concentration (meq/l)
20 20 10

Mg So4
1
80 80

60 60
0
40 40

20 20

Na K Ca Mg Cl So4 HCO3
Ca 80 60 40 20 Na + K HCO 20 40 60 80 Cl
3
Major Ions

Figure 10. Chemical classification of the spring waters. (a) Piper diagram. Most of the springs are of the sodium sulfate water type,
except for Olitas spring (blue circle), which is a sodium bicarbonate spring. (b) Schoeller diagram. The dominant sodium sulfate pattern
followed by the hot springs is clearly defined by the saline springs of Salpa (Alfaro, 2002a).

Na/1000
a b
0 100 –40

–40
D (‰ V–SMOW)

–50

e
10 in
+ ic l
–60 17

r
O eteo
25 75
–50

=d l m
El Hervidero

*8
–70

dD loba
D (‰ V–SMOW)

18
Full equilibrium line

G
160° 140°
12
180° 0° –80
Salpa 0°
springs 20 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6
50 50
10

°
20
18
O (‰ V–SMOW)
0°

2
14 –60
0°

80

ITP–Lanceros
24

Partial equilibrium
0°
26

9
El Batán
0°
28

12 1 13
0°

8 IPT–Lanceros 3
30

10 7 12 56
°

76 °C
20

75 25 11 14
°3
340

–70 Salpa
8 4 15
9 springs
7 10
Immature waters
Olitas 16 Y = 1.37576*X ± 58.3197
16
100 El Hervidero 17 0 R = 0.8785
K/100 0 25 50 75 100
Mg –80
–11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6
18
O (‰ V–SMOW)

Figure 11. Evidence of a mixing process of hot springs with saline sodium sulfate water. (a) Na–K–Mg relative composition (Giggenbach,
1988; Alfaro, 2002a). (b) Environmental stable isotopes (Alfaro, 2002b).

west up to El Tuno Fault and to the east up to the Agua Tibia 4.8. Gravity and Magnetic Data
Fault. The low resistivities could be related to the circula-
tion of saline waters resulting from a high concentration of The acquisition of gravity and magnetic data was carried out in
sodium and sulfate water, to the circulation of hydrothermal three field campaigns compiled by Beltrán (2015). An additional
waters, or to clay layers in the sedimentary sequence (Fran- campaign was performed to unify the base stations (data levelling)
co, 2016). in order to calculate the gravity fields (Vásquez, 2012). After apply-

16
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
Table 2. Chemical and isotopic composition of gases discharged by hot springs in the Paipa geothermal system.

Concentration (molar percentage in dry gas) d13 CCO2 d13CCH4 3

He/4He
% (1) He/Ne
ID Hot Spring (‰) (‰) (R/Ra c)
(2)
CO2 H2S NH3 He H2 Ar O2 N2 CH4 (1) (1) (2)

ITP–Lanceros
1 Pozo Azul 97.95 0.208 0.00175   0.00099 0.02159 0.90350 0.90768 0.00298 –4.7   1.12 3.39
2 Pozo Inundado 98.43 0.104 0.00286 0.00007 0.00095 0.02886 0.34299 1.07925 0.00688 –4.7 –35.85    
4 Pozo Lanceros 92.26 0.280 0.00118 0.00030 0.00015 0.06592 1.53176 5.85692 0.00356 –4.9      
5 Ojo del Diablo 99.15 0.354 0.00106 0.00025 0.00132 0.00944 0.00435 0.45406 0.02100 –4.8   3.14 3.32
Salpa
Pozo La Marismas
14 99.73 0.129 0.00071 0.00014 0.00011 0.00191 0.02590 0.11027 0.00259 –6.7   6.76 3.56
Salpa
El Hervidero
17 El Hervidero 99.25 0.136 0.00046 0.00411 0.00015 0.00471 0.02825 0.43606 0.13954 –3.1 –33.49 1125.05 2.73

(1) Alfaro (2005b)

(2) This work. Analyses by the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e vulcanologia (INGV), from Italy. Agreement SGC–INGV No. 08, 2018.

a CO2/100 b 0 Marine
0 100 carbonate
14 –4
CO2 0%
–8 Magmatic 20%
carbon
Residual kerogen

–12 40%

25 75 –16 60%
Low

80%
me

–20 100%
tha

CCH4 (‰)
ne

5 –24 CO2
Kerogen
ma

0%
–28
gm

gas from 20%

50
13

50
atic

refractory El Hervidero
ER –32 kerogen 40% C
0° 17
or o

RI 35 C
0° 2 Pozo Inundado
xid

–36 60%
Craking

30 C
0° n
ise

17 25 tio
SR C uc
red
dg

–40 80% °
200
ase

100% C
75 LN 25 –44 0°
s

BS gas from 15
RG –48 labile C
NE BL Bs2
kerogen 0°
BP AC n 10
o
NE LN –52 id ati
SD ox
Hydrothermal gases
HC
100 RE RE 0 –30 –26 –22 –18 –14 –10 –6 –2 2
10CH4 0 25 50 75 100 N2 13
CCO2 (‰)

Figure 12. Gas discharge compositions. (a) Relative concentrations of CO2–CH4–N2, for which the blue circles correspond to the Nevado del
Ruiz as a reference of the typical composition of hydrothermal and magmatic (ER and RI) gases. The red circles 5, 14, and 17 correspond
to Ojo del Diablo, Salpa, and El Hervidero hot springs, respectively. Modified from Giggenbach et al. (1990). (b) 13CCH4 vs. 13CCO2 (Alfaro,
2005b). Circles: geothermal wells from New Zealand. Squares: natural gas wells from New Zealand and Thailand. Diamonds: natural gas
wells in the Gulf of Thailand. Modified from Giggenbach (1997).

ing variable density gridding, adjusting the reduction of data, and The residual gravity map (Figure 16) shows several highs
calculating the power spectrum, the residual anomaly grids were associated with the Paipa Volcano and Las Peñas and San-
obtained by the application of a matched filter over the total Bou- ta Rita Faults; other gravity anomalies are associated with
guer anomaly and over the total field magnetic anomaly (Llanos alto Los Godos, which are controlled by the Cerro Plateado
et al., 2015). Fault.

