ADB

Project Numbers: SC 100903 IND and SC 100905 IND

November 2014

India: Support for the Implementation of the

National Water Mission by State Governments in
India: Scoping Study for a National Water Use
Efficiency Improvement Support Program

Final Report
Volume 1: Main Report

(Financed by the ADB)

Prepared by

Martin A Burton and Amarjit Singh Dhingra

Team Leader Deputy Team Leader
Water Resources and Irrigation Water Resource and Irrigation
Management Specialist Management Specialist

This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the concerned,
and ADB cannot be held responsible for its contents.

Asian Development Bank

ADB

Project Numbers: SC 100903 IND and SC 100905 IND

November 2014

India: Support for the Implementation of the

National Water Mission by State Governments in
India: Scoping Study for a National Water Use
Efficiency Improvement Support Program

Final Report
Volume 1: Main Report

(Financed by the ADB)

Prepared by

Martin A Burton and Amarjit Singh Dhingra

Team Leader Deputy Team Leader
Water Resources and Irrigation Water Resource and Irrigation
Management Specialist Management Specialist

This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the concerned,
and ADB cannot be held responsible for its contents.

Asian Development Bank

Asian Development Bank

India Resident Mission

4., San Martin Marg, Chanakyapuri

New Delhi 110021, India

This study was undertaken by South Asia Environment, Natural Resources and
Agriculture Division (SAER) and India Resident Mission (INRM), Asian Development
Bank (ADB), by a team comprising of Arnaud Cauchois1, Harish Kumar Varma2, Martin A
Burton3, and Amarjit S. Dhingra4.

The views expressed in this book are those of authors and do not necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the ADB, its Board of Governors or the governments it represent,
and ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents.. The ADB does not
guarantee the source, originality, accuracy, completeness or reliability of any statements,
information, data, advice, opinion, or view presented in this publication and accepts no
responsibility for any consequences of their use. By making any designation of or
reference to a particular territory or geographic area in this document, the Asian
Development Bank does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status
of any territory or area.

1
Senior Water Resources Specialist, South Asia Environment, Natural Resources and Agriculture Division,
ADB, Manila, Philippines
2
Senior Project Officer, India Resident Mission, ADB, New Delhi, India
3
Consultant, Water Policy Specialist/Team Leader, Itchen Stoke, UK
4
Consultant, Water Resources and Irrigation Management Specialist/Deputy Team Leader, New
Delhi, India
 SUPPORT FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NATIONAL WATER MISSION BY
STATE GOVERNMENTS IN INDIA: SCOPING STUDY FOR A NATIONAL WATER
USE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT SUPPORT PROGRAM

VOLUME 1: MAIN REPORT

CONTENTS

Particulars Page

Contents i
Currency Equivalents and Units and Measures v
Abbreviations vi
Glossary and Notes viii
Executive Summary ix

I INTRODUCTION 1

A Purpose of the study 1

B Overview of work carried out 1
C Structure of report 1

II BACKGROUND 2

A Water resources development 2

B National Water Policy (2012) 9
C National Water Mission reform agenda 11
D Twelfth Five Year Plan reform agenda 17
E Literature review 20

1 DSDAP study 20
2 National Water Resources Framework study 20
3 World Bank sector review 21
4 Other related studies and programs 23
th
a Mid-term Appraisal Report of the 11 Five Year plan 23
th
b Working Group report on MMI and CAD for 12 Five Year Plan 23
c Technical assistance to support the National Water Mission 24
d Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP) 24
e Command Area Development and Water Management (CAD&WM) 24
Program
f Artificial Groundwater Recharge Scheme 25

III MEASURES FOR ASSESSING AND IMPROVING WATER USE EFFICIENCY ON MMI 26
SCHEMES

A What do we mean by the term “water use efficiency” 26

B Commonly used definitions of WUE 27
C Proposed definition of water use efficiency 29
D Framework for analysis 29

1 Overview 29
2 Defining the problem 30
3 Setting the boundaries 31
4 Identifying core processes 32
5 identifying key indicators 36
6 Data collection 44
7 Analysis of the problem 45

a Overview 45
b DSDAP study analysis 45
c FAO MASSCOTE approach to rapid appraisal of I&D schemes 48

i
Particulars Page

d Current study’s findings 55

i Irrigation institutions 55
ii Irrigation and water management 56
iii information technology 56
iv Ground water and conjunctive use 57
v Participatory irrigation management 57

e Summary of key factors influencing WUE 58

f Approach to identifying feasible solutions 59
g Typology of MMI schemes based on WUE issues and opportunities’ 69

8 Constraints on implementation of identified solutions 71

9 Monitor and evaluate implementation and outcomes 71

E Testing the process – Pilot Schemes 73

1 Purpose and outputs from the pilot schemes 73

2 Mechanism for implementation 73
3 Criteria for selection of pilot schemes 74
4 Work to be carried out 76

F Benchmarking 78

IV UPDATING DPR GUIDELINES 84

A Overview 84
B Contents of the existing guidelines and review of the current approach 84
C Purpose and need for up-dating guideline 86
D Approach to the structure of the proposed guidelines 87
E Purpose of updating guidelines 87
F Updating present guidelines 88

V WORKING GROUP STATE AND NATIONAL LEVEL CONSULTATIONS 89

A Introduction 89
B Setting the context 89
C Focused group discussions: interventions at various levels of the irrigation system 89
D Chandigarh workshop 90
E Hyderabad workshop 91
F Overall recommendations (issues and constraints) 92
G National level meeting 93

VI STRATEGY FOR A NATIONAL WATER USE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT SUPPORT 94

PROGRAM

A Introduction 94
B Rationale and objectives 94
C Components 94

VII CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 101

References and reading material 108

Boxes

III.1 Framework for linking common performance related terms 38

III.2 Description of the FAO RAP process 49
III.3 Benchmarking definition 78
III.4 Descriptors for irrigation and drainage schemes 79

Tables

II.1 Gross water availability and requirements of all water use in India under different 2
scenarios

ii
Particulars Page

II.2 Indicative water balance for India, present and ultimate stage of development 2
II.3 Renewable and utilizable water resources of river basins 3
II.4 Business-as-usual scenario water projection, 2000-2050 5
II.5 Comparison of irrigable area, irrigation potential created and actual areas irrigated in 7
selected States
II.6 National Water Mission objectives and proposed actions 15
II.7 NWRMS irrigation related working papers 20
II.8 Irrigation sector issues and proposed solutions identified World Bank report on the 21
Irrigation Sector (World Bank, 1998)
III.1 Examples of water use efficiency terms developed by different practitioners 28
III.2 Perspectives of irrigation performance by different stakeholders 32
III.3 Examples of measures for water saving and possible impacts 39
III.4 Key indicators identified for the scheme and its core processes 40
III.5 Water use efficiencies in Indian irrigation systems (IWRS, 2004) 43
III.6 Linking performance indicators to data collection 45
III.7 Common reasons and recommendations for low WUE from studies of 30 irrigation 48
systems (CWC, 2010)
III.8 MASSCOTE 11 steps (FAO, 2008) 49
III.9 Summary of FAO MASSCOTE studies in Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh 51
III.10 Matrix for identifing feasible solutions 62
III.11 Structuring the issues and possible solutions facing MMI irrigation schemes 65
III.12 Revised typology for MMI schemes based on identified issues and opportunities 70
III.13 Broad constraints to the implementation of WUE improvement solutions 72
III.14 Proposed criteria for selection of Pilot projects 74
III.15 Outline of information and data needs for the Pilot Projects 77
III.16 Development of the benchmarking programme in Maharashtra 80
III.17 Indicators used in benchmarking I&D schemes in Maharashtra 80
III.18 Categorisation of I&D schemes in Maharashtra benchmarking 81
III.19 Range of values for benchmarking indicators, Maharashtra, 2006-07 82
V.1 Key constraints and levels of intervention identified at regional workshops 92
VI.1 Identified needs and proposed National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support 95
programme
VII.1 Matrix of comments and replies 102

Figures

II.1 River basins of India 4

II.2 River basins categorized on water scarcity and food surplus/deficit 4
II.3 Indicators of growing water scarcity, 2000-2025 6
II.4 Growth in Urban population, 1950-2030 8
II.5 Population growth, GDP and food grain production, 1950-2011 8
III.1 ICID concept of water use efficiency 26
III.2 Irrigation and drainage functions in the context of nested systems 27
III.3 Proposed framework to identify measures to improve performance and water use 31
efficiency on MMI schemes
III.4 Identifying core processes by discipline 33
III.5 Framework for defining water use efficiency (Fairweather et al, 2003, adapted from 34
Barret, Purcell and Associates, 1999)
III.6 Component parts of core processes 35
III.7 Linkage between different water sources in an irrigation system 36
III.8 Example of scheduling irrigation water for paddy during Kharif season in Odisha 37
III.9 Examples of volumes of rainwater utilized in Kharif for different storage capacities 37
III.10 Example of improving crop production with increased WUE 39
III.11 Linking core processes to performance indicators, process outputs and scheme 40
objectives
III.12 Definition of the depleted fraction 43
III.13 Annual rainfall, reservoir storage and releases, Nizam Sagar Scheme, 1995-2006 44
III.14 Seasonal and total cropped areas compared to Cultivated Command area, Nizam Sagar 44
Scheme, 1995-2006
III.15 Unstructured problem analysis 46
III.16 Structured problem analysis 46
III.17 Restructuring the “ problem tree” into a “solution tree” 59
III.18 MMI water use efficiency improvement problem tree 61

iii
III.19 Core elements of service delivery 63
III.20 Key elements for improving the level of irrigation service provision 63
III.21 Decision matrix for prioritizing action to improve performance & WUE 72
III.22 Flow chart of procedure for identification of WUE improvement measures 76
III.23 Benchmarking – comparative performance against best practice 78
III.24 Identification of key processes in an irrigation and drainage scheme 79
III.25 Identification and costing of measures to close the performance gap 80

VOLUME 2: ANNEXURS

Particulars

ANNEXURE I: CONSULTANTS TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE STUDY

TH
ANNEXURE II: KEY ASPECTS OF THE 12 FIVE YEAR PLAN RELATED TO THE NWUEISP

ANNEXURE III: GAP BETWEEN IRRIGATION POTENTIAL CREATED AND UTILIZATION – PARADIGM
SHIFT IN CONCEPT

ANNEXURE IV: REVIEW OF THE APPROACHES FOR ASSESSMENT OF WATER USE EFFICIENCY

ANNEXURE V: TOWARDS FORMS OF INTERVENTION

ANNEXURE V.1: REALIGNING IRRIGATION INSTITUTIONS IN STATES FOR REFORMS

ANNEXURE V.2 IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT

ANNEXURE V.3: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

ANNEXURE V.4: GROUNDWATER AND CONJUNCTIVE USE

ANNEXURE V.5: PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

ANNEXURE V.6: REALINNING AND REVAMPING COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAMME

ANNEXURE VI: TOWARDS IRRIGATION SECTOR REFORMS – STRENGTHENING WATER AND LAND
MANAGEMENT INSTITUTES

ANNEXURE VII: GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF PROJECT PROPOSALS FOR NATIONAL WATER
USE EFFICIENCY PROGRAMME AND DEVELOPMENT OF DETAILED PROJECT REPORTS FOR
MODERNIZATION (ERM) OF MMI PROJECTS – SUGGESTIONS FOR UPDATION

ANNEXURE VIII: REPORT ON STATE AND NATIONAL LEVEL CONSULTATIONS

VOLUME 3: DRAFT PROGRAM CONCEPT PAPER

Particulars

I INTRODUCTION
II TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
III DUE DILIGENCE REQUIRED
IV PROCESSING PLAN
V KEY ISSUES

Appendices

1 BASIC PROJECT INFORMATION

2 PROBLEM TREE
3 PRELIMINARY DESIGN AND MONITORING FRAMEWORK FOR THE INVESTMENT PROGRAM
4 PROJECT PREPARATORY TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

iv
 CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS
(as of 9th August 2013 })

Currency Unit – Indian Rupee (Rs)

Rs 1.00 = $ 0.0168
$1.00 = Rs 60.68

UNITS AND MEASURES

BCM - Billion cubic metre
cm - Centimetre
cumec - Cubic metre per second
cusec - Cubic feet per second
ft - Feet
ha - Hectares
ha-m - Hectare metre
kg - Kilogramme
m - Meter
m3 - Cubic metre
MCM - Million cubic metre
mha - Million hectares
ML - Mega litres
mm - Millimetre
sq km - Square kilometre
sq m - Square metre
TCM - Thousand million cubic feet

v
 ABBREVIATIONS

ADB - Asian Development Bank

AIBP - Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme
AIWMP - Accelerated Irrigation Water Management Programme (scheme
proposed in this report)
AMP - Asset Management Plan
APFIMS - Andhra Pradesh Farmers’ Irrigation Management System
APSRAC - Andhra Pradesh State Remote Application Centre
AU - Analysis Unit
BAU - Business as Usual
BCM - Billion Cubic Metres
CAD - Command Area Development, also Computer Aided Design
CADA - Command Area Development Authority
CAD&WM - Command Area Development and Water Management
CCA - Culturable Command Area
CD - Cross Drainage (structure)
CGWB - Central Ground Water Board
CM - Cross Masonry (structure)
CMD - Comprehensive Mission Document
CSC - Cabinet Sub Committee
CWC - Central Water Commission
DC - Distributary Committee
DPR - Delivery Program Ratio also Detailed Project Review
DSDAP - Development Synthesis and Draft Action Plan (for improving WUE
of irrigated agriculture in selected Indian States)
DSS - Decision Support System
DU - Data Unit
ERM - Extension Renovation and Modernization
ET - Evapotranspiration
E-WUE - Effective Water Use Efficiency
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
FPARP - Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Programme
FRL - Full Reservoir Level
FSD - Full Supply Discharge
FTCs - Farmer Training Centres
FYP - Five Year Plan
GCA - Gross Command Area
GIS - Geographical Information System
GOAP - Government of Andhra Pradesh
GOI - Government of India
GP - Gram Panchayat
GS - Gram Sabha
GWP - Global Water Partnership
HR - Head Reach
I&CAD - Irrigation and Command Area Development (department)
ICAR - Indian Council of Agricultural Research
ICID - International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
ICOLD - International Commission on Large Dams
ID - Irrigation Department also Irrigated Dry (crops)
IDB - Irrigation Development Board (in Andhra Pradesh)
IMT - Irrigation Management Transfer
INCID - Indian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage
IPC - Irrigation Potential Created

vi
IPTRID - International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation
and Drainage
IPU - Irrigation Potential Utilized
ISF - Irrigation Service Fee
IWMI - Irrigation Water Management Institute
IWRM - Integrated Water Resources Management
ITES - Information Technology Enabled Services
KPI - Key Performance Indicator
LIS - Lift Irrigation System
MASSCOTE - Mapping System and Services for Canal Operation Techniques
MGNREGA - Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employee Guarantee Act
MI - Minor Irrigation
MIS - Management Information System; also Micro Irrigation System
mm - Man Months
MMI - Major and Medium Irrigation
MOA&C - Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation
MOM - Management, Operation and Maintenance
MoWR - Ministry of Water Resources
MR - Middle Reach
MWL - Maximum Water Level
NAPCC - National Action Plan for Climate Change
NCIWRD - National Commission on Irrigation and Water Resources
Development
NGO - Non-Governmental Organization
NIMF - National Irrigation Management Fund
NPIRD - National Programme for Irrigation Research and Development
(NSW, Australia)
NWM - National Water Mission
NWMI - National Water Management Institute
NWRFS - National Water Resources Framework Study
NWP - National Water Policy
NWUEISP - National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program
O&M - Operation and Maintenance
OFD - On-farm Development
OSE - Overall Scheme Efficiency
PC - Project Committee
PIM - Participatory Irrigation Management
PPA - Proposed Project Area
PPC - Paddy Procurement Committee
PPP - Public Private Partnership
PWD - Public Works Department
RA - Regulatory Authority
RAP - Rapid Appraisal Process
R&D - Research and Development
RPA - Rapid Performance Assessment
RWS - Relative Water Supply
SCIWAM - State Level Committee for Integrated Water Planning and
Management
SRI - System of Rice Intensification
SSI - Sustainable Sugar Initiative
TOR - Terms of Reference
TR - Tail Reach
WALMI - Water and Land Management Institute
WALMTARI - Water and Land Management, Training and Research Institute
WIS - Water Information System

vii
WMO - Water Management Organization
WRD - Water Resources Department
WRG - Water Resources Group
WRIS - Water Resources Information System
WSSD - Water Summit on Sustainable Development (GWP)
WSR - Water Sector Restructuring (World Bank projects)
WUA - Water Users Association
WUE - Water Use Efficiency
WUI - Water Use Index
WUP - Water Use Productivity

GLOSSARY
On-farm - Relates to groupings of farmers plots and the management and
distribution of water between these individual plots. Usually refers to the
command area below the outlet.
Project - Widely used in India to refer to irrigation and drainage schemes at all
stages of development, from planning through to implementation. Also
more commonly used to refer to a time bounded activity.
Scheme - Term used to refer to the total irrigation and drainage complex, including
the irrigation and drainage system, the irrigated land, villages, roads, etc.
As such it relates to water delivery and agricultural production.
System - Term used to refer to the network of irrigation and drainage channels,
including structures. As such it relates to water delivery, and excludes
agricultural production.

NOTES
In this report, "$" refers to US dollars unless otherwise stated.

viii
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. The purpose of the study is to deliver a program concept addressing states and
central agencies constraints to successfully implement the National Water Mission
(NWM) and 12th Five Year Plan (FYP) water use efficiency reform agendas. The
program concept more specifically focusses on addressing water use efficiency (WUE)
on selected major and medium irrigation (MMI) schemes which represent about 80
percent of the government created irrigation potential in India.

2. The study reviews the current and predicted future situation in relation to water
resources and irrigation development, the reform agendas of the NWM and 12th FYP and
reviews how water use efficiency is defined and measured. Measures for assessing and
improving the water use efficiency on MMI schemes are identified, with an assessment
framework being developed to structure the analysis. Various studies on issues related
to water use efficiency on MMI schemes have been reviewed, including the DSDAP1
study, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) MASSCOTE 2 studies and the
findings of various sub-committees formed by the NWM and in the preparation of the 12th
FYP. The review of these studies has been combined with contributions by a study team
of specialists in irrigation management, information technology, groundwater and
conjunctive use and participatory irrigation management to yield a comprehensive
assessment of the current issues influencing water use efficiency and performance of
MMI schemes. Reports by these specialists, together with other annexures, are included
in Volume 2 of the report.

3. Following this analysis, proposals have been prepared for testing the analytical
process through rapid performance assessment procedures to be carried out by the
follow-on TA team3 and for benchmarking scheme performance. In addition, in the light
of the findings the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) guidelines for preparation of
Detailed Project Report (DPR) have been reviewed and recommendations made for
updating the guidelines to take account of measures for improving water use efficiency.

4. Two regional workshops were held, one for northern states in Chandigarh and
another for southern states in Hyderabad. The findings of these workshops have,
together with the analysis described above, then been used to prepare a strategy for a
National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP), which is
included as Volume 3 of the report.

5. In looking into the background related to the concern over water use efficiency on
MMI schemes the study found that there are significant variations in the estimates of
water that is available for human use in India. According to the 12th Five Year Plan the
water budget based on Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) estimates shows utilisable
water of 1123 billion cubic metres (BCM) against a current estimated demand of 710
BCM. The Standing Committee of the Ministry of Water Resources estimates that this
water demand will rise to 1093 BCM by 2025. Other calculations, however, are not so
optimistic, with the 2030 Water Resources Group (2009) predicting that with the current
pattern of demand for water about half the demand will be unmet by 2030.

6. Whilst figures taken on a national basis might give some indication of the overall
water resources balance they hide the reality in individual river basins. Studies by the

1
ADB - RSC C13535 (IND) and C13696 (IND), July 2012, Sector Study on Development of Synthesis and
Action Plan for Improving Water Use Efficiency of Irrigated Agriculture in selected Indian States, Final
Report; Amarjit S Dhingra and Rahul Sen, Consultants
2
Mapping System and Services for Canal Operation Techniques
3
ADB: TA7967–IND Innovations for More Food with Less Water

ix
International Water Management Institute (Amarasinghe et al, 2007) found that as a
result of rising water demand many river basins will be physically water scarce by 2050.
According to Amarasinghe, of the 19 river basins in India, 8 already have a potentially
utilizable water resource of less than 1,000 m3/capita4, with a further 7 currently with less
than 1,500 m3/ha. Only the Narmada (2,448 m3/capita) and the Mahanadi (2,341
m3/capita) river basins have adequate water resources available into the foreseeable
future. By 2050 10 river basins, with 75 percent of the total population, will have
developed all of the potentially utilizable water resources with the consequence that
water reallocation between sectors will be a necessary and common occurrence in these
basins. It is predicted that in many basins groundwater, with the current levels of
recharge and groundwater use patterns, will be in severe crisis; some already are at
catchment and sub-basin level.

7. Solutions proposed to address this water scarcity are: (i) to increase crop
productivity for each unit of water used (“more crop per drop”); (ii) to increase
groundwater resources through artificial recharge; (iii) to concentrate on economic
activities where the value of water is very high5; or (iv) to transfer water from water-rich
basins.

8. Currently over 80 percent of the available water is used by the irrigation sector.
In some states, such as Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, the development of
irrigation has resulted in the full development of the water resource, leading to critical
water scarcity and shortages of water for other uses. As highlighted in the 12th FYP, in
these and other states where a large proportion of the ultimate irrigation potential has
been realised the focus needs to change from construction of new schemes to more
efficient and productive management of already constructed schemes.

9. This interest on improving the performance of completed MMI schemes has

focussed the attention of the NWM and the 12th FYP on the issues of improving water
use efficiency, with both parties setting a target of increasing the water use efficiency by
20%. The 12th FYP quotes figures from WUE studies carried out by the CWC on 30 MMI
schemes in which the WUE on nine schemes was found to be less than 30 percent and
the average 38 percent. With the NWM and 12th FYP target the average figure would
need to rise to 46%.

10. Measures to achieve the target are set out in the NWM Comprehensive Mission
Document (CMD) and the 12th FYP. The measures proposed include an integrated mix
of reform of the Irrigation Departments (ID) in States, physical works, improved
maintenance, improved management information systems, conjunctive use of surface
and groundwater and greater participation by water users in the management, operation
and maintenance (MOM) of irrigation and drainage (I&D) schemes. In order to incentivize
IDs to reform and address service delivery and maintenance issues the 12th FYP has
introduced the National Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF) which provides funds from
central government to states in a 1:1 proportion to the water charges collected, with
additional funding where these funds are collected by Water Users Associations (WUAs)
and a rebate given to the WUAs. Further funds will be provided where water allocation is
made by volumetric measurement.

4 3
According to international convention basins with less than 1000 m /capita are classed as water scarce
5
The value of water can be assessed in a variety of ways, including in terms of wealth created, livelihoods
supported (whether rural or urban), votes obtained, basic needs (food security) and protection of the
environment.

x
11. A study that fed into the preparation of the 12th FYP and is relevant to this study
was the National Water Resources Framework Study (NWRFS) which endeavoured to
answer 53 key questions posed by the Planning Commission in relation to the water
resources, irrigation and water supply sectors. The report produced a roadmap covering
four domains: (i) National water management reform; (ii) Groundwater management; (iii)
Water utility management improvement and reform; (iv) Water conservation strategy for
industry.

12. In each case the individual roadmaps looked at the problem, the vision for the
future, strategies and components and an action plan. The National Water Management
Reform Road map looked at three parts: (i) Water resources management, (ii) main
system irrigation management, and (iii) on-farm irrigation management, whilst the
Groundwater Management roadmap made proposals related to the management of
groundwater and conjunctive use.

13. Several of the issues and measures identified by the NWM and the 12th FYP sub-
committees were identified in the World Bank Sector Review carried out in 1998, and
formed the basis for the World Bank supported Water Sector Restructuring (WSR)
projects in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and
Andhra Pradesh. The Sector Review report identified a number of issues in the water
resources and irrigation sector, dividing these into physical/technical, institutional and
financial/economic constraints. Based on the identified issues the report drew a diagram
depicting the “vicious circle” which was then converted into a “virtuous circle” through a
package of interventions. These issues, interventions and linkages are useful to this
current study.

14. This report takes this previous work and endeavours to prepare a framework for
assessing and improving the water use efficiency on MMI schemes. This framework
comprises the following steps:

i) Defining the problem. The first step is the need to be clear about the nature of the
problem, and to define it clearly. This is not always as straightforward as it might
appear as the problem may look different to different people. This is particularly the
case in irrigated agriculture where there are different disciplines involved and many
different levels at which the problem (and potential solutions) might be experienced.
In addition to defining the problem it is also necessary to be clear about what the
desired outcome will be if the problem is addressed.
ii) Setting the boundaries. It is important to set the boundaries of the analysis. The
boundaries can extend into several dimensions, not only spatial or temporal. In the
case of MMI schemes in the spatial context it is necessary to decide if the boundary
lies at the main system level, the hydraulic network level, the scheme level or the
basin level. In other dimensions it is necessary to decide whether to extend the
analysis to consider policy, institutions, etc.
iii) Identifying core processes. Having set the boundaries it is then necessary to
identify the core processes which are involved in the problem and within which
feasible solutions can be identified and implemented.
iv) Identifying key indicators. For each part of the core processes performance
indicators can be identified to enable the scale and location of the problem to be
identified.
v) Collecting and processing data. Selection and specification of the key indicators
will determine the data that are required to analyse the problem.
vi) Analysing the problem. Using the data collected the problem can be analysed.

xi
vii) Identification of feasible solutions. The analysis will identify a number of factors
which are contributing to the problem, for which solutions can be proposed. However
not all solutions will be feasible, so a judgement has to be made on which solutions
to proceed with.
viii) Implementation of identified solutions. Following identification of the issues and
feasible solutions an action plan needs to be prepared and implemented.
ix) Monitor and evaluate implementation and outcomes. Following implementation
the performance indicators can be used to monitor and evaluate progress with the
implementation programme and the resultant outcomes.

15. The first issue to address is what is meant by the term “water use efficiency”, with
a variety of definitions and measures being proposed. One of the more common
questions is whether the term should just relate to the conveyance, distribution,
application and use of irrigation water, or whether it should include the productivity
element (“more crop per drop”). In this report a distinction is thus made between water
use efficiency (WUE) and water use productivity (WUP), though, as shown in this report,
increasing the WUE on a scheme will also increase the WUP, other production inputs
being equal.

16. The problem is clearly defined by Dr Mihir Shah, former Member for Water,
Planning Commission, Government of India.6

“India faces a major crisis of water as we move into the 21st century. This crisis
threatens the basic right to drinking water of our citizens; it also puts the livelihoods
of millions at risk. The demands of a rapidly industrialising economy and urbanising
society come at a time when the potential for augmenting supply is limited, water
tables are falling and water quality issues have increasingly come to the fore.”

17. In setting the boundaries it is essential that the role of reuse of seepage “losses”
from canals and irrigation application are taken into account, as these can form an
important recharge mechanism to groundwater. Such reuse is important to some
farmers to augment surface water supplies, but also to other farmers, especially those at
the tail end or periphery of the distribution system, that don’t get surface water supplies
and thus rely on groundwater for irrigation. In this context the following definition is
proposed for defining the WUE on MMI schemes:

“For the purposes of achieving the 12th Five Year Plan and National Water Mission
Goal IV of increasing water use efficiency by 20 percent, water use efficiency for
MMI schemes relates to the efficiency of delivering water from the intake of the
irrigation system to the crop root zone for the purpose of beneficial crop
evapotranspiration, taking account of any use or reuse of seepage or other
conveyance, distribution or application losses as conventionally describe that might
subsequently be used by farmers within the boundaries of the irrigation scheme.
The term thus relates to the fraction of irrigation water used for productive crop
evapotranspiration within the boundaries of the scheme compared to the total
volume of water diverted at the intake to the irrigation system.
For the purpose of clarification the use or reuse of conveyance, distribution or
conveyance losses may relate to pumping from groundwater, direct use of seepage
water, or other form of beneficial reuse within the boundaries of the scheme.

6 th
Taken from a Special Article in the Economic and Political Weekly, Vol XLVIII No.3, 19 January, 2013

xii
 The improvement of the water use efficiency shall be measured against a baseline
determined from a standardised survey of scheme performance, and subsequent
seasonal and annual measurements as set out in the baseline survey protocol and
report”
18. A suitable overall indicator for the determination of the WUE which takes account
of the total water balance on the scheme is the ‘depleted fraction’ (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Definition of depleted fraction

Source: Molden, 1997; Bos et al, 2005

19. This indicator can be determined using flow measurements at the intake to the
scheme and measurement of the actual crop evapotranspiration (ET) using remote
sensing technology. A less precise but nevertheless useful starting point is to determine
the potential (rather than actual) evapotranspiration from measurement of the crop area
and type and determination of ET using packages such as CROPWAT. Crop area and
type can also be determined using remote sensing, or using the field data collected by
the ID or Revenue Department. In determining these indicators due attention has to be
paid to time horizons and the groundwater storage component.

20. In determining the core processes this study has adopted the conventional
approach of following the “water pathway” from water source to crop root zone and crop
water uptake and use. This water pathway thus comprises the following processes:

 Storage
 Diversion
 Conveyance
 Distribution
 Application
 Rainwater
 Groundwater

xiii
 Crop production
 Drainage

21. Taking these as the core processes7 one is then able to analyse the factors (such
the legal framework, management entity, etc.) which influence or control these
processes, as well as identify indicators which can assess their performance. This then
produces an analytical framework or matrix, as presented in Figure 2. These core
processes make a central contribution to the scheme objectives of agricultural
production, poverty alleviation and farmer livelihoods.

Figure 2: Component parts of core processes

Source: Authors

22. Figure 3 shows the link between the water resources available to a farmer in an
MMI irrigation scheme, which comprise rainfall, surface water supplies and pumped
supplies from groundwater. Depending on the hydrogeology losses from the surface
water system recharge of the groundwater will take place, and, if not impaired by the
groundwater quality, will be re-used by farmers, either within or outside the MMI
command area. Who uses groundwater, when, its quality and where it comes from are
key questions which therefore need to be asked if a true water balance of any MMI
scheme is to be determined. Resolving the surface water-groundwater nexus is one of
the biggest issues in improving WUE on MMI schemes.

23. The relative quantities of water being lost at the different levels need to be looked
at carefully. The largest volume of water being lost is usually at the field level where the
wetted surface area is high and percolation below the root zone is also high. This is
particularly the case where rice is grown with ponded water. The next largest volume of

7
These processes build on the six core areas identified by the DSDAP report which comprised of (i) storage,
(ii) conveyance including distribution; (iii) on-farm application; (iv) participatory efforts; (v) crop
management and (vi) research and development (R&D).

xiv
water lost is at the on-farm level, where water is distributed field-to-field or through field
channels. The management losses are high at this level, as are the seepage losses as
the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter is low8. Relative to these losses the seepage
losses in the main canal network are relatively small, but the management losses can be
high if the irrigation scheduling or the level of control and management is poor.

Figure 3: Linkage between different water sources in an irrigation system

Source: Authors

24. An additional area where significant water savings can be made is in active
management of rainwater, either by rainwater harvesting9 on field plots or by allowing for
rainfall events in scheduling of irrigation water supplies. Rainwater harvesting can be
particularly relevant where paddy is being grown, increasing bund heights to retain larger
portions of rainfall events during Kharif can make a significant contribution to conserving
water in reservoir-fed systems, leaving more water available for a subsequent Rabi crop.

25. Following the identification of the core processes the report has identified key
performance indicators (KPIs, Figure 4) which can be used to measure (i) the outputs
from the MMI scheme and (ii) the performance of individual processes. Measurement of
the outputs enables management to see how the scheme is performing overall, whereas
measurement of the processes can be used in diagnostic analysis to identify where
performance can be improved.

26. The DSDAP study (Dhingra and Sen, 2012) found a number of issues in each of
the core processes as did the FAO MASSCOTE studies. The findings of these studies
were combined with other work (including the 12th FYP sub-committee on MMI and CAD),
contributions from the study team’s specialists 10, and discussions at the two regional
workshops to produce a comprehensive list of issues and potential solutions, which were
then summarised in the “problem” tree which provides the structure of the proposed
National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP). These
issues can be summarised as:

8
The lower the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter the higher the relative losses from the channel.
9
Capturing and retaining rainfall on individual plots.
10
Four specialists were engaged covering irrigation water management, information technology,
groundwater and conjunctive use and participatory irrigation management.

xv
 Irrigation Departments focussed on construction of new schemes rather than
management of completed schemes.
 Schemes designed for protective, rather than productive, irrigation, resulting in
schemes where water scarcity is built in from the outset. Whilst this may possible be
better in theory by imposing deficit irrigation on farmers, it aggravates the competition
for water between farmers.
 Poor communication and liaison with the customer, the farmers.
 Political interference in water allocation decision-making
 Reservoir storage not conserved in Kharif for Rabi crop
 No water accounting carried out
 Inadequate measurement of water delivery, and little or no assessment of scheme
performance (except for Maharashtra with its benchmarking programme).
 Little or no accountability of the ID to water users for the service delivered.

