Chapter 1:

1- Statistics: is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw
conclusions from data.

2- Variable: is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.

3- Data: The values measurements or observations that the variables can assume.

4- Random variables: variables whose values are a determined by chance.

5- Data set: a collection of data values.

6- Data value (datum): each value in the data set.

7- Population: consists of all subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied.

8- Sample: a group of subjects selected from a population.

9- Descriptive statistics: consists of the collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of

data.

10- Inferential statistics: consists of generalizing from samples to populations, performing estimations
and hypothesis tests, determining relationships among variables, and making predictions.

11- Probability: the chance of an event occurring.

12- Hypothesis: testing the area of inferential statistics.

13- Qualitative variables: are variables that have distinct categories according to some characteristic or
attribute.

14- Quantitative variables: are variables that can be counted or measured.

15- Discrete variables: assume values that can be counted.

16- Continuous variables: can assume an infinite number of values between any two specific values.
They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and decimals.

17- Nominal level of measurement: classifies data into mutually exclusive (non-overlapping) categories
in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.

18- Ordinal level of measurement: classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise
difference is between the ranks do not exist.

19- Interval level of measurement: ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do
exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.

20- Ratio level of measurement: possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there
exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different
members of the population.

21- Random sample: a sample in which all members of the population has an equal chance of being
selected.

22- Systematic sample: a sample obtained by selecting every kth member of the population work k is a
counting number.

23- Stratified sampling: a sample obtained by dividing the population into subgroups or strata
according to some characteristic relevant to the study. (There can be several subgroups). Then
subjects are selected from each subgroup.

24- Cluster sample: is obtained by dividing the population into sections or clusters and then selecting
one or more clusters and using all members in the clusters as the members of the sample.

25- Observational study: the researcher merely observes what is happening or what has happened in
the past and tries to draw conclusions based on these observations.

26- Experimental study: the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the
manipulation influences other variables.

27- Independent variable (explanatory variable): is the one that is being manipulated by the researcher.

28- Dependent variable (outcome variable): the resultant variable.

29- Treatment group: the group that received the special instructions.

30- Control group: is the other group.

31- Confounding variable: is one that influences the dependent or outcome variable but wasn’t
separated from the independent variable.

Chapter 2:

32- Raw data: when the data are in original form.

33- Frequency distribution: is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies.

34- Class: each raw data value is placed into a quantitative or qualitative category.

35- Frequency: the number of data values contained in a specific class.

36- Categorical frequency distribution: is used for data that can be placed in a specific categories,
such as nominal or ordinal level data.

37- Grouped frequency distribution: when the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped into
classes that are more than one unit in width.

38- Lower class limit: represents the smallest data value that can be included in the class.

39- Upper class limit: represents the largest data value that can be included in the class.

40- Class boundaries: numbers are used to separate the classes so that there are no gaps in the
frequency distribution.

41- Class width: found by subtracting the lower (or upper) class limit of one class from the lower (or
upper) class limit of the next class.

42- Cumulative frequency distribution: is a distribution that shows the number of data values less than
or equal to a specific value.

43- Ungrouped frequency distribution: when the range of the data values is relatively small, a
frequency distribution can be constructed using single data values for each class.

44- Histogram: is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars (unless the frequency
of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the frequencies of the classes.

45- Frequency polygon: is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points plotted for
the frequencies at the midpoint of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the heights of the
points.

46- Cumulative frequency: is this sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper boundary of a
class in the distribution

47- Ogive: is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency
distribution.

48- Relative frequency graphs: these distributions can be converted to distributions using proportions
instead of raw data as frequencies.

49- Bar graph: represents the data by using vertical or horizontal bars whose heights or lengths
represent the frequencies of the data.

50- Pareto chart: is used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical variable, and the
frequencies are displayed by the heights of vertical bars; which are arranged in order from highest to
lowest.

51- Time series graph: represents the data that a occurs specific period of time.

52- Pie graph: is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according to the percentage of
frequencies in each category of the distribution.

53- Stem and leaf plot: is a data plot that uses part of the data value as the stem, and part of the data
value as the leaf to form groups or classes.

Chapter 3:

54- Measures of variation: The measures that determine the spread of the data values.

55- Statistic: characteristic or measure obtained by using the data values from a sample.

56- Parameter: characteristic or measure obtained by using all the data values from a specific
population

57- Mean: is the sum of the values divided by the total number of values.

58- Data array: when the data set is ordered.

59- Median: the midpoint of the data array. The symbol of the median is MD.

60- Mode: the value of that occurs most often in a data set.

61- Unimodal: a data set that has only one value that occurs with the greatest frequency.

62- Bimodal: a data set that has two values that occurs with the same greatest frequency.

63- Multimodal: more than two values that occur with the same greatest frequency.

64- Midrange: is defined as the sum of the lowest and highest values in the data set divided by 2. The
symbol MR is used for the midrange.

65- The weighted mean: a data set in which not all values are equally represented.

66- Range: the highest volume minus the lowest value. The symbol R is used for the range.

67- Deviation: it’s based on the difference or distance each data value is from the mean.

68- Population variance: is the average of the squares of the distance each value is from the mean.