17
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

100

90
He / He Source contribution (%)

80

70 R/Ra = 2.73 R/Ra = 2.81

60 R/Ra = 3.56 R/Ra = 3.39 R/Ra = 3.32

50

40

30
4

20
3

10

0
El Hervidero Salpa Pozo Azul Steam Vent Ojo del Diablo

Crust source Mantelic source

Figure 13. 3He/4He ratios indicating a mantle contribution to the gas compositions.

Table 3. Temperature estimation of the reservoir fluid at Paipa’s geothermal system (Alfaro, 2002a, 2005b).

Discharge
TQtz –no TCO2–H2S–
Tempera- TCH4/CO2 TCO2/Ar TCO2/H2 Td13CH4/CO2
ID Hot Spring Sector steam TH2/Ar °C
ture °C H2–CH4
°C °C °C
loss °C
(°C)
        (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

ITP–Lanceros
1 Pozo Azul ITP–Lanceros 54 114 513 108     85      
2 Pozo Inundado ITP–Lanceros 43 109 468 98     84 220 226 159
4 Pozo Lanceros ITP–Lanceros 63 114 500 83     43      
5 Ojo del Diablo ITP–Lanceros 68 117 415 106 116 285 92      
La Playa
12 El Batán La Playa 76 123                
Salpa
Pozo La Marismas
14 Salpa 22   522 74 335 34      
Salpa
El Hervidero
17 El Hervidero   22   340 62 79 305 41 228 233 166

(1) Fournier (1977) (6) Koga (1987) in Koga (2000)

(2) Giggenbach (1991) (8) Panichi & Gonfiantini (1978)
(3) D’Amore & Panichi (1980) (7) Lyon & Hulston (1984)
(4) Giggenbach (1987) (9) D’Amore & Panichi (1987)
(5) Giggenbach & Goguel (1989)

18
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
5.4 4.2
3.1

73° 09' W

73° 06' W
Sochagota
4.4
Lake 4.7

t
aul
áF 4.8
5.8
6.1 5.1
yac

4.9
5.3
Bo

lt
ito Fau
El Horn 4.7
3.6 5.8
5° 45' N
5.3 5.9 4.2

ult
5.2 5.5

Fa
u lt

a
6.7
Fa
5.6 5.6

ist
ITA well 4.1 tán

av
Ba
El
3.2

en
4.3 4.9

Bu
4.9
4.2
3.8
5.3 4.3

ult
lt
rande Fau
lt Rancho G

Fa
5 4.9
5.8 u
Fa

ho
s 5.5
ca oc
6 4.4 4.8
8.6
no 4.6
zc
Ca 5.9
Bi

7 6.2
5.3
El

ult
5.9

ult
4.7 5.4

ibia Fa
4.7

s Fa
8.1
Pa

cero
Agua T
ipa

5.7
5
–Iz

6.1

Lan
aF

5.3 5.9 5
t
au

ul
Fa
lt

5
5.3
Ce
no

6.1 6.3 6.3

6.2
Tu

rro

4.7 5.1
6
ault
El

nta Rita F
Pl

4.1 5.1
Sa
at

4.8
ea

5.6
6.1 5.4 4.9 Positive anomalies
do

Pa 8.4
4.8
ipa Negative anomalies
Fa

4.2
–Iz
ult

7.5
aF 5.5 Measurement stations
3.8 au 4 3.5
5° 42' N 7.1 lt 5.6
3.3 ITA groundwater well
6.2
5.2 3.9 6.9
4.2 2.3 3.8
El Durazno Intrusive
4.7 3.8 4.8 4.7
2 4.6 Domes
5.1 4.9 1.9
2.3 4.6
4 5.2 Sochagota Lake
3.9
5.2
Pa

6.4 Temperature values °C

ipa

5
5.4
–Iz

1.8–2.8
3.9
aF

2.8–3.4
au

4.5 Las Peñas Fault 3.4–4.0

lt

3.5
5.7
3.2
2 3.8 4.0–4.4
Pa

4.4–4.7
ipa
–Iz

4.7–4.9
aF

5.4
4.9–5.1
au

5.1–5.3
lt

4.2
4.5 5.3–5.4
5.4–5.7
4.9 5.7–6.0
4.2
6.0–6.4
6.4–6.9
6.9–7.6
7.6–8.6

Figure 14. Map of shallow temperatures at 150 cm depth (Rodríguez & Vallejo, 2013).