Figure 4: Linking core processes to performance indicators, process outputs and

scheme objectives

Source: Authors

 Proposed solutions to identified issues are often limited to technical interventions (e.g.
canal lining, drip irrigation, repair of structures).
 A failure to understand the fundamental role that management has to play in ensuring
good scheme performance.
 Water available to scheme impacted by upstream watershed development
 Siltation of reservoirs has reduced their storage capacity.
 Changed hydrology since design.
 Head-works capacity limits intake flow rate.
 Significant level of unauthorised abstractions, both within the command area and by
lift irrigation from main canals out of the design command area.
 Failure to allow for rainfall in irrigation schedules and canal operation.

xvi
 Cross drainage systems not functioning properly due to inadequate provision or
damaged infrastructure.
 Inadequate escape structures.
 Lack of control structures.
 Lack of measurement.
 Lack of adequate maintenance.
 Lack of adequate finances for system MOM.
 Excessive seepage losses in some systems.
 Cropping patterns differ from the design cropping pattern.
 Head-end farmers cropping water-intensive crops, thus depriving tail-end farmers of
water.
 Supplies not matching actual cropping pattern.
 Lack of scientific scheduling.
 Loss of water to drains.
 Night irrigation – gates not closed at night so water flows to drains.
 Failure to regulate gates.
 Over-irrigation at the field level due to a variety of causes, including a lack of
knowledge, unreliable supplies (store what you can, when you can) and lack of on-
farm coordination of irrigation.
 Lack of adoption by farmers of modern practices and technology at the farm and plot
level.
 Lack of scientific water management all round.

27. All of the above issues can be addressed by focussing on improving service
delivery (Figure 5). This tenet lies at the heart of the proposal for the NWUEISP; by
looking to improve service delivery service providers, such as the Irrigation Department
and WUAs, are provided with a simple strategic principle by which to address, measure
and improve MMI scheme performance, and thereby water use efficiency.

Figure 5: Core elements of service delivery (after Huppert and Urban, 1998)

Payment
Service
Agreement
Service S
C
Water User
Provider

S - Specification Service
C - Conditions

28. Improving service delivery becomes important in the context of the National
Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF), established under the 12th FYP. By improving
service delivery (which will include measures to improve participation by water users in
scheme MOM) the level of water charges11 collected can be increased, leading to an
increase in the funds available to the ID from central government for improvements in the
management, operation and maintenance of I&D systems. This is a chicken and egg

11
or service fees if the ID negotiates an acceptable service contract with water users

xvii
situation, the finances required to make the improvements required to improve the level
of service might only be available after the improvements have been made.

29. It is in this context that it is believed that the NWUEISP can help, by providing
targeted support to finance and implement proposals from participating state
governments which will contribute to measurable improvements in scheme performance
and water use efficiency in the short term, within a framework of longer term institutional
reform, particularly in relation to re-engagement with participatory irrigation management.

30. There is a need to identify the “low hanging fruit” – effective interventions which
can be introduced quickly and at low cost (without, for example, waiting for expensive
and time consuming rehabilitation) which will result in measurable improvements in
performance, and thus user satisfaction with service delivery. This concept needs to be
further developed under the follow-on TA, but are likely to include the following elements:

Technical  Targeted maintenance work, including desilting

 Repair of old and installation of new control structures
 Upgrading of existing and installation of new measuring structures
 CAD works to improve water distribution at on-farm level, preferably
with lined channels or buried pipes (head permitting)
 Selective lining of distributaries and minors
 Introduction of control and measurement structures for minor off-
takes/outlets)

Institutional  Re-engage with participatory irrigation management

 Strengthen WALMIs and NGOs to support PIM
 Educate the ID in benefits of farmer participation
 Strengthen WUAs in water management and maintenance.
 Support WUAs in employing field staff (water masters) by using
rebates from the water charge

Management  Set performance targets

 Measure performance, including crop production
 Establish modern data collection, processing and analysis
procedures, based on ITES.
 Liaise and work with water users
 Train ID staff in MOM
 Improve scheduling to allow for rainfall
 Monitor deliveries, establish user feedback system
 Establish incentives and reward system for ID staff related to
scheme performance and achievement of targets

Legal  Amend the PIM Act to be more farmer-friendly and less prescriptive
(involve water users in the redrafting)

Finance  Carry out asset management surveys and prepare asset

management plans (AMPs) for individual schemes
 Increase funding to match AMPs
 Assess the benefit/cost of increasing maintenance budget

Policy  Focus on performance management

 Accept PIM and farmer involvement in scheme management
 Accept that management plays a central role in improving

xviii
 agricultural production and water use efficiency
 Change the culture of the ID, from construction to management
focus
 Make the ID a multi-disciplinary organisation, with specialist
expertise in a wide range of disciplines (irrigation, groundwater,
ITES, computing, PIM, agriculture, etc.)

31. The ability to implement these, or any other solutions, is governed by certain
constraints that States face in implementing such measures. These issues and
associated constraints were discussed at two regional workshops in Chandigarh and
Hyderabad. The main constraints identified included:

 Lack of resources for modernizing I&D schemes

 Lack of adequate funds for system maintenance
 Lack of coordination between departments
 Lack of resources and capability in the use of modern tools, such as remote sensing,
GIS, CAD (computer aided design), databases, etc.
 Lack of knowledge of how to implement volumetric supply and water charging
 Lack of knowledge on how to carry out water accounting
 Lack of knowledge about groundwater and conjunctive use (particularly its
management)
 ID is not multi-disciplinary; cadre is limited to civil engineers.
 Rigid policies, with a focus on construction rather than management
 Political interference and apathy
 Lack of reliable and timely data
 Reluctance for departments to share data
 Lack of knowledge and understanding of on-farm practices and needs
 Lack of human resources in specialist areas (e.g. ITES, remote sensing, GIS)
 Lack of skills and limited capacity building in specialist areas
 Lack of equipment for ITES
 Weak WALMIs
 Poorly performing WUAs and farmer engagement
 Poor knowledge and understanding amongst ID staff of service delivery concepts
 Lack of a rapid performance appraisal tool
 Lack of support from senior management for PIM
 Lack of knowledge and understanding amongst middle level managers about PIM
principles, processes and procedures
 Lack of knowledge and understanding amongst water users about the role and
benefits of PIM.

32. This study has identified and structured the nature and extent of the issues facing
MMI schemes in relation to improving water use efficiency, and proposed solutions, as
summarized in Table 1. A key finding is the need for the development of procedures for
rapid performance assessment (RPA) of MMI schemes, such that targeted interventions
can be identified and implemented. It is suggested that these procedures be based on
the FAO MASSCOTE procedures, but that these are updated to allow for Indian
conditions. In particular there is a need to take greater account of the issues created by
designing systems for protective irrigation, and to allow (if possible) for the often high
level of disparity between the design and theoretical cropping patterns and schedules,
and actual reality. It is proposed that these RPA procedures be further developed and
tested by the follow-on TA and that guidelines produced which can be applied by suitably
trained specialist ID teams to assess the performance of MMI schemes in each state.
This approach, which will build on the CWC WUE assessment guidelines, will then

xix
provide a standardised approach to performance assessment, plus providing a baseline
for each scheme. These procedures will be developed and tested on two pilot schemes
by the follow-on project12 which have been identified in consultation with MOWR.

33. The findings detailed in this report and the annexures in Volume 2 have formed
the basis for the proposed National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program
(NWUEISP). The details of this proposed 12 year multitranche financing facility (MFF)
are provided in Volume 3 – Draft Program Concept Paper.

34. The findings of the report were deliberated upon and accepted by an Inter-
departmental Working Group and State level representatives during a meeting held on
19th March 2014. The matrix of recommendations of the participants of the meeting and
the comments thereon of the ADB consultants are included in the main report. The
general suggestions/comments of the Inter-departmental working group and state
representatives would be considered during implementation of future phases of the
project.

12
TA 7967-REG: Innovations for More Food with Less Water (Task 2), under which these Pilot Studies will
be carried out, commenced in August 2013.

xx
 Table 1: Identified needs and proposed National Water Use Efficiency
Improvement Support Program activities

No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Resources required Outputs/Outcomes

Program activity
1. Reform of the  Development of  International and  More knowledgeable
Irrigation training programs for national TA (to and skilled ID
Department and modern approaches assess training personnel
CADAs, including: to water resources needs and  More knowledgeable
and irrigation identify training and skilled
 Redefine roles management. To opportunities) teaching/training staff
and functions include structured  Identification of
 Appointment overseas training international and
of a new cadre programs (such as at national
of staff IHE-UNESCO in education/training
 Training of Delft) as well as institutes/
new and capacity building of universities
existing staff in national and state  Scholarship
water institutions to provide program for ID
resources and training for ID staff in staff from
irrigation water resources and selected states
management irrigation  Scholarship
 Revised management (e.g. programs for
human short 3 month university/training
resource intensive programs) institute staff from
management  Exchange programs selected states
procedures between states (to build long term
 Modernised  Study tours to other capacity in WRM
scheduling states/countries (for and IWM)
procedures WRM, IWM, PIM)  Host countries
 Introduction of with good
performance examples of
management WRM, IWM, PIM
 Introduction of  Funds for state
modern asset exchange
management programs
procedures  Senior management  International and  Senior managers
strategic leadership national TA knowledgeable about
program  International or strategic leadership,
national course including change
on strategic management
leadership  Senior management
able to lead change
and reform in the ID
 Development of  International and  Senior and middle
performance national TA level managers
management  State monitoring and
systems for MMI Government RPA evaluating individual
schemes Team scheme performance
 Application of Rapid  MMI schemes
Performance benchmarked, best
Assessment (RPA) practice schemes and
procedures performance gaps
(developed under TA identified
7967-REG)  Less well performing
schemes supported
and improved
 Review of current  International and  Updated scheduling
scheduling processes national TA procedures which
and procedures on match supply to
MMI schemes (in demand
participating states)  Improved service
and delivery – more
recommendations for reliable, adequate and
improvement, timely irrigation water

xxi
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Resources required Outputs/Outcomes
Program activity
together with supply
guidelines for  GW mapped in the
implementation commands and
combined SW-GW
scheduling
 Modernising of ID’s  International and  Reliable, timely and
data collection, national TA accurate data and
processing and  ITES equipment information for system
analysis processes and software management and
and procedures performance
incorporating ITES. monitoring
 Trials to test  International and  Water allocated and
procedures for national TA charged on a
volumetric water  Funds for volumetric basis
allocation, including installation of  Increased
water entitlements control and performance
measuring  Increased
structures transparency and
 Funds for training accountability
of ID and WUA  Increased ISF income
personnel, mass
awareness
campaign, etc.

 Development of  International and  Agreed set of rules
standard service national TA between ID and water
contracts between  Pilot schemes users on levels of
the ID and water service to be provided
users and ISF payments to
be made
 Improved service
delivery
 Transparent fee
setting to match MOM
needs
 ID held accountable
for service delivery,
water users held
accountable for ISF
payment
 Introduction of asset  International and  Asset management
management national TA plans prepared for
planning (AMP)  Pilot schemes each MMI scheme,
procedures for I&D with associated
infrastructure identification of level of
service to be provided
and service fees to be
charged
 Value of assets and
costs of maintenance,
repair and
replacement identified,
together with valuation
of lost production for
different levels of
maintenance funding
 Funding matches
maintenance needs
2. Reform of  Development of  Scholarship  WALMIs capable of
WALMIs , training programs for program for training ID, CADA and
including: modern approaches selected states WUA personnel in
 Appointment to water resources and selected water management
of new staff and irrigation WALMI personnel
 Creation of a management. To  Funds to support

xxii
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Resources required Outputs/Outcomes
Program activity
permanent include structured exchange/
cadre of overseas training collaboration
skilled trainers programs (such as at programs
and IHE-UNESCO in
researchers Delft)
 Revised  Study tours to
staffing levels countries (for WRM,
and IWM, PIM)
procedures  Exchange and
 Creation of collaboration
regional/distric programs between
t training WALMIs
centres and/or  Linkages with partner
field training organisations in other
programs countries
 Capacity  Liaison with other
building in agencies/universities
water  Enhanced functions-
resources and support command
irrigation extension services
management
 Capacity
building in PIM
3. Re-engagement  Support for revision  International and  PIM Acts revised to be
with participatory of PIM Acts national TA less prescriptive and
irrigation more suited to
management community
(PIM), including: management
approaches
 Revising PIM  Support for selected  International and  PIM Cells established
Acts states to form PIM national TA in the ID which can
 Creating Cells then form and support
specialist PIM WUAs
Cells within  National WUA  National TA from  State NGO capacity in
the ID Capacity Building established PIM and WUA
 Awareness Program for NGOs NGOs (such as formation and support
raising and DSC in Gujarat) built to support state
training of ID programs on PIM
staff  Pilot trials for WUAs  Selected  Demonstration of the
 Formation or to employ staff functioning WUAs value of WUAs having
re-formation of  National TA paid staff to carry out
WUAs key O&M functions
 Awareness
raising
amongst water
users
 Training of
WUA
management,
particularly in
operation and
maintenance
 Setting and
collecting ISF
for sustainable
MOM
 Supporting
WUAs to
employ
executive staff
(treasurers
and water
masters)
 Participatory

xxiii
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Resources required Outputs/Outcomes
Program activity
M&E
4. Reform of the  Modern surveying  National TA from  Faster coverage of
CAD&WM techniques established water CAD activities
program,  Increasing the pace management  Shift to micro-irrigation
including: of the programme institutions and wherever feasible
 Revised  Strengthening NGOs  Improved on-farm
organisational Warabandi  Private sector water use efficiency
framework and  Carry out study on partner through improved
structures improved on-farm distribution and
 Revised and irrigation application
procedures technologies,
 Revised including shift to
objectives and micro-irrigation
functions (sprinkler/drip), on-
farm storage, buried
pipes, border strip,
etc.in canal
commands
 Support for possible
PPP on
diversification
5. Upgrading and  Targeted physical  International and  Improved levels of
modernization of works to improve the national TA (to control and
I&D system operability of MMI develop measurement,
infrastructure for schemes, specifically NWUEISP allowing closer
improved in relation to guidelines and alignment of planned
operation. conveyance, control advise on modern and actual schedules
and measurement of control systems) of water delivery
irrigation water  State RPA teams  Improved capacity of
(works to include canals to convey
desilting, planned discharges
repair/replacement of  Real-time operation of
old and installation of canal systems
new control  Improved levels of
structures and service to water users,
installation of matching demand and
measuring supply
structures).
 Installation of modern
control systems
(automatic gates,
remote control,
telemetry, etc.)
6. Modernisation of  Detailed study of how  International and  Knowledge of how
on-farm and in- water is managed at national TA irrigation water is
field irrigation the moment at the (possibly IWMI) currently used at the
processes: on-farm supporting state on-farm level
 Introduction of university and/or  Recommendations
modern WALMI and guidelines for
irrigation  NGOs/ Private improving water
application sector management at on-
techniques involvement farm levels
(micro-  Detailed study of how  International and  Knowledge of
irrigation, land farmers use surface national TA conjunctive use of SW
levelling, etc.) and groundwater (possibly IWMI) and GW at the on-farm
 Irrigation conjunctively supporting state level
scheduling university and/or  Recommendations
 Water WALMI and guidelines for
conservation improving conjunctive
approaches use at the on-farm
(SRI, AWD, level together with at
etc.) the main system level
 Conjunctive (i.e. allowance for
use of surface conjunctive use in

xxiv
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Resources required Outputs/Outcomes
Program activity
and ground main system
water scheduling)
resources
7. Improved water 
Support to establish  International and  Surface and
use efficiency pilot schemes where national TA groundwater resources
through surface and  Collaboration managed in an
conjunctive use of groundwater can be between ID and integrated manner
surface and managed GW Board
groundwater conjunctively,  Funds for
resources including: mapping, etc.
 GW mapping  Functioning and
 Identification of active WUAs
current
conjunctive use
 Opportunities for
future
conjunctive use
 Options for GW
recharge
 WUA
participation
conjunctive use
management
WRM – Water resources management; IWM – Irrigation water management; PIM – Participatory irrigation
management; AMP – Asset management planning; CADA – Command Area Development Authority

xxv
xxvi
 I. INTRODUCTION

A. Purpose of the study

1. The purpose of the study is to deliver a program concept addressing states and
central agencies constraints to successfully implement the National Water Mission and
12th Five Year Plan water use efficiency reform agendas1. The program concept more
specifically focusses on addressing water use efficiency (WUE) on selected major and
medium irrigation (MMI) schemes which represent about 80 percent of the government
created irrigation potential in India.

2. The study seeks to answer the following questions:

i) How should we define water use efficiency, and its improvement, on MMI schemes?
ii) What is the current status of WUE on MMI schemes?
iii) What are the issues facing Irrigation Departments in improving WUE to meet the
NWM/12th FYP targets, and how can these be resolved?

B. Overview of work carried out

3. To achieve this outcome the approach recommended by the Ministry of Water

Resources (MoWR) consisted of organising state consultation through regional and
national workshops. These workshops provided a forum for presentation of findings and
recommendations of previous ADB funded studies and discussion with state and central
agency representatives on the issues they face with improving water use efficiency on
MMI schemes, the constraints they face in implementing the NWM/12th Five Year Plan
agendas and possible options to address these constraints.

4. Additional work was carried out to build on the analytical framework developed in
the previous ADB-funded DASDP2 study and to develop a typology for MMI schemes
based on WUE issues and opportunities. The MoWR guidelines for the preparation of
Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) were reviewed and recommendations made for
updating the guidelines to improve WUE in the project and basin context. Two pilot
schemes were identified for which further studies are being carried out now under the
ADB funded TA 7967-REG study which commenced on August 2013. A draft Project
Concept Paper for a national water use efficiency improvement program was also
prepared.

C. Structure of report

5. The report starts with providing background information to the study. This covers
the National Water Mission (NWM) and 12th Five Year Plan (FYP) reform agendas, the
DSDAP study and a review of selected other studies, together with a summary of
approaches, definitions and terms used for addressing water use efficiency on irrigation
schemes. This is followed with details of the work carried out during the study followed
by identification of an analytical framework and potential measures for improving the
water use efficiency on MMI schemes.

1
The Terms of Reference for the study are provided in Annexure I of volume-II of this report
2
ADB - RSC C13535 (IND) and C13696 (IND), July 2012, Sector Study on Development of Synthesis and
Action Plan for Improving Water Use Efficiency of Irrigated Agriculture in selected Indian States, Final
Report; Amarjit S Dhingra and Rahul Sen, Consultants

1
 II. BACKGROUND

A. Water resources development

6. India is endowed with water as a precious natural resource; however, its

variability in different regions and over time limits its use for different purposes. Central
Water Commission (CWC) has assessed India’s surface water potential at 1869 billion
cubic meters (BCM), of which 690 BCM is considered utilizable, Central Ground Water
Board (CGWB) has assessed additional replenishable groundwater resource as 433
BCM. The National Commission on Irrigation and Water Resources Development
(NCIWRD) projected both low and high water use requirements for three scenarios of
2010, 2025 and 2050 as given in Table II.1 and concluded that India would fully utilize its
water resources by 2050.

Table II.1: Gross water availability and requirements of all water use in India under
different scenarios

Average Annual Requirements** (BCM)

Utilizable Water
Availability* 1997 2010 2025 2050
Source
(BCM)
Last
1997 Low High Low High Low High
Assessed
Surface Water 690 399 447 456 497 545 641 752
Ground Water 433 230 247 252 287 298 332 428
Total 1123 629 694 710 784 843 973 1180
Return Flows (SW+GW) 96 116 110 107 125 123 169
Unutilized Surface Water 334 295 284 263 219 140 42
Unutilized Ground Water 219 203 202 146 149 96 33
Unutilized Total 553 498 486 409 368 236 75
Source: * - CWC & CGWB; ** - NCIWRD

7. The indicative average annual water balance for India is shown in Table II.2. This
table suggests a significant portion of the water loss occurs as natural and anthropogenic
(related to human activity) evapotranspiration.

Table II.2: Indicative water balance for India, present and ultimate stage of
development

Natural Natural
Item 1997 2050 Item 1997 2050
Condition Condition
Input Output
Evapo-Transpiration
Rainfall (BCM) 4000 4000 4000 2347 2347 2347
(Natural)
Trans boundary
Flow (BCM, Withdrawal (human
300 300 300 0 629 1180
Assumed by activity related)
NCIRD)
Flows to sea and
Returns 0 186 259 1953 1510 1032
Trans-boundary
Total Inputs (BCM) 4300 4486 4559 Total Output 4300 4486 4559
Anthropogenic evapotranspiration out of withdrawals (BCM) 0 443 921
Source: Report of the NCIWRD

8. The above tables show the water balance on a national scale, but the water
balance differs from region to region and state to state. Table II.3 presents the total and
average per capita water availability for the major river basins (Figure II.1). The data
demonstrate the wide variability in the available water resource, ranging from a low of

2
409 m3/capita for the Westerly Flowing River (WFR1) basins in the northwest to 2,448
m3/capita for the Narmada basin.

Table II.3: Renewable and utilizable water resources of river basins

Total renewable b Water resources available per
Potentially utilizable water resource (PUWR)
a water resource capita
No . River basin
(TRWR) Surface Ground Total Percentage from TRWR PUWR
water waterc groundwater
km3 km3 km3 km3 % m3 m3
All basins 1,887 690 343 1,033 33% 2,025 1,108
17 basinsd 1,253 666 308 975 32% 1,411 1,098
1 Indus 73.3 46 14.3 60.3 24% 1,501 1,235
2 Mahi 11 3.1 3.5 6.6 53% 1,649 990
Westerly 3 Narmada 45.6 35 9.4 43.9 21% 2,542 2,448
flowing 4 Sabarmati 3.8 1.9 2.9 4.8 60% 631 797
rivers 5 Tapi 14.9 14.5 6.7 21.2 32% 831 1,183
6 WFR1 15.1 15 9.1 24.1 38% 257 409
7 WFR2 200.9 36.2 15.6 51.8 30% 3,871 998
8 Brahmani and Baitarni 28.5 18.3 3.4 21.7 16% 1,703 1,296
9 Cauvery 21.4 19 8.8 27.8 32% 656 852
10 EFR1 22.5 13.1 12.8 25.9 49% 1,169 1,346
11 EFR2 16.5 16.7 12.7 29.4 43% 423 753
Easterly
12 Ganga 525 250 136.5 386.5 35% 1,418 1,044
flowing
13 Godavari 110.5 76 33.5 109.8 31% 1,441 1,431
rivers
14 Krishna 78.1 58 19.9 77.9 26% 1,133 1,130
15 Mahanadi 66.9 50 13.6 63.6 21% 2,463 2,341
16 Pennar 6.3 6.3 4.0 10.9 37% 440 762
17 Subarnarekha 12.4 6.8 1.7 8.5 20% 829 568
18 Bramhaputra 585.6 24.3 25.7 48 54% 17,661 1,448
19 Meghna 48.4 1.7 8.5 10.2 83% 4,830 1,018

Notes: a. Refer to map given in Figure 5.

b. Source: CWC (2002).
c. The volume of potentially utilizable groundwater resources is the volume of groundwater replenished from normal natural discharge
d. All the basins except the Brahmaputra and Meghna.

Source: Amarasinghe et al, 2004

9. Work by IWMI (Amarasinghe et al, 2004) categorized river basins according to

water scarcity and food surplus/deficit. Figure II.2 summarizes the analysis, with water
scarcity and food deficit in the north-west, and water and food surplus in the east. This
study provides a broad analysis for the major river basins; it did not look at sub-basins, in
which there may be localized water and food surpluses/deficits.

10. A further study by IWMI in 2007 (Amarasinghe et al, 2007) looked at India’s water
future to 2025-2050, specifically to make estimates for the water demand for agriculture,
domestic and industrial uses in 2025 and 2050. The study used the PODIUMSIM model3
which has four major components: (i) crop demand: (ii) crop production; (iii) water
demand; and (iv) water accounting. The model assumed continuation of recent trends
(i.e. business-as-usual, BAU) together with some analyses with variation of some of the
key drivers.

11. The analysis showed some important changes in the balance of water resources
utilization, with domestic and industrial use increasing significantly relative to irrigation
(Table II.4). This represents a major change from the historical pattern of development in
India, where horizontal expansion of the irrigated area has predominated.

3
The PODIUMSIM (Policy Dialogue) model was developed by IWMI as tool for simulating
alternative scenarios for future variations of food and water demands
(http://podium.iwmi.org/podium/).

3
 Figure II.1: River basins of India
1. Indus
2. Mahi
3. Narmada
4. Sabarmati
5. Tapi
6. Westerly flowing rivers – Group 1
(WFR1)
7. Westerly flowing rivers – Group 2
(WFR2)
8. Brahmani and Baitarani
9. Cauvery
10. Easterly flowing rivers – Group 1
(EFR1)
11. Easterly flowing rivers – Group 2
(EFR2)
12. Ganga
13. Godavari
14. Krishna
15. Mahanadi
16. Pennar
17. Subarnarekha
18. Brahmaputra
19. Meghna

Source: Amarasinghe et al, 2004

Figure II.2: River basins categorized on water scarcity and food surplus/deficit

Source: Amarasinghe et al, 2004

4
12. The basic dynamics of irrigation development in India are changing. In the past
there has been sufficient water and land available to expand the irrigated area. This is
no longer the case, with both good quality land and adequate water now constraining
further development in many states. Many states are now entering a period of vertical
integration, where better management of existing irrigation systems rather than
construction of new schemes predominate. This transition will require new skills and
expertise within Irrigation Departments if they are to meet the current and upcoming
challenges.

Table II.4: Business-as-usual scenario water projections, 2000-2050

Sector 2000 2025 2050 Percentage

Total % from Total % from Total % from increases from
Bm3 groundwater Bm3 groundwater Bm3 groundwater 2025 2050

Irrigation 605 45 675 45 637 51 12% 5%

Domestica 34 50 66 45 101 50 94% 197%
b
Industrial 42 30 92 30 161 30 119% 283%
Total 680 44 833 43 900 47 23% 32%

a. Domestic withdrawals include demand from livestock

b. Industrial withdrawals include colling needs for power generation
Source: Amarasinghe et al, 2007

13. Table II.5 highlights this situation by showing the estimated 4 ultimate irrigation
potential and the irrigation potential created in each State. The final column shows the
remaining estimated potential, with minimal or zero potential for new development now
remaining in several states, including Jharkhand, Kerala, Nagaland, Punjab, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh, and other states moving towards fulfillment of the estimated potential.

14. It is likely that the ultimate irrigation potential in each state needs to be reviewed
in the light of the growth of the urban population and the increasing demand for water for
industry. It may be that rather than developing further areas under irrigation the water
should be used for other purposes. Whilst the political imperative has been to support
irrigation as a means for lifting the rural population out of poverty, it may be that
consideration now needs to be given to providing adequate water resources to the
younger generation of farming families who are moving to the urban centers in search of
work and livelihoods.

15. According to Amarasinghe et al (2007) as a result of the growth in demand for

water many rivers will be physically water-scarce by 2050 (Figure II.3). Development of
10 river basins, with 75 percent of the total population, will be well over 60 percent by
2050. These basins will have developed all of the potentially utilizable water resources;
water reallocation (and possibly conflict) between sectors will be a common occurrence
in these basins.

16. In many basins groundwater, with the current levels of recharge and groundwater
use patterns, will be in severe crisis. Solutions proposed to address this water scarcity
are to:

(i) increase crop productivity for each unit of water used (“more crop per drop”);
(ii) increase groundwater resources through artificial recharge;

4
The findings of the table II.5 are based on available data of the Planning Commission

5
 (iii) concentrate on economic activities where the value of water is very high5, or
transfer water from water-rich basins.

Figure II.3: Indicators of growing water scarcity, 2000 -2025

Source: Amarasinghe et al, 2007

5
The value of water can be assessed in a variety of ways, including in terms of wealth created, livelihoods
supported (whether rural or urban), votes obtained, basic needs (food security) and protection of the
environment.

6
 Table II.5: Comparison of feasible irrigable area, irrigation potential created and actual areas irrigated in selected States
(Conclusions drawn in this table are notional and reflect trend of development. Actual level of development in states may differ as on date)
Major irrigation state s Large (>3mha) High (>80%) High (>80%) High (>60%) High (>80%) Large (>50%)
Ke y irrigation state s Moderate (1-3mha) Mod. (40-80%)
Mod. (40-80%)Med. (30-60%)Mod. (40-80%)Mod. (20-50%)
Small (<1mha) Low (<40%) Low (<40%) Low (<30%) Low (<40%) Small (<20%)
State /UTs Total Ne t Gross Ultimate Irrigation Pote ntial Irrigation Pote ntial cre ate d till March 2007 (mha) Indicators
Land C ultivat C ultivate (mha)
Are a e d Are a d Are a Major & Minor Total Major & Me dium Minor Irrigation Total Gross Ultimate Total Total Re maining
(mha) (mha) (mha) Me dium Irrigation C reIrrigation
ate d Utiliz e d C re ate d Utiliz e d C re ate d Utiliz e d cultivate d Irrigation C re ate d Utiliz e d e stimate d
Irrigation are a/ Total Pote ntial/ Irrigate d Irrigate d pote ntial
land are a Gross Are a/ Are a/ Total are a to be
C ultivate d Ultimate C re ate d de ve lope d
C ol.1 C ol.2 C ol.3 C ol.4 C ol.5 C ol.6 C ol.7 C ol.8 C ol.9 C ol.10 C ol.11 C ol.12 C ol.13 C ol.4/C ol. C ol.7/C ol.4 C ol.12/C ol.7 C ol.13/C ol.1 (C ol.7-
2 2 C ol.12)/
Andhra Pradesh 27.51 10.41 12.76 5 6.26 11.26 3.6 3.24 3.09 2.84 6.69 6.09 46% 88% 59% 91% 41%
Arunachal Pradesh 8.37 0.16 0.27 0 0.17 0.17 0 0 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.09 3% 63% 71% 75% 29%
Assam 7.84 2.73 3.96 0.97 1.9 2.87 0.3 0.21 0.63 0.51 0.93 0.72 51% 72% 32% 77% 68%
Bihar 9.42 5.66 7.9 5.22 5.66 10.89 2.88 1.81 4.76 3.79 7.64 5.61 84% 138% 70% 73% 30%
Chattisgarh 13.52 4.8 5.6 1.15 0.57 1.72 0.57 0.95 0.66 0.53 1.23 1.47 41% 31% 72% 120% 28%
Goa 0.37 0.14 0.17 0.06 0.05 0.12 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.05 46% 71% 50% 83% 50%
Gujarat 19.6 9.62 10.73 3 3.1 6.1 2.23 1.84 2.02 1.89 4.25 3.73 55% 57% 70% 88% 30%
Haryana 4.42 3.57 6.32 3 1.51 4.51 2.19 1.89 1.64 1.58 3.83 3.48 143% 71% 85% 91% 15%
Himachal Pradesh 5.57 0.55 0.96 0.05 0.3 0.35 0.02 0.01 0.17 0.14 0.19 0.15 17% 36% 54% 79% 46%
Jammu & Kashmir 22.22 0.75 1.11 0.25 1.11 1.36 0.22 0.18 0.45 0.4 0.68 0.58 5% 123% 50% 85% 50%
Jharkhand 7.97 1.77 2.09 1.28 1.18 2.46 2.13 0.24 1.59 1.55 3.72 1.78 26% 118% 151% 48% 0%
Karnataka 19.18 10.03 11.67 2.5 3.47 5.97 1.13 2.12 0.7 0.65 1.82 2.77 61% 51% 30% 152% 70%
Kerala 3.89 2.19 2.99 1 1.68 2.68 1.45 0.59 2.3 2.18 3.75 2.77 77% 90% 140% 74% 0%
Madhya Pradesh 30.83 14.86 19.04 4.85 11.36 16.21 1.47 1.17 0.57 0.39 2.04 1.56 62% 85% 13% 76% 87%
Maharashtra 30.77 17.62 22.38 4.1 4.85 8.95 3.49 2.31 3.06 2.65 6.55 4.96 73% 40% 73% 76% 27%
Manipur 2.23 0.14 0.22 0.14 0.47 0.6 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.2 0.15 10% 273% 33% 75% 67%
Meghalaya 2.24 0.23 0.28 0.02 0.15 0.17 0 0 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.05 13% 61% 35% 83% 65%
Mizoram 2.11 0.12 0.12 0 0.07 0.07 0 0 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 6% 58% 29% 50% 71%
Nagaland 1.66 0.33 0.38 0.01 0.08 0.09 0 0 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.07 23% 24% 99% 78% 1%
Orissa 15.57 5.85 8.8 3.6 5.2 8.8 1.97 1.88 1.65 1.44 3.62 3.32 57% 100% 41% 92% 59%
Punjab 5.04 4.25 7.99 3 2.97 5.97 2.57 2.51 3.43 3.37 6 5.88 159% 75% 101% 98% 0%
Rajasthan 34.22 16.77 20.8 2.75 2.38 5.13 2.86 2.53 2.47 2.37 5.33 4.9 61% 25% 104% 92% 0%
Sikkim 0.71 0.1 0.13 0.02 0.05 0.07 0 0 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 18% 54% 43% 100% 57%
T amil Nadu 13.01 5.17 6.23 1.5 4.03 5.53 1.56 1.56 2.14 2.13 3.7 3.69 48% 89% 67% 100% 33%
T ripura 1.05 0.28 0.42 0.1 0.18 0.28 0.01 0.01 0.13 0.12 0.15 0.13 40% 67% 54% 87% 46%
Uttar Pradesh 24.09 16.81 25.82 12.15 17.48 29.64 8.78 6.81 23.6 18.87 32.39 25.68 107% 115% 109% 79% 0%
Uttarakhand 5.35 0.79 1.22 0.35 0.52 0.86 0.29 0.19 0.52 0.41 0.81 0.6 23% 70% 94% 74% 6%
West Bengal 8.88 5.52 9.78 2.3 4.62 6.92 1.75 1.57 4.02 3.28 5.78 4.86 110% 71% 84% 84% 16%
Total 328.73 141.35 190.28 58.47 81.43 139.89 41.64 33.74 60.1 51.48 101.74 85.22 58% 74% 73% 84% 2.7
Source: Data for use of Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission, May 2011, Government of India

7
17. There are two key drivers for the future development of water resources in India,
population growth and economic development. Using demographic projection data from
the UN (UN, 2002) Mohan and Dasgupta (2004) argue that the twenty first century will
be the “Asian urban century”. This is based on analysis of the data (Figure II.4) which
show that in Asia the urban population will have increased from 0.25 billion in 1950 to an
estimated 2.8 billion in 2030. In India this would mean 40 percent of the population
would live in urban centers by 2030, increasing to between 48-60 percent by 2050
(Verma and Phansalkar, 2007);

Figure II.4: Growth in urban population, 1950-2030

Source: UN 2002; Mohan and Dasgupta, 2004

18. Figure II.5 also points towards the growing importance of the urban and industrial
sectors in the Indian economy. Whist agricultural production has just managed to keep
up with population growth the GDP has risen sharply since 1980-81. This sharp increase
cannot be attributed to the agricultural sector; its growth has been relatively low over the
last 30 years. Urban-based economic activity, industry and the service sectors are the
most likely contributors to this change in the GDP, reflecting in turn increased
employment and levels of income for an increasingly significant proportion of the
population.