69- Population standard deviation: is the square root of the variance.

70- Coefficient of variation: denoted by CVar, is the standard deviation divided by the mean. The result
is expressed as a percentage.

71- Coefficient of variation: a statistic that allows you to compare standard deviations when the units
are different.

72- Z score (Standard score): is obtained by subtracting the mean from the value and dividing the
result by the standard deviation. The symbol for a standard score is Z.

73- Z score (Standard score): number of standard deviations that a data value is above or below the
mean.

74- Quartiles: divide the distribution into four equal groups, denoted by Q1, Q2, Q3.

75- Quartile: position in fourths that a data value holds in the distribution.

76- Interquartile range: the range of the middle 50% of the data value.

77- Outlier: is an extremely high or are extremely low data value when compared with the rest of the
data values.

78- Boxplot: is a graph of a data set obtained by drawing a horizontal line from the minimum data value
to Q1, drawing a horizontal line from Q3 to the maximum data value, and drawing a box whose vertical
sides pass through Q1 and Q3 with the vertical line inside the box passing through the median or Q2.

79- Boxplot: can be used to graphically represent the data set.

Chapter 4:

80- Probability: can be defined as the chance of an event occurring.

81- Probability experiment: Is a chance process that leads to well-defined results called outcomes.

82- Outcome: is the result of a single trial of a probability experiment.

83- Sample space: is the set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.

84- Tree diagram: is a device consisting of line segments emanating from a starting point and also
from the outcome point.

85- Event: consists of a set of outcomes of a probability experiment.

86- Simple event: it’s an event with one outcome.

87- Compound event: it consists of two or more outcomes.

88- Classical probability: assumes that all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely to occur
(uses the sample spaces).

89- Empirical probability: relies on actual experience (uses the frequencies).

90- Subjective probability: uses a probability value based on an educated guess or estimate.

91- Complementary event (E): is the set of outcomes in the sample spaces that are not included in the
outcomes of event E ( E E ).

92- Mutually exclusive events: if they can’t occur at the same time. (They have no outcomes in the
common)

93- Not mutually exclusive events: are events that can both be true at the same time.

94- Independent event: two events A and B are independent if the fact that A occurs and doesn’t affect
the probability of B occurring.

95- Dependent event: when the outcome or occurrence of the first event affect the outcome or
occurrence of the second event in such a way that the probability is changed.

96- Permutation: is an arrangement of n objects in a specific order.

97- Combination: A selection of distinct objects without regard to order.

Chapter 10 + 13 :

98- Positive relationship: when to a variables increase or decrease at the same time.

99- Negative relationship: when one variable increases the other decreases.

100- Scatter plot: it’s a graph of the ordered pairs (x, y) of numbers consisting of the independent
variable X and a dependent value Y.

101- Scatter plot: it’s a virtual way to describe the nature of the relationship between the independent
and dependent variable.

102- Correlation: is a statistical methods used to determine whether a linear relationship between
variable exist.

103- (r) linear correlation coefficient: it measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship
between two variables (computed from the sample).

104- (p) population correlation coefficient: the value of the correlation coefficient computed by using all
possible pairs of data values (x, y) taken from a population.

105- Regression line: it’s the line of best fit means the line that the sum of the squares of the vertical
distance from each point to this line is minimum.

106- Marginal change: the magnitude of the change in one variable when the other variable changes
exactly 1 unit.

Chapter 5:

107- Discrete variable: have a finite number of possible values or an infinite number that can be
counted.

108- Discrete probability distribution: consists of the values a random variable can assume and they
corresponding probabilities of the values. The probabilities can be determined directly theoretically or
by observation.

109- Binomial distribution: the outcomes of a binomial experiment and the corresponding probabilities
of these outcomes.

Chapter 6:

110- Normal distribution: if a random variable has a probability distribution whose graph is continuous,
bell-shaped, and symmetric.

111- Standard normal distribution: is a normal distribution with the mean of 0 standard deviation of 1.

112- Sampling distribution of sample means: is a distribution using the means computed from all
possible random samples of a specific size taken from a population.

113- Sampling error: is the difference between the sample measure and the corresponding population
measure due to the fact that the sample is not a perfect representation of the population.

114- Continuous variable: are obtained from data that can be measured rather than counted.

Chapter 8:

115- Statistical hypothesis: is a conjecture about a population parameter. This conjecture may or may
not be true.

116- Null hypothesis (H0): is a statistical hypothesis that states that there is no difference between a
parameter and a specific value, or that there is no difference between two parameters.

117- Alternative hypothesis (H1): is a statistical hypothesis that states the existence of a difference
between a parameter and a specific value or states that there is a difference between two parameters.

118- Hypothesis testing: which is a decision-making process for evaluating claims about a population.

119- Statistical test: uses the data obtained from a sample to make a decision about whether the null
hypothesis should be rejected.

120- Test value: the numerical value obtained from a statistical test.

121- Type I error: occurs if you reject the null hypothesis when it’s true.

122- Type II error: occurs if you don’t reject the null hypothesis when it’s false.

123- Level of significance: is the maximum probability of committing a type I error.

124- Z test: is a statistical test for the mean of a population.