19
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

a Sochagota 2500 masl b Sochagota 2350 masl

Lake Lake
Salpa Salpa
lt

lt
Fau

Fau
cá

cá
a

a
Boy

Boy
El Hornito Fault El Hornito Fault

lt

lt
5° 45' N 5° 45' N

u
Fa

Fa
ult lt

a
au

ist

ist
Fa F

av

av
tán tán
Ba Ba

en

en
El El

Bu

Bu
ult ult
au
lt rande Fa lt rande Fa
Rancho G au Rancho G
a sF asF
n oc n oc
Ca Ca

lt

lt
Fau

Fau
lt

lt
Fau

Fau
s

s
Fault

Fault
cero

cero
cho

cho
lt

t
Pa

Pa
Lan

Lan
ul
u

izco

izco
Tibia

Tibia
Fa

Fa
i

i
pa

pa
o

o
–I

–I
El B

El B
n

n
za

za
Tu

Tu
Agua

Agua
Fa

Fa
ult ult
El

El
Rita Fa Rita Fa
Ce

Ce
u

u
Santa Santa
lt

lt
rro

rro
Pl

Pl
at

at
ea

ea
do

do
5° 42' N 5° 42' N
Fa

Fa
u

u
lt

lt
Paip

Paip
ult

ult
a–Iz

a–Iz
Agua Tibia Fa

Agua Tibia Fa
a Fa

a Fa
ult

ult
Las Peñas Fault Las Peñas Fault
Pa

Pa
ipa

ipa
73° 09' W

73° 06' W
73° 09' W

73° 06' W
–Iz

–Iz
aF

aF
au

au
lt

lt
c Sochagota 2200 masl Resistivity
Lake [Ω·m]
Salpa
lt
Fau

<–1
acá

1.5–2.3
Boy

El Hornito Fault 2.3–3.4

lt

5° 45' N
au

3.4–5.1
aF

ult
ist

Fa 5.1–7.7
av

n
atá
en

B
El 7.7–11.6
Bu

lt rand e Fault 11.6–17.3

F au Rancho G
as
n oc 17.3–26.0
Ca
26.0–39.0
ult
s Fa
lt

39.0–58.5
Fau

Fault

cero

58.5–87.8
cho
t
Pa

Lan
ul

87.8–132
izco

Tibia
Fa
ip
a

no
–I

El B

132–198
za

Tu

Agua
Fa

ult
El

Rita Fa
Ce

198–296
ul

Santa
t

rro

296–445
Pl
a te

445–667
ad

5° 42' N
o
Fa

667–1000
ul
t
Paip

1000–1501
ult
a

1501–2251
–Iza

Agua Tibia Fa

2251–3376
Fault

3376–5064
Las Peñas Fault
5064–7597
Pa
ipa

>7597
73° 09' W

73° 06' W
–Iz
aF

Stations
au
lt

Figure 15. Resistivity maps at (a) 2500, (b) 2350, and (c) 2200 masl (Franco, 2016).

20
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
73° 09' 00" W

73° 07' 30" W

73° 06' 00" W

73° 04' 30" W

lt mGal
Fau

12.1
10.7
acá

El Hornito Fault 9.2

Boy

lt
5° 45' 00" N

au
7.9

aF
u lt 6.8

ist
Fa

av
n
atá 6.0

en
B
El

Bu
5.3
nde Fau lt 4.6
ault R ancho Gra
F 3.9
c as
no
Ca 3.1
2.4

ult
s Fa
5° 43' 30" N
1.8
1.2

cero
0.8

Lan
Fault 0.3
t
ul
Fa

–0.2
Tibia
no

Ce
Tu

ult –0.6
ita Fa
rro

R
El

Agua

Santa –1.0
Pl
at

Pa
ea

ipa –1.3
do

–Iz –1.7
Fa

aF
ult

au –2.1
5° 42' 00" N lt
–2.5
–2.9
–3.3
–3.7
–4.0
–4.4
Las Peñas Fault –4.8
–5.2
Pa
ipa

5° 40' 30" N –5.7

–Iz

–6.2
aF

–6.8
au
lt

–7.4
–8.1
–8.8
Lava domes
–9.6
1000 0 1000 2000 3000 m –10.3
–12.3

Figure 16. Residual gravity anomaly map. The red color represents gravity highs, and the blue color represents gravity lows (Llanos et
al., 2015).

To the south of the Paipa geothermal area, there is an- sif or igneous intrusions exposed at the surface north of the
other gravity anomaly that could be associated with an in- geothermal area.
trusive body that lacks surface expression. Westward, in The total magnetic intensity map (Figure 17; Llanos et
El Durazno Intrusive, intermediate values of gravity are al., 2015) shows a magnetic high associated with the Paipa
observed. To the northeast, a gravity high is possibly as- Volcano, which resembles the shape of the gravity anomaly
sociated with metamorphic rocks from the Floresta Mas- and seems to also be controlled by Las Peñas and Santa

21
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

73° 09' 00" W

73° 07' 30" W

73° 06' 00" W

73° 04' 30" W

nT
lt
Fau

140.3
104.0
acá

El Hornito Fault 90.1

Boy

ult
5° 45' 00" N
81.9

Fa
lt

a
u 74.5

ist
Fa

av
n
atá 68.1

en
B
El

Bu
62.1
nde Fau lt 56.0
ult R ancho Gra
Fa 50.2
c as
no
Ca 43.8
38.1

ult
s Fa
5° 43' 30" N
32.1
27.9

cero
24.7

Lan
Fault
22.4
t
ul
Fa

Tibia 20.1
no

Ce
Tu

ult 18.1
ita Fa
rro

R
El

Agua

Santa 16.1
Pl
at

Pa
ea

ipa 14.1
do

–Iz 11.9
Fa

aF
ult

au 9.9
5° 42' 00" N lt
7.7
5.8
3.7
1.6
–0.8
–3.1
Las Peñas Fault –5.6
–8.0
Pa
ipa

5° 40' 30" N –10.7

–Iz

–13.5
aF

–16.7
au
lt

–20.7
–26.7
–36.5
Lava domes
–52.3
1000 0 1000 2000 3000 m –105.0
–393.9

Figure 17. Total intensity magnetic map (Llanos et al., 2015).