Figure II.5: Population growth, GDP and food grain production, 1950-2011

Source: Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner (ORGCC), 2011

8
B. National Water Policy (2012)

19. Goal 5 listed in the National Water Mission document outlined as ‘promotion of
basin level integrated water resources’ recognizes the need to review the ‘national water
policy’ document (2002) inter-alia to ensure in the long run the universal set of ‘IWRM’ for
conserving water, minimizing wastages, and ensuring more equitable distribution while
developing basin level management strategies and appropriate entitlement and pricing
under regulatory mechanism. The short term objective of increasing WUE of MMI
projects should thus be considered as a small but very relevant sub-set and thus
strategies considered responsible for enhancing WUE have to be fully inter-woven within
the overall frame work of IWRM. National Water Policy now stands thoroughly revised 22.
While it is not within the purview this study to analyse the entire text of NWP, the
following key provisions and the observations there on are outlined here precisely in the
context of enhancing WUE for MMI.

20. Preamble - India recognizes water as a scarce national resource fundamental to

life, livelihood, food security and sustainable development. Recognizing that the
availability of utilizable water under further constraints is leading to competition among
different users, there is a growing concern on spreading scarcity due to its life sustaining
characteristics and its economic value, mismanagement, poor governance, minimum
ecological needs, inefficient use and rising pollution. The National water Policy (NWP)
thus takes cognizance of the situation and has sketched a framework of creation of a
system of laws and institutions and has drawn a plan of action considering water as a
unified resource.

21. Water framework law – Considering that water is a state subject and the States
have exclusive right to frame policies, laws and regulations on development and
management of water, NWP has rightly recognized the need to evolve a broad over-
arching national legal framework of general principles on water to lead the way for
essential legislation on water governance in every State and UT and devolution of
necessary authority to the local governments to deal with water in an effective lawful
manner. To achieve this objective, the NWP suggests that water held by the States need
be managed as a community resource under public trust doctrine to achieve food
security, livelihood, and equitable sustainable development for all. To achieve this aim
comprehensive legislation supporting inter-state coordination on scientific planning of
land and water resources with basin as unit and with unified perspectives of water in all
forms 23 and ensuring holistic and balanced development of the catchments and
command areas. This is essentially the fundamental principle of IWRM leading to a
systematic approach to basin planning and management in a coordinated spirit.

22. Priority on use of water – NWP recognized the need for different use and
suggests optimized utilisations for diverse use for which awareness on water as a scarce
resource should be fostered. Governance institutions must ensure access to a minimum
quantity of potable water for essential health and hygiene to all its citizens at their
household. Ecological needs should be determined through scientific studies and a
portion of water in rivers should be kept aside to meet ecological requirements.
Regulated use of ground water should also consider contribution of base-flow to the river
during lean seasons through regulated ground water use. This is a much needed clear
deviation from the past policies24 wherein priorities on diverse use were defined with a
remark that priorities can be modified in particular region and area specific conditions.

22 th th
Nation Water Council approved the NWP in its 6 meeting held on 28 December 2012 at New
Delhi with minor changes.
23
All forms of water include water as precipitation, soil moisture, ground and surface water
24
GOI, NWP (1987) and NWP (2002)

9
Scarcity conditions forced review of the policy on this regard with a rider that minimum
requirements for health & hygiene and ecology would alone be prioritized for human
survival; otherwise water should be treated as an economic good with higher priorities
towards basic livelihood support to poor and ensuring national food security. Critics view
this shift in policy would render agriculture irrelevant in the interest of industrialization.
However, this shift ensures optimum economic sustainability to water resources
utilization in the long run and thus is very much within the purview of IWRM and increase
in WUE within short term context of IWRM.

23. NWP on impact of climate change – NWP recognizes the importance of

adaptation to the impacts of climate change by the community through resilient
technologies and endorses adaptation to strategies on increasing storages25, demand
management26, stake holder’s participation27, and paradigm shift in design of river valley
projects in coping with strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change.

24. Enhancing water availability for different use – The availability of water should
be periodically and scientifically reviewed and reassessed in various basins every five
years considering changing trends in climate change and accounted for in the planning
process. Aquifers need be mapped to reassess their potential as well and trends in
declining water levels due to over-exploitation need be reversed. Integrated watershed
development activities with groundwater perspectives need be adopted to enhance soil
moisture, reduce sediment yield, and increase overall land use productivity of rural
development schemes.

25. Demand management – The policy recommends evolution of a system of

benchmarks for water uses for different uses, water footprints, and water auditing to
promote and incentivize efficient use of water with clear emphasis on improving ‘project’
and ‘basin’ water use efficiencies through appropriate water balance and water
accounting studies. Institutional arrangements for promotion, regulation and evolving
mechanisms for efficient use of water at basin/sub-basin level need be established.
Project appraisal and environmental impact assessment for water uses to inter-alia
include: (i) analysis of water foot prints, (ii) recycle and reuse including return flows to be
a general norm, (iii) incentivizing economic use of water to facilitate competition, (iv)
adaptation to water saving means in agriculture such as controlled cropping patterns in
endowment with climate, micro irrigation, recycling canal seepage through planned
conjunctive use, (v) monitoring a performance and (vi) reclamation of commands from
waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity.

26. Regulation of water prices – Principle of differential pricing is retained for pre-
emptive and high priority use for sustaining eco-system for ensuring food security and
supporting livelihood for the poor. Other than these consideration, water should be
subjected to allocation and pricing on economic principles. A water regulatory authority
should be established in each state to fix and periodically review and regulate the water
tariff system and charges according to the principles of NWP. Volumetric assessment
and allocation, entitlement and distribution should be the criteria to ensure equity,

25
Increase in storages in all forms namely soil moisture, ponds, groundwater, small and large
reservoirs, and their combination to provide a mechanism for increased availability of water is
recognized.
26
Demand management is considered compatible to agricultural strategies such as cropping
patterns and improved water application methods (land levelling, shift to drip, sprinkler etc.) as
they enhance water use efficiency
27
Stakeholders participation is envisaged in the fields of land-soil-water management with
scientific inputs from local and academic institutions to evolve different agricultural strategies,
reducing soil erosion and improving soil fertility.

10
efficiency and economic principles. WUAs need be given statutory powers to collect and
retain a portion of water charges and reuse of recycled water should be incentivized.

27. Project planning & implementation – The NWP document recognises the need
for planning the water resources projects as per efficiency benchmarks to address the
challenge of impeding climate change factors. The projects should incorporate social and
environmental aspects in addition to the techno-economic aspects through consultative
processes with governments, local bodies, project affected people, beneficiaries and
stakeholders. The projects should be developed pari-passu so that benefits accrue from
day one, which implies there is no gap in potential creation and that utilization.

28. Institutional arrangements – The policy has inter-alia suggested a need for
establishing institutions on: (i) establishing a forum at the national level to deliberate
upon issues relating to water and evolve consensus, (ii) similar mechanism at the
State/UT level to amicably resolve the differences in competing demands among
different users, (iii) basin specific institutions dealing with collection, collation and
analysis of data and dissemination information in a transparent manner, (iv) institutions
on monitoring water quality of each river basin etc. The existing institutions departments,
organizations at both state and central level should be restructured and made multi-
disciplinary to promote IWRM.

29. Data base and information needs – The policy stresses the need for
establishing a ‘national water informatics centre’ to collect, collate and process all
hydrologic and water related information (other than those of classified nature) and
maintain all information in an open and transparent manner on a GIS platform.

30. Capacity building, research and training needs – The NWP emphasises on
the need for continuous research and advancement of technology, implementing newer
research findings, importance of water balance in spatial and temporal context, water
auditing for projects and hydrological systems, bench marking and performance
evaluation. The policy stresses on the need for adaptation of advanced information
technologies and analytical technologies in both public and private sectors and suggests
establishment of an autonomous centre for research in water policy to evaluate the
impacts of policy decisions and frame newer policy charters. Need for regular training of
the manpower for skill in water management is also recognized.

31. The provisions of the new NWP are clearly endorsing the principles of IWRM and
suggesting that the framework for water planning, development and management should
be clearly governed by these principles. Any strategic action taken from now on should
thus follow a systematic holistic advancement towards achieving IWRM goals.

C. National Water Mission reform agenda

32. The National Water Mission (NWM) was identified as one of eight key areas
requiring strategic interventions under the National Action Plan for Climate Change
(NAPCC). The main objective of the NWM is stated as being (NWM, 2011):

“conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable

distribution both across and within States through integrated water resources
development and management”.
33. In its guiding document (NWM, 2011) the Mission has identified various strategies
leading towards integrated planning for sustainable development and efficient
management of the nation’s water resources with the active participation of stakeholders.
The Mission’s concern is that climate change and changes in land use will affect the

11
quantity and quality of the available water resources, with the most vulnerable areas
being: (i) drought prone areas, (ii) flood prone areas, (iii) the coastal regions, (iv) the
region with deficient rainfall, (v) areas with over-exploited, critical and semi-critical stage
of ground water development, (vi) water quality affected areas, and (vii) snow-fed river
basins.

34. This concern has led to the development of a strategy for mitigation and
management with five identified goals: (i) creation of a comprehensive water data base
in the public domain and assessment of the impact of climate change on water
resources; (ii) promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation
and preservation; (iii) focused attention on vulnerable areas including over-exploited
areas; (iv) increasing water use efficiency by 20%, and (v) promotion of basin level
integrated water resources management.

35. The key components of these goals are outlined below:

(i) Creating a comprehensive water data base in the public domain and assessment of
the impact of climate change on water resources
 All available data to be placed in the public domain by 2012
 Review, collection and posting of additional data needs by March 2012
 Review of basin-wise water status by March 2012
 Identified priority areas are targeted by 2012.

(ii) Promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and
preservation.
 Empowerment and involvement of key stakeholders, including Panchayati Raj
and Water Users’ Associations
 Promotion of participatory irrigation management
 Engagement of NGOs in water resources management activities
 Involve and encourage corporate sector/industries to engage in water
conservation and preservation
 Sensitize relevant stakeholders in dark and grey blocks by 2011-12

(iii) Focused attention on vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas

 Complete comprehensive assessment of groundwater resources by March 2011
 Put revised master plan for groundwater recharge in the public domain by
September 2011
 All over-exploited areas to be covered by groundwater recharge by end of 12th
Fiver Year Plan
 Expeditious implementation and completion of water resources projects,
particularly multi-purpose projects with carry-over storage in drought and rain
deficit areas
 Promotion of traditional systems of water conservation
 Conservation and preservation of wetlands
 Adoption of a systematic approach to flood management.

(iv) Increasing water use efficiency by 20%, and

 Increase water use efficiency by 2017
 Reduction of the gap of about 15 percent between irrigation potential created and
irrigation potential utilised by half by 2017
 Production of guidelines on recycling of water, including wastewater, by March
2011

12
  Promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies, including micro
irrigation and “Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Programme”
 Implement Pilot Projects for improved water use efficiency by March 2012
 Promotion of Water Regulatory Authorities for equitable water distribution and
rational water charges.

(v) Promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.

 Review of National Water Policy by Ministry of Water Resources by 2011
 Preparation of guidelines for different uses of water in a basin context by March
2012.

36. In order to address the multidisciplinary nature of issues related to water

resources development and management the National Water Mission constituted six
Sub-Committees covering: (i) Policy and Institutional Framework; (ii) Surface Water
Management; (iii) Ground Water Management; (iv) Domestic and Industrial Water
Management; (v) Efficient Use of Water for Various Purposes; and (vi) Basin Level
Planning and Management. These Sub-Committees contributed to the formulation of the
goals and actions stated above.

37. The Mission’s Comprehensive Mission Document (CMD) sets out in detail the
strategies and actions to be followed to achieve the above goals, with each strategy
seeking to address key areas of concern highlighted in the NAPCC. In relation to this
study the key points to be addressed are summarised in Table II.6 below.

38. From the actions detailed in the Main Report and Annexures to the CMD the
following key points in relation to improving the WUE on MMI schemes are noted:

(i) There is seen to be an important role for Water Regulatory Authorities for ensuring
equitable water distribution and rational charges to cover the costs of service
provision;
(ii) For MMI schemes, even those with storage facilities, there can be significant
annual variations in the water supply available. This can have a significant impact
on the efficiency of water use, with efficiencies generally being higher when water
is scarce;
(iii) A comprehensive water resources information system (WIS) needs to be
established;
(iv) Measurement processes and procedures need to be updated using modern
technology, including remote sensing, GIS and MIS;
(v) In general there needs to be a far more “scientific” approach to irrigation water
management, at all levels from the main system down to the crop root zone;
(vi) Empowerment and involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions, Water Users’
Associations and NGOs in water resources and irrigation management is
important. Promotion of participatory irrigation management is seen as particularly
important;
(vii) A better understanding of groundwater aquifers and resources is required, coupled
with improved procedures for conjunctive use of surface and groundwater supplies.
(viii) Groundwater recharge needs to be considered in relevant cases;
(ix) A better understanding of groundwater aquifers and resources can usefully be
linked to improved community engagement in aquifer management (as practiced in
Andhra Pradesh);
(x) There are significant opportunities for improving water use efficiency and
productivity at the on-farm level, as has been demonstrated by the Farmers’
Participatory Action Research Programme (FPARP);

13
(xi) Further research is required into measures to improve water use efficiency, and to
measure the relative benefits of different measures;
(xii) For each MMI system a complete water assessment and water audit 28 ,
benchmarking and performance evaluation needs to be carried out (and published)
periodically, taking account of all sources of water available to farmers;
(xiii) Management of the main system needs to be improved through the use of modern
approaches, including computer-aided scheduling systems, automated control
systems, improved demand estimation, etc.;
(xiv) Drainage water needs to be assessed and reused before it reaches saline “sinks”;
(xv) Canal lining as a method of seepage control should be used with care as seepage
water is often reused29;
(xvi) Improvements in water use efficiency should include both “hard” and “soft”
measures. Hard measures might include installing proportional distribution
structures, lining of canals, land levelling, piped distribution, sprinkler and drip
irrigation, etc. Soft measures might include introducing rotational supply,
awareness raising of water saving measures, participatory management, etc.

39. The general conclusions from the Working Group on Surface Water Management
were:

 Water conveyance systems need to be made and managed much more efficiently.
 When calculating efficiency as a ratio, in mathematical / scientific terms, define both
the numerator and the denominator properly.
 The Basin efficiency concept is scientifically superior, since the effective use of the
return flows gets counted, and this encourages the optimum use of water, through
conjunctive use, re-cycling and re-use.
 Attempts should be made to increase the basin efficiencies, in potential or actual
closed basins, to say 80% and above. The reduction of inadvertent evapo-
transpiration, reducing returns to sinks, and conjunctive use, recycling and re-use
would be the main strategies.
 System efficiencies of any individual conveyance system also need to be improved,
for better energy efficiency and improved management of financial resources.
However, the externalities, in regard to uses outside this system, also need to be
evaluated.

40. The general recommendations in relation to the irrigation sector from the Working
Group on Efficient Use of Water for Various Purposes were:

 Restructure and re-train the ID/WRDs for the purpose of sustainable water resources
management;
 To strengthen WALMIs to facilitate training and technical support to IDs/WRDs and
WUAs
 Adopt the motto “More crop per drop” as a guiding principle;
 Carry out periodic evaluation studies of water resources projects;
 Benchmarking can be an effective tool to assess the relative performance of I&D
schemes;
 Accurate measurement of water is essential for management. Based on this water
audits should periodically be carried out of I&D systems;

28
The NWM envisages that this will be made a mandatory requirement to ensure proper water
use
29
Canal lining, particularly in lower order canals, can be beneficial for other purposes such as
significantly increased travel times and reduction in regular maintenance requirements.

14
 Judicious use of canal lining can reduce losses;
 Improved field irrigation methods can significantly improve water use efficiency
(graded border, furrow, surge irrigation, pressurised irrigation, etc.)
 Adoption of scientific water management practices, including determining and
matching actual crop water needs rather than applying water duties, adoption of more
efficient irrigation scheduling policies and rules;
 Mass awareness campaigns to advise farmers on improved irrigation scheduling;
 Ensuring adequate and timely irrigation water supplies through the use of modern
technology, processes and procedures;
 More responsibility needs to be given to users’ groups in the management, operation
and maintenance of I&D schemes. PIM needs to be promoted and supported.
 Drainage on I&D schemes needs to be improved to reduce problems of waterlogging
and salinity;
 Greater attention needs to be paid to managing conjunctive use of surface and
groundwater resources
 Water resources development and management should be on the basis of the
hydrological unit – the basin or sub-basin;
 Water charges are low and not able to meet the O&M costs. These rates should be
increased to enable sustainable O&M of systems, but with a match agreement from
the ID to provide quality service delivery with reliable and timely water delivery;
 Incentives and penalties should be provided, including volumetric water charging with
irrigation charges linked to service delivery, awards for good performance, incentives
for WUAs to encourage efficient use of water, and penalties for growing high water
demand crops in water scarce schemes.
 Incentive systems need to be established to promote artificial recharge of
groundwater resources;
Table II.6: National Water Mission objectives and proposed actions
Source: Comprehensive Mission Document, National Water Mission, Volume 1, April 2011
Relevance to
Page Issues identified/Reform proposed
NWUEI-SP study
v, vi Objectives:  Sets the
Goal 2: Promotion of citizen and state actions for water conservation, guidelines for
augmentation and preservation the NWUEI-SP
 Empowerment and involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions, urban study.
local bodies, Water Users’ Associations and primary stake holders in
management of water resources with focus on water conservation,
augmentation and preservation
 Promote participatory irrigation management
 Encourage participation of NGOs in various activities related to water
resources management, particularly in planning, capacity building and
mass awareness
 Involve and encourage corporate sector / industries to take up support
and promote water conservation, augmentation and preservation within
the industry and as part of corporate social responsibility
 Sensitization of all Panchayat members and their functionaries in dark
and grey blocks will be completed by 2011-12.
Goal 4: Increasing water use efficiency by 20%
 The timeline for action would be to increase water use efficiency by
20% by the year 2017
 The gap of about 15% between the irrigation potential created and the
irrigation potential utilized would also be reduced by half by the year
2017
 Development of guidelines for incentivizing recycling of water including
wastewater by March 2011.
 Promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies including (a)
promotion of micro irrigation techniques such as sprinkler and drip
irrigation and (b) expansion of “Farmers’ Participatory Action Research
Programme”

15
 Relevance to
Page Issues identified/Reform proposed
NWUEI-SP study
 Undertake Pilot projects for improvement in water use efficiency in
collaboration with States by March 2012.
 Promote Water Regulatory Authorities for ensuring equitable water
distribution and rational charges for water facilities
 Promote mandatory water audit including those for drinking water
purposes
 Adequate provision for operation & maintenance of water resources
projects
 Incentive through award for water conservation & efficient use of water
 Incentivize use of efficient irrigation practices and fully utilize the
created facilities
p.13 Goal – 2: Promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation,  Important area
Table augmentation and preservation for MMI
3.2 Strategy II.1: Empowerment and involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions, schemes
urban local bodies, Water Users’ Associations and primary stake holders in  Look for
management of water resources with focus on water conservation, successful
augmentation and preservation: examples of
a. Interactive session with policy makers for sensitization. engagement
b. Capacity Building for organizations associated with water with water users
resources development and management. in the
c. Promotion of do-it-yourself action by citizens through intensive management of
social communication. I&D systems
Strategy II.2: Promote participatory irrigation management  Assess
a. Encourage participatory irrigation management through individual states
“Command Area Development and Water Management position and
Programme”. current status in
b. Encourage States to enact appropriate Participatory Irrigation relation to this
Management (PIM) Act. goal
Strategy II.5: Encourage participation of NGOs in various activities related to
water resources management, particularly in planning, capacity building and
mass awareness
P19. Goal – 4: Increasing water use efficiency by 20%  This focus on
Increased productivity at the farm/field level through Farmers Participatory on-farm
Action Research Programme (FPARP) working through Agricultural improvements is
Universities, ICAR institutes, engineering colleges and WALMIs. important
Encouraging results so far, programme to be expanded.  Identify key
actions leading
to improved
water savings
and water use
productivity
 Need to
carefully define
WUE, identify
relevant
indicators and
then measure
current WUE
and monitor
system
performance
following WUE
improvement
interventions.
P21. Waghad Irrigation Scheme given as an example of enhanced water  Uses the term
productivity through PIM. System now managed by 24 WUAs under the “water
Waghad Project Level Water Users Association (PLWUA) with assistance productivity”
from the WRD. Water supplied volumetrically between WUAs and shared rather than
between farmers on a time-share basis. Significant improvement in “water use
performance before WUA formation and after. efficiency”
 Could use
Item Units Value before Value after Waghad as one
formation of formation of of the case
PLWUA PLWUA study examples

16
 Relevance to
Page Issues identified/Reform proposed
NWUEI-SP study
Irrigable area ha 9642 9642 for WUE
Area irrigated ha 3212 10750 improvement
Mode of water supply - Area based Volumetric measures.
Average water charge Rs 300,000 2,200,000  Could use data
collected from Waghad as
Recovery of water % 60% 100% benchmark for
charges performance on
Cropping pattern - Restricted Unrestricted other schemes
Water entitlement - None Agreed,  Find other
transparent and similar case
enforced studies (such as
Indicators: Dharoi in
Average farmer’s Rs/ha 60,000 120,000 Gujarat) and use
income (2003/4) (2008/9) data as
Cropping intensity % 33% 111% benchmarks
Fee recovery ratio % 60% 100%
Fee recovery per unit Rs/ha 31 228
area

P22 Goal – 4: Increasing water use efficiency by 20%  Use as guidance

Table Strategy IV.1: Research in area of increasing water use efficiency and for the approach
3.4 maintaining its quality in agriculture, industry and domestic sector. to NWUEI-SP
Areas of interest:  Refer to
 Minimising evaporation losses recommendation
 Increase storage - in groundwater, in reservoirs s of the Sub-
 Increase water use efficiency – reuse of drainage water, Committees
modernization of canals and distribution systems (Volume II of
 PIM Mission
 Adaptation of crops and cropping patterns and water application document)
Strategy IV.6 : Promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies
a. Promotion of micro irrigation techniques such as sprinkler and
drip irrigation.
b. Expand “Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Programme”.
Strategy IV.7 : Undertake Pilot projects for improvement in water use
efficiency in collaboration with States
a. Pilot project for improving water use efficiency.
b. Pilot project for improving efficiency of water system.
Strategy IV.8: Promote Water Regulatory Authorities for ensuring equitable
water distribution and rational charges for water facilities
Strategy IV.9: Promote mandatory water audit (including those for drinking
water purposes)
a. Preparation of guidelines and manuals.
Strategy IV.10: Adequate provision for operation & maintenance of water
resources projects
a. Provisions for operation and maintenance of the projects to be
appropriately enhanced.
b. Pursue the implementation with State governments and other
agencies.
Strategy IV.11: Incentive through award for water conservation & efficient
use of water.
Strategy IV.12: Incentivize use of efficient irrigation practices and fully utilize
the created facilities
a. Preparation of appropriate guidelines.
b. Initiation of actions by the States and other agencies.

D. Twelfth Five Year Plan reform agenda

41. The 12th Five Year Plan proposes a fundamental change in the way that water
resources and irrigation are managed in India. The proposed paradigm shift is the result
of a new and inclusive approach to formulation of the plan which brought together

17
professionals and practitioners from government, civil society, academia and industry.
The proposed paradigm shift comprises ten elements:

(i) Large irrigation reform

(ii) Participatory aquifer management
(iii) Breaking the groundwater-energy nexus
(iv) Watershed restoration and groundwater recharge
(v) New approaches to rural drinking water and sanitation
(vi) Conjoint water and wastewater management
(vii) Industrial water
(viii) Renewed focus on non-structural mechanisms for flood management
(ix) Water database development and management
(x) New institutional and legal framework.

42. The Plan recognises the growing crisis in the water sector, with increasing
demands from a rapidly industrialising economy, fresh challenges from climate change,
increased levels of conflict over water, declining groundwater levels and growing
pressure on water eco-systems.

43. With over 80 percent of the currently available water being used for irrigation the
Plan recognises the importance of improving the performance in the irrigation sector, in
particular in major and medium irrigation (MMI) schemes where the water use efficiency
is low. Despite the developed command area having increased from 9.7 million ha in the
pre-Plan period to around 46 million ha by the Eleventh Plan utilisation of this created
potential has failed to keep place. The 12th Five Year Plan thus sets a goal of increasing
water use efficiency in the irrigation sector by 20 percent, thereby making more water
available, not only for agriculture but also for other sectors of the economy.

44. The plan argues that Irrigation Departments have failed to keep up with growing
MMI investments and have failed to manage them efficiently. One key area is a
considerable backlog of deferred maintenance, with the World Bank estimating (in 2005)
that Rs 19,000 crore would need to be spent on annual maintenance to redress the
balance, some 20 times the current annual spending. Such a poor level of maintenance
greatly limits the ID’s ability to provide good quality service.

45. To address these issues the Plan strongly recommends that IDs move away from
their engineering-construction-centric focus to a multi-disciplinary participatory
management approach with an emphasis on CAD and improved WUE. To incentivise
states to take up this challenge the Plan has established the National Irrigation
Management Fund (NIMF) which is a non-lapsable fund which will provide additional
funds to the state for system MOM based on the state’s irrigation service fee (ISF)
collection on a 1:1 basis. Under the NIMF there will be additional contributions if (i)
WUAs collect and retain a portion of the ISF and (ii) ISF is collected on the basis of
volumetric water supply. In this context the Plan sees empowering WUAs as central to
the process of making the process of pricing of water and ISF collection more
transparent and accountable.

46. Other elements of the proposed reform include IDs broadening their cadre of
disciplines, to include agricultural engineers, social scientists, agronomists, etc. and re-
orientating civil engineers to irrigation management rather than construction. To support
this process of training and capacity building the Plan will provide support to national
institutes to establish centres of excellence in irrigation management for research,
education and training for senior managers.

18
47. Through this process the Plan envisages IDs moving towards performance
management, utilising benchmarking and other management tools, and strengthened
management information systems (MIS) to provide real-time information on system
performance.

48. Under the Plan Command Area Development (CAD) will be revamped with all
irrigation development to include CAD works from the very beginning, thus ensuring that
each project proposal will plan for delivery of irrigation water from the reservoir to the
farm gate (farmer’s field). CAD works will be carried out simultaneously with head works
and main canal works, and the potential created only recognised after complete
hydraulic connectivity is achieved from the reservoir to the farm gate.

49. The key issues and water reforms proposed by the 12th FYP30 document related
to MMI schemes and the objectives of this study are detailed in Annexure II of this report
and summarized below:

 Move away from narrow engineering-construction-centric approach to more

multidisciplinary, participatory management approach on MMI schemes with central
emphasis on command area development and improving water use efficiency;
 Mapping of groundwater aquifers and participatory approach to groundwater
management, with increased research into understanding and managing the
relationship between surface water hydrology units (watersheds, river basins,
irrigation systems) and hydro-geologic units (aquifers);
 Vastly improved systems of data collection, processing and analysis, using modern
technology and systems;
 Lack of capacity in human resources;
 Increasing gap between irrigation potential (IPC) created and utilised (IPU). Due to a
number of reasons including the definition of irrigation potential, faulty designs,
institutional weakness, lack of water, unequal water distribution, incorrect recording of
irrigated area, difficulties in financing recurrent costs and collecting water charges,
etc. Annexure III of this report provides more information on the possible causes and
measures for bridging the gap in irrigation potential;
 Command Area Development (CAD) should play a key part in bridging the IPC-PIU
gap, but has not performed well to date;
 Low water use efficiency due to poor maintenance, siltation of canals, damaged lining,
damaged gates, poor management practices, etc.;
 National Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF) proposed to catalyse and support
demand for improved irrigation management and institutional reform. Aims to address
issues related to inadequate maintenance, poor ID level of service to farmers, zero or
low ISF collection rates, poor or non-existent accountability loop between ID and
farmers, WUAs with obligations but no rights;
 Institutional and management reform will require major incentives. Funding will be
allocated to national institutes for practical problem-solving research and associated
education and training. WALMIs to receive Rs 5 crore/year over 5 years to strengthen
their training, research and extension work;
 AIBP and CAD programmes to be modified;
 Water Regulatory Authorities to be established to determine entitlements and water
charges.

30
Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-17). Volume –I on ‘Faster, More Inclusive and Sustainable
Growth; Planning Commission (2012): http://planningcommission.nic.in

19
E. Literature review

1. DSDAP study

50. The Development of Synthesis and Draft Action Plan for Improving WUE of
Irrigated Agriculture in Selected Indian States (DSDAP) study sought to assist the GoI to
take initial steps towards implementing the National Water Mission (NWM) through
synthesizing of an analytical framework, options, lessons and best practices to improve
water use efficiency and productivity of irrigated agriculture, together with a practical and
implementable action plan. 30 WUE studies carried out by the CWC in 4 states were
studied and concerns highlighted in relation to reservoirs, canals, conjunctive use and
system management. The report recommended that priority attention be paid to six
areas: (i) storage; (ii) conveyance including distribution; (iii) on-farm application including
drainage; (iv) participatory irrigation management; (v) crop management; and (vi)
research and development (R&D). The study also recommended that opportunities for
involving the private sector should be investigated and policies of irrigation/Water
resources departments and Water and Land Management Institutes (ID/DWR/WALMI)
and institutional arrangements should be reviewed. A final recommendation was that 2-3
pilot projects should be established to test out measures aimed at improving the water
use efficiency on irrigation schemes.

2. National Water Resources Framework study

51. The National Water Resources Framework Study (NWRFS, CEEW, 2011a) was
carried out by a team of international and national specialists to address 53 key
questions posed by the National Planning Commission as part of the preparation for the
12th Five Year Plan. The study was financed by the International Finance Corporation
(IFC), part of the World Bank Group.

52. The report looked to provide three outputs: (i) an evidence base for proposing
reforms in the water resources and irrigation sectors, (ii) answers to policy makers on a
set of key questions, and (iii) a framework for the sustainable management of India’s
water resources.

53. The study covers the full range of water-related issues: from participatory
irrigation management to sustainable management of groundwater resources; from
reform and capacity building of I&D departments to the role of water regulators; from
water utility management to regulating the entrepreneurial sector providing water
services; from promoting water conservation in industry to exploring legal, regulatory and
institutional reforms. The study draws together the different interventions and shows
how the successes of interventions in one domain are contingent on action in others.
The study contains 13 Working Papers, 8 of which deal with the irrigation sector (Table
II.7).
Table II.7: NWRMS irrigation-related working papers

Working Paper No. Title/Subject matter

1. Overview of Working Papers
2. Re-engaging with Participatory Irrigation Management
3. Reforming management in the I&D sector
4. Performance management in the I&D sector
5. Managing groundwater for multiple uses
6. Water resources management
7. The role of the water regulator in water resources management
8. Perspectives on legal frameworks for water resources management

20
54. Based on the initial work following presentation to the National Water
Commission and members of the NWC’s Working Groups a roadmap for reform was
developed (CEEW, 2011b). This Roadmap covered four domains: (i) National water
management reform; (ii) Groundwater management; (iii) Water utility management
improvement and reform; (iv) Water conservation strategy for industry.