Rita Faults. An asymmetric magnetic dipole is associated 4.9. 3D Geological Model Constrained by
with the alto Los Godos dome complex. The two highest Geophysics of Potential Fields
magnetic anomalies, located in the northwest and east of
the area, are interpreted as intrusive bodies (Llanos et al., A geological–geophysical 3D model was obtained using Geo-
2015). To the south, a small dipole possibly reflects a con- modeller inversion software. The input data comprise geolog-
cealed intrusion. ical maps from Velandia (2003) and Cepeda & Pardo (2004),

22
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model
cross sections drawn from the 1:25 000 geological map and
gravity and magnetometry grids. After the physical properties
(density and magnetic susceptibility) were assigned to each
geological formation, a joint stochastic inversion was execut-
ed at a voxel resolution of 100 m × 100 m × 100 m (Llanos
et al., 2015).
The 3D geological model (Figure 18) contains the sedi-
mentary and metamorphic units, domes (intrusive bodies) and
volcanic deposits. The most notable features of the geological
model, as constrained by inversion with potential geophysical
data, are represented by the 3D density model (Figure 19).
The 3D density model reveals positive anomalies that can
be related to attributes of the Paipa geothermal system (Figure
19). Intrusion 1 and 2 underlie the alto Los Volcanes and El
Durazno Intrusive, respectively. Intrusions 3 and 4 do not have
surface expressions, seem to be related to the alto Los Godos
dome complex and are separated from intrusion 1 by the Cerro
Plateado Fault. Intrusions 5 and 6 could be related to the high
density basement in the Tibasosa–Toledo Anticline or to other
blind magmatic intrusions (Alfaro et al., 2017).
4.10. Magnetotelluric Model and Geological
Interpretation
Figure 20 shows the locations of five profiles defined for 2D
modeling using WinGLink geophysical interpretation software
by Geosystem SRL, owned by the SGC (González–Idárraga &
Rodríguez–Rodríguez, 2017) and 88 MT soundings used for
3D modeling by means of WSINV3DMT (González–Idárraga
& Rodríguez–Rodríguez, 2017). As can be observed in Figure
21, the 2D models and the same profiles from the 3D model
visualized using Paraview software show contrasts between
very high, intermediate, and very low resistivities, which grosso
modo are comparable in the 2D and 3D models. The observed
differences are due to the resolving power of 3D anomalies in
2D modeling (Ledo, 2005; Wannamaker, 1999) and due to the
projection of anomalies that could appear as “hanging” resistiv-
ity bodies in the profiles, which are called phantom anomalies
(Ledo, 2005).
Comparing the magnetotelluric 3D model with the density
model and bearing in mind some considerations based on sur-
face geology and geological cross sections, a geological inter-
pretation was achieved. Two geological domains are identified
as crystalline rocks of high density and high resistivity and sedi-
mentary rocks of comparatively low density and low resistivity.
The sedimentary cover, including volcano–sedimentary de-
posits, has low to intermediate resistivities between 0 and 80
Ω·m. This cover, presented in Figure 22 in volumetric view
generated using Paraview software, is much thicker in the west
and northwest, where it reaches 3 to 4 km depth, probably due
to the greater accumulation and basin subsidence in the west,
when compared to the thinner deposits in the east.
Quaternary
The reported thickness of the Cretaceous to Quaternary
sedimentary sequence previously described is approximately
1500 to 2000 m. The Devonian – Carboniferous sedimenta-
ry units may comprise almost 1500 m of sand and clay–rich
layers. From this, a sedimentary cover of greater than 3000 m
thickness can be assumed, which is consistent with the depths
of conductive anomalies. Within the sedimentary units, a more
conductive layer is identified by resistivities between 0 and 3
Ω·m. This high conductivity is interpreted as the contribution
of saline pore waters in permeable intervals, as observed on the
surface and in the top 1000 m (Figure 22c).
The geoelectrical response of the basement, shaped by
metamorphic rocks intruded by granitic bodies, is resistive,
as shown in the volumetric representation of the resistivi-
ty presented in Figure 23a. It is located near the surface to
the east and southeast and deeper to the west and northwest,
where it is below the modeled depth (i.e., >4 km). The most
notorious features are the resistive bodies (500–1000 Ω·m)
that correlate with the intrusions and high density anomalies
(Figure 19) corresponding to El Durazno Intrusive and to the
dome zones (Figure 23b). The intrusive structure of El Duraz-
no forms an oval–shaped resistive anomaly that narrows with
depth. The extensive high resistivity structure developed be-
neath the alto Los Volcanes domes extends laterally towards
the alto Los Godos domes (Figure 23b); in other words, the
same magmatic intrusion fed the two dome complexes, which
correlates with the lack of a high density anomaly underneath
alto Los Godos (Figure 19). To the east, other resistive struc-
tures with shapes and thicknesses similar to those previously
described (see the miniatures in Figure 23b) could be due to
intrusions with no superficial expression or to rocks from the
anticline’s nucleus.
4.11. Conceptual Model
The main results of the exploration studies are summarized in
Table 4 and Figure 24.
The geothermal system arises and is hosted in terrain that
is tilted from south to north towards the Chicamocha River.
The recharge occurs at an elevation of 2900 m through the
sandstones of the Une Formation in the Tibasosa–Toledo Anti-
cline, which dip towards the west. Once beneath the valley, the
groundwater flows downwards, following deep fault structures
(Paipa–Iza, Las Peñas, and Agua Tibia Faults) and the intersec-
tions between them.
The northward flow through the basement possibly follows
secondary permeability channels opened by hydrostatic and hy-
drodynamic pressure or the contacts along intrusions. Heat is
swept by the fluid as a result of the interaction with intrusions
beneath the dome complexes’ zone. The heat is either related to
magmatic activity or is radioactively associated with the decay
of 238U, 232Th, and 40K. The geothermal fluid is fed by magmatic
23
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

W
4°
.1

W
73

2°
a

W
5.75°

.1
N

0°
73

°W
.1
73

.0 8

°W
5.73°

73
N

.06
73
5.72° 4000
N

Elevation (masl)
5.70°
Faults N
3000

5.68°
Agua Tibia N
2000
Buenavista 5.66°
N
Buenavista 1000

Canocas
Cerro Plateado
El Batán
El Biscocho
El Hornito
El Tuno
Lanceros
Las Peñas
Paipa–Iza
Rancho Grande
Santa Rita
Boyacá

W
b 4°
.1 W
73
2°

W
5.75°
.1

0°
N
73

°W
.1
73

°W
.08
5.73°

73
N

.06
73
5.72° 4000
N
Geological units

Elevation (masl)
5.70°
N 3000

Domes 5.68°
N
2000
El Durazno
5.66°
Quaternary N
1000
Vulcanitas
Tilatá
Bogotá
Guaduas
Labor y Tierna
Los Pinos
Plaeners
Conejo
Churuvita
Une 5.6
8°
W N
0° W
Tibasosa 73.
1
3.
08
° 5.6
6°
7 W N
6°
Metamorphic 73
.0

Basement

Figure 18. Geological 3D model of the Paipa geothermal area. (a) View of the structural model. (b) View of the geological model (Llanos
et al., 2015).

24
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
°W
.14 W
73 2° W
5.75° .1
N 73 0°
.1

W
73

8°

°W
5.73°

.0
N

73

.06
73
5.72°
N
5.70
°N

5.68 4000
°N

Elevation (masl)
5.66
°N
2 3000

3 5 2000

1 1000

4
6

Density (g/cm)3
2.90 2.80 2.70 2.60 2.50 2.40 2.30 2.20 2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80

Figure 19. 3D density model of the Paipa geothermal area. The positive anomalies labeled with numbers are related to igneous intru-
sions (Alfaro et al., 2017).

CO2 and mantle He (3He/4He). Due to buoyancy forces, hot
water rises along fault controlled conduits (such as the Cerro
Plateado Fault) or through porous sedimentary rocks, which
creates a sedimentary hosted reservoir.
That low density and intermediate resistivity sedimentary
reservoir is hosted in the Une Formation between the two dome
complexes. The resistivity related to the sedimentary reservoir
and its cap rock does not show a contrast with the sedimentary
cover; this electrical response is normal in sedimentary geo-
thermal systems (van Leeuwen, 2016). From this reservoir, the
hot water initiates the outflow to the discharge zone following
the Cerro Plateado Fault in a NW direction. Along its path, the
fluid discharges to the surface in a low permeability zone in hot
springs and a steam vent of low flow rate through the Plaeners
Formation (La Playa discharge sector). The impermeable clay
layers from Churuvita Formation and even from the Une For-
mation and the weathered pyroclastic deposits would prevent
the hot water from flowing to the surface, becoming the cap
rock of the system. When the hot water reaches the western lim-
it of the Une Formation, it flows NNE up to the intersection of
El Hornito and El Bizcocho Faults to form the main discharge
zone (ITP–Lanceros sector).
The chemical and isotopic composition of the hot water is
modified by the mixing with the saline pore waters and input
of thermogenic methane.
The resistivity structure suggests that the saline source orig-
inates to the west due to the partial dissolution of evaporites
hosted deep in the sedimentary sequence. The main fluid flow
near the surface follows a NE corridor bounded by El Hornito
and Canocas Faults up to the vicinity of Sochagota Lake, near
the northern border of the area, where it reaches the surface
through the Quaternary deposits. At depth, the saline water
circulation extends laterally to the east, making possible the
mixing process with the geothermal fluid beneath the surface.
At shallow depths in the mentioned NE corridor, warm wa-
ter feeds the ITA groundwater well and forms a surface thermal
anomaly. The low salinity of this well water indicates that the
water circuit is separated from the deeper saline water, probably
by sedimentary clay layers, which are common in most of the
sedimentary sequence. The water would increase its tempera-
ture by interaction with igneous intrusive bodies enriched in
radiogenic elements, around El Durazno Intrusive or by interac-
tion with warm rocks in contact with the Une Formation, which
acts as the conduit of the fluid from the hot geothermal system,
as previously described.
5. Conclusions
The Paipa geothermal system was developed in sedimentary
stratigraphy of the Eastern Colombian Cordillera. Here, an iso-

25
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

73° 10' W
A

73° 09' W

73° 08' W

73° 07' W

73° 06' W

73° 05' W

73° 04' W
5° 46' N

lt
ito Fau
El Horn
5° 45' N

ult
a Fa
ist
av
C ult

en
s Fa

Bu
ca
no
Ca rande Fau
lt
Rancho G
5° 44' N
lt
Fau

ult
cho

s Fa
izco

cero
El B

5° 43' N

Lan
Ce

Santa Rita
A’
rro

Fault
Pl
at
ea
do

E
Fa
ul
t
Fault
Agua Tibia

B’
5° 41' N
Las Peñas Fault

5° 40' N

C’