55. In each case the individual roadmaps looked at the problem, the vision for the
future, strategies and components and an action plan. The National Water Management
Reform Road map looking at three parts: (i) Water resources management, (ii) main
system irrigation management, and (iii) on-farm irrigation management. All three
components are relevant to this study.
56. The Groundwater Management Roadmap is also relevant as it covers the
conjunctive use of surface and irrigation water, and makes several concrete proposals
based on proven experience with groundwater management in India.

3. World Bank sector review

57. Recognizing the impending water crisis in India the World Bank carried out a
study in the mid-1990s to identify the current situation in the irrigation sector and to make
proposals for the way forward. The report (World Bank, 1998) sets out the need for a
“second irrigated agriculture revolution” and provides a reform agenda to achieve this.
The proposed Reform Agenda covers the following domains (Table II.8):

 Institutional reforms, comprising irrigation management transfer and restructuring

State irrigation institutions and the need for setting up a system of performance
review of the institutions;
 Financial viability and sustainability, comprising measures to achieve financial self-
sufficiency, prioritizing expenditure and accessing credit, private sector and capital
markets;
 Technical actions, comprising system improvements and agricultural technology.

58. The report was the basis for the Water Sector Restructuring (WSR) projects
established by the World Bank in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, and forms a valuable input to the NWUEI study.

Table II.8: Irrigation sector issues and proposed solutions identified World Bank
report on the irrigation sector (World Bank, 1998)

Problems/issues
Physical  Poor maintenance
Constraints  Ineffective control structures
Institutional  A public sector approach without accountability (in ID)
constraints  Limited specialization and staff skills (in ID)
 Lack of coordination among private sector agencies
 Weak agriculture-irrigation linkages
 Minimal involvement of farmers in irrigation management
Financial and  Insufficient cost recovery
economic  Inadequate O&M allocations
constraints  Poor incentives
Proposed solutions
A. Institutional i) Promoting irrigation management transfer
reforms and  Democratic grassroots base
reorientation  Demand and client-led approach

21
  Financial viability
 Clear legal framework with a clear State level Vision Document that
focuses on sustainable management of water resources demand
versus supply (other than current water policy)
 A hydrology and whole command based approach for surface and
groundwater resources management
 Investment and technical support
 “Big Bang” versus gradualism/phasing out approach
 Ensuring participation of women, deprived groups and minorities
 Establishing water rights and allocations
 Possible wider functions for WUAs and financial incentives for
WUAs for their higher level participation in scheme management
 Capacity building and handholding support to the WUAs and their
higher level Farmers’ Organizations
ii) Restructuring the state irrigation institutions
iii) Establishing autonomous water service agencies
iv) Improving the service agencies (ID/WSA)
 Decentralization
 Reorganization and specialization
 Upgrading staff skills and performance
 Improving staff incentives and improving performance
v) Creating a farmer government partnership
 WUA/ID/CGWB/AD/Rural Development Dept. partnership
 Government/WUA/Civil society partnership
vi) Involving the private sector
 Unbundling and contracting out
 Promoting innovations
 Research piloting and training
 Management contracts for irrigation schemes
 Assistance in WSA or ID Management

B. Achieving i) Cost recovery and financial self-sufficiency
financial viability  Substantially increase water charges to cover O&M
and sustainability  Direct collection of water charges to WUAs, WSAs and ID
 Improve collection rates
 Additional revenue sources
 Introduce volumetric supply and pricing
 Improve cost effectiveness of O&M and tapping funds for
appropriate O&M from various sources i.e. CADA, AIBP and NREG,
etc.
 Client-driven service improvements
 Investment cost sharing
 Financial capacity building
 Transparent billing and cost monitoring
 Establish an independent price regulating agency
 Assess and pilot water markets
ii) Expenditure prioritization
iii) Accessing credit, private sector and capital markets
 Institutional financing
 Private investment in irrigation development
 Funding from capital and debt markets

C. Technical i) Improving water operations management
actions to ii) Upgrading maintenance and rehabilitating and modernizing systems
improve irrigation  Maintenance
performance  Rehabilitation
 Modernization
iii) Improving agricultural technology

22
  On-farm water and agricultural technology
 Refocusing and expanding crop diversification efforts
iv) Improving design and construction quality
 Design
 Construction quality
ID – Irrigation Department; CGWB – Central Ground Water Board; WSA – Water Service Agency;
AD – Agricultural Department; WUA – Water Users Association; O&M – Operation and
maintenance

4. Other related studies and programs

a. Mid-term Appraisal Report of the 11th Five Year Plan

59. This appraisal identifies measures to bridge the gap between the irrigation
potential created and the irrigation potential utilized for MMI and minor irrigation (MI)
schemes.

b. Working Group report on MMI and CAD for 12th Five Year Plan

60. This Working Group was constituted by the Planning Commission to advice on
measures to improve the performance of MMI and command area development (CAD)
under the 12th Five Year Plan. The Working Group provided detailed recommendations
on the issues facing MMI schemes and CAD which are summarized in Annexure –III.
The key recommendations are:

 Historic role of water resources departments as water resources assessment,

planning and construction leaving other downstream activities being left to agriculture
extension and other departments needs to be reviewed. A multi-disciplinary
mechanism under one umbrella should look into all aspects of MMI project
management in a holistic manner with empathetic focus on efficient operation and
maintenance through participation of beneficiaries.
 A number of challenges have plagued the irrigation sector. These include inadequate
utilization of created irrigation potential, low levels of WUE, unsure physical and
financial sustainability of MMI projects, irrational service fee and low rates of its
collection, inadequate incentivization of participatory irrigation management and
volumetric pricing and delivery to water user associations.
 National institutions like CWC should be restructured into a statuary high powered
inter-disciplinary Commission with maximum autonomy to deal with policy and
reforms in order to address the various issues in water resources sector. States may
follow suit.
 A new institutional structure with existing governmental powers be developed to
regulate water use and apportion entitlements to use water between different
categories of use, to establish water tariff system as well as fix criteria for water
charges.
 The gap between the created and the utilized irrigation potential be bridged through
additional investments on CAD works and modernization of MMI projects as well as
irrigation management reforms. For this purpose a striking balance is required
between development activities and irrigation reforms and capacity building of state
irrigation agencies. Investment gap between new development projects and improving
the pace of old projects need be reduced.
 Water resources information system (WRIS) being implemented by CWC/MOWR
should be augmented to monitor the performance of the targets of 12 th FYP. The
monitor-able targets during 12th Plan could be: (i) reduce the gap in created and
utilized potential by 10 mha, (ii) create additional potential of 7.9 mha, (iii) improve

23
 current level of WUE from 30% to 36%, (iv) restore 2.2 mha of lost created potential
through ERM of MMI projects, (v) increase collection of water charges through WUAs
as recommended by 13th Finance commission, (vi) ensure volumetric water delivery
irrigation services to at least 1 mha, (vii) encourage volumetric water supply and
pricing through PIM, and (viii) foster partnership between irrigation agencies and
WUAs.
 In order to improve WUE of irrigated agriculture both structural and non-structural
measures should be undertaken.

 Structural measures include: (i) regular/periodic maintenance of canals by clearing

off weeds/vegetation, (ii) restoring all canal sections to their design standards, (iii)
repair of damaged lining in canal reaches in permeable strata and progressive
avoidance to further damage to the lining, (iv) lining of field and water courses
wherever high losses are observed, (v) repair/replacement of damaged
shutters/gates to avoid leakage, (vi) improving water control in distribution through
appropriate control structures, (vii) install water meters to ensure volumetric
supplies and (viii) rehabilitation and restoration of cross drainage and cross
masonry structures.
 Non-structural measures include: (i) involvement of farmers in irrigation system for
ensuring equitable distribution and efficient use of irrigation water, (ii) formulation
and empowerment of WUAs through capacity building and training, (iii) adopting
PIM practices, (iv) education through training of farmers on various issues relating
adaptation of best crop and on-farm practices, (v) ensuring agricultural extension
services within the command, (vi) appropriate pricing policy for irrigation water to
avoid wastage.

 Some other measures to improve WUE of irrigated agriculture need be adopted.

These include: (i) improving data/information system, (ii) encouraging and
popularizing water saving technologies like sprinkler/drip wherever feasible, (iii)
increased emphasis on development of CAD works.

c. Technical assistance to support the National Water Mission

61. The ADB funded this study31 in 2011 to identify specific interventions that would
assist in the implementation of the NWM. The report made a number of
recommendations related to measures to improve water use efficiency and utilization.

d. Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP).

62. The AIBP was launched in 1996-97 to complete MMI projects which were at an
advanced stage of completion which could relatively easily be completed and add to the
irrigation potential created. Progress with implementation of the AIBP has been slow,
with only 47% of the schemes taken up to date having been completed.

e. Command Area Development and Water Management (CAD&WM)

Programme

63. The Command Area Development program was initiated in 1974-75 in all States
and UTs with a view to (i) systematically improve land, water and crop management for
sustainable optimum agricultural production and productivity of irrigated commands of
MMI projects and to (ii) improve the socio-economic condition of farmers though the
integration of various activities related to irrigated agriculture.

31
ADB: TA7417-IND Support for the National Action Plan for Climate Change (S-NAPCC)

24
64. The objectives of the scheme were to be achieved through multi-disciplinary
teams under a Command Area Development Authority (CADA) responsible for not more
than 1 lakh ha of the irrigated command. Each CADA was to be headed by an
Administrative Officer to be assisted by technical officers deputed from various
departments in all allied disciplines. The intention was to fully develop each outlet
command with a package of 17 components, including full topographic and soil surveys,
adoption of appropriate cropping patterns, consolidation of landholdings, land leveling,
streamlining farm inputs, providing extension support based on sound research and
development. Over time, due to a number of factors, the program has slimmed down
such that it now focusses mainly on engineering aspects covering including survey,
design of on-farm works and field canals and drains, reclamation of waterlogged, saline
and alkaline soils and correction of canal deficiencies above the outlet. There are some
non-engineering activities, including adaptive trials and demonstration, training of
farmers and support for WUA establishment.

f. Artificial Groundwater Recharge Scheme

65. This scheme seeks to improve the ground water situation in some 1180 over-
exploited, critical and semi-critical blocks in seven states (Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh). Under the program it
is planned to artificially recharge over 4 million dug wells. The scheme is to be funded
through NABARD.

25
 III. MEASURES FOR ASSESSING AND IMPROVING WATER USE
EFFICIENCY ON MMI SCHEMES

A. What do we mean by the term “water use efficiency?”

66. An extensive review of the literature on water use efficiency has been carried out
and reported in the DSDAP report. This work, and some additional information, is
summarised in Annexure IV and the sections below.

67. As identified in the DSDAP study the terms “water use efficiency” in an economic
sense is commonly used when referring to productivity, which is an amount of any given
resource that must be expended (input) to produce one unit of goods or services (output)
(CEPIS, 1989). In engineering terms, however, efficiency more often relates to the
amount of output achieved per unit of input, such as with pump efficiency. In irrigation
terms efficiency is generally taken as the water delivered at a given point (output)
compared to the water abstracted at the water source (input). The ICID (Figure III.1)
take the definition of efficiency for irrigation systems a stage further and take into
consideration the fact that water “lost” from canal conveyance might be later be reused
when a farmer pumps from groundwater. In this context ICID argues that improving
irrigation efficiency needs to focus on increasing beneficial consumption and reducing
non-beneficial consumption and the non-recoverable fraction.

Figure III.1: ICID concept of water use efficiency

Source: Water conservation and irrigation web page, ICID, New Delhi (http://www.icid.org),

68. In the context of irrigated agriculture the term water use efficiency can also be
taken as relating to the productivity of the agricultural output, of which water is a part.
The main indicator of water use efficiency/productivity is thus the production (in
kilograms) of the agricultural produce per unit of water consumed, utilised or diverted. In
this context many other inputs (seed, fertilizer, labour, extension) come into play and
influence the efficiency with which the water contributes to agricultural production. As
agricultural production is the fundamental purpose of irrigation it is essential that the
influence of all factors which feed into the production process are considered.

69. Maximising the efficiency and productivity per unit of water diverted from a river
becomes particularly important when there are other uses or users of the river water.
Water saved or conserved in an irrigation scheme can be used to expand the irrigated
area in that scheme or can be diverted for use on another scheme. As expressed in a
study of water use efficiency in Australia:

26
 “The irrigation sector must be able to use the resources efficiently (with minimal losses
and deterioration of quality) and effectively (with maximum productive output). It is these
principles, efficiency and effectiveness, that are encompassed by the concept of water
use efficiency”. (Fairweather et al, 2003)

70. The complexity of analysing irrigation systems is usefully summarised by Small

and Svendsen (1992) in their IFPRI publication setting a framework for assessment of
irrigation and drainage schemes (Figure III.2). Using a systems approach they divided
irrigation into five inter-related systems– (i) irrigation and drainage systems,(ii) irrigated
agriculture system, (iii) agricultural economic system, (iv) rural economic system and (v)
politico-economic system. This framework identifies the inputs and outputs to each
system, and then moves on to identify performance indicators for each of these systems
thus facilitating assessment of the performance (including efficiencies) of each system. It
also facilitates assessment of performance across systems by considering inputs and
outputs across selected (contiguous) systems.
Figure III.2: Irrigation and drainage functions in the context of nested systems

6 POLITICO-ECONOMIC SYSTEM 6

5 5
RURAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM

4 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM 4

3 IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE SYSTEM 3

2 IRRIGATION and 2
DRAINAGE SYSTEM

1
Other inputs Other inputs

Inputs/outputs to each system

1 Operation of irrigation facilities 3 Agricultural production 5 Rural economic development

2 Supply of water to crops 4 Incomes in rural sector 6 National development

Source: Small and Svendsen, 1992

71. From the above discussion it is clear that there are several different perspectives
and performance measures for defining water use efficiency. The sections below seek
to identify a definition which suits the needs for the implementation of the NWM and 12th
FYP reform agendas on MMI schemes.

B. Commonly used definitions of WUE

72. Over the years there have been many definitions of water use efficiency applied
at a variety of levels in an irrigation system (Table III.1).

27
 Table III.1: Examples of water use efficiency terms developed by different
practitioners
Term Definition Units Level Referenced in
32
Overall Project Volume of water needed by crop % Scheme Israelsen, 1932 ; Bos
(Scheme) (Etp –Pe) and Nugteren, 1974;
Efficiency Bos, 1985; ICID, 1978
Volume of water diverted from
source
Irrigation system Volume of water received at field % Scheme Bos and Nugteren,
efficiency 1974; Bos,1985; ICID,
Volume of water diverted from 1978
source
Conveyance Total outflow from supply system % Main Bos and Nugteren,
Efficiency system 1974; Bos,1985
Total water inflow into the system
Distribution Water received at field inlets % On-farm Bos and Nugteren,
Efficiency 1974; Bos, 1985
Total outflow from supply system
Field Application Irrigation water available to the % Field/plot Bos and Nugteren,
Efficiency crop 1974; Bos, 1985
Water received at the field inlet
Distribution Average lower quartile infiltration % Field/plot Merriam and Keller,
Uniformity depth 1978
Average depth infiltrated
Water use Crop water demand % Field/plot Merriam et al., 1983;
efficiency Merriam and Keller,
Total water supply 1978
Seepage loss ratio Average seepage rate - All levels Bos et al.,1993, 1994
of canal
Target seepage rate
3
Specific Total crop production Kg/m Scheme ICID,1978; Mao Zhi,
Yield/Water Use 1989, amongst others
Efficiency Total volume of water supplied
3
Relative Potential crop production Kg/m Scheme Abernathy, 1986; Mao
Productivity of Zhi, 1989; amongst
Water Total volume of water supplied others
Crop Water Use Crop yield Kg/mm Field/plot Fairweather et al.,
Index (WUI) 2003; Molden et al,
Evapotranspiration 1998
3
Irrigation Water Crop yield Kg/m Field/plot Fairweather et al.,
Use Index 2003; Molden et al,
Irrigation water applied 1998
3
Crop Economic Crop gross return $/m Field/plot Fairweather et al.,
WUI 2003; Molden et al,
Evapotranspiration 1998
3
Gross Production Crop gross return $/m Field/plot Fairweather et al.,
Economic WUI 2003; Molden et al,
Total water applied 1998
3
Irrigation Economic Crop gross return $/m Field/plot Fairweather et al.,
WUI 2003; Molden et al,
Irrigation water delivered to the 1998
field

73. The Comprehensive Mission Document of the National Water Mission makes the
following statement in relation to improving water use efficiency:

The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development

(NCIWRDM-1999) observed that 35-40 percent in surface water irrigation and 65-

32
Israelsen defined irrigation efficiency as “the ratio of irrigation water transpired by the crops of
an irrigation farm or project during their growth period to the water diverted from a river or other
natural source into the farm or project canal or canals during the same period of time.”

28
 70 per cent efficiencies in ground water irrigation have been achieved. The
proposed National Water Mission aims at increasing these efficiencies by 20
percent. (p. V/10, Volume II, NWM, 2011)

74. Barrett, Purcell and Associates (1999) point out that the relationship between
water (as an input) and crop (as an output), often expressed in terms of kg/m 3, is in fact
an index rather than an efficiency. They describe efficiency as a dimensionless term
obtained by dividing the figures with the same units, i.e. volume of water consumed
divided by volume of water supplied. They note that the application of the term “water
use efficiency” to terms relating agricultural production to water used has caused great
confusion amongst irrigation practitioners. To reduce the confusion over terminology
they state that:

“the term ‘Water Use Efficiency’ should be restricted to a generic label for any
performance indicators used to study water use in crop production. This label,
Water Use Efficiency, need not be defined but should be considered like a label
on a toolbox. Inside the toolbox are many specific performance indicators that
should be referred to as Water Use Indices. Any water use index (within this
toolbox) should be clearly defined with specific units when used.”

C. Proposed definition of water use efficiency

75. It is proposed that the following definition is used to describe the water use
efficiency improvement measures that are being looked for by the NWM and the 12th
Five Year Plan for MMI schemes:

“For the purposes of achieving the 12th Five Year Plan and National Water
Mission Goal IV of increasing water use efficiency by 20 percent, water use
efficiency for MMI schemes relates to the efficiency of delivering water from the
intake of the irrigation system to the crop root zone for the purpose of beneficial
crop evapotranspiration, taking account of any use or reuse of seepage or other
conveyance, distribution or application losses as conventionally describe that
might subsequently be used by farmers within the boundaries of the irrigation
scheme.
The term thus relates to the fraction of irrigation water used for productive crop
evapotranspiration within the boundaries of the scheme compared to the total
volume of water diverted at the intake to the irrigation system.
For the purpose of clarification the use or reuse of conveyance, distribution or
conveyance losses may relate to pumping from groundwater, direct use of
seepage water, or other form of beneficial reuse within the boundaries of the
scheme.
The improvement of the water use efficiency shall be measured against a
baseline determined from a standardised survey of scheme performance, and
subsequent seasonal and annual measurements as set out in the baseline survey
protocol and report”

D. Framework for analysis

1. Overview

76. The proposed framework for analysis of measures to improve water use efficiency
on MMI schemes is set out in Figure III.3 below. The process follows a relatively
standard pathway of problem definition, identification and implementation of
feasible solutions. The steps include:

29
(i) Defining the problem. The first step is the need to be clear about the nature of the
problem, and to define it clearly. This is not always as straightforward as it might
appear as the problem may look different to different people. This is particularly
the case in irrigated agriculture where there are different disciplines involved and
many different levels at which the problem (and potential solutions) might be
experienced. As well as defining the problem it is also necessary to be clear about
what the desired outcome will be if the problem is addressed.
(ii) Setting the boundaries. It is important to set the boundaries of the analysis. The
boundaries can extend into several dimensions, not only spatial or temporal. In the
case of MMI schemes in the spatial context it is necessary to decide if the
boundary lies at the main system level, the hydraulic network level, the scheme
level or the basin level. In other dimensions it is necessary to decide whether to
extend the analysis to consider policy, institutions, etc.
(iii) Identifying core processes. Having set the boundaries it is then necessary to
identify the core processes which are involved in the problem and within which
feasible solutions can be identified and implemented.
(iv) Identifying key indicators. For each part of the core processes performance
indicators can be identified to enable the scale and location of the problem to be
identified.
(v) Collecting and processing data. Selection and specification of the key indicators
will determine the data that are required to analyse the problem.
(vi) Analysing the problem. Using the data collected the problem can be analysed.
(vii) Identification of feasible solutions. The analysis will identify a number of factors
which are contributing to the problem, for which solutions can be proposed.
However not all solutions will be feasible, so a judgement has to be made on which
solutions to proceed with.
(viii) Implementation of identified solutions. Following identification of the issues and
feasible solutions an action plan needs to be prepared and implemented.
(ix) Monitor and evaluate implementation and outcomes. Following implementation
the performance indicators can be used to monitor and evaluate progress with the
implementation programme and the resultant outcomes.

2. Defining the problem

“India faces a major crisis of water as we move into the 21st century. This crisis
threatens the basic right to drinking water of our citizens; it also puts the
livelihoods of millions at risk. The demands of a rapidly industrialising economy
and urbanising society come at a time when the potential for augmenting supply
is limited, water tables are falling and water quality issues have increasingly come
to the fore.” Mihir Shah, Member for Water, Planning Commission, Government
of India.33

77. The above statement aptly sums up the problem, many river basins and sub-
basins in India are short of water, some of them desperately so, and increased measures
need to be taken to make better use of available supplies. In addition, there are

33 th
Taken from a Special Article in the Economic and Political Weekly, Volume XLVIII No.3, 19
January, 2013

30
increasing concerns about the impact of climate change on available water resources, a
concern that has led to the establishment of the National Water Mission.

78. In order to conserve water the National Water Mission and the 12th Five Year
Plan have set a target of increasing water use efficiency on irrigation schemes by 20
percent34.

Figure III.3: Proposed framework to identify measures to improve performance and

water use efficiency on MMI schemes

3. Setting the boundaries

79. This study is restricted to looking at measures to improve water use efficiency in
MMI schemes. Within this context five levels of analysis can be defined: (i) basin; (ii)
main system; (iii) on-farm system; (iv) field and (v) aquifer. Consideration of the basin is
important in that it influences the surface water supply available to the scheme, whilst the
aquifer is important as it receives water originating as losses from the main, on-farm and
field levels. In relation to other dimensions the analysis needs to consider additional
factors than just the physical and technical, and thus must look at institutional, social and
economic factors which might influence water use efficiency.

80. Further boundaries that might need to be considered are those formed by the
different perspectives of the various disciplines engaged in irrigated agricultural (Table
III.2).

34
The NWM also extends this target into other sectors

31
 Table III.2: Perspectives of irrigation performance by different stakeholders

Discipline Main area(s) of Performance measures

interest (system)
Irrigation and Irrigation and  Volume of water diverted to water delivered at
drainage engineer drainage system outlet
 Timing and quantity of water delivered
 Condition of infrastructure
 Cost of delivery (financial and other resources)
Irrigation Irrigated agricultural  Crop production
agronomist system  Soil condition
 Crop marketing
Agricultural Agricultural economic  Economic and financial value of crop production
economist system  Crop budgets
 Farm budgets
 Farmer livelihoods
Economist Rural economic  Economic and financial value of rural production
system systems
 Economic development
 Community livelihoods and rural poverty
Political scientist/ Politico-economic  Employment
Sociologist system  Livelihoods and rural poverty
 Social welfare
 Community participation/engagement
Farmer All systems  Agricultural production (for subsistence or cash)
 Livelihood
 Crop and farm budgets
 Market opportunities
 Sustainability and security of farming system

4. Identifying core processes

81. There are a number of ways to “cut the cake” in terms of identifying core
processes affecting water use efficiency on MMI schemes (Figure III.4) depending on
whether the irrigation scheme is seen as a physical, technical, social, economic,
institutional or political system. Taking the core processes to be those related to the
diversion, conveyance, application and use of irrigation water, then each part of this total
process may be affected by cross cutting physical, technical, economic, social,
institutional or political factors. The physical terrain and type of soil will affect the
decisions on whether to line a canal, or the method of irrigation application. Political
intervention might in some cases adversely affect water distribution on a scheme, or it
might be necessary and highly beneficial in supporting change and setting policies for
the sector. It is essential that these cross cutting factors are identified, it may be, for
example, that political or economic factors have a greater influence on farmer behaviour
and scheme performance than technical factors.

82. Overlying these core processes and cross-cutting factors, in a third dimension,
are the various organisations involved, each with different functions and responsibilities,
cultures and management processes which will clearly have a significant part to play in
how the scheme performs.

32
 Figure III.4: Identifying core processes by discipline
Cross cutting factors
Physical Technical Economic Social Institutional Political
Storage     
Diversion     
Core processes

Conveyance    
Distribution      
Application      
Groundwater
     
reuse
Agricultural
    
production
Drainage    
 - Areas where cross-cutting factors might influence scheme performance

83. Small and Svendsen’s (1992) nested systems framework referred to in Section III
(figure III.1). A follows a similar philosophy and sets the irrigation scheme and irrigated
agricultural production in its wider context. A more focussed approach to identifying the
core processes was developed by Fairweather et al. (2003) based on work by Barrett,
Purcell and Associates (1999) follows the water pathway from the source to the crop root
zone (Figure III.5.) This approach focusses on the key processes involved in delivering
irrigation water from the water source to the crop root zone, together with the
performance indicators used to measure water use at the different stages. This
framework very usefully identifies and defines the water delivery process and the
associated performance indicators. What the framework does not appear to show is the
water that is lost (from the canal network or from the irrigated fields) and is then reused
by pumping from groundwater. This feature is a key factor in many India irrigation
schemes.

84. There is considerable logic to adopting a form of analysis which focusses on the
water pathway (the route taken by any individual drop of water) – it is straightforward to
comprehend and follow, one can use it as a framework to look at factors which influence
each part of the water pathway, and it divides down easily into management
responsibilities and professional structures.

85. Following this logic the following core processes have been identified in relation
to improving water use efficiency and productivity on MMI schemes:

 Storage
 Diversion
 Conveyance
 Distribution
 Application
 Rainwater
 Groundwater
 Crop production
 Drainage

86. Taking these as the core processes one is then able to analyse the factors which
influence or control these processes, as well as identify indicators which can assess their
performance (Figure III.6). These core processes make a central contribution to the
scheme objectives of agricultural production, poverty alleviation and farmer livelihoods.

33
 Figure III.5: Framework for defining water use efficiency (Fairweather et al, 2003,
adapted from Barrett, Purcell and Associates, 1999)

87. There is a growing awareness of the central role played by groundwater in MMI
schemes and the need for conjunctive use of surface and ground water to achieve
optimum levels of agricultural production. There are some (Shah, 2009) who advocate
strongly for the need to allow seepage losses from canals in order that they can recharge
groundwater resources.

88. Figure III.7 shows the link between the water resources available to a farmer in
an MMI irrigation scheme, which comprise rainfall, surface water supplies and pumped
supplies from groundwater. Depending on the hydrogeology losses from the surface
water system will recharge the groundwater, and, if not impaired by the groundwater
quality, will be re-used by farmers, either within or outside the MMI command area. Who

34
uses groundwater, when, its quality and where it comes from are key questions which ID
systems managers are often not asking and which they are generally not able to answer
due to a lack of enquiry, data and resources for data collection, processing and analysis.
Sorting out the surface water-groundwater nexus is one of the biggest issues in
improving WUE on MMI schemes.

Figure III.6: Component parts of core processes

Source: Authors

89. The relative quantities of water being lost at the different levels need to be looked
at carefully. The largest volume of water being lost is usually at the field level where the
wetted surface area is high and percolation below the root zone is also high. This is
particularly the case where rice is grown with ponded water. The next largest volume of
water lost is at the on-farm level, where water is distributed field-to-field or through field
channels. The management losses are high at this level, as are the seepage losses as
the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter is low35. Relative to these losses the seepage
losses in the main canal network are relatively small, but the management losses can be
high if the irrigation scheduling or the level of control and management is poor.

90. A further issue that is often missed in the discussion on water use efficiency is the
generally poor use made of rainfall on MMI schemes. Inadequate scheduling
procedures means that rainfall in the command area is not taken into account when
releasing water into the irrigation system, resulting in farmers who have received
adequate water supplies from rainfall diverting irrigation water into drains. This has two
serious consequences: (i) for reservoir supplied systems water is discharged to the

35
The lower the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter the higher the relative losses from the
channel.

35
system which could have been conserved for use at a later (drier) period36, and (ii) from
run-of-the-river systems unnecessary silt load is carried into the system, resulting in
additional maintenance need and cost.

Figure III.7: Linkage between different water sources in an irrigation system

Source: Authors

91. In addition to improving the scheduling, considerable savings in irrigation water

demand can be obtained by developing and encouraging water harvesting practices
during the Kharif season. Figure III.8 presents the irrigation scheduling requirement at
the plot level if the depth at which water spills out of the bund is 120 mm37. In this case 4
irrigations are required, with the interval between irrigations decreasing in September
and October as the rainfall decreases. With a total estimated 1090 mm irrigation demand
during the season rainfall contributes 690 mm out of the total rainfall of 844 mm,
representing an effectiveness of 82 percent. If the spill height is increased to 150 mm
only 3 irrigations are required and the rainfall effectiveness rises to 94 percent (790 mm
used out of a total of 844 mm). As this scheme has a reservoir the saved irrigation can
then be used in the Rabi season.

92. The benefits of keeping water levels relatively low in rice plots in order to store
rainfall can be seen in Figure III.9 where the available storage capacity varies from 10 to
40 mm. With 40 mm available storage capacity during August 377 mm out of 451 mm
rainfall (83%) is effective, whilst with 20 mm and 10 mm storage capacity the figures are
262 mm (58%) and 160 mm (35%) respectively.

5. Identifying key indicators

93. Having identified the core processes the performance indicators for each part of
the process can be identified. These indicators are used to quantify the performance of
individual processes as well as the scheme overall, and are used in the analysis to
identify key areas which need addressing. Once feasible solutions are identified these

36
This is particularly important and economically valuable if water can be conserved in Kharif for
use in the Rabi season.
37
Information taken from the World Bank funded Orissa Community Tank Management Project
(OCTMP, 2011).

36
performance indicators are then used to monitor progress with implementation, and can
be measured against the initial (baseline) data to assess the degree of improvement.

Figure III.8: Example of scheduling irrigation water for paddy during Kharif season
in Odisha

Paddy field water level profile for 120 mm spill height

Kharif season, Orissa, July-October, 2006
180 120

160
100
140
Water level/depth (mm)

120 80

Rainfall (mm)
100
60
80

60 40

40
20
20

0 0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29
July August September October

Irrigation Rainfall Crop water demand Water balance Spill

Source: Authors

Figure III.9: Example of volumes of rainwater utilised in Kharif for different storage
capacities

Plot of cumulative rainfall stored for different available storage capacities

August 2006
500 120
450 450.6
Cumulative rainfall stored on field (mm)

100
400
377.4
350
Daily rainfall (mm)

80
300
262.2
250 60
200
159.6 40
150
100
20
50
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
August
Daily rainfall Cum. daily rainfall Storage <10 mm Storage <20 mm Storage <40 mm

Source: Authors

37
94. Bos et al (2005) provide a
useful framework for linking and
clarify the terms performance
criteria, objectives, performance
indicators and targets (Box III.1).
A distinction needs to be made
between output and outcome
indicators and process indicators.
Process indicators will measure
the process of water allocation,
distribution and use, whilst output
and outcome indicators will
measure the output and
outcomes resulting from the
processes. Thus the key steps
for performance assessment are:
Box III.1: Framework for linking common
performance related terms
i) Objectives are made up of criteria:
a. "To maximise agricultural production"
b. "To ensure equity of water supply to all farmers"
c. "To optimise the efficiency of water distribution”
ii) Criteria can be measured using performance indicators
iii) Defining performance indicators identifies data
requirements
iv) Data can then be collected, processed and analysed
v) If target, standard, reference or benchmark values of
performance indicators are set or known then performance
can be assessed
Source: Bos et al, 2005

(i) Identify and quantify the outputs and outcomes

(ii) Identify and quantify the performance of the core processes
Identify which core processes can/need to be improved to achieve target values of
outputs and outcomes.
95. In the case of this study the desired outcome is an improvement by 20 percent in
the efficiency of irrigation water, which means either that:

(i) 20 percent less water is lost in conveying water from the source to the crop root
zone; or
(ii) 20 percent less water is used for irrigation of the same cropped area; or
(iii) 20 percent less water is used for the same levels of agricultural production; or
(iv) A 20 percent increase in irrigated area is achieved from the same amount of diverted
water; or
(v) A 20 percent increase in total crop production is achieved from the same amount of
diverted water.

96. The first outcome is relatively straightforward, and relates to measuring the total
flow entering the irrigation system and comparing it with the volume stored in the crop
root zone. The other measures relate to how the water is used relative to agricultural
production, and the benefits achieved from such use.

97. The NWM Comprehensive Mission Document gives some mixed messages on
the issue. Whilst it states that there is a need to increase water use efficiency by 20%, it
also advocates a policy of “more crop per drop”. It is also not clear if the 20 percent
conserved water is to be used elsewhere in the river basin (i.e. supplies to the scheme
are cut by 20 percent as a result of the water saving measures) or if the saved water is to
be used to increase the irrigated area and crop production on the scheme itself.

98. Table III.3 and Figure III.10 shows an example of the argument. In this case a low
Overall Scheme Efficiency (OSE) of 35 percent means that only 20,000 ha are irrigated.
If WUE improvements are made and the OSE increases to 45 percent and then 60
percent and the crop water demand continues to be matched at the field level, then the
irrigated area increases to 28,714 ha with an OSE of 45 percent and then 34,286 ha with
and OSE of 60 percent. Though the gross income per unit area might remain the same
in all cases, more area is cropped and thus more farmers are benefitted, plus the total
production for the scheme increases by a third from 66,800 tonnes to 85,886 tonnes. If,

38
due to the water efficiencies made, the total supply to the scheme is reduced by 20
percent then the irrigated area and production is still increased from the baseline to
27,429 ha and 91,611 tonnes respectively.

99. It is worth noting that the productivity per unit of (diverted) water is closely linked
to the water use efficiency. As the scheme water use efficiency rises from 35 to 60
percent the gross income per unit of water diverted increases by 70 percent from Rs
9.02/m3 to Rs 15.46/m3. Thus if the water use efficiency is improved de facto the
productivity of water is improved.

Table III.3: Example of measures for water saving and possible impacts

Data Indicators
Crop Water Scheme Irrigated Total crop Irrigation Crop Production Gross Gross
supply water use area production water water per unit income income
No. Scenario Measures at efficiency (ha) (t) supply demand water per unit per unit
intake (%) (scheme) area water
(MCM) diverted
(MCM) (%) (ha) (t) (m3/ha) (m3/ha) (kg/m 3) (Rs/ha) (Rs/m3)
Unlined canals;
1 Base condition Wheat 100 35% 20,000 66,800 5000 1750 1.9 45,090 9.02
border irrigation

Same water supply,

Wholly lined canal;
2 more efficient use - Wheat 100 45% 25,714 85,886 3889 1750 1.9 45,090 11.59
border irrigation
Main Canal only
Same water supply,
Wholly lined canal;
more efficient use -
3 drip and trickle Wheat 100 60% 34,286 114,514 2917 1750 1.9 45,090 15.46
Main Canal + On-
irrigation
farm
Reduced water Wholly lined canal;
4 supply, more drip and trickle Wheat 80 60% 27,429 91,611 2917 1750 1.9 45,090 15.46
efficient use irrigation

Source: Calculations based on data from adaptive research trials for the Madhya Pradesh Water Sector
Restructuring Project (JNKVV, 2012)

Figure III.10: Example of improving crop production with increased WUE

Source: Authors

100. As noted in Box III.1 the performance of the core processes can be assessed
through process indicators. Figure III.11 shows the how the core processes, their
indicators and outputs can be measured to achieve the desired scheme objectives.

39
 Figure III.11: Linking core processes to performance indicators, process outputs
and scheme objectives

Source: Authors

101. The key indicators identified for assessing scheme performance related to water
use efficiency for each of the core processes are detailed in Table III.4. These indicators
show a mix of output/outcome indicators and process indicators. The output indicators
are used to assess the performance of the scheme overall, and will allow the scheme to
be benchmarked against other similar schemes. The process indicators allow the
deeper analysis of scheme performance through diagnostic analysis, and facilitate the
location of problem areas. The process indicators can also be benchmarked against
those in similar schemes.

102. As has been seen from the example given in Table III.3 above the processing
and analysis of the output/outcome indicators allows senior management the opportunity
to (a) understand how each scheme is performing against set targets or norms, and (b)
initiate corrective action where performance is poor or inadequate.

103. Note that the indicators listed in Table III.4 are predominantly for the purposes of
assessing performance related to improving water use efficiency; there are additional
indicators if more general performance assessment is required.

Table III.4: Key indicators identified for the scheme and its core processes

Process/Indicator Definition Remarks/Reference

Scheme overall (output indicators)
Seasonal Water Volume stored in reservoir at start of irrigation This indicator is used to determine
Storage (m3) season the area that can be irrigated in the
coming crop season. Used in
Madhya Pradesh at the start of the

40
Process/Indicator Definition Remarks/Reference
Rabi cropping season in mid-
September to set targets for the
irrigated area (on the basis of 1 MCM
stored water supplying 180 ha)
Seasonal Irrigated Seasonal irrigated area – Kharif This indicator is linked to the water
Area (ha) Seasonal irrigation area – Rabi supply available at the scheme
Seasonal irrigated area - Dry intake, and in Kharif to the rainfall.
The indicator should be compiled
from the irrigated area of each crop
type.
Annual Irrigated Area Annual irrigated area This indicator is linked to the water
(ha) supply available at the scheme
intake and is compiled from the
seasonal irrigated area data.
Seasonal/Annual Seasonal/annual area irrigated This is a key indicator which
Cropping Intensity Design irrigated area measures the proportion of the total
(%) command area cropped each season
and during the year
Total annual volume Total annual volume of inflow to scheme Annual flows into schemes may vary
of inflow to scheme each year due to the climatic
(m3) conditions. This indicator needs to be
monitored each year and used as a
base indicator to monitor with other
indicators.
Total annual value of (i) Total annual value of crop production at Facilitates the monitoring of the
production (Rs) baseline prices economic value of the scheme. The
(ii) Total annual value of crop production at current indicator is determined for two
market prices conditions, (i) using baseline prices
for comparison between years and
schemes, and (ii) using current
prices to measure actual production
values.
Average Total seasonal/ annual volume of inflow to Measures the seasonal/annual inflow
seasonal/annual scheme against a fixed base, the CCA.
volume of supply per Cultivable command area (CCA) Useful for comparison between years
unit command area as the CCA is fixed.
(m3/ha)
Average Total seasonal/ annual volume of inflow to Measures the seasonal/annual inflow
seasonal/annual scheme against the irrigated area. Useful for
volume of supply per Seasonal/annual irrigated area measuring the average depth applied
unit irrigated area to the cropped area.
(m3/ha)
Total annual average (i) Total annual average value of crop production Facilitates the monitoring of the
value of production per unit area at baseline prices economic value of the scheme and
per unit area (Rs/ha) (ii) Total annual average value of crop production comparison with other schemes on a
per unit area at current market prices per hectare basis. The indicator is
determined for two conditions, as
noted above.
Scheme overall (process indicators)
Overall Project Etp - Pe Israelson,1932; Bos and Nugteren,
(Scheme) Efficiency/ Volume of water supplied to the scheme 1974; Bos et al, 2005
Overall Consumed
Ratio
Depleted Fraction Actual crop evapotranspiration (ETa) Relates the actual evapotranspiration
Total rainfall and surface water inflows to scheme to the sum of the rainfall and surface
(Pe + Vc) water inflows to the scheme (Figure
III.12)
Molden, 1998; Molden and
Sakthivadivel, 1999; Bos et al, 2005.
Irrigation System Volume of water received in crop root zone Bos and Nugteren, 1974, 1985; ICID,
Efficiency (%)

41
Process/Indicator Definition Remarks/Reference

Volume of water diverted from source 1978

Storage
Reservoir Efficiency Total inflow to the reservoir DSDAP, 2012
Total outflow from the reservoir
Annual Reservoir Annual maximum volume filled DSDAP, 2012
Filling Efficiency Design maximum volume
Diversion
Discharge Capacity Actual discharge capacity of headwork Bos et al, 2005; DSDAP, 2012
Ratio Design discharge capacity of headwork
Conveyance
Conveyance Total outflow from supply system Bos et al, 2005; Bos and Nugteren,
Efficiency Total water inflow into the system 1974; ICID, 1985
Discharge Capacity Actual discharge capacity Bos et al, 2005.
Ratio Design discharge capacity
Distribution
Distribution Water received at field inlets Bos et al, 2005; Bos and Nugteren,
Efficiency Total outflow from supply system 1974; ICID, 1985
Delivery Actual flow of water (at control point) Measures operational performance,
Performance Ratio Intended (or planned) flow of water relatively simple to determine. Can
be applied to continuous or rotated
supply systems. Murray-Rust and
Snellen, 1993; Bos et al, 2005
Discharge Capacity Actual discharge capacity Bos et al, 2005.
Ratio Design discharge capacity
Application
Application Efficiency Irrigation water available to the crop (Etp- Re) Bos and Nugteren, 1974; ICID, 1985;
Water received at the field inlet Bos et al, 2005
Groundwater
Depth to Depth to groundwater Bos et al. 2005
Groundwater
Agricultural production and marketing
Productivity of Total crop production Bos et al. 2005
water per unit water Total water consumed by crop (ETa)
consumed (kg/m3)
Productivity of Total crop production Bos et al. 2005
water per unit water Total water diverted at source
diverted (kg/m3)
Drainage
Drainage affected Total irrigable area affected by waterlogging and Measures the percentage of the
area ratio (%) salinity productive area affected by drainage
Total cultivable command area problems
Source: Authors

104. A suitable overall indicator for the determination of the WUE which takes account
of the total water balance on the scheme is the ‘depleted fraction’ (Figure III.12).

105. Some values for the common conveyance, distribution, application and overall
scheme indicators for Indian surface irrigation systems are presented in Table III.5 below
from the IWRS Theme Paper on “Efficiency of Water Resources” (IWRS, 2004).

42
 Figure III.12: Definition of depleted fraction

Source: Molden, 1997; Bos et al, 2005

Table III.5: Water use efficiencies in Indian irrigation systems (IWRS, 2004)
Efficiency Observed irrigation efficiencies on selected schemes (%)
1. Conveyance efficiency Nazare Manyad Nirguna Asola Kalote Mokashi
Mendha
a) Main canal 92 84 85 94 86
b) Distributary/Minor 79 83 75 75 89
c) Field channel 68 64 72 No channel 67
Overall conveyance 49 44 46 70 51
efficiency (Ec)
2. Field application 77 69 83 58 59 – Paddy
efficiency (Ea) 52 - Groundnut
3. Project efficiency (Ep) 38 31 38 41 30

106. An issue with the assessment of performance of any irrigation scheme is the
annual variability in the climatic conditions. In general the annual evapotranspiration
rates do not vary much from year to year, but there are often marked variations in the
quantity and timing of rainfall. This variability in the annual rainfall pattern makes
comparison of performance between years difficult, it is often necessary to look for
trends rather than make specific comparisons of one year with another.

107. This is clearly seen in the case of the Nizam Sagar Scheme in Andhra Pradesh
where there is wide variability in the annual rainfall, the volume stored in the reservoir,
the water released and the area irrigated (Figures III.13, III.14). This variation will, in
turn, have an impact on crop yields and total production.

43
 Figure III.13: Annual rainfall, reservoir storage and releases,
Nizam Sagar Scheme, 1995-2006

Source: Authors

Figure III.14: Seasonal and total cropped areas compared to Cultivable Command
area, Nizam Sagar Scheme, 1995-2006

Source: Authors

6. Data collection

108. Following the identification of the indicators the data can be collected. In some
cases when looking at the number of indicators the amount of data can appear to be
quite daunting, but as some data is used for several indicators the actual data needs are
less (Table III.6).

44
 Table III.6: Linking performance indicators to data collection
Indicator

Output per unit

Output per unit

supply (Rs/m )
cropped area

3
Performance
intensity (%)

Productivity
Consumed
Crop yield
Cropping

Irrigation
Delivery

(Rs/ha)
(kg/m )
Overall
(kg/ha)

Water
3
Ratio

Ratio
Data required Units

Irrigable area ha 
Crop production kg    
Actual cropped area ha   
Crop yield kg/ha 
Crop water demand mm 
Rainfall mm 
3
Actual discharge m /s    
Actual duration of flow hrs    
3
Intended discharge m /s 
Intended duration of flow hrs 
Crop market price Rs/kg  
Source: Burton, 2010

7. Analysis of the problem

a. Overview

109. Analysis of the problem will show a number of potential causes, but these are
initially unstructured (Figure III.15). Analysis of the problem enables the issues to be
grouped and structured (Figure III.16)38.

110. It is in relation to this structuring of the problems that the study produced a
typology which grouped the issues occurring on MMI schemes with the intention that a
package of actions might be proposed for each category of MMI scheme. This typology
is discussed in a later section.

b. DSDAP study analysis

111. The CWC carried out WUE studies for 30 MMI schemes which were analysed
and reviewed by the DSDAP team. These studies were not carried out according to the
framework provided herein but do provide insights (Table III.7) into the issues that are
being faced on MMI schemes. The assessment concluded that:

(i) Nearly all the schemes are integrated in nature, with functions other that for
irrigation;
(ii) The current hydrological pattern of supply to the schemes varies from the original
design conditions;
(iii) There are concerns over dam safety due to lack of adequate maintenance;

38
This is the “problem tree” as used in project preparation using the logical framework approach
(European Commission, 2004)

45
 Figure III.15: Unstructured problem analysis

Source: Authors

Figure III.16: Structured problem analysis

Source: Authors

(iv) Excessive siltation of reservoirs has reduced their capacity and ability to supply the
required volumes of water;
(v) Many of the medium and low storage volume reservoirs have a large surface area
relative to their depth, resulting in high seepage and evaporation losses;

46
(vi) In many cases the irrigation system is not able to supply the intended demands.
This is due to a number of reasons, including non-availability of flows, inadequate
capacity at the head-works, excessive losses (including unauthorized
abstractions), inadequate capacity of canals, inadequate operating practices;
(vii) In many cases there are problems with cross drainage – either due to the
inadequate provision of cross-drainage infrastructure, or damaged or broken
infrastructure;
(viii) Control and regulation of irrigation flows is hampered by a lack of functioning
control structures, including cross and head regulators;
(ix) Discharge measurement is limited;
(x) Implementation of participatory irrigation management is often limited or non-
existent;
(xi) Rotation of water supplies or Warabandi is mainly limited to Punjab and Haryana,
though Andhra Pradesh is re-introducing such practices;
(xii) Actual cropping patterns vary from the design cropping patterns, resulting in a
number of issues. These include head-enders growing more water intensive crops
(than designed) resulting in inadequate availability at the tail-ends of schemes,
and irrigation schedules based on design cropping patterns which fail to match
actual needs;
(xiii) Irrigation from groundwater, ponds and tanks co-exists with the surface water
irrigation system, and forms an important part of the farmers decision-making on
which crops to grow;
(xiv) In some cases where water scarcity exists scheme authorities have proposed
diversification away from paddy to irrigated dry crops without assessing the impact
on farmers’ livelihood;
(xv) In the projects studied drainage is not a concern.

112. As a result of analysis of these case studies, and other reports the DSDAP study
concluded that there were six core areas requiring priority attention for improving water
use efficiency. These were:

Domain Required action

Storage Consistent and continuous efforts are required to improve the performance of
storage facilities in order to enhance the availability of supplies to the irrigation
schemes
Conveyance Improvements are required in the design and the management of the
conveyance systems
On-farm application On-farm and field irrigation practices need to be improved in order to increase
crop production and water use efficiency
Participatory efforts Beneficiaries need to play an increasing role in the management of the I&D
systems
Crop management A variety of actions are required to improve WUE, including crop
diversification, low water use crops, better farm management, micro-irrigation
systems and provision of quality inputs
Research and development Further R&D is required into water auditing, scheme monitoring and
(R&D) evaluation and benchmarking

113. These domains largely coincide with the core processes set out in the proposed
framework, with the participatory efforts and R&D being cross-cutting themes which
influence the core processes.

114. In the CWC summary report (CWC, 2010) the results of the studies for each
scheme are summarised and an overall summary provided of the common reasons for
low water use efficiency and common recommendations for improvement (Table III.7).

47
 Table III.7: Common reasons and recommendations for low WUE from studies of
30 irrigation systems (CWC, 2010)
Common reasons for low WUE Common recommendations for improvement of WUE
 Damaged structures  Rehabilitation and restoration of damaged/silted canal
 Silting in the canal system system
 Poor maintenance  Proper and timely maintenance of the system
 Weed growth in the canal system  Selective lining of the canal and distribution system
 Seepage in the system  Realistic and scientific system operation
 Over-irrigation  Revision of cropping pattern, if needed
 Illiterate farmers  Restoration/provision of appropriate control structures
 Changing the cropping pattern  Efficient and reliable communication system
 Reliable and accurate water measuring system
 Conjunctive use of ground and surface water
 Regular revision of water rate
 Encouragement for formation of Water Users’ Association
 Training to farmers
 Micro-credit facilities
 Agricultural extension services
 Encouragement to farmers for raising livestock

115. There are some issues with the CWC study in that it concentrated on measuring
the traditional performance indicators – conveyance efficiency, distribution efficiency,
application efficiency and drainage efficiency, and did not make use of more recent
approaches to measurement of water use efficiency, particularly the use of remote
sensing. In addition the studies did not make any assessment of the quantity of seepage
or percolation losses that might subsequently have been reused by farmers, in particular
from groundwater.

116. The summary report does not provide any information or data on any mass
balances carried out on the schemes (measurement of total seasonal/annual volume of
inflow compared to estimated irrigation water requirements from actual irrigated area).
Such analysis might give a more comprehensive, quicker and cheaper overview of the
water use efficiency than the very detailed samples taken of conveyance, distribution
and application efficiency.

c. FAO MASSCOTE approach to rapid appraisal of I&D

schemes

117. A relatively well used approach to analysing system performance has been
developed by the Land and Water Division of FAO called MASSCOTE (Mapping System
and Services for Canal Operation Techniques). The process integrates tools including
rapid appraisal process (RAP) and benchmarking to provide a detailed assessment of
issues influencing the management, operation and maintenance of I&D schemes. FAO
(2008) describe MASSCOTE as:

“A methodology aiming at the evaluation of current processes and performance of

irrigation systems and the development of a project for modernization of canal
operation”.

118. The process looks at the service to users, the cost of providing these services,
system performance, constraints on the water resources and constraints of the physical
system. The “11 steps” of the MASSCOTE approach are summarised in Table III.8.

48
119. The process makes use of Box III.2: Description of the FAO RAP process
the rapid appraisal procedures
(RAP) developed by Burt and Styles The Rapid Appraisal Process (RAP) for irrigation projects is a 1-
2 week process of collection and analysis of data both in the
(1999; Box III.2) for assessing the office and in the field. The process examines external inputs
opportunities for, and impact of, such as water supplies, and outputs such as water destinations
modernization of irrigation systems. (ET, surface runoff, etc.). It provides a systematic examination
The RAP built on the World Bank of the hardware and processes used to convey and distribute
Technical Paper No.246 – Modern water internally to all levels within the project (from the source to
the fields). External indicators and internal indicators are
Water Control in Irrigation developed to provide (i) a baseline of information for comparison
(Plusquellec et al, 1994), and was against future performance after modernization, (ii)
applied to 16 irrigation schemes in benchmarking for comparison against other irrigation projects,
10 countries. The RAP was centred and (iii) a basis for making specific recommendations for
modernization and improvement of water delivery service.
around a questionnaire which
comprised around 580
questions/data entry points ranging from general questions on soil type to detailed
questions related to the physical infrastructure and operational procedures. The
questionnaire sought to identify the constraints and factors influencing service quality
and assess the level of service provided and the results achieved.

Table III.8: MASSCOTE 11 steps (FAO, 2008)

Step Description
Phase A – Gathering baseline information
1. Assessing system Initial rapid system diagnosis and performance assessment through the RAP.
performance (RAP) The primary objective of the RAP is to allow qualified personnel to determine
systematically and quickly key indicators of the system in order to identify and
prioritize modernization improvements. The second objective is to start
mobilizing the energy of the actors (managers and users) for modernization.
The third objective is to generate a baseline assessment, against which
progress can be measured.
2. The capacity and The assessment of the physical capacity of irrigation structures to perform
sensitivity of the system their function of conveyance, control, measurement, etc.
The assessment of the sensitivity of irrigation structures (offtakes and cross-
regulators), identification of singular points. Mapping the sensitivity of the
system.
3. The perturbations (water Perturbations analysis: causes, magnitudes, frequency and options for
level fluctuations) coping.
4. The networks and water This step consists of assessing the hierarchical structure and the main
balances features of the irrigation and drainage networks, on the basis of which water
balances at system and subsystem levels can be determined. Surface water
and groundwater mapping of the opportunities and constraints.
5. The cost of O&M Mapping the costs associated with current operational techniques and
resulting services, disaggregating the different cost elements; cost analysis of
options for various levels of services with current techniques and with
improved techniques.
Phase B – Vision of service-orientated management and modernization of canal operation
6. The service to users Mapping and economic analysis of the potential range of services to be
provided to users.
7. The management units The irrigation system and the service area should be divided into sub-units
(sub-systems and/or unit areas for service) that are uniform and/or separate
from one another with well-defined boundaries.
8. The demand for Assessing the resources, opportunities and demand for improved canal
operation operation. A spatial analysis of the entire service area, with preliminary
identification of sub-system units (management, service, O&M, etc.).
9. The options for canal Identifying improvement options (service and economic feasibility) for each
operation management unit for: (i) water management, (ii) water control, and (iii) canal
improvements/units operation.
10. The integration of Integration of the preferred options at the system level, and functional

49
Step
service-orientated
management (SOM) options
11. A vision and a plan for
modernization and M&E
Description
cohesiveness check.
Consolidation and design of an overall information management system for
supporting operation.
Consolidating a vision for the Irrigation scheme.
Finalizing a modernization strategy and progressive capacity development.
Selecting/choosing/deciding/phasing the options for improvements.
A plan for M&E of the project inputs and outcomes.

120. FAO applied the MASSCOTE approach to 8 schemes in Karnataka and Uttar
Pradesh as part of a collaborative programme with the state governments and system
operators to look at the re-engineering/modernisation of selected irrigation systems. As
part of the assessment, which generally takes 10-12 days for each scheme, the FAO
team worked with staff from the system management entity which included the gathering
and assessment of data through RAP, field inspections and workshops. Following the
workshops a report was produced with the following objectives:

“This MASSCOTE draft report has several purposes:

 Produce food for thought for decision-makers in Karnataka before engaging in
investment plans, particularly on how to ensure that diagnosis and solutions are
investigated properly in modernization projects;
 Suggest some specific strategies to managers of KNNL-Bhadra on how they
should make the best use of the modernization investment plan which is about to
start with mainly work of canal lining.
 Lay the foundations of a more elaborate modernization plan, with some initial
steps planned for 2008”. (FAO, 2008)

121. The MASSCOTE approach provides a useful framework on which to base a rapid
appraisal process for assessment of the water use efficiency on MMI schemes, with the
following caveats:

 The MASSCOTE approach has been designed for the purpose of looking at
constraints to system performance and opportunities for modernisation of irrigation
systems. It has at its core the investigation of the operation of the canal system and
the performance of the control structures and measuring structures. As such, though
it does include some analysis of the institutional and social aspects affecting a
scheme’s performance, it does not look in sufficient detail at these issues;
 The approach has an excessive focus on the perturbations (water level fluctuations) in
the canal system. Whilst these are important they are often not the main cause of
inadequate irrigation supplies to farmers, other factors such as inadequate scheduling
and weak operation rules, processes and procedures, and inadequately trained O&M
personnel are core factors for overall poor performance. In addition there is often a
high degree of anarchy with unauthorised abstraction of water by head-end farmers,
tampering with control structures, unauthorised outlets on the main and secondary
canals, unauthorized cropping of high water demand crops, etc. Much of this
unauthorised activity by farmers can be attributed to severe competition for water,
which is heavily influenced by the design of the system for protective, rather than
productive, irrigation.
 MASSCOTE seems to focus more on the “what” than the “why”, it may identify key
issues, but does not necessarily identify the potential solutions, particularly in relation
to the root cause of many of the problems;
 Insufficient use is made of remote sensing in the assessment process.

50
122. Subject to the caveats described above it is recommended that the MASSCOTE
approach be used as the starting point for rapid performance assessment (RPA) of MMI
schemes. It is proposed that this be a core task of TA 7967_REG which will follow on
from this study. Suggested adjustments to the MASSCOTE approach include:

 A primary focus on improving the water use efficiency, from source to sink, using the
framework outlined in this report;
 Greater attention to institutional and organisational factors influencing scheme
performance;
 Greater attention to the realities of “external” factors influencing water allocation,
distribution and use, particularly related to issues related to unauthorised abstraction
and use of water;
 Greater attention to the process of scheduling irrigation water, and the role of ID/WRD
staff in allocation, distribution, regulation and monitoring of irrigation water supplies;
 Greater attention to the incentives (or lack thereof) for ID/WRD staff to properly
manage the irrigation system;
 Greater attention to maintenance and asset condition and performance. It is
suggested that asset management planning (AMP; Burton et al, 1996) be used as the
basis for such assessment.

123. The need for this changed focus can be seen from the summaries (Table III.9) of
the reports prepared for the 8 schemes studied by FAO in 2007-08 which show:

 A lack of adequate control and measurement of irrigation supplies;

 The significant occurrence and influence of unauthorised activities;
 Severe budget constraints;
 Inadequate maintenance;
 Inadequate planning and scheduling of irrigation supplies;
 Wastage of irrigation supplies in Kharif by failing to take account of rainfall events in
the command area;
 No accounting for water;
 No assessment or review by the scheme operator of water use, water use efficiency
or water productivity;
 Inadequate engagement and involvement of water users; non-functioning WUAs;
 Farmers not following the design cropping pattern;
 Service provider not engaging with water users in assessing actual cropped area and
irrigation demands for scheduling purposes;
 Inadequate irrigation supplies.

124. All these issues point to the need for designing a revised rapid appraisal
approach to cover the conditions found on Indian irrigation schemes.

Table III.9: Summary of FAO MASSCOTE studies in Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh
No. Scheme Summary details Issues
1 Almatti Lift  State: Karnataka  Low productive system: semidry crops –

st
Irrigation Study dates: 13-21 May 2008 intensity low
Systems  Scheme Type: Lift from  Irrigation development low
reservoir  Irrigation services are poor
 CCA: 60,985 ha (ALBC, ARBC,  Weak farmer organisations, WUAs not
Mulwad LIS) functional
 Land productivity: Rs 28,110/ha  Maintenance is deficient
($620/ha)  Control of discharge is weak
 Water productivity: Rs 1.68/ha  Poor water level control – cross-reg
($0.037/ha) structures on MC, none on secondary.

51
No. Scheme Summary details
 Operating costs: Rs 6000/ha
 Field level water balance: 40%
SW; 24% GW; 36% rainwater
 Overall efficiency: 56-63%
 No capacity constraints
2 Bhadra  State: Karnataka
Scheme  Study dates: 17 Jan – 2 Feb,
2007
 Scheme type: Reservoir; Multi-
purpose
 CCA: 121,500 ha
 Irrigated area: 105, 570 ha
 Land productivity: Rs 77,078/ha
($1700/ha)
 Water productivity: Rs 9.1/ha
3
($0.2/m )
 Water allocation: 1607 MCM;
0.82 l/s/ha
 Have structured proportional
division (from WB NWMP
 Water supply: Kharif
adequate; Rabi - shortage
 O&M cost: Rs 715/ha
 Groundwater: Supplements SW
– 4600 wells
3 Ghataprabha  State: Karnataka
Scheme  Study dates: 6-20 October
2006
 Scheme type: River weir
diversion
 CCA: 161,871 ha (but may be
up to 220,000 ha)
 Crops: Sugarcane; bananas
 Rainfall: 500-550 mm
 Land productivity: Rs 85,240/ha
($1880/ha)
 Water productivity: Rs 10.42/ha
($0.23/ha)
 Costs: Rs 205 Million/year; Rs
1,266/ha CCA
 Spend: Maintenance (17%);
improvements (16%); rehab
(9%); staffing (45%)
 General: No major physical
problems; good asset condition;
good drainage; good
communication
4 Gandorinala  State: Karnataka
and  Study dates: 9-16 December,
Bennithora 2006
Schemes  Scheme type: Multi-purpose,
reservoir-fed, new scheme,
construction on-going
 CCA: 21,854ha + ??? ha
 Crops: Irrigated dry – Tur,
pulses, groundnut, maize
 Rainfall: 630 mm
 Crop productivity:
52
Issues
Many temporary cross-reg structures.
 No accurate measurement
 Siltation a serious problem.
 High inequity along MC, insufficient water
at tail-end
 Access road difficult (Jungle)
 Absence of indications on most structures
 High return flow (65%) – wastage of
pumped water
 No accounting for rainfall in Kharif, stored
supplies wasted and not available for
Rabi crop
 Lack of participatory development, WUAs
not functioning
 Insufficient maintenance
 No water accounting
 Poor control – gates not used
 Measurement poor/non-existent. Limited
number of measuring structures and
measurement
–
 No water accounting
 Poor processes
 Actual crop area not recorded properly
 No adjustments made for rainfall over the
CCA
 Poor service delivery
 Lack of control and poor measurement at
all levels
 Severe budget constraints
 Failing PIM programme, WUAs not
functioning
 Operational issues
 High level of chaos
 Cross regulators on MC left wide open,
no adjustment
 No measuring structures
 Insufficient escapes
 Little water level control – temporary
structures
 Degradation of canal lining – poor
construction
 Expansion of irrigated area due to
pumping from main canal
No. Scheme Summary details
 Water productivity:
 Costs: O&M costs Rs 23
million/year = Rs 800/ha/year,
80% on staffing costs
 Water supply: Adequate for
design cropping
 General: No major physical
problems; good asset condition;
good drainage; good
communication
5 Hemavathi  State: Karnataka
Scheme  Study dates: 17-29 June, 2007
 Scheme type: Reservoir-fed
 CCA: 109,671 ha + 19 lift
irrigation units (16,666 ha)
 Crops: Rice (40%); sugarcane
(21%), gardens (32%)
 Rainfall:
 Crop productivity: Rs 54,408/ha
($1200/ha)
 Water productivity:
 Costs: Rs 420 mill/year; Rs
3818/ha/year (includes
pumping)
6 Jaunpur  State: Uttar Pradesh
 
th
Branch Study dates: 1-19 December,
Canal 2007
System  Scheme type: Run-of-the-river,
multi-purpose, no storage, no
silt exclusion
 Gross CA: 554,000 ha
 CCA: 275,000 ha (part of
Sardar Sahayak Scheme of 1
million ha). Part of World Bank
funded UPWSRP
 Canal network: 13 No.
distributaries, 5 Districts
 Crops: Kharif (89%) – Rice,
jowar, bajra, maize, urd, arhar,
etc.; Rabi (98%) – wheat, gram.
Pea, potato, oil seeds, etc.; Zaid
(1%) – cereals, pulses,
sugarcane).
 Irrigation intensity: 188%
 Rainfall:
 Water accounting: Not carried
out. FAO calcs: SW Kharif –
1362 MCM (16%); SW Rabi
1134 MCM (13%); SW Zaid 694
MCM (8%); rainfall over GCA
5566 MCM (64%); Total 8756
3
MCM (31,840 m /ha CCA,
3
16,936 m /irrig. ha – high value)
 Crop productivity: Rs 34,912/ha
($770/ha)

3
Water productivity: Rs 3.49/m
3
($0.077/m )
 Water control: 12 x-regs on BC,
53
Issues
 Likely change of cropping pattern to high
water demand crops - sugarcane
 Poor level of service to farmers
 No flow measurement
 High recycling
 High water consuming crops – rice,
sugarcane, garden, deviating from official
cropping pattern
 Kharif area and Rabi area cropping not
followed
 Rotation not carried out properly in upper
reaches
 Absence of water control and
measurement – at all levels
 Severe inequity
 Poor system operation
 Insufficient maintenance
 Fragmented management
 Low involvement of water users
 Low farmer skills in on-farm water
management
 No adjustment of gates for rainfall.
It is a genuine conjunctive use system.
 Diversification and agriculture efficiency
are inversely proportional to canal water
supply: the less canal water you get the
more diversified and efficient you are.
 No water control (level or discharge) at
secondary canal level (distys and
minors).
 No scientific scheduling of irrigation
water.
 Inaccurate or improper measuring
structures at all levels.
 Water logging in upstream reaches,
shortages at tail-end
 Highly sensitive offtakes along
distributaries and minors leading to chaos
in water distribution.
 Limited conveyance capacity due to
siltation. Canal freeboards encroached.
 Siltation is a serious problem – costly
maintenance.
 High density of illegal direct outlets (51
No.) along the BC.
 Offtake gates to minors are non-existent
or damaged.
 Very low (1.2 from 4) service to farmers –
unreliable, unequal and inadequate
supplies to many users. Poor system
operation.
 Low engagement of WUAs and water
users
 Escapes rarely used – choked with
weeds/vegetation.
No. Scheme Summary details
condition good.
 Measurement: Some
measurement on BC, low
measurement skills.
 Costs: Rs 16 crores/year (US$
3.55 million), Rs 662/ha/year
($14.60/ha/year), including
staffing.
7 Main Ganga  State: Uttar Pradesh

th
Canal Study dates: 16-25
System September, 2008
(Meerut  Scheme type: Run-of-the-river,
Division) multi-purpose, no storage, no
silt exclusion, water abundant
 CCA: 52,211 ha covering 5
distributaries. Part of the
907,690 ha Upper Ganga
Canal.
 Crops: Largely sugarcane
 Rainfall: 1000 mm/annum
 Groundwater: Abundant - wide
use of groundwater to
supplement SW supplies
 Control: Control to head of
distributary, thereafter designed
for proportional distribution (with
flow at FSL)
 Measurement: Flumes at head
of distys but not used properly
 Crop productivity: Rs 59,190/ha
($1500/ha) – High