E’ D’

Figure 20. MT survey area showing stations and the locations of 2D profiles. At each sounding, AMT and MT were measured for a range
of frequencies of 10^4–0.01 Hz, approximately (Geological map from Cepeda & Pardo, 2004; Rueda, 2017; and Velandia, 2003).

lated volcanic center has been active for the last 1 to 10 Ma, and
sodium sulfate–rich groundwaters circulate near the hydrother-
mal system and mix with the geothermal fluid.
The geological setting is divided into two domains: (1) the
thick sedimentary sequence that ranges from the Cretaceous
to Quaternary in the west and northwest and, (2) in the central
northeast, the developed volcanic intrusive complex with sur-
face expression defined by rhyolitic domes.
The main recharge zone occurs at elevations of 2800–2900
masl, coincident with outcrops of the Une Formation and the Ti-

26
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
2D modeling profiles 2D profiles from 3D modeling
5000 5000
A A' A A'

PA0156
PA0064
PA0081
PA0084
4000 4000

PA0051
PA0052

PA0082
PA0058

PA0053
PA0083
PA0002
PA0012

PA0123
3000 3000
Elevation (m)

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0

–1000 –1000

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 m 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 m

5000 5000
B B' B B'

PA0161

PA0071
PA0137

PA0098
PAR401
PA0096

PA0141

PA0145
PA0091
PA0055
PA0140

PA0139
PA0155
PA0006

4000
PA0007

4000
PA0057

PA0130
PA0132
PA0043

PA0008
PA0095
PA0143

3000 3000
Elevation (m)

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0

–1000 –1000

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 m 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 m

5000 5000
C C' C C'
PA0026

PA0092
PA0032
PA0036

PA0135

PA0038
PA0094
PA0086

PAR207

4000 4000
PA0030

PA0028

PA0148
PA0034

PA0017
PA0016
PA0005
PA0015
PA0088

3000 3000
Elevation (m)

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0

–1000 –1000

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 m 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 m

5000 5000
D D' D D'
PA0089
PA0077
PA0136

PA0162
PA0075
PA0087
PA0076

4000 4000
PA0151
PA0078

PA0020
PA0150
PA0138

PA0018

3000 3000
Elevation (m)

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0

–1000 –1000

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 m 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 m

5000 5000 3.0

1000
E E' E E'
631
PA0159

PA0160

4000 4000
PA0126

PA0021

398
PA0115

2.5
251
3000 158 3000
2.0
Elevation (m)

100
63
2000 2000
40
1.5
25
1000 16 1000
10
1.0
0 6 0
4
3 0.5
–1000 –1000
2 Resistivity
1 [Ωm] 0.0
Log(Resistivity [Ωm])
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 m 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 m

Figure 21. 2D MT profiles. A conductive domain near the surface is observed in the northwest, and a deep resistive domain occurs in
the east and southwest of the area from both 2D and 3D modeling (González–Idárraga & Rodríguez–Rodríguez, 2017).

27
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

a
La
Longitude titu
de Log (resistivity
[Ωm])

3.00
2000 2.67

2.33

2.00
1000
1.670
Elevation (m)

1.33

1.00
0
0.667

0.333

–1000 0.00

Longitude
Latitude 73.08° W 73.06° W
73.12° W 73.10° W
73.16° W 73.14° W
5.66° N 5.68° N 5.70° N 5.72° N 5.73° N 5.75° N 5.77° N

b c
Log (resistivity Log (resistivity
73.08° W 73.08° W
73.12° W [Ωm]) 73.16° W
73.12° W [Ωm])
73.16° W
2000 3.00 2000 3.00

Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)

2.67 2.67
0 0
2.33 2.33
5.77° N
5.77° N 2.00 2.00

1.670 1.670

1.33 1.33

La
La

titu
titu

1.00 1.00

de
de

ude de
5.68° N Longit 0.667 5.68° N Longitu 0.667

0.333 0.333

0.00 0.00

Figure 22. Volumetric view of the sedimentary cover with resistivity values that range between 0 and 80 Ω·m, (a) is the depth view and
(b) the top view. This layer is thicker in the west and northwest. (c) is the top view of a layer in the sedimentary rocks that has high
conductivity. This low resistivity (0–3 Ω·m) is probably due to the saline fluid circulation.