3
Water productivity: Rs 3.95/m
3
($0.10/m ) - Low
 Costs: Rs 929/ha
 Income: Agriculture Rs 300/ha;
total, incl. domestic Rs 1574/ha
 Water balance (FAO): SW
Kharif 33%; SW Rabi 18%; SW
Zaid 10%; Rainfall 39%.
 Eto: ETo = 1434 mm (2700
MCM/year), 30% of the total
water inputs
 GW recharge: Active GW
recharge through canals
8 Upper  State: Karnataka
Krishna  Study dates: 31 January – 10
Scheme February, 2009
 Age of scheme: New scheme,
operational from 2003
 Scheme type: Mix of gravity and
lift irrigation
 GCA: 601,000 ha
 CCA: 513,000 ha
 Water level control: At MC level,
none below MC level
 Measurement: Flumes at some
locations
 Crops: Kharif – Maize,
sunflower, cotton, tur dal,
paddy, sugarcane, etc.; Rabi –
54
Issues
 Poor communication – no telemetry
system
 Canal conveyance reduced by high levels
of siltation
 Water is abundant but high inequity in
surface water deliveries (compensated by
wells in the downstream reaches)
 Head-end farmers do not follow rotation
plans – Kharif 3 weeks on, 1 week off;
Rabi 2 weeks on, 2 weeks off.
 Farmers using hybrid varieties of crops –
more water demanding
 Many farmers growing sugarcane, not
following crop rotation plan
 Paddy farmers change standing water
frequently.
 Farmers do not want to irrigate at night.
 Many unauthorised offtakes constructed
by farmers
 Breaches caused by cattle and buffalo
watering.
 Agriculture fairly good: high intensity (2 to
3 crops/year) Cash crops is dominant
(Sugarcane 70% Rice 20% others 10%)
 No operation below head of distributary -
gates blocked opened.
 No water level control along distributary &
minors (supposedly proportional flow)
 Some minors watered only at 50% of their
length.
 Measurement at head of distributary only
(some poorly located & calibrated)
 WUAs non-existent
 Distributaries concrete lined for water
savings.
 Urbanization toll: 2 minors abandoned.
 Multiple uses of water: serving thirsty
towns within and large major cities
outside Delhi and Agra.
 Major water feeder to Agra irrigation
canals
 Inequitable distribution of water between
head and tail-ends
 Main and secondary canals are lined but
showing significant deterioration already
 Cross regulators left fully open on Main
Canal
 Measurement is extremely poor, no
systematic procedures
 Lack of management - Rotation plan is
not followed by upstream users, causing
deficiency at tail-end; multiple uses/users
of water including towns, villages;
numerous illegal pumps along canals.
 Drainage management does not exist.
 Limited engagement by water users in
management (only 5% of WUAs
functioning)
No. Scheme Summary details Issues
wheat, jowar, cotton, sunflower,  Extensive cultivation of high water
paddy, sugarcane, groundnut, consuming crops (rice) in some locations
etc.  Water distribution not controlled
 Rainfall/Eto: Rainfall - ??mm;  Lack of gates below distributary make
ETo - 1753 mm rotation at this level impossible.
 Crop productivity: Rs 54,408/ha  Inequity between head and tail of
($1206/ha) distributaries

3
Water productivity: Rs 8.34/m  Lack of adequate funds for maintenance
3
($0.184/m )  Pumps only operating for 12 hrs/day
 Costs: Rs 2131/ha of which Rs (designed for 24hrs/day)
700/ha used for electricity).  69% of water entering the command not
Energy costs are high – Rs used by planned cropping
3 3
0.32/m and Rs 0.37/m for
each of RLIS two stages.
 Water accounting (FAO): SW
5260 MCM (73%); rainfall 1956
MCM (27%).

d. Current study’s findings

125. For the current study specialists were engaged in irrigation institutions, irrigation
and water management, information technology, groundwater and conjunctive use and
participatory irrigation management. The specialists were asked to:

(i) review the National Water Mission and the 12th Five Year Plan to identify areas of
intervention required in key areas related to this study and the possible constraints
states might face in implementing these interventions, and propose measures to
overcome or mitigate such constraints;
(ii) provide technical support to the study and the state consultation workshops in
relation to the identification of priority action areas;
(iii) identify through state consultation and field visits key priority action that can be
taken up by subsequent ADB or Government of India support package including
future and on-going ADB Technical Assistance (TA) grant (e.g. purpose driven
studies, pilots on WUE, PIM, ground water management, etc.);
(iv) contribute to proposal writing for consideration by ADB and/or Government of
India.

126. Each specialist prepared a report which is appended in Annexure V. A summary

of the key findings and proposals from each of these specialist studies is provided in the
sections below.
i. Irrigation institutions

127. This analysis drew on experience with a previous study in Karnataka where an
institutional setup was devised based on international and national experience. The key
features of the analysis and proposed reform are:

 A six-tier organisational set up comprising a Minister’s Council or Cabinet Sub

Committee, a Standing/Steering Committee, the WRD, a Regulatory Authority,
Stakeholder’s Consultative Committees and bulk water supply utilities;
 Realignment of WRDs/IDs into two separate units, one part responsible for basin
management, the other responsible for irrigation water management;
 The Water Management Organisation (WMO) would focus on irrigation management,
with operational units responsible for ITES, irrigation scheduling and system
operation, maintenance, command area development, training and capacity building

55
 (WALMI) and M&E. The role and functions of the WMO are provided in detail in
Annexure V.1.

ii. Irrigation and water management

128. The irrigation and water management report provides:

 background information on the status of irrigation development in India with data on

the ultimate irrigation potential in each State, the irrigation potential created (by
category of scheme – major, medium and minor), and the irrigation potential utilised;
 details of required and actual operation and maintenance expenditure for different
states and irrigation revenue assessed and realised. The data show that
maintenance is badly under-funded in many states, and that water charge recovery is
generally poor;
 an overview of the status of irrigation management in India, and a discussion of the
central role that designing irrigation systems for protective irrigation has on scheme
performance. Under protective irrigation water is spread thinly over the command
area, with the designed expectation that only a portion of the total command will be
irrigated in any one season. This design feature is contrary to that in many countries
where irrigation systems are designed such that 100 percent of the command area is
irrigated in at least one season (termed “productive” irrigation). In such systems head-
tail differences and unauthorised abstractions are considerably reduced as there is
generally sufficient water in at least one season. Disparities may arise, however, in
the second season when water supplies are scarce39. A summary is made of the
differences between protective and “productive” irrigation;
 a summary and discussion of forms of rotation of irrigation supplies (Warabandi,
localization and Shejpali) in different regions in India;
 a discussion on measures for improving water use efficiency on major and medium
irrigation projects. Four key measures are proposed, and discussed in turn:
 Strengthening of Water User Association for effectively managing system
management operation and maintenance (MOM);
 Improving Irrigation Service Delivery by Irrigation Departments;
 Regular monitoring of irrigation system performance and management by
identifying and assessing performance gaps and required actions to address them
(incorporating participatory benchmarking);
 Systematic planning and execution of operation, maintenance and management of
irrigation projects using an Asset Management Planning (AMP) approach.

 A summary of the impacts of the proposed measures on water use efficiency and
scheme performance, and the potential constraints that states, Irrigation Departments
and farmers might face in implementing the proposed measures.

iii. Information technology

129. This report draws on extensive experience of establishing ITES for water
resources and irrigation schemes in Andhra Pradesh, together with examples from other
states and countries. The report provides:

39
This is the case in East Java, Indonesia, where irrigation supplies are adequate for the paddy crop during
the wet season, but insufficient for all parts of the command area in the dry season. During the dry
season farmers apply for authorisation to grow water intensive crops, such as paddy.

56
 Background to the use of ITES in the water resources, irrigation and drainage sectors
and the potential benefits of using ITES;
 An outline and discussion of the opportunities for using ITES for water resources and
I&D management, Examples of different ITES applications are provided, with spatial
maps showing different aspects of water resources availability and irrigation scheme
performance. These applications include tools for real time irrigation water demand
estimation, irrigation system performance assessment, participatory situational
analysis, estimation of irrigation area, reservoir storage monitoring and canal network
flow monitoring;
 For each of the examples a SWOC (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and
Constraints) matrix, where the constraints relate to the difficulties likely to be
encountered in implementing a particular ITES system;
 Several of the applications make use of the wide availability of mobile phones and
SMS messaging to transmit data from the field. These data are stored in a central
database which can then be accessed via the web, with different levels of accessibility
depending on the designation of the user;
 A discussion on the possibilities and constraints in using remote sensing and GIS;
 An example of the costs of establishing a Geographic Management Information
System (GMIS).
iv. Groundwater and conjunctive use

130. This report provides a broad overview of the status of groundwater development
in India and then goes on to provide:

 Discussion of conjunctive use and management of surface and groundwater

resources with examples of studies carried out in India and internationally to assess
the opportunities for conjunctive use;
 Discussion and proposal for modelling of surface and groundwater systems on
irrigation commands to support system operation based on conjunctive use;
 Different measures for artificial recharge of groundwater with examples of experience
in India and internationally;
 Experience with participatory aquifer management;
 A problem and solution matrix covering the main issues related to groundwater and
conjunctive use and management. This matrix covers issues related to the availability
of groundwater resources, waterlogging and salinity, saline intrusion, managed
groundwater recharge, conjunctive use management and institutional and legal
deficiencies.
v. Participatory irrigation management

131. This report provides background to the some of the issues facing Indian irrigation
at the current time, a major one of which is the increasing number of small and marginal
landholdings. This feature is considered central to many of the issues facing irrigation
water management and scheme performance. The report provides:

 The rationale for promoting PIM through the formation of Water Users Associations,
and provides a summary of the history, current status and impact of PIM in India, with
examples of where PIM has been successful, as in the Dharoi and Waghad schemes
in Gujarat and Maharashtra;
 A comprehensive discussion of the reasons why WUAs fail, ranging from a lack of
legal back up and political and bureaucratic support through to issues of weak
leadership, politicisation and lack of engagement with members within WUAs. This is
followed by the identification of 15 key elements required for successful PIM in India,
with a comprehensive discussion of each of these elements. The need for

57
 understanding the basic mechanism for implementing change, such as the process
advocated by Kotter (1996), is emphasised;
 A checklist is provided of criteria for selecting states and schemes where water use
efficiency can be improved through PIM and the formation of WUAs together with
discussion and examples of the practical mechanisms by which PIM and formation of
WUAs can contribute to improvement in water use efficiency and performance. Such
measures include WUAs employing field staff (water masters), introduction of
volumetric water deliveries, concerted group pressure on the ID for improved levels of
communication and service delivery, social control of unauthorized activities related to
water withdrawals, off-takes, cropping, etc., formalised and communally agreed
schedules, involvement of the WUA in conjunctive use management;
 Additional insights to those provided in the groundwater and conjunctive use section
on how WUAs can be involved in the management of both surface and ground water
resources within their command area, with discussion on governance and operational
(scheduling) measures;
 A problem and solution matrix which details the consequences of identified problems
and proposed actions to address them. The matrix covers incentive mechanisms,
integration of surface and ground water management, physical/technical issues,
organizational structure and training and capacity building.

e. Summary of key factors influencing WUE

132. From the information provided in Annexure V and the discussion in the sections
above the issues facing MMI schemes can be summarised as:

 Irrigation Departments focussed on construction of new schemes rather than

management of completed schemes.
 Schemes designed for protective, rather than productive, irrigation, resulting in
schemes where water scarcity is built in from the outset. Whilst this may possible be
better in theory by imposing deficit irrigation on farmers, it aggravates the competition
for water between farmers.
 Poor communication and liaison with the customer, the farmers.
 Political interference in water allocation decision-making
 Reservoir storage not conserved in Kharif for Rabi crop
 No water accounting carried out
 Inadequate measurement of water delivery, and little or no assessment of scheme
performance (except for Maharashtra with its benchmarking programme).
 Little or no accountability of the ID to water users for the service delivered.
 Proposed solutions to identified issues are often limited to technical interventions (e.g.
canal lining, drip irrigation, repair of structures).
 A failure to understand the fundamental role that management has to play in ensuring
good scheme performance.
 Water available to scheme impacted by upstream watershed development
 Siltation of reservoirs has reduced their storage capacity.
 Changed hydrology since design.
 Head-works capacity limits intake flow rate.
 Significant level of unauthorised abstractions, both within the command area and by
lift irrigation from main canals out of the design command area.
 Failure to allow for rainfall in irrigation schedules and canal operation.
 Cross drainage systems not functioning properly due to inadequate provision or
damaged infrastructure, and inadequate escape structures.
 Lack of control structures, and lack of measurement.
 Lack of adequate maintenance.

58
 Lack of adequate finances for system MOM.
 Excessive seepage losses in some systems.
 Cropping patterns differ from the design cropping pattern.
 Head-end farmers cropping water-intensive crops, thus depriving tail-end farmers of
water.
 Supplies not matching actual cropping pattern, and lack of scientific scheduling.
 Loss of water to drains.
 Night irrigation – gates not closed at night so water flows to drains.
 Failure to regulate gates.
 Over-irrigation at the field level due to a variety of causes, including a lack of
knowledge, unreliable supplies (store what you can, when you can) and lack of on-
farm coordination of irrigation.
 Lack of scientific water management all round.

133. These factors can be grouped together and summarised into a problem tree as
presented in Figure III.17 together with the broad areas on interventions. This problem
tree can then be used as the basis for formulating and implementing possible solutions,
as discussed in the sections below.

f. Approach to identifying feasible solutions

134. As with the analysis of the problem the identification of feasible solutions needs to
take an holistic account of the irrigation water supply and delivery complex. Some
interventions are relatively straightforward, and independent of other interventions (e.g.
canal lining), but other interventions, which might have a major impact on improving
water use efficiency (such as PIM or reform of the ID) are complex and rely on
complementary interventions (such as strengthening of WALMIs, changing attitudes
within the ID, etc.) to be effective.

Figure III.17: Restructuring the “problem tree” into a “solution tree”

Problem analysis – Formulating a solution tree

Component 1: Component 2: Component 3:
Irrigation system Improved system Formation of effective,
rehabilitation MOM functioning WUAs

Activity Activity Activity

Desilt main canal Training in scheduling of Formation of WUA
available water supplies

Activity
Repair existing and install
new measuring structures

Output Output Output

Canals able to pass Irrigation supplies match Effective fee setting and
design discharge water users’ demands collection mechanisms

Outcome Outcome Outcome

Fully functioning and Reliable, adequate and timely Effective and viable
operable canal network service delivery to WUAs WUAs formed

PDO
Improved irrigation service delivery
and water management supporting
increased agricultural production

Source: Authors

59
135. Following on from the approach to identify and categorise the problem in the
previous section the “solution tree” (European Commission, 2004) can be prepared
(Figure III.18). This process structures the solutions to the problem such that they can
be formed into a project or programme.

136. The identification of solutions needs to take into account the feasibility of
implementing the solutions – a solution is not a solution until it has been effectively
implemented. In general for every solution there are constraints, it is the ability to
resolve these constraints that makes for a feasible solution. PIM might be a solution to
some of the issues facing MMI schemes, but it is not a feasible solution until the
environment and actions required to make it work are in place (e.g. adequate legislation,
changed attitudes in the ID, re-vamped WALMI capable of training ID staff, WUA
management and water users, etc.). This approach is summarised in Table III.10 which
provides an example of identification of problems and their potential solutions, and
constraints on identified solutions.

137. Table III.11 shows the possible solutions given for the problems identified in the
section above, together with the possible causes of the identified problems. The
solutions have been categorised under the following headings:

 Design  Management40
 Finance  Policy
 Institutions  Politics
 Legal

138. As can be seen there are a substantial number of items under the management
category, implying that that a change in the management norms, policies and practices
will have a noticeable impact on scheme performance and water use efficiency.

139. This “long list” of possible interventions is narrowed down in Chapter VI where a
proposed strategy is set out for a National Water User Efficiency Improvement Support
Program (NWUEISP) which can be supported by the Asian Development Bank, other
international financing institutions and the Government of India. Targeted interventions
are proposed which complement existing GoI programmes (such as the NIMF, AIBP,
CAD&WM, NAMP, etc.) but which are feasible in the context of such support and
funding.

140. In the 12th FYP significant emphasis is placed on improving the level of service to
water users, and in greater engagement of water users in the management, operation
and maintenance of I&D systems. This emphasis is reflected in the proposed solutions
outlined in Table III.11. The core elements of service delivery are presented in Figure
III.19 which show the service provider (the ID) providing the service to the water user
(the WUA), for which a service fee is paid. This service fee (ISF) should cover the full
costs of providing the service, including management and staffing costs, operation and
maintenance costs. The terms of the service delivery and ISF are governed by the
service agreement, with specifications detailing the level of service to be provided and
fees to be paid, and a set of conditions covering how the services will be provided and
fees paid. Such service agreements, if developed in a participatory manner, can have a
significant impact on the way that the ID and the water users work together (Malano and
van Hofwegen, 1999).

40
This includes system operation and maintenance

60
Figure III.18: MMI water use efficiency improvement problem tree

Source: Authors

61
 Table III.10: Matrix for identifying feasible solutions

Domain Issue Consequence Possible solution(s) Intended outcome Constraint on solution

Lack of awareness on Unable to use new techniques which Conduct Awareness programmes on new Better and optimum utilization of the new None
the benefits and potential are better able to diagnose potential technologies – multi-disciplinary programmes technologies
applications of ITES problems and assess the desirability
of alternative plans
Lack of real-time data 1. Difficult to find out the amount of 1. Develop an application to capture reservoir 1 . Remote monitoring of the irrigation systems 1. Lack of funds
collection / storage and water available in the reservoirs and inflows, levels and outflows in all major irrigation
retrieval / processing / water that can be allocated to users reservoirs and medium irrigation projects which 2. Improving preventive maintenance and 2. Lack of knowledge in the new
analysis / reporting and enables to monitor the storage levels and releases performance management using real-time data technologies
decision support 2. Unable to calculate water releases to each sector.
systems and crop water requirements 3 Water resources information system could be 3. Lack of experts and software in the
2. Develop an application to capture canal flows in developed for effective water management and departments
3. Not able to take quick decisions all Major & Medium Irrigation Projects, monitors better use of water resources.
release of water to canals against the water release 4. Finding out an agency / organization
schedule and necessary decisions for optimum 4. Data collection, information analysis and responsible for updating the data regularly
utilization of water. decision-making services can be developed, and maintaining the data
IT enabled allowing water users and managers to have
Services 3. Need to establish an institutional framework to timely information and a useful decision-making
ensure that the required data are regularly collected tool for irrigation water management.
and updated.
5. Automation makes work more simpler and
4. Automating routine tasks and communication easier

Lack of data sharing 1. Duplication of the data 1. Establish a web enabled system that would bring 1. Easy accessible to reliable and authentic
together scientific data, educational information, and water resources data to all water resources
2. Multiplicity of the data from various geographic information systems (GIS) maps related departments at the regional, State and National
sources leading to tremondous data to water resources useful for easy decision making. levels
inconsistency
2. Formation of a central body that coordinates data 2. Improve performance management through
3. Wastage of money, time and acquisition and distribution will be the key to an access to timely data.
manpower efficient exchange of data among the departments.

Source: Authors

62
 Figure III.19: Core elements of service delivery (after Huppert and Urban, 1998)

141. Other important elements of possible solutions linked to improving the level of
service provision on MMI schemes are shown in the photographs in Figure III.20. In the
Dharoi system the water users have been working in partnership with the ID on the
upgrading of sections of the main canal system (distributaries and minors), and have
installed simple flow measuring devices (cut throat flumes) to enable volumetric
allocation and charging of water supplies. The WUA Management Committee and water
users have a good working relationship with the Executive Engineer, which enables them
to meet and discuss issues.

142. On the Dharoi Irrigation Scheme the development of the WUAs has been
supported by an NGO (Development Support Centre, Ahmedabad) whilst in Andhra
Pradesh the development and support for the WUAs has been promoted by a PIM Cell
within the CAD&WM Department. This development has been such that some of the
best practice WUAs have been used (for an agreed fee) by the CAD&WM Department as
training centres for other WUAs and visitors to the state.

Figure III.20: Key elements for improving the level of irrigation service provision

Photo1: Well maintained, lined distributary Photo 2: Volumetric water delivery to a WUA
canal, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat with measurement using a cut throat flume,
Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat

63
Photo 3: WUA Chairman and Treasurer with a Photo 4: Poster showing the water allocations
map of their system, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, and charges, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat
Gujarat

Photo 5: WUA Treasurer showing the WUA Photo 6: Executive Engineer (in right
budget, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat foreground) discussing issues in the field, with
WUA Management Committee members,
Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat

Photo 7: WUA Chairman (standing) in Photo 8: Distributary Committee office, Nizam

discussions with training workshop participants, Sagar Irrigation Scheme, Andhra Pradesh
Nizam Sagar Irrigation Scheme, Andhra
Pradesh

64
 Table III.11: Structuring the issues and possible solutions facing MMI irrigation
schemes
No. Issues Possible cause(s)
1 Irrigation Departments  Historical development of
focussed on I&D sector
construction of new  ID employs mainly civil
schemes rather than engineers who prefer
management of built design and construction
schemes. to system management
2 Schemes designed for  Historical, systems set up
protective, rather than to spread available water
productive, irrigation thinly to benefit more
resulting in designs users
with water scarcity,  Considered to be more
and thus competition socially just than
for water, built it. productive irrigation
(benefitting the few vs the
many)
3 Poor communication  Cultural within the ID, not
and liaison with the trained to work and liaise
customer, the with farmers.
farmers.  Poor communications
infrastructure
4 Political interference  Insufficient accountability
in water allocation and transparency
decision-making  Politicians too powerful
relative to the
bureaucracy
5 Reservoir storage not  Failure to allow for use of
conserved in Kharif rainfall over the command
for Rabi area during Kharif
 Inadequate scheduling
and system operation to
allow for rainfall
6 No water accounting  Lack of knowledge and/or
carried out motivation
65
Possible solution(s) Category (of
solution)
 Change focus of ID to  Policy
management  Management
 Employ different cadres,  Institutional
including agricultural
engineers,
agriculturalists, social
scientists, ETES
specialists, hydrologists
 Re-train civil engineers
into irrigation and water
management engineers
 Difficult, as systems  Policy
already exist. For new  Management
systems consider  Institutional
designing for productive
irrigation.
 Improve dialogue
between water users at
head and tail-ends.
 Improve transparency of
designed and planned
water distribution vs
actual.
 Establish effective
WUAs/farmer groups
 Reform the ID as in (1)  Policy
above  Management
 Increase transparency  Institutional
and accountability to
farmers
 Introduce levels of
service contracts
between the ID and
water users (WUAs)
 Measure scheme
performance
 Establish effective
WUAs
 Increase transparency  Political
and accountability  Policy
 Establish effective  Management
WUAs  Institutional
 Establish automatic  Policy
weather stations and  Management
allow for rainfall in
schedules and scheme
operation
 Make scheme managers
accountable for water
conservation and use
 ID senior management  Policy
to insist on detailed  Management
seasonal and annual
water budgets using
actual, not design, data
 Include both authorised
and unauthorised
cropping
No. Issues Possible cause(s) Possible solution(s) Category (of
solution)
7 Inadequate  Weak ethos in ID of  Establish performance  Policy
measurement of water management, management systems  Management
delivery, and little or performance assessment and monitor  Institutional
no assessment of and accountability performance
scheme performance  Establish and enforce
(except for service delivery charters
Maharashtra with its  Draw up enforceable
benchmarking service delivery
programme). agreements
 Establish effective
WUAs
8 Little or no  Historical, high level of  Establish and enforce  Policy
accountability to water patronage in the past service delivery charters  Management
users for the service towards farmers  Draw up enforceable  Institutional
delivered.  Cultural - ID does not see service delivery
itself as accountable to agreements
farmers  Establish effective
WUAs
9 Proposed solutions to  Limited understanding by  Reform the ID as in (1)  Policy
identified issues are ID civil engineers of wider above  Management
often limited to issues  Institutional
technical interventions  ID staff remain in their
(e.g. canal lining, drip comfort zone for solutions
irrigation, repair of
structures).
10 A failure to  Limited understanding by  Reform the ID as in (1)  Policy
understand the ID civil engineers of above  Management
fundamental role that irrigation management  Establish and enforce
management has to  Lack of adequately service delivery charters
play in ensuring good trained and  Draw up enforceable
scheme performance. knowledgeable staff service delivery
 Limited accountability for agreements
poor performance
11 Water available to  Lack of knowledge of  Monitor watershed  Policy
scheme impacted by changes in watershed development using  Management
upstream watershed characteristics modern systems
development  Lack of coordination of (remote sensing, etc.)
developments and  Improve coordination
activities in watersheds between agencies
between agencies  Model impacts
12 Siltation of reservoirs  Developments in the  Monitor watershed  Management
has reduced their watershed development using
storage capacity.  Erosion in catchment modern systems
(remote sensing, etc.)
 Model impacts
13 Changed hydrology  Developments in the  Monitor watershed  Management
since design. watershed development using
 Climate change modern systems
(remote sensing, etc.)
 Model impacts
14 Head-works capacity  Design  Carry out remedial  Management
limits intake flow rate.  Lack of maintenance works
 Carry out adequate
maintenance
15 Significant level of  Lack of enforceable legal  Quantify and highlight  Policy
unauthorised power by ID the unauthorised areas  Legal
abstractions, both  Lack of transparency  Include lift irrigation  Management
within the command (with downstream users) areas in scheme  Institutions
area and by lift  Lack of adequate water command area and
irrigation from main supply (due to design) charge service fee
canals out of the  Establish effective
design command WUAs
area.

66
No. Issues Possible cause(s) Possible solution(s) Category (of
solution)
16 Failure to allow for  Lack of understanding,  Measure scheme  Policy
rainfall in irrigation knowledge and capability performance (to  Management
schedules and canal of ID staff evaluate the possible
operation.  Lack of motivation contribution from
rainfall)
 Train existing ID staff or
bring in new staff with
knowledge (agricultural
engineers)
17 Cross drainage  Inadequate design  Carry out remedial  Design
systems not  Lack of maintenance works  Management
functioning properly  Carry out adequate
due to inadequate maintenance
provision or damaged
infrastructure.
18 Inadequate escape  Inadequate design  Carry out remedial  Design
structures and/or  Inadequate operational works  Management
inadequate operation procedures  Carry out adequate
of escape structures  Lack of motivation by ID maintenance
staff  Train ID staff
 Lack of understanding,
knowledge and skills of ID
staff
19 Lack of control  Inadequate design  Carry out remedial  Design
structures. works
 Make designers aware
of the issue through
training
20 Lack of measurement.  Inadequate design  Carry out remedial  Design
works
 Make designers aware
of the issue through
training
21 Lack of adequate  Lack of funds  Carry out assessment  Finance
maintenance.  Poor use of available (using asset  Management
funds (not cost-effective) management planning)  Institutional
 Lack of knowledge of of maintenance and
preventative maintenance repair funding needs.
and prioritisation Increase funding if found
 Misuse of maintenance necessary
funds  Train ID staff in cost-
effective use of
maintenance funds
 Increase transparency
and accountability
 Establish effective
WUAs
22 Lack of adequate  Lack of understanding of  Carry out an  Finance
finances for system the costs of failing to assessment of the costs  Policy
MOM. properly manage, operate of inadequate funding  Management
and maintain I&D (lost production,
systems. inequity, greater costs if
 Funds allocated to new rehabilitation needed,
build rather than existing etc.
schemes  Assess adequate
funding needs
 Increase funding, if
merited
23 Excessive seepage  Soil type  Assess situation, and if  Management
losses in some merited, line canal
systems.  Consider possible
impacts, including reuse
of groundwater

67
No. Issues Possible cause(s)
24 Cropping patterns  Design cropping patterns
differ from the design outdated, or do not match
cropping pattern. farmers’ needs
 Some farmers with better
access to water prefer to
grown different crops or
greater areas of crop than
design
25 Head-end farmers  Lack of enforceable legal
cropping water- power by ID
intensive crops, thus  System designed for
depriving tail-end protective irrigation, so by
farmers of water. design water supply will
always be short
26 Supplies not matching  Designed for protective
actual cropping irrigation, low average
pattern. water duty
 Inadequate supplies
(below design values) due
to siltation, lack of
maintenance, etc.
 Climate change
27 Lack of scientific  Lack of understanding,
scheduling. knowledge and skills by
ID staff
 Lack of motivation
 Outdated processes and
procedures
28 Loss of water to  Poor system operation
drains. and monitoring
 Weak accountability
29 Night irrigation –  Lack of motivation
gates not closed at  Lack of field staff and/or
night so water flows to transport
drains.
30 Failure to regulate  Lack of motivation
gates.  Lack of field staff and/or
transport
 Cross regulator gates in
upstream reaches
deliberately left open to
allow scarce water
through to tail-end
31 Over-irrigation at the  Many possible reasons:
field level o Lack of knowledge
o Unreliable supplies
(store what you can,
when you can)
o Lack of on-farm
68
Possible solution(s) Category (of
solution)
 Assess the current  Management
cropping pattern and the  Institutional
impact on the water
demand. If water
available match
schedule to current
cropping pattern, if not
then look to reduce
overuse
 Establish effective
WUAs to increase
dialogue between
farmers
 Difficult to enforce  Policy
 Assess situation and  Legal
publish results  Management
 Levy higher charges for  Institutional
excessive use (if
enforceable)
 Establish effective
WUAs to increase
dialogue between
farmers
 Establish cause of  Management
shortfall – design, lack  Institutional
of system capacity due
to siltation, etc.
 Establish effective
WUAs to try to reduce
gap between supply and
demand
 Train ID staff  Management
 Bring in new cadre of
irrigation managers
 Change norms for
scheme operation
 Measure scheme  Management
performance to assess
water use and water
balance
 Hold ID managers
accountable
 Measure scheme  Management
performance to assess
water use and water
balance
 Hold ID managers
accountable
 Scheme managers to  Management
monitor gate operation
(field checks)
 Monitor scheme
performance (actual
water deliveries vs
planned)
 Carry out study the  Management
actual causes (by  Institutions
WALMI or Agricultural
University)
 Implement remedial
measures – awareness
No. Issues Possible cause(s) Possible solution(s) Category (of
solution)
coordination of raising and training of
irrigation, etc. WUAs and farmers,
improving reliability of
main system supply, etc.
 Establish effective
WUAs to better manage
on-farm distribution
32 Lack of scientific  Lack of focus on  Assess performance of  Management
water management all management schemes and  Policy
round  Lack of knowledgeable benchmark against best
and skilled ID staff practice
 Lack of incentives and  Train existing ID staff or
motivation bring in new cadres
(agricultural engineers)
Source: Authors

g. Typology of MMI schemes based on WUE issues and

opportunities

143. An initial typology for classifying MMI schemes was prepared at the start of this
study and included in Technical Note No. 1 (NWUEISP, 2013). This typology included
18 descriptors or attributes of MMI schemes:

 Responsiveness of state to change  Agro-climate

 Importance of irrigation to the state  Quality of the system (age and
 Type of scheme condition)
 Degree of water scarcity (at the source)  Extent of CAD works
 Size of the scheme  System utilisation
 Average size of landholdings  Extent/use of groundwater
 Cropping pattern  Status of groundwater
 Design and actual irrigation cropping  Existence and functionality of WUAs
intensity  Water charge collection and feedback
 (Main) Irrigation season  Annual expenditure on maintenance
and repair

144. Further to this analysis it was concluded that this list of attributes related more to
categorisation of different types of MMI schemes, rather than a typology based on WUE
issues and opportunities, as requested in the study Terms of Reference. A revised
typology (Table III.12) and set of attributes has thus been prepared based on the issues
and opportunities described in the sections above. This typology comprises 11
attributes:

 Type of scheme (storage vs run-of-the-  Quality of management by the Irrigation

river Department
 Size of scheme  Level of unauthorised activities (to
 Degree of water scarcity and annual measure management control)
variability  Level of finance for management,
 General physical condition of the operation and maintenance
scheme  Predominant cropping pattern
 Groundwater stratum (alluvial vs hard  Degree of on farm development (CAD)
rock)  Existence and functionality of WUAs

145. Using this typology it is suggested that following the Rapid Performance
Assessment (RPA) these attributes can be used to prioritise the order in which schemes

69
will be taken up for remedial action. The criteria for selection will include the following
factors:

 the scale of the interventions required

 the cost and resources required
 the likelihood of the interventions being successful (based on risk assessment)
 the time scale to implement the interventions and realise the benefits

146. This priority list might well seek to select the most cost-effective schemes first
(the “low hanging fruit”, Figure III.21) but will need to consider the other criteria,
particularly the likelihood that the interventions will have the desired impact.