basosa–Toledo Anticline. The Une Formation provides permea-

Figure 23. Volumetric view of the basement based on resistivity.
bility that influences fluid flow through the hydrothermal system. (a) Metamorphic rocks and magmatic intrusions confined from 80
Deep high angle faults (Paipa–Iza, Las Peñas, Agua Tibia, to 1000 Ω·m. (b) Intrusive rocks range from 500 to 1000 Ω·m.
and Cerro Plateado Faults) and their intersections plus the con-
tact zones between igneous intrusions and surrounding rocks
represent controls that influence deep fluid circulation. contribution of organic components to the geothermal fluids.
Clay layers from the Churuvita or Une Formations and from The input of magmatic/mantle gases is confirmed by the δ13CCO2
weathered pyroclastic deposits have low permeability and con- and 3He/4He ratios.
fine fluid flow within the sedimentary reservoir. The origin of the sodium sulfate saline water is the dissolu-
The magmatic heat source is located beneath the volcanic tion of a deep evaporite in the sedimentary sequence from the
dome complexes and is associated with cooling and/or radio- west and northwest sectors.
genic heat production. In El Durazno Intrusive, the heat pro- Secondary minerals, including epidote, adularia, albite, and
duction is estimated from boreholes to be 12 μW/m3, which biotite plus local occurrences of dickite reflect water–rock inter-
could heat the water circulating through the northwest area, action between 200 °C and ca. 320 °C. Although aqueous and
where a groundwater well discharges low salinity water at gas geothermometers are highly affected by mixing with fluids
34.8 °C. Although the dimensions of this intrusion have of different origins, a simple enthalpy–silica model suggests a
not been determined, the resistivity model shows that it is current resource temperature of ca. 230 °C.
large at depth. The gravity and magnetotelluric results show that igneous
The chemical and isotopic composition of the hot springs intrusions and metamorphic rocks in the basement are related to
is not representative of the geothermal fluid due to mixing with high density and high resistivity anomalies. The location of an
saline low temperature water. The existence of coal deposits igneous intrusion below the alto Los Volcanes appears to extend
and hydrocarbon seeps as well as the δ13CCH4 values indicate laterally northeast, giving rise to the alto Los Godos volcanic

28
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
73.16° W 73.14° W 73.12° W 73.10° W 73.08° W 73.07° W
a 5.77 ° N
2000
Elevation (m)

5.68 ° N
0

Log (resistivity
[Ωm])

3.00

2.67

2.33

2.00

1.670

1.33

1.00

0.667

0.333

0.00

73.08° W 73.07° W
b 73.14° W 73.12° W 73.10° W 5.77 ° N
73.16° W

2000
Elevation (m)

5.68 ° N

Log (resistivity
[Ωm])

3.00

2.67

2.33

2.00

1.670

1.33

1.00

0.667

0.333
El Durazno Intrusive Alto Los Volcanes and alto NE intrusive
0.00
Los Godos dome complexes

29
ALFARO–VALERO et al.

Table 4. Summary of evidence supporting the conceptual model.

Geothermal system
Evidences/signs Source of information
features
Terrain tilted from north to south Topography–geology
Hydraulic gradient between Tibasosa–Toledo Anticline and the valley Topography–geology
Regional recharge
Sandstones outcrops from the Une Formation on the anticline Geology
zone
Dipping strata from the Une Formation on the anticline Structural geology
Composition of the recharge water (ca. 2900 masl) Isotope hydrology
Hot magmatic intrusions from residual magmatic heat Geology
Radiogenic heat Radioactive isotope geochemistry
Heat source
Magnetic survey, magnetotellurics, geology,
Possible recent intrusions without surface expression
and isotopic helium geochemistry
Contact between magmatic intrusions and surrounding rocks Geology, magnetotellurics
Upflow zone
Vertical faults Structural geology
Deep reservoir lo-
Basement xenoliths Hydrothermal alteration
cation
Secondary minerals (up to 320 °C) Hydrothermal alteration
Reservoir temperature
Enthalpy–silica model (up to 230 °C) Fluid geochemistry
Sedimentary reservoir Availability of sandstones from the Une Formation between high density and high
Geology, geological model, magnetotellurics
location resistivity dome complexes
Deep faults: Paipa–Iza, Las Peñas, and Aguatibia Faults; and intersection between
Deep infiltration Structural geology
them
conduits
Contact between magmatic intrusions and surrounding rocks Geology

Outflow (lateral circu- Lateral extension of the Une formation Geology and geological model
lation) Occurrence of a discharge zone of limited permeability (very low flow rate) Geology and geochemistry
Clayish levels within the sedimentary sequence (Churuvita and Une Formations) Geology
Cap rock
Weathered pyroclastic deposits Geology
Hot springs sites Geology and geochemistry
Discharge zone
Steam vent Geology and geochemistry
Affected by mixing with a saline source (sodium sulfate) Geochemistry
Geochemistry, isotopic gas geochemistry,
Geothermal fluid Affected by mixing with organic carbon
geology (coal mantles and seeps)
composition
Contribution of magmatic CO2 Isotopic gas geochemistry
Contribution of a high 3He/4He source Isotopic gas geochemistry

dome complexes. In the middle of the geothermal area, a low The characteristic resistivity of the intrusions suggests that
density and intermediate resistivity volume surrounded by high they are mostly crystallized down to 4 km. However, the mag-
density and high resistivity anomalies represents the sedimen- matic CO2 source and 3He/4He ratio indicate a current mag-
tary reservoir hosted by the Une Formation. matic/mantle contribution.

Figure 24. Conceptual model of the Paipa geothermal system. The main recharge zone is located in the western flank of the Tibasosa–
Toledo Anticline, in the area where the Une Formation crops out. The deep circulation through high angle faults as well as the contacts
of the magmatic intrusions, enriched in radioactive elements, causes the water temperature to increase. The upflow zone feeds the
relatively shallow reservoir in the Une Formation. The outflow from this reservoir is favored by the Cerro Plateado Fault. The Une For-
mation provides permeability and fluid flow to the north until the main discharge zone (ITP–Lanceros sector) where the high vertical
permeability conditions reach the surface. Saline water is mixed with the geothermal fluid along the outflow, masking its chemical and
isotope composition.

30
 Paipa Geothermal System, Boyacá: Review of Exploration Studies and Conceptual Model

Quaternary
Sochagota Lake Sochagota Lake Upflow Recharge zone

Outflow Saline source input

El Durazno
El Durazno
Intrusive Intrusive Seal cap Metamorphic
basement

Alto Los Godos Alto Los Godos

domes domes Cerro Plateado Fault

Alto Los Volcanes

domes
Alto Los Volcanes
domes
Intrusive geoforms
supposed at depth

Resistive intrusion modeled

Density map at a 2000 masl Geological map

Sochagota Lake
ITP–Lanceros hot springs
ITA well 30.2–70 °C
El Durazno 33.8 °C
Intrusive
U 238 La Playa hot springs
53.5–76 °C
Alto Los Godos
238
domes
U

8
23
238
U U
U 238
2000 8
23
U ?
1000
?
0

–1000 ? 238
U

–2000 ?
75 °C
–3000

–4000
? ?
–5000

–6000

–7000
?
–8000 250 °C
?
–9000

–10000

350 °C

31
ALFARO–VALERO et al.
Acknowledgments
The authors express a very special thanks to the reviewers for
the hard work undertaken in the careful revision of the manu-
script of this chapter. Thanks to the professionals that during the
development of this study took part of the Grupo de Exploración
de Recursos Geotérmicos: Francisco, Wilson, Luis Eduardo,
José Vicente, Natalia, Lina Fernanda, Héctor, María Teresa, Jai-
me, Edwin, Iván Darío, María Luisa, and Javier. Thanks to the
chemists and geologists from the laboratories of the SGC, who
participated in the analytical work. Additionally, thanks to the
experts who along several years guided us and provided techni-
cal contributions to this study, particularly regarding geophysical
methods and to the participants in an international panel for their
comments, suggestions, and recommendations on the conceptual
model. Finally, thanks to the local community for allowing us to
learn about the fascinating Paipa geothermal system.
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TDS Total dissolved solids
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XRD X–ray diffraction
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Authors’ Biographical Notes
Claudia María ALFARO–VALERO1 has a BS in chemistry, Univer-
sidad Nacional de Colombia, and a postgraduate in geothermal tech-
nology, from the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Her research
focuses on the geochemistry of hydrothermal and volcanic fluids and
on geothermal exploration. She currently works as chief of the Grupo
de Exploración de Recursos Geotérmicos.
Jesús Bernardo RUEDA–GUTIÉRREZ2 has a BS geologist, Uni-
versidad Industrial de Santander, with experience in geological map-
ping, research on mineral exploration, volcanology, structural geology,
and lithogeochemistry. He currently works as a geologist in the Grupo
de Exploración de Recursos Geotérmicos of the Servicio Geológico
Colombiano.
Quaternary
Jhon Camilo MATIZ–LEÓN3 has a BS in cadastral and geodetic
engineer, and a MS in information sciences and geomatics from Uni-
versidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas. He previously worked as a
Colombiana del Espacio (CCE), under the responsibility of Instituto
Geográfico Agustín Codazzi (IGAC), and has served as technical co-
ordinator and zone leader for private companies in projects of digital
mapping, geographic information systems (GIS), and satellite image
processing for earth observation. He is currently working as a research-
er in 3D modeling, in litho–constrained geophysical inversion and geo-
matics for the Grupo de Exploración de Recursos Geotérmicos of the
Servicio Geológico Colombiano.
Miguel Angel BELTRÁN–LUQUE4 has BS in geologist and a MS in
geophysics from Universidad Nacional de Colombia with experience
in the mining industry and in geologic exploration in areas such as the
northern Cauca valley, northern Colombia ultramafic bodies (part of
the Western Cordillera), the Middle Magdalena Valley, and the Central
and Eastern Cordilleras. He currently works at the Servicio Geológico
Colombiano in the Grupo de Exploración de Recursos Geotérmicos
processing magnetic/gravimetric data from geothermal areas and un-
dertaking active gravity and magnetic acquisitions in the San Diego
geothermal area.
35
ALFARO–VALERO et al.
Gilbert Fabián RODRÍGUEZ–RODRÍGUEZ5 has BS in cadastral
and geodetic engineer from Universidad Distrital Francisco José de
Caldas of Bogotá. He currently works in the Grupo de Exploración
de Recursos Geotérmicos of the Servicio Geológico Colombiano as
a researcher in geophysical sciences, with emphasis in shallow tem-
perature surveys, magnetotelluric and TDEM surveys, and vertical
electrical soundings.
Gina Z. RODRÍGUEZ–OSPINA6 has a BS in geologist from Uni-
versidad Industrial de Santander, with experience in well logging, in-
ventories of thermal springs, and cartography. She currently works in
the Grupo de Exploración de Recursos Geotérmicos of the Servicio
Geológico Colombiano in the acquisition, processing, and interpreta-
tion of structural data integrated into the geological mapping of geo-
thermal areas.
36
Carlos Eduardo GONZÁLEZ–IDÁRRAGA7 has a BS in physical
engineer from Universidad Nacional de Colombia and a MS in Earth
sciences from Institute of Geophysics of the Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México (UNAM), emphasizing the exploration of natu-
ral resources employing electromagnetic methods. He currently works
as a geophysicist in the Grupo de Exploración de Recursos Geotér-
micos of the Servicio Geológico Colombiano in the acquisition, pro-
cessing, and interpretation of resistive models from magnetotelluric
and TEM data.
Jaison Elías MALO–LÁZARO8 has a BS in chemistry from Univer-
sidad de Córdoba and a specialization degree in instrumental chemical
analysis at the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. He currently works
in the Grupo de Exploración de Recursos Geotérmicos of the Servi-
cio Geológico Colombiano, supporting studies of fluid geochemistry,
measurements of radon gas, and isotopy.