Table III.12: Revised typology for MMI schemes based on identified issues and
opportunities

No. Attribute Scale Remarks

1 Type of  Storage In general storage-based systems should be more
scheme  Diversion efficient as management and farmers can plan ahead.
 Lift Diversion and lift will rely on the river hydrology, which
 Mixed (show is more difficult to predict. Lift has the added problem
percentage each) of reliability of the pumps and their power supply.
In addition run-of-the-river systems often have higher
sediment loads entering from the river, and
consequently bigger issues with maintenance and
reduction in canal capacity.
2 Size of scheme  Major 1: >50,000 ha In theory smaller schemes should be easier to manage.
 Major 2: 25,000 – 50, WUAs will have a greater influence in smaller schemes,
000 ha farmer participation is likely to be easier to organise.
 Major 3: 10,000 - Generally medium schemes (2000-10000ha) are more
25,000 ha vulnerable to hydrology distortion, damage to the
 Medium 1: 5,000 - system, and siltation as most of the schemes are in the
10,000 ha plains and have wide spread reservoir area as well as
 Medium 2: 2,000 - high rates of siltation.
5,000 ha
3 Degree of Water scarcity: In theory water scarce systems should be more
water scarcity  Severe scarcity efficient, but the equity of distribution may be poor as
and annual  Significant the head-enders may take most of the water. Schemes
variability  Moderate with no water scarcity are a lower order of priority.
 None Water scarcity can be influenced/governed by a variety
Annual variability: of sources – the river supply, the design, unauthorised
 Very variable cropping (rice or sugarcane on schemes designed for
 Moderately variable irrigated dry), etc.
 Little variability The variability of the water supply between years has
an impact on how the system is managed. Schemes
with high variation of water availability between years
are likely to be more difficult to manage.
4 General Condition: Condition and performance are inter-related. Condition
physical  Good condition – no and performance of the infrastructure affect the ID’s
condition of the constraints to ability to manage water delivery.
scheme operation This indicator will also take account of the age of the
 Moderate condition – scheme and whether or not it has been rehabilitated or
some constraints to upgraded since construction.
operation
 Poor condition –
serious constraints to
operation
 Very poor – major
constraints to
operation
5 Groundwater  Alluvial The groundwater stratum will greatly influence the
stratum  Hard rock availability, accessibility and recharge capability of
groundwater.

70
No. Attribute Scale Remarks
6 Quality of  Very good As shown in the analysis of the issues facing MMI
management  Good schemes the quality of the management of the main
by the  Moderate system is fundamental to the performance and water
Irrigation  Poor use efficiency of the scheme.
Department  Very poor Whilst the assessment of the quality of management
might be partly qualitative, it can be accessed
quantitatively by analysis of key management activities
– such as irrigation planning, scheduling, organisation
of maintenance, etc.
7 Level of  Very high From the analysis of the issues facing MMI schemes
unauthorised  High there are several key factors which are related to
activities (to  Moderate unauthorised behaviour – unauthorised cropping,
measure  Low offtakes, abstraction, etc. These behaviours are
management  None evidence of lack of control within the system, and as
control) such can significantly influence the level of scheme
performance and water use efficiency.
8 Level of  Adequate The level of finance available for scheme MOM greatly
finance for  Inadequate affects how the system is operated and maintained.
management,  Very inadequate When levels of funding are low it is generally
operation and maintenance that suffers the most.
maintenance
9 Predominant  Predominantly Kharif Different approaches will be required for rice vs
cropping irrigation irrigated dry cropping systems, such as wheat, maize,
pattern  Predominantly Rabi cotton, etc.
irrigation Different interventions will suit different crops. Micro-
 Mixed Kharif and irrigation (drip, trickle) is suitable for row crops such as
Rabi maize, sugarcane, fruit crops but not suitable for paddy
 Mixed Kharif, Rabi rice. On the other hand controlled irrigation, such as
and with SRI, is a suitable intervention for paddy rice.
Summer/Perennial)
10 Degree of on-  CAD works To ascertain the extent of the CAD works and what still
farm completed needs to be done.
development  CAD works on-going May need a sub-division to state what percentage of
(CAD)  No CAD works the command area has had CAD works.
started Many states have separate departments of CAD under
different departments; Even if within WRD/ID, these
have separate identity. Pertinent question would be if
CAD in states should be split and merged with field ID
units
11 Existence and  WUAs formed and Shows the level of participation in scheme
functionality of functioning well (in management and whether more effort is required in this
WUAs. MMI command area) area.
 WUAS formed but
not functioning
 WUAs not formed,
not functioning
Source: Authors

8. Constraints on implementation of identified solutions

147. Broad constraints identified during this study which affect the implementation of
solutions are summarized in Table III.13 below, whilst more detailed constraints for
particular interventions are provided in each of the specialists’ reports in Annexure V.

9. Monitor and evaluate implementation and outcomes

148. As with the implementation of any project or programme it will be important to

monitor and evaluate the interventions for improving scheme performance and water use
efficiency. The indicators selected will depend on the nature of the interventions but will
need to measure both the impact of the measure itself and its wider overall impact on
scheme performance. The core indicators set out in Table III.4 in Section III.D.5 will

71
need to be included in the M&E programme monitoring as they will form the baseline for
the performance evaluation and assessment of improvement in the water use efficiency.

Figure III.21: Decision matrix prioritising action to improve performance & WUE

Source: Authors

Table III.13: Broad constraints to the implementation of WUE improvement

solutions
Constraint Explanation
Political Politics and the I&D sector are closely intertwined. Political vested interests can be a
significant constraint on attempts to modernise the ID or to improve the efficiency and
equity of water allocation and distribution.
Institutional Many states have outdated Irrigation and Drainage Acts, only one state, Gujarat, has
(including legal) enacted a separate Water Resources Act. The Irrigation Department’s focus on
construction of new schemes is not appropriate in states where the ultimate irrigation
potential has been reached and water resources are scarce.
Organisational The Irrigation Department was established to plan, design, construct, operate and maintain
I&D schemes. Due to the pressure to create new irrigation areas to support a growing
population the focus has been on planning, design and construction, not management. The
ID is not currently equipped with the right cadres of staff, modern skills and expertise
required to efficiently and effectively manage I&D systems.
Technical Again, in the government sector, the focus has been on construction of new schemes,
rather than better management of existing schemes. There is not the knowledge and
understanding within the ID which enables it to modernize its processes and procedures for
efficient management, operation and maintenance of I&D systems.
Financial Finance will be a constraint as long as adequate funds are not provided to sustain the built
infrastructure. Lack of adequate finance for sustainable MOM of I&D schemes is a major
constraint to adequate levels of service provision and scheme performance.
Economic Small landholdings and subsistence cropping result in many farmers living in poverty. Their
economic condition influences their options and decision-making, which may sometimes be
optimal for them but sub-optimal for the scheme. Payment of even small sums for the ISF is
an issue for many smallholders and/or tenant farmers who lack financial resources.
Social The large number of smallholder farmers on I&D schemes makes it difficult to implement
some measures (such as laser landlevelling) and to change on-farm practices.
Source: Authors

72
E. Testing the process – Pilot Schemes

1. Purpose and outputs from the pilot schemes

149. The main purpose of the pilot schemes is to develop procedures for rapid
appraisal of the performance of MMI schemes and identification and, where possible
implementation, of measures for improvement, in particular in relation to water use
efficiency. As such it is intended that the work carried out on the pilot schemes will be
based on and develop the work carried out under this study.

150. The request for a rapid appraisal process (RAP) was made by the MoWR during
the course of this study, and fits well with the identified need for a systematic and robust
approach to performance assessment of MMI schemes, including their water use
efficiency. The proposals made below are based on the understanding that the by rapid
appraisal the MoWR require the following:

 a quick and reliable method of assessing how a scheme is performing and what the
WUE is for the scheme overall
 a method that identifies where action should be taken and the costs and benefits
 provides a baseline to be used later as the reference to measure improvements in
WUE/performance for the scheme

151. The outputs from the work will comprise:

(i) A report on the current performance of the scheme and cost proposals for action to
improve performance, particularly in relation to water use efficiency. This report
will contain proposals for measures that can be adopted relatively easily and in a
short time frame to improve water use efficiency on the scheme;
(ii) Guidelines for performance assessment of MMI schemes, including a rapid
appraisal component for use by WRD/ID staff as a baseline for WUE improvement
programmes and studies related to rehabilitation and modernization of MMI
schemes;
(iii) Analysis of the impact of water saving innovations proposed in the initial study of
the scheme and implemented by the WRD/ID.

2. Mechanism for implementation

152. The work will be carried out by the team of consultants contracted by ADB for TA
7967-REG: Innovations for More Food with Less Water. The scope of work of the TA is
given as:

“[the task] will involve country studies and capacity building to support the
application of innovative water-efficient technologies and management systems in
the design and implementation of ADB investment projects in Bangladesh, India,
and Nepal.”
153. The consultant’s team in India will comprise the following specialists and inputs:

i) Irrigation Management Specialist/Team Leader (International, 6 person-

months)
ii) Irrigation Management Specialists (International, 1.5 person-months*; National
6 person-months)
iii) Participatory Irrigation Management Specialist (International, 2.5 person
months*; National 9 person-months)

73
 iv) Irrigation Planning and Design Engineers (International, 1.0 person-months*;
National 4 person-months)
v) Agriculture (irrigated) Specialists (International, 1.3 person-months*; National
4 person-months)
vi) Project Economists (National 2 person-months)
vii) Survey Specialists (National – not specified for India)
viii) Basin Planning Expert/Hydrologist (National 3 person-months)
ix) Remote Sensing Specialist (International, 0.7 person-months*; National 2
person-months)
* Estimated in India, total time shared pro-rata with other countries

3. Criteria for selection of pilot schemes

154. There are over 5,000 MMI schemes in India, so it will not be possible to select
pilot schemes which are representative of all types of MMI scheme. Criteria which can
be used for selection of the 2 Pilot Schemes are provided in Table III.14 below. The key
factors to consider in the selection of the Pilot Schemes are:

i) The responsiveness of the state to change: Responsive states are more likely
to support proposed improvements.
ii) The scale of MMI in the state: States with large areas under MMI are likely to be
more interested in improving water use efficiency.
iii) The degree of water scarcity: States and schemes where water is scarce (for
irrigation as well as domestic, industrial and other uses) are more likely to be
interested in improving WUE.
iv) General condition of scheme: It will be important to select schemes that can be
operated reasonably well.
v) Reliability/security of water supply: It would be sensible to select one scheme
with storage and one with run-of-the-river as the operation procedures are very
different.
vi) Incidence of conjunctive use: It will be important to select both schemes based
on the availability and use of groundwater. Propose one scheme with an alluvial
area and one in a hard rock area.
vii) Existence and functionality of WUAs: At least one scheme should have
moderately well-functioning WUAs
viii) Water charge collection rate: At least one scheme, probably both, should be
setting and collecting water charges.
Table III.14: Proposed criteria for selection of pilot projects
Category Criteria Possible options Selection
importance
(5-High, 1-Low)
General Responsiveness  Very responsive 4
context of State to change  Moderately responsive
 Not responsive
Scale of MMI  5 million ha 4
schemes in the  2-5 million ha
State  1-2 million ha
 < 1 million ha
Physical Agro-climate  Arid (<400mm rainfall) 3
(need for  Semi-arid (400-600 mm rainfall)
irrigation)  Humid (>600 mm rainfall)
Degree of water  High 4
scarcity  Moderate
 Low
 No scarcity

74
 Category Criteria Possible options Selection
importance
(5-High, 1-Low)
Geology (for  Alluvial basin 5
groundwater)  Hard rock basin
Size of scheme  Major (> 500,000 ha) 3
 Major (10 – 500,000 ha)
 Medium (2-10,000 ha)
General condition  Very good (operation not constrained by 5
of scheme physical deficiencies)
 Good (operation partially constrained by
physical deficiencies)
 Moderate (operation noticeably constrained
by physical deficiencies)
 Poor (operation significantly constrained by
physical deficiencies)
 Very poor (not operable)
Extent of CAD  CAD works completed over entire scheme 3
works  CAD works completed over more than 50%
of the scheme
 CAD works completed over less than 50%
of the scheme
 No CAD works yet started
Water Reliability/security  Run-of-the-river 5
supply of surface water  With storage (direct)
supply  With storage (on upstream river system)
Incidence of  Very high (>60% of farmers use SW+GW) 5
conjunctive use  High (31-60% of farmers use SW+GW)
 Moderate(11-30% of farmers use SW+GW)
 Low (<10% of farmers use SW+GW)
 None (No, or very few farmers use
SW+GW)
Cropping Predominant  Paddy (Kharif) 3
cropping pattern  Paddy (Kharif and Rabi)
 Wheat (Rabi)
 Sugarcane
Main irrigation  Kharif 3
season  Rabi
Cropping intensity  Very high (>150%) 3
 High (>101-150%)
 Moderate (50-100%)
 Low (<50%)
System utilisation  Very high (>95 %) 4
- Ratio of Irrigation  High (81-95%)
Potential Utilised  Moderate (71-80%)
(IPU) to Irrigation  Low (60-70%)
Potential Created  Very low (<60%)
(IPC)
Institutional Existence and  WUAs formed and functioning well 5
functionality of  WUAs formed but not functioning
WUAs  WUAs not formed, not functioning
Financial Water charge  Very high (>90%) 5
collection rate  High (61-90%)
 Moderate (20-60%)
 Low (<20%)
 Not collected
Source: Authors

75
 4. Work to be carried out

155. As discussed in the sections above a detailed analysis has been carried out in
this study of the issues and possible solutions facing MMI schemes. These issues and
possible solutions are summarized in Section D.7.f and Annexure V, together with
proposals for action by the TA 7967-REG team. The work identified is summarised in the
flow chart in Figure III.22 and comprises, inter alia, the following tasks:

i) Development of a questionnaires for obtaining the required data and information;

ii) Data collection, processing and analysis;
iii) Walk through of the system (or representative parts thereof) to assess system
condition and performance;
iv) Obtaining, analysing and reporting on remote sensing data;
v) Assessment of scheme performance and recommendations for measures to improve
water use efficiency in the short, medium and long-term; Evaluation of measures
taken in the short-term to improve water use efficiency
vi) Preparation of guidelines for the process of scheme performance assessment and
water use efficiency improvement;
vii) Preparation of final report on the process and activities carried out.
viii) The process is similar to that developed by Burt and Styles and FAO for
MASSCOTE, and (often unpublished) procedures followed by consultants when
carrying out studies prior to scheme rehabilitation and modernisation (Beadle et al,
1988).
ix) The information and data to be collected will cover the areas set out in Table III.15.
Rainfall, discharge, crop area, etc. data will be required for 3-5 years to enable
variations in water supply and crop area to be tracked in relation to seasonal and
annual variations in climate.
Figure III.22: Flow chart of procedure for identification of WUE improvement
measures

Source: Authors

76
 Table III.15: Outline of information and data needs for the Pilot projects
Domain Information/data needs
Legal  Legal framework for water resources and irrigation development and management
 Legal framework for PIM and formation of WUAs
 Legal framework for local government (Panchayati Raj institutions)
 Other relevant legal frameworks (relate to ground water abstraction, watershed
development, Societies Act, etc.)
 Relevant Government Orders
Maps and  Maps of the system
records  Remote sensing images
 Design drawings
 Command areas per canal
 Ground water maps
 Waterlogging and salinity maps
Climate and  Daily rainfall data over the catchment
Hydrology  Daily, monthly, seasonal and annual river flows
 Daily rainfall data within the command area
 Daily climatic data within the command area (temperature, wind speed, sunshine
hours, etc.)
 Daily ET values within the command area
Institutional  Number of WUAs formed
 Reports on current status of WUAs
Management  Management structure
 Staffing levels and capability
 Training
 Finances for MOM (staffing, overheads, running costs, operation, maintenance, fee
income, etc.)
 Water charges – rules and regulations, rates, recovery, etc.
 Liaison with water users
 Liaison with other water entities
Operation  Guidelines/instructions/manuals on system operation processes and procedures
 Storage volumes (for different uses – agriculture, domestic, industrial, etc.)
 Irrigation schedules
 Design cropping pattern and schedule
 Daily discharge data (at intake, key control points, etc.)
 Seasonal crop areas
 Ground water levels ( and flows, if available)
 Waterlogged and saline area maps and records
 Drainage flow records
Maintenance  Guidelines/instructions/manuals on maintenance processes and procedures
 System condition and performance
 Maintenance machinery and equipment
 Annual expenditure and resources used on maintenance
Institutions  Existence, role and current capabilities of relevant institutions (e.g. WALMIs,
Panchayati Raj) and government agencies (e.g. Agricultural Department)
Agricultural  Crop yields (range and averages)
production  Crop production
and marketing  Marketing opportunities
 Crop pricing
 Crop and farm budgets, farm income
Source: Authors

156. The consultants should work closely with WRD/ID staff. This is for four main
reasons: (i) to benefit from the knowledge held by the WRD/ID; (ii) to ensure that the
approach is understood by WRD/ID staff; (iii) to benefit from suggestions for
improvement from WRD/ID staff; (iv) to generate a sense of ownership of the approach
by the WRD/ID.

157. It is intended that the work on the pilot schemes will provide a robust analytical
framework which structures the data to be collected and how it will be processed and

77
analysed. The process will: (i) identify areas of poor performance and the factors which
influence or constrain performance: (ii) identify the work and resources (finance, human
resources, etc.) required to address these performance constraints, and (iii) will assess
the relative costs and benefits of different interventions in order to identify priority
actions. These priority actions will be based on key criteria, including the cost, ease of
implementation, speed of implementation (short-term, long-term), cost effectiveness and
longevity of the impacts.

F. Benchmarking

158. Benchmarking can be used to compare Box III.3: Benchmarking definition

the performance of one irrigation schemes with
another. By identifying best practice irrigation Benchmarking can be defined as:
schemes which form the benchmark for other
“A systematic process for securing
schemes senior irrigation managers have a continual improvement through
valuable for raising the performance of all comparison with relevant and achievable
schemes (Figure III.23). As can be seen from internal or external norms and standards”
the definition given in Box III.3 benchmarking is Source: (Malano and Burton, 2001)
intended as a long term programme to improve
performance against achievable targets.

Figure III.23: Benchmarking – comparative performance against best practice

Performance before Performance after

benchmarking benchmarking
Performance gap
narrowed, removed or
overtaken
“Best practice” “Best practice”
performance performance
Performance
gap

Performance
gap
Gap analysis and
B implementation of B
action plan
A

Irrigation and drainage Irrigation and drainage

system system
Source: Burton, 2010

159. A number of benchmarking activities have been carried out since the concept
was promoted in the irrigation and drainage sector in the late 1990s/early 2000s (ANCID,
2000; Malano and Burton, 2001; Malano et al; 2004). The ICID formed a Task Force to
develop the concept, with early contributions from India and institutionalising of the
process in Maharashtra (GoM, 2008). The Indian chapter of INPIM has suggested
indicators for benchmarking and the World Bank is currently supporting the development
of a web site for benchmarking the performance of Water Users’ Associations
(http://wua-india.org/about.html).

160. Benchmarking relies on identifying the key processes which transform the inputs
into the desired outputs and impacts (Figure III.24). As noted in the sections above the
identification of these processes and their relative impact on the outputs and outcomes is

78
crucial to the benchmarking process. Setting the boundaries is also important, is it to be
limited to the physical system, to the scheme, or to the wider environment? Once the
boundaries and processes are defined appropriate indicators can be identified and data
collected.

Figure III.24: Identification of key processes in an irrigation and drainage scheme

Source: Burton, 2010

161. Another key part of the process is

the identification of descriptors which will
enable comparison of like-with-like
schemes (Box III.4). These “descriptors”
as identified by Burton and Malano
(2001) can be adapted to form the basis
for the MMI typology described in
preceding sections.
162. If, as described in the sections
above, data are being collected to assess
the WUE of MMI schemes then these
data can be used to benchmark
performance. The better performing
schemes, as assessed against the key
performance indicators (KPIs), can be
used as the benchmark, and their core
processes studied to see where their
comparative advantage is coming from.
The knowledge gained can then be
applied to less well performing systems
in order to improve their performance
(Figure III.25)
Box III.4 Descriptors for I&D schemes
 Irrigable area
 Drained area
 Annual irrigated area
 Climate
 Water resources availability
 Water source
 Average annual rainfall
 Average annual reference crop potential
evapotranspiration (ETo)
 Method of water abstraction
 Water delivery infrastructure
 Type of water distribution
 Type of drainage
 Predominant on-farm irrigation method
 Major crops (with percentages of total irrigated
area)
 Average farm size
 Type of irrigation system management
 Type of drainage system management
Source: Malano and Burton 2001.

79
 Figure III.25: Identification and costing of measures to close the performance gap

Source: Authors, based on Burton, 2010

163. One of the most important developments of the benchmarking concept has been
by the Water Resources Department, Government of Maharashtra, who have been
benchmarking the performance of I&D schemes in the State since 2001-2 (GoM, 2008;
ICID, 2004) using the guidelines prepared by the Indian National Committee on Irrigation
and Drainage (INCID) in 2002. The initial programme started with 84 schemes and 10
indicators, by 2007-8 this had increased to 262 schemes and 12 indicators (Table III.16).
There have been some refinements to the benchmarking process over the years but the
current set of indicators are set out in Table III.17. The categorization of I&D schemes
has been as set out in Table III.18.

Table III.16: Development of the benchmarking programme in Maharashtra

Year Number of schemes Number of Date of report
Major Medium Minor Total indicators publication
2001-2 30 26 28 84 10 March 2003
2002-3 49 142 63 254 11 March 2004
2003-4 49 143 69 262 12 March 2005
2004-5 49 144 69 262 12 February 2006
2005-6 49 144 69 262 12 March 2007
2006-7 9 144 69 262 13 March 2008
Source: GoM, 2008

Table III.17: Indicators used in benchmarking I&D schemes in Maharashtra

No. Indicator Definition Target value/ Units

A. System performance
1. Annual irrigation Total volume of irrigation water supplied at intake Major and Medium
3
water supply per unit Total area irrigated in all seasons – 7,692 m /ha
3
irrigated area Minor – 6,667 m /ha
2. Potential created Total potential utilised (measured crop area) All schemes – 100%
and utilised Irrigation potential created
B. Agricultural productivity
3. Output (agricultural Total value of agricultural production Rs/ha

80
No. Indicator Definition Target value/ Units

production) per unit Total irrigated area

irrigated area
3
4. Output (agricultural Total value of agricultural production Rs/m
production) per unit Total volume of irrigation water supplied
irrigation water
supply
C. Financial aspects
5. (a) Cost recovery Total water charges collected 1.0
ratio: Cost of water charge collection
Irrigation
6. (b) Cost recovery Total water charges collected 1.0
ratio: Non-irrigation Cost of water charge collection
7. Total O&M cost per Total MOM costs for the system Rs/ha
unit irrigated area Total area irrigated (potential utilised) Set separately for
each system
3
8. Total O&M cost per Total MOM costs for the system Rs/m
unit volume of water Total volume of water supplied (all uses)
supplied
3
9. Revenue per unit Total revenue collected Rs/m
volume of water Total volume of water supplied (all uses)
supplied
10. (a) Assessment Total irrigation water charges collected %
recovery ratio: Total irrigation water charges due
Irrigated
11. (b) Assessment Total non-irrigation water charges collected %
recovery ratio: Non- Total non-irrigation water charges due
irrigated
D. Environmental aspects
12. Land damage index Total land damaged within the irrigable command area %
Total irrigable command area
E. Social aspects
13. Equity performance Actual area irrigated in head, middle and tail % - values for Head,
Command area in head, middle and tail Middle and Tail
Source: GoM, 2008

164. The benchmarking report details the performance for each scheme, grouping
them into four groups related to their water supply for each category of major, medium
and minor schemes: (i) Highly deficient; (ii) Normal; (iii) Surplus; and (iv) Abundant, and
provides an overall summary for all major, medium and minor schemes (Table III.19).

Table III.18: Categorisation of I&D schemes in Maharashtra benchmarking

No. Descriptor Categories
1. Type of water control Fixed proportional division; Manual control; Automatic
control.
Manual control schemes are considered
2. Method of allocation and distribution Supply-orientated arranged-demand; on-demand
of water
3. Water availability Abundant to scarce
Highly deficit to abundant schemes are considered
4. Water source Surface water; Groundwater; Surface water + Groundwater
Surface water schemes are included
5. Size of scheme Major; Medium; Minor
All sizes are considered
Source: GoM, 2008

81
165. The analysis is relatively difficult to follow as there are a large number of
schemes, so further thought may be required on how to present the data. One obvious
route forward is to put the data on the web site and allow the user to compare
performance of similar schemes, another is to provide scores for each of the indicators
such that the performance of each scheme can be added up and compared with other
the scores from other similar schemes. In addition the analysis tends to compare
performance with previous years and with the state targets. This has its place, but little
is said about which the best are performing systems which might be used as examples of
best practice.

166. Nevertheless the report represents an important milestone in performance

management of I&D systems and has leaded the way for other States in this regard.

Table III.19: Range of values for benchmarking indicators, Maharashtra 2006-7

No. Indicator Units Major Medium Minor Remarks
A. System performance
3
1. Annual irrigation water m /ha 10,977 7,362 7,399 Similar figures to
supply per unit previous years, not a
irrigated area great deal of difference
2. Potential created and - 0.91 0.65 0.89 Marked improvement
utilised over the years, from 0.46,
0.38, and 0.51 in 2002-3
B. Agricultural
productivity
3. Output (agricultural kg/ha n/a n/a n/a Data not provided –
production) per unit various crops
irrigated area
3
4. Output (agricultural Rs/m 35,201 29,302 21,015 Similar figures to
production) per unit previous years, not a
irrigation water supply great deal of difference
C. Financial aspects
5. (a) Cost recovery ratio: % 1.2 0.3 0.35 Increase for major, low
Irrigation for medium and minor
schemes over previous
years
6. (b) Cost recovery ratio: % n/a n/a n/a
Non-irrigation
7. Total O&M cost per Rs/ha 1,815 2,989 1,847 Includes establishment
unit irrigated area costs
3
8. Total O&M cost per Rs/m 0.18 0.43 0.32
unit volume of water
supplied
3
9. Revenue per unit Rs/m 0.22 0.13 0.11
volume of water
supplied
10. (a) Assessment - 0.49 0.43 0.43
recovery ratio:
Irrigated
11. (b) Assessment - 0.84 0.82 0.75 Better ratio than for
recovery ratio: Non- irrigation sector.
irrigated
D. Environmental aspects

82
No. Indicator Units Major Medium Minor Remarks
12. Land damage index n/a n/a n/a
E. Social aspects
13. Equity performance n/a n/a n/a Scheme specific
Source: GoM, 2008

83
 IV. UPDATING DPR GUIDELINES

A. Overview

167. Presently MMI projects in India are funded from the outlay provided under the
FYPs after investigation, techno-economic formulation and approval by the Planning
Commission for inclusion under the plans and fund clearance. Two programmes of
MOWR are in force, AIBP and CAD&WM for development and management of existing
irrigation projects; New irrigation projects and extension, renovation and modernization
(ERM) of the existing projects is being done under ERM component of AIBP and
development of on-farm works and other activities relating to enhancing production and
productivity of the project commands are executed under CAD&WM programme.
Guidelines for preparation of ‘detailed project reports’ (DPRs) were first evolved in 1980
and were last revised in 201041. State Governments submit proposals in the form of
DPRs to CWC for clearance, CWC is entrusted with the responsibility of examination of
the technical and economic feasibility of the projects and the concerned ministries issue
prior ‘no-objection’ to the provisions concerning them. A ‘Technical Advisory Committee’
(TAC) examines the clearances and approves the project proposals before
recommending these to the Planning Commission for fund clearance. States implement
these projects on release of funds.

B. Contents of the existing guidelines and review of the current approach

168. The guidelines dealing with modernization include schemes requiring extension,
renovation (and also restoration/rehabilitation) and modernization (ERM) of components
of the existing project to optimize the benefits in view of the deficiencies experienced in
operation & maintenance of the project over the past 25 years or more and based on
technological advancements made till date; this also includes deterioration of the system
owing to lack of maintenance. These guidelines cover detailed review of water
availability, design flood, cropping pattern, water demand, operation and safety concerns
of dams, head-works, water control and conveyance/distribution system, conjunctive use
and drainage aspects, strengthening agricultural support services, involvement of
beneficiaries and associations for sustainability of the schemes. The objective is to
improve the existing head-works, canals; command area works to address the
deficiencies experienced in operation and maintenance so as to derive optimum benefits
for the present day irrigated agriculture.

169. These guidelines are generally engineering centric and do not deal with
management and other multi-disciplinary aspects including participation of beneficiaries,
which are considered necessary to enhance WUE and performance of the schemes.
Besides, these guidelines consider continuation of the ‘Business as usual approach’
considering ‘command development and management’ as a discrete component of
irrigation conveyance and distribution. Planning Commission has directed to take up
development of CAD works simultaneously with development of canals and distribution
networks in case of new and ERM projects. Present guidelines include a (i) checklist, (ii)
salient features, and (iii) chapters on hydrology, reservoir operation, structures to be
modified, cropping pattern and crop water requirements, demand tables, experimentation
on estimation of losses (seepage, evaporation, transpiration), improvements required in
the canal system, water management practices, construction programme, cost estimates
and economic feasibility through benefit-cost ratios etc.

41
GOI (2010), Guidelines for Preparation of Detailed Project Reports of Irrigation and Multipurpose Projects,
Governmnet of India, Ministry of Water Resources, Governmnet of India, New Delhi, India.

84
170. The objective of a CAD&WM project is to bridge the gap between irrigation
potential creation (at canal outlet) and its utilization (in the farmer’s fields) through
systematically improved land, water and crop management for sustainable optimum
agricultural production & productivity of irrigated commands of major and medium
irrigation projects and to improve socio-economic condition of the farmers though
integration of various activities related to irrigated agriculture. Organized scientific
planning and development of each outlet command is envisaged under the programme
through systematic topographical and soil surveys, adopting soil & climate reliant
cropping patterns, consolidating land holdings for economical farming practices; levelling
and shaping each farm to suit crops grown and easing extension services; linking each
farm with canal outlet through field channels; streamlining farm inputs such as seeds,
fertilizers, pesticides etc.; provide research and extension services to support advanced
high yielding agriculture with due emphasis in providing drains and roads to each farm,
market, storage and other infrastructure. The approach adopted at inception of the
programme was integrated management of on-farm practices assuming that sufficient
water would be available for the designed cropping patterns at the farm outlet.
Coordinated efforts of all multi-disciplinary departments were planned in an integrated
manner to ensure equitable and efficient delivery of water under irrigation Acts. All
Irrigation Acts provide recording of water requirements and deliveries at each control and
outlet. The 2010-guidelines for CAD&WM programme include (i) a checklist, salient
features with more emphasis on canal alignment and sections, and (iii) chapters on
water availability, status of conveyance system, micro level infra-structure development
of the command area, status of on-farm water management system, crops and cropping
patterns, technical details of works carried out and balance works, participatory approach
to implement the programme, agricultural and extension facilities. Annexure-V.7 and VII
respectively provide more details CAD&WM programme and guidelines of CAD&WM
programme.

171. Two other schemes of MOWR viz. ‘repair, renovation and restoration’ (RRR) of
water bodies and ‘Artificial Recharge to Ground Water’ are also in force. These schemes
are not directly relevant to management of existing MMI schemes; however, the
potentials of integrating a large number of ponds, tanks and natural lakes within MMI
command to supplement supplies in case of first programme and supplementing ground
water supplies through conjunctive use should be explored to increase water use
efficiency.

172. Deficiencies of the existing guidelines: NWUEISP considers restructuring the

problem based on the issues faced by the project and the associated concerns,
diagnosis of the causes, suggesting available solutions, and accordingly formulating the
DPR guidelines in short term context based on prioritized solutions. The guidelines for
NWUEISP would thus consider both development and management aspects of the
problem. The approach considered in the existing guidelines concentrates on
development alone. Following specific deficiencies are inherent in the present guidelines:

 Guidelines developed in 1980 were evolved when water scarcity was not a real issue,
infrastructure and canal systems were relatively new and were functioning well,
environmental concerns were not known, multi-disciplinary staff within CADAs
performed well. A number of constraints have emerged since then, requiring reform
needs. 2010 guidelines do not cover all such reform requirements.
 Framework for NWUEISP assumes vulnerable constrains to be taken up on priority.
The guidelines on modernization (ERM) of projects thus requires identification of
deficiencies in existing irrigation systems considering suggested mechanism or tools
to identify the deficiencies and considering the available options to the reforms.
Vulnerable constrains to be taken up on priority. Present guidelines consider

85
 extension, restoration/renovation and modernization of the project in one go, which
may not be a cost effective solution. Fiscal constraints limit this objective.
 CAD&WM programme as originally conceived has undergone number of changes.
Multi-disciplinary role of CADAs has weakened under the current circumstances.
CAD&WM programme needs a number of changes if it has to continue in the present
day circumstances to pace up activities. Continuity of the CAD&WM programme has
to be ensured through NWUEISP. Desirably CADAs should work under IDs.
 Section 19 of the 2010 guidelines on ‘water management and maintenance refers to
review of existing O&M distribution, and broad information on PIM empowerment and
functions. It is silent on role of agencies in empowering PIM programmes.
 Status on progress of activities within AIBP and CAD&WM programme varies from
project to project. The framework of NWUEISP needs to be flexible to accommodate
different level of progress made so far, particularly, CAD&WM programme.

C. Purpose and need for up-dating guideline

173. DSDAP study recommended identifying challenges and prioritized mechanism to

abate each challenge in six different areas viz. basin level, conveyance and distributary
level, on-farm, crop management, PIM level, R&D, monitoring and evaluation. A matrix of
the concerns and solutions and related study requirements (Annexure VII) provides an
exhaustive list of challenges that need be addressed at basin, project, conveyance &
distribution, field application, crop management, marketing issues, drainage issues and
management issues. Each issue needs evaluating specific solution and a study in this
regard need be included in the DPRs. This list also highlights the fact that dealing with
these challenges would be almost impossible unless various agencies dealing with MMI
act in unison thus suggesting institutional realignment as a compulsion before reform
initiative in the States.

174. NWUEISP envisages combining the management aspects of modernisation

programme and the development and management aspects of the CAD&WM
programme from head-works of the main-canal to management of crops in each field
suggesting integrating the roles of IDs and CADAs. Since CAD&WM programme is
designed to complete all micro level infrastructure development before pull-out, IDs in
association with WALMIs need to play some additional roles on continuation of the
extension services after CADA pull-out. With no one in the saddle at present, IDs now-on
are required to play a nodal role of development and management of the irrigation
commands of MMI projects. NWUEISP thus would altogether require a new set of
guidelines especially as the programme is envisaged to cover 20% enhancement in
current water use efficiencies of the over-all project during 12th FYP and blow it up to
optimized efficiencies as and when IWRM implementation is initiated in the State. The
programmes and thus guidelines are to consider both development and management
aspects of the reform process as well as have to be flexible enough to implement
prioritized components necessary to enhance current efficiencies because of fiscal
crunch. Provisions of the NWP, NWM and the directives of the 12th FYP Agenda are also
quite compelling in formulating this approach to the reform process and consequential
approach to frame the structure of the guidelines.

175. Institutional Realignment - Present institutional set up in States is designed to

suit irrigation infrastructure development and supply oriented services. Management of
MMI schemes requires an altogether different set up dealing with allocations and
entitlements to meet demand oriented services. During the development phase of an
MMI project, IDs, CADAs and WALMIs have a different set of roles to play. These
change completely when management phase begins. Participatory associations are
dependent on the coordinated efforts of these organizations, which is lacking at present.
During management phase scarcity of water coupled with increased pressure of

86
population growth and increasing demands of other water use are likely to create conflict
of interest in coming days. This necessitates the allocating agencies (presently IDs at
basin level) to be independent, transparent and judicious in performing their allocation
functions under regulatory authorities. Irrigation department being custodian of water are
also a major user of water. While priorities on other water use have been assigned
through policy statements, these get hardly implemented when the allocator himself is a
major user of water. The allocation process needs to be fair, transparent and judicious
under a regulatory control. It is only possible if the water assessment and allocation
institutional functions are performed by organization other than those using water.
IDs/WRDs, CADAS and WALMIs are also required to function in unison at the command
level. Details on realigning the institutions are described in detail in Annexure V.1.

D. Approach to the structure of the proposed guidelines

176. The key concern of MoWR is how to assess the performance of an irrigation
system in terms of water use efficiency and other allied indices and how best the
performance including WUE be improved for a large number of projects in the short term
context, say within 12th Plan period. Present 2010-guidelines consider modernizing
(ERM) irrigation projects in their totality through AIBP initiative. CAD&WM programme is
concentrating more on on-farm micro infrastructure development and is constrained to
take up works above outlets. It is also constrained to take up on-farm and crop
management initiatives for want of staff and liaison with other departments (WALMIs,
Agriculture and ground water). Though CADAs took lead in formalizing PIM programmes
in States, effective functioning of the associations cannot be ensured unless IDs assure
releases at prominent control points. Thus coordination of IDs, WALMIs and CADAs is
considered crucial for initiating management initiatives. CAD&WM programme is central
to management functions, it would be desirable to restructure its programme functions
through NWUEISP (when it functions under IDs) considering management objectives of
the project operations from main canal to crop management in every filed.

177. The approach to NWUEISP guidelines for the proposed programme would be: (i)
IDs act as nodal agencies, CADAs function under IDs, WALMIs provide full support
throughout including extension services. This will ensure: (i) efficient use of multi-
disciplinary staff under CADAs, (ii) additional WALMIs support on extension services to
the associations (directly or through NGOs/experts), (iii) paced up CADA activities, both
outside and inside of their jurisdictions (through joint efforts of three organizations), (iv)
pushing through NWUEISP through RAP and mapping, and (v) evaluating performance
while implementing the programme.

178. Many suggest that the FAO approach using RAP and MASSCOTE tools help in
quick identification of the constraints and exploring cost effective options that help
gradual increase in efficiencies. Yet some others believe e-leaf approach to quickly map
the spatial and temporal characteristics of the command information and its status would
help in providing larger and quicker information on canal performance. The points
favouring RAP-MASSCOTE approach include its systematic step wise procedure to map
the system performance. The points against this approach are that it is canal oriented
approach and does not necessarily include on-farm performance where more losses
take place. Also some believe that the RAP-MASSCOTE approach does not consider
social, political and institutional aspects into consideration. This has been discussed
earlier part of the report. Guidelines should include this approach to identify the
deficiencies of the system.

87
E. Purpose of updating guidelines

179. A number of challenges are confronting the water sector. DSDAP study
recommended identifying challenges and suggesting prioritized mechanism to abate
each challenge in six different areas viz. basin level, conveyance and distributary level,
on-farm, crop management, PIM level, R&D, monitoring and evaluation. A matrix of the
concerns and solutions and related study requirements is given in detail in Annexure VII.
The information is compiled in terms of challenges that need be addressed at basin and
project level, conveyance and distribution level, field application level, crop management
and marketing issues, drainage issues and management issues. Challenges faced by
each project differ and solutions will also vary. Accordingly, the study requirements for
each concern and the corresponding provisions will also vary. Existing guidelines
consider standardized set of components, activities, design features and thus are rigid
stereo-typed guidelines. In this context the structure of the NWUEISP would need be
quite different from those of existing guidelines.

F. Updating present guidelines

180. Updating 2010-guidelines should follow a systematic and a structured approach

considered in the NWUEISP framework considering RAP and mapping procedure
described earlier. Both development and management aspects are to be included.
Guidelines for NWUEISP require inclusion of common issues, possible solutions and
likely studies to be taken up from both developmental and management angle
considering cost effective solutions.

181. The existing 2010-guidelines for development of DPRs for different categories of
the schemes compile general engineering oriented solutions of the physical project
functions and tries to restore the project functions. These are necessary. However, the
NWUEISP requirements for DPR also include, addressing the key concerns and
providing prioritized solutions to the key concerns. Key concerns vary in every MMI
project. DPR of a NWUEISP cannot be generic but specifically tailored project, region
and need specific reports to address the vulnerable issues faced by the project. In this
regard, guidelines for new, ERM and CAD&WM projects need a review if these are to be
applied to NWUEISP projects. Each project has its own set of issues and constraints.
Standardization of the issues and possible solutions as in case of present guidelines is
not feasible nor is necessary. Some of the commonly observed issues in MMI projects in
India, possible solutions and required studies need reflection in DPRs.

182. An attempt is made in Annexure VII to update the existing guidelines in respect of
common issues faced by MMI projects in India. For each issue, possible solutions, likely
studies to be taken up, expected outcome, reliance to NWUEISP and DPR requirements
are listed. Three categories of the coverage are listed for new, ERM and CAD&WM
projects; these include existing guidelines either: (i) do not cover/ do not require, or (ii)
partially covered or (iii) fully covered. Partially covered contents of DPR provisions may
refer to coverage of data and other information relating the concern but not the specific
concern and the details of specific requirements of addressing the issues are not listed.
Salient features of these categories of the projects are, however adequately covered. As
may be seen from the Annexure VII most of the concerns are not adequately answered
in the present DPR because of inherent nature of the three types of DPR being
development oriented rather than management oriented. To this effect, it is desirable
that an altogether new set of guidelines be prepared for NWUEISP projects. The
framework of the new guidelines could be evolved through pilot studies.

88
 V. WORKING GROUP STATE AND NATIONAL LEVEL CONSULTATIONS

A. Introduction

183. The involvement of state governments in India for the implementation of the
National Water Mission is contingent on understanding state-specific problems. For this
purpose, initially two state-level workshops were organized. The first was held in in
Chandigarh on 5 June 2013 and the second in Hyderabad on 25 June 2013.These
workshops were designed to involve senior level officials as well as mid-level officials
from the water resources departments of various states. Northern states were
represented in the Chandigarh workshop; southern states participated in the Hyderabad
workshop. A meeting of the working group and state representatives chaired by
Secretary, MoWR was held on 19th march 2014, where in the findings of the study were
deliberated upon observations of the participants undertaken.

B. Setting the context

184. The purpose of the workshops was two-fold: first, they were needed to ascertain
the views, opinions and concerns of water resources officials to understand the
challenges that states were facing. Secondly, the workshops had to help build
confidence among state officials that the National Water Mission would indeed be run on
a mission mode, with clear targets, assigned responsibilities, and adequate support to
state governments to implement the programmes.

Therefore, the workshops were organized against the backdrop of four key questions:

i) Do you believe that the National Water Mission and its constituent aims and
incentives have been structured in a manner, which would be conducive to
improving water management within your state?
ii) What specific aspects, which might be unique to your state, should be considered
for the implementation of the NWM?
iii) Is the target of 20% improvement in WUE a realistic one for your state? Could
more be achieved?
iv) What is the benchmark/baseline that you would apply for the 20% increase in
WUE?

185. These questions were designed to elicit honest reactions from the participants at
the outset of the workshop. The challenge of running a workshop with participants from
many different states is that there would be the danger of not winning their confidence
unless participants had the opportunity to share their skepticism and concerns at the
very beginning. If, instead, participants felt that a one-size-fits-all approach was being
adopted, they would not engage in the discussions actively.

C. Focused group discussions: interventions at various levels of the irrigation

system

186. Following from the general discussions, it was necessary to organize discussion
groups around specific thematic areas, such as on strengthening irrigation institutions,
improving irrigation management practices, improvements in water data and usable
information for resource management, interventions needed for on-farm management,
and support for participatory irrigation management. The thematic sets of questions were
similar to the necessary interventions identified in Dhingra and Sen (2012) and in this

89
report. The success of the workshops depended on the specificity of the questions posed
to state officials as well as that of the answers.

187. With around 50 persons expected in each consultation, five breakout groups were
proposed with 8-10 participants in each. Members of the ADB team were appointed as
facilitators while each breakout group had to identify a rapporteur from within its
membership. It was also important to have a mix of participants. Therefore, officials from
the same state were divided into different groups. Similarly, officials with similar
backgrounds were, to an extent, positioned in different groups. This was necessary to
ensure that officials understood each other’s problems. Thus, irrigation officials could
learn from those involved in PIM activities or on- specialists in on-farm management
could benefit from those involved in data collection and analysis. Thus, the five thematic
groups were:

(i) Irrigation institutional interventions, including integrated role of WRD/ID, CADAs and
WALMIs, etc.
(ii) Irrigation management interventions, including performance benchmarking, training
(in management not just engineering practices), constraints in implementing planned
actions, changes needed for improving water delivery, etc.
(iii) On-farm interventions, including storage and conveyance, crop diversification, crop-
water budgeting, service delivery and contractual arrangements, etc.
(iv) Participatory irrigation management interventions, including role and capacity
building of WUAs, ISF earnings, NIMF contributions, etc.
(v) Data, monitoring and evaluation, including basin level interventions, inter-sectoral
demand and entitlements, inter-state issues, and R&D

188. These five themes capture all of the main areas of attention in the NWUEI-SP
study. But they are grouped in a way that extends from what WRDs could do in-house,
what needs to be done in the field, how to involve other stakeholders, and how to
consider the wider basin-level impacts. The last two are also in line with other goals of
the NWM. These are also issues with rising degrees of difficulty. In the minimum,
WRDs/IDs have to reform their internal management processes. Only then would they be
ready to offer genuine service delivery improvements at the farm level or make PIM/IMT
a legitimate and effective partnership. Understanding issues at a basin/inter-state level
would be the hardest task.

D. Chandigarh workshop

189. Much of the discussion in this workshop focused on the broader questions of
whether the target of 20% increase in water use efficiency was realistic or not, how could
a baseline be established quickly, and how the central government could help in the
implementation of the National Water Mission.

190. Senior officials felt that achieving the target of 20% efficiency improvement might
be challenging but could be possible at a project level. Participants in the workshop were
supportive of establishing a baseline quickly but recommended appropriate selection of
representative samples at each stage of a canal system. Moreover, they wanted
separate measurements of large and small canal systems and for different agro-climatic
zones. Once a definition of WUE had been agreed (preferably crop productivity per unit
of water supplied), it had to be uniformly applied across the country. Participants also
recognized that measurements of WUE had to be undertaken on a continuous basis.
Although not all WALMIs were functioning well, some were already involved in WUE
assessments, and they could be leveraged to establish baselines using the sampling

90
method. Data generated from the canal system could be further triangulated using
remote sensing and GIS technologies.

191. Participants had several suggestions on the crucial steps needed to improve
WUE by 20%. The most important among them was increased financial resources
dedicated to operations and maintenance of canal systems. Another issue that needed a
lot of attention was raising awareness among farmers and creating incentives to
voluntarily diversify cropping choices and practices. Thirdly, water user associations had
to be supported, such as with financial incentives from the National Irrigation
Management Fund. Fourthly, micro-irrigation systems had to be deployed more widely.
And groundwater recharge had to become a priority for irrigation departments, WUAs
and farmers. This meant that the conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water
needed more attention at the farm level. The price differential between the two water
sources was one major disincentive. If irrigation service fees were retained by the WUAs,
it could be one way to encourage improved conjunctive management by the community.
Finally, an inter-departmental committee or group was necessary to develop a common
methodology for assessing WUE and, subsequently, appraising performance.

192. The support of the central government was, of course, vital in the case of
financial resources, such as for O&M, strengthening groundwater departments, and
modernizing irrigation systems. Support from the Ministry of Water Resources was also
needed to bolster participatory irrigation management, training of WUAs, making
WALMIs multi-disciplinary and more research oriented, and awarding incentives to ID
staff that help implement PIM in their states. Further, central funds and other resources
could be directed to research into newer crop varieties, as well as mass awareness
campaigns to encourage water efficient practices.

E. Hyderabad workshop

193. Senior officials from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka emphasized that, while a
baseline for WUE had to be established, it was also important to understand state-
specific challenges. For this purpose, there had to be improved coordination with other
departments. Many water resources departments were still functioning primarily as
irrigation departments, focused more on a supply-side and engineering-focused
approach to irrigation. But the pursuit of an integrated approach to water management
had to continue within state borders. Officials were skeptical about applying basin level
water management practices. That said, states could learn from each with regard to
institutional (strengthening WALMIs), technological (using telemetry and automated
systems), and process (farmer-centric, multi-disciplinary) innovations in WUE.

194. On institutional interventions, participants recommended that IDs could be the

nodal agency but the CADAs had to be included within them. Any institutional reform had
to be undertaken based on the principles of integrated water resources management.

195. For improvements in irrigation management, participants emphasized the need

for using state of the art measurement and control structures for water auditing, and
coordinating with the agricultural department. Participants also concurred with the
recommendations from Chandigarh with regard to involving stakeholders in sharing
information and promoting PIM. They also recommended considering public private
partnerships for the O&M of irrigation systems.

196. There was a lot of discussion on data and information requirements for improving
WUE. Participants suggested creating a dedicated wing within the water resources
departments for data collection, processing, assessments, and IT-enabled information
dissemination. In order to establish baselines quickly, the main data requirements were

91
real-time rainfall, temperature, water levels and flow, water released and utilised, land
use land cover, crops and cropping patterns, soil types etc. Moreover, whatever
processes were established, it was necessary to standardise them to ensure uniformity
in data collection and analysis.

197. The conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water was particularly a priority
for on-farm interventions. For this purpose, groundwater mapping was necessary to
understand variations in space and time, extraction and recharge rates, the quality of
water pumps and availability of power availability, quality of water, etc. Moreover, the use
of improved measurement devices could support the uptake of approaches focused on
water balance and crop water budgeting. Extension services through farm schools and
information dissemination about land leveling, improved cropping practices and results
from pilot projects could further support WUE improvements at the field level.

198. Participants recognized that PIM institutions had to be multi-disciplinary and

financially sustainable. For this, regular workshops and training by and for WALMIs were
needed, PIM institutions had to be audited, and meetings of PIM institutions organized to
share best practices. Perhaps most importantly, the inputs of farmers and WUAs were
necessary in order to redesign PIM functions and allocation appropriate resources.

F. Overall recommendations (issues and constraints)

199. The analysis contained in this report and the national and state-wide
consultations have revealed a number of common areas of concern as well as the
possible solutions. There is broad consensus across a range of stakeholders that: (a)
irrigation institutions have to become more focused on service delivery; (b) irrigation
systems require more interventions in O&M and continuous performance monitoring; (c)
outreach to farmers and WUAs is necessary for improving on-farm practices, cropping
patterns, and conjunctive use of surface and ground water; (d) modern technology has to
be combined with standardized data collection and analysis practices; and (e)
strengthening WALMIs and providing resources and training to WUAs are the first steps
towards making PIM more effective.

200. If the necessary interventions are now well known, what are the main constraints
and who would be responsible for reducing them? The table below outlines five main
sets of constraints and suggests the level of government where they could be targeted
most effectively. Either interventions can be handled by states alone or they need inter-
state coordination or national frameworks; and either the main hurdles will be financial or
institutional, or related technical and capacity limitations. This is also a useful way to
understand the kind of support that the central and state governments could provide as
well as the role of donor agencies through pilot projects.

Table V.1: Key constraints and levels of intervention identified at regional

workshops
Constraints Actions needing mainly state-level Actions needing inter-state/national
interventions support
Policy/political  Review policy of providing free electrical  Regulating groundwater use
power  Review AIBP guidelines
 Mandate recycling and reuse of water
Financial  Resources needed for O&M  Resources needed for modernizing
irrigation systems
 Repairing old structures, lining of
canals
 NIMF (by transferring money to
WUAs) could incentivize farmers to

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 Constraints Actions needing mainly state-level
interventions
Institutional  Make IDs the nodal agency (include
CADAs within it)
 Develop separate wings for data and
information, PIM, training, research, etc.
 Inter-departmental coordination needed
(agriculture, irrigation, groundwater,
industry)
 Involve universities, WALMIs, ICAR, etc.
 Create PIM bodies at a block level
 Involve private sector in PPPs for O&M
Technical  Remote sensing and GIS complemented
by on-the-ground assessments of WUE
 Scientifically identify sample areas (agro-
climatic zones, upstream versus
downstream, cropping patterns)
 Establish robust data measurement,
storage and processing systems
 Use ITES to collect and disseminate
information
 Inform farmers about rainfall, canal water
discharge, reservoir levels through SMS
and other dissemination services
Capacity  Training programmes for ID employees
 Create farmer field schools
 Educating field officials on service
delivery and winning the confidence of
farmers in a given social context
Actions needing inter-state/national
support
construct field channels
 WALMIs need strengthening and
require central resources to bolster
capacity
 Create platforms for multi-stakeholder
consultations and expertise
 Rapid assessment of baseline WUE
 Determine indicators for assessing
WUE
 Develop pilot projects for various
aspects of interventions to achieve
20% improvement in WUE
 Support the uptake of effective
cropping practices, such as SRI,
AWD, etc.
 Support research on soil analysis,
nutrient mix, drought/flood resistant
crop varieties
 Map water resources using GIS and
groundwater models
 Training of WUAs
 Workshops to share best practices
across states

G. National level meeting

201. A meeting of the Working Group and State level consultations was held in New
Delhi on 19th March, 2014. The meeting was chaired by the Secretary (Water Resources)
and attended by Working Group members and representatives from Central and State
Government agencies. A presentation was made by the study team on the proposals for
the NWUEISP and the findings of the study. Following discussion on the presentation
and issues raised the working group proposed that the draft final report be accepted by
the Working Group subject to final revisions by the study team. The presentation,
minutes of the meeting, list of participants and the matrix of comments and replies, are
provided in Volume 2, Chapter VIII, Appendix VIII.1 to VIII.3. The recommendations of
the Inter-departmental working group and State representatives and the replies of the
ADB consultants are also reproduced in section VII of this report.

93
 VI. STRATEGY FOR A NATIONAL WATER USE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT
SUPPORT PROGRAM

A. Introduction

202. This chapter summarizes the approach proposed for the National Water Use
Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP). This program will be supported
by the ADB, other IFIs and the Government of India working in partnership with state
governments. The draft NWUEISP Concept Paper is provided in ADB format in Volume 3.

B. Rational and objectives

203. The National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (the Program)
will support the National Water Mission (NWM) and the 12th Five Year Plan (FYP) reform
agendas aimed at improving water use efficiency and agricultural production on major
and medium (MMI) schemes in India. The program, administered through central
government, will support States in implementing the 12th Five Year Plan’s reform
agenda of a “paradigm” shift in the way that irrigation schemes are managed operated
and maintained. This paradigm shift requires that Irrigation Department (IDs) “move
away from a narrow engineering-construction-centric approach to a more multi-
disciplinary, participatory management approach for MMI schemes, with a focus on
command area development and a sustained effort at improving water use efficiency42”.

204. The program will support both physical and non-physical (management/
institutional) initiatives focussed on improving the performance and water use efficiency
of MMI schemes. Physical infrastructure will be upgraded/ modernized to improve the
ability to convey, control and measure irrigation water, management will be strengthened
to improve the planning, delivery and monitoring of irrigation water and institutions will be
strengthened to better support and implement participatory irrigation management.

C. Components

205. The proposed components of the Support Program relate to the challenges and
proposals highlighted in the NWM Comprehensive Mission Document and the 12th Fiver
Year Plan:

(i) Reform of Irrigation Departments and CADAs

(ii) Reform of WALMIs
(iii) Re-engagement with participatory irrigation management (PIM)
(iv) Reform of the CAD&WM program
(v) Upgrading and modernization of I&D system infrastructure for improved operation
(vi) Modernization of on-farm and in-field irrigation processes
(vii) Improved water use efficiency through conjunctive use of surface and groundwater
resources

206. The support proposed under these broad categories includes:

 Upgrading and modernization of physical infrastructure to provide enhanced

control and measurement of irrigation water
 training and capacity building, for the ID and for associated institutions including
WALMIs, universities and NGOs (particularly those associated with PIM)

42 th
Para 5.5, 12 Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India

94
  modernisation of management information systems, including greater use of
ITES, MIS and DSS
 development of performance management processes and procedures, including
rapid appraisal of scheme performance and benchmarking
 introduction of modern asset management and maintenance procedures
 strengthening linkages between the ID and water users through PIM and
introduction of service delivery contracts
 strengthening the CAD&WM program to speed up surveys and to increase the
understanding, knowledge and skills in relation to modern irrigation technologies,
including micro-irrigation, efficient surface irrigation methods, use of buried pipes
for water distribution, on-farm storage, etc.
 studies, including to develop better understanding and guidelines related to the
use and management of water at the on-farm level, conjunctive use and
management of surface and groundwater, etc.
 Pilot trials of new approaches, including management of schemes based on
conjunctive use and management of surface and groundwater, and supporting
WUAs with employment of paid O&M staff.
Table VI.1: Identified needs and proposed National Water Use Efficiency
Improvement Support Program activities

No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Program Resources Outputs/Outcomes

activity required
1. Reform of the  Development of training  International  More
Irrigation programs for modern and national knowledgeable
Department and approaches to water resources TA (to assess and skilled ID
CADAs, and irrigation management. To training personnel
including: include structured overseas needs and  More
 Redefine training programs (such as at identify knowledgeable
roles and IHE-UNESCO in Delft) as well training and skilled
functions as capacity building of national opportunities) teaching/training
 Appointment and state institutions to provide  Identification staff
of a new training for ID staff in water of
cadre of resources and irrigation international
staff management (e.g. short 3 and national
 Training of month intensive programs) education/trai
new and  Exchange programs between ning
existing staff states institutes/
in water  Study tours to other universities
resources states/countries (for WRM,  Scholarship
and IWM, PIM) program for
irrigation ID staff from
manage- selected
ment states
 Revised  Scholarship
human programs for
resource university/trai
manage- ning institute
ment staff from
procedures selected
 Modernised states (to
scheduling build long
procedures term capacity
 Introduction in WRM and
of IWM)
performance  Host
manage- countries with
ment good
 Introduction examples of
of modern WRM, IWM,
PIM

95
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Program Resources Outputs/Outcomes
activity required
asset  Funds for
manage- state
ment exchange
procedures programs
 Senior management strategic  International  Senior managers
leadership program and national knowledgeable
TA about strategic
 International leadership,
or national including change
course on management
strategic  Senior
leadership management able
to lead change
and reform in the
ID
 Development of performance  International  Senior and middle
management systems for MMI and national level managers
schemes TA monitoring and
 Application of Rapid  State evaluating
Performance Assessment Government individual scheme
(RPA) procedures (developed RPA Team performance
under TA 7967-REG)  MMI schemes
benchmarked,
best practice
schemes and
performance gaps
identified
 Less well
performing
schemes
supported and
improved
 Review of current scheduling  International  Updated
processes and procedures on and national scheduling
MMI schemes (in participating TA procedures which
states) and recommendations match supply to
for improvement, together with demand
guidelines for implementation  Improved service
delivery – more
reliable, adequate
and timely
irrigation water
supply
 GW mapped in
the commands
and combined
SW-GW
scheduling
 Modernising of ID’s data  International  Reliable, timely
collection, processing and and national and accurate data
analysis processes and TA and information for
procedures incorporating ITES.  ITES system
equipment management and
and software performance
monitoring
 Trials to test procedures for  International  Water allocated
volumetric water allocation, and national and charged on a
including water entitlements TA volumetric basis
 Funds for  Increased
installation of performance
control and  Increased
measuring transparency and
structures accountability
 Funds for  Increased ISF

96
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Program Resources Outputs/Outcomes
activity required
training of ID income
and WUA
personnel,
mass
awareness
campaign,
etc.

 Development of standard  International  Agreed set of rules
service contracts between the and national between ID and
ID and water users TA water users on
 Pilot levels of service to
schemes be provided and
ISF payments to
be made
 Improved service
delivery
 Transparent fee
setting to match
MOM needs
 ID held
accountable for
service delivery,
water users held
accountable for
ISF payment
 Introduction of asset  International  Asset
management planning (AMP) and national management
procedures for I&D TA plans prepared for
infrastructure  Pilot each MMI
schemes scheme, with
associated
identification of
level of service to
be provided and
service fees to be
charged
 Value of assets
and costs of
maintenance,
repair and
replacement
identified, together
with valuation of
lost production for
different levels of
maintenance
funding
 Funding matches
maintenance
needs
2. Reform of  Development of training  Scholarship  WALMIs capable
WALMIs , programs for modern program for of training ID,
including: approaches to water resources selected CADA and WUA
 Appointment and irrigation management. To states and personnel in water
of new staff include structured overseas selected management
 Creation of training programs (such as at WALMI
a permanent IHE-UNESCO in Delft) personnel
cadre of  Study tours to countries (for  Funds to
skilled WRM, IWM, PIM) support
trainers and  Exchange and collaboration exchange/
researchers programs between WALMIs collaboration
 Revised  Linkages with partner programs
staffing organisations in other countries

97
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Program Resources Outputs/Outcomes
activity required
levels and  Liaison with other
procedures agencies/universities
 Creation of  Enhanced functions-support
regional/ command extension services
district
training
centres
and/or field
training
programs
 Capacity
building in
water
resources
and
irrigation
managemen
t
 Capacity
building in
PIM
3. Re-engagement  Support for revision of PIM Acts  International  PIM Acts revised
with and national to be less
participatory TA prescriptive and
irrigation more suited to
management community
(PIM), including: management
 Revising approaches
PIM Acts  Support for selected states to  International  PIM Cells
 Creating form PIM Cells and national established in the
specialist TA ID which can then
PIM Cells form and support
within the ID WUAs
 Awareness  National WUA Capacity  National TA  State NGO
raising and Building Program for NGOs from capacity in PIM
training of ID established and WUA
staff NGOs (such formation and
 Formation or as DSC in support built to
re-formation Gujarat) support state
of WUAs programs on PIM
 Awareness  Pilot trials for WUAs to employ  Selected  Demonstration of
raising staff functioning the value of WUAs
amongst WUAs having paid staff to
water users  National TA carry out key O&M
 Training of functions
WUA
managemen
t, particularly
in operation
and main-
tenance
 Setting and
collecting
ISF for
sustainable
MOM
 Supporting
WUAs to
employ
executive
staff
(treasurers
and water
masters)

98
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Program Resources Outputs/Outcomes
activity required
 Participatory
M&E
4. Reform of the  Modern surveying techniques  National TA  Faster coverage of
CAD&WM  Increasing the pace of the from CAD activities
program, programme established  Shift to micro-
including:  Strengthening Warabandi water irrigation wherever
 Revised  Carry out study on improved management feasible
organisation on-farm and irrigation institutions  Improved on-farm
al technologies, including shift to and NGOs water use
framework micro-irrigation (sprinkler/drip),  Private sector efficiency through
and on-farm storage, buried pipes, partner improved
structures border strip, etc.in canal distribution and
 Revised commands application
procedures  Support for possible PPP on
 Revised diversification
objectives
and
functions
5. Upgrading and  Targeted physical works to  International  Improved levels of
modernization of improve the operability of MMI and national control and
I&D system schemes, specifically in relation TA (to measurement,
infrastructure for to conveyance, control and develop allowing closer
improved measurement of irrigation water NWUEISP alignment of
operation. (works to include desilting, guidelines planned and
repair/replacement of old and and advise actual schedules
installation of new control on modern of water delivery
structures and installation of control  Improved capacity
measuring structures). systems) of canals to
 Installation of modern control  State RPA convey planned
systems (automatic gates, teams discharges
remote control, telemetry, etc.)  Real-time
operation of canal
systems
 Improved levels of
service to water
users, matching
demand and
supply
6. Modernisation of  Detailed study of how water is  International  Knowledge of how
on-farm and in- managed at the moment at the and national irrigation water is
field irrigation on-farm TA (possibly currently used at
processes: IWMI) the on-farm level
 Introduction supporting  Recommendations
of modern state and guidelines for
irrigation university improving water
application and/or management at
techniques WALMI on-farm levels
(micro-  NGOs/
irrigation, Private sector
land involvement
levelling,  Detailed study of how farmers  International  Knowledge of
etc.) use surface and groundwater and national conjunctive use of
 Irrigation conjunctively TA (possibly SW and GW at the
scheduling IWMI) on-farm level
 Water supporting  Recommendations
conservation state and guidelines for
approaches university improving
(SRI, AWD, and/or conjunctive use at
etc.) WALMI the on-farm level
 Conjunctive together with at
use of the main system
surface and level (i.e.
ground allowance for
water conjunctive use in

99
No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Program Resources Outputs/Outcomes
activity required
resources main system
scheduling)
7. Improved water  Support to establish pilot  International  Surface and
use efficiency schemes where surface and and national groundwater
through groundwater can be managed TA resources
conjunctive use conjunctively, including:  Collaboration managed in an
of surface and  GW mapping between ID integrated manner
groundwater  Identification of and GW
resources current conjunctive Board
use  Funds for
 Opportunities for mapping, etc.
future conjunctive use  Functioning
 Options for GW and active
recharge WUAs
 WUA participation
conjunctive use
management
WRM – Water resources management; IWM – Irrigation water management; PIM – Participatory
irrigation management; AMP – Asset management planning; CADA – Command Area
Development Authority

100
 VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

207. This study has highlighted the wide range of issues constraining the performance
of MMI schemes throughout the water supply chain from the watershed to the crop root
zone. These issues cover several domains - technical, social, economic, legal, political
and environmental – with solutions to specific issues requiring action in a mix of these
domains. Improving the performance of the PIM program, for example, requires changes
to the legal and institutional framework for establishing WUAs, changing attitudes within
the ID, building trust and a sense of ownership amongst water users, and raising funds
for system management, operation and maintenance.

208. Better management lies at the heart of any endeavours to improve the situation.
Hitherto the government and the Irrigation Department have focused on the construction
of new irrigation systems to increase much needed agricultural production and livelihood
security for the rural community. With increasing pressure on available water supplies,
as emphasised in the 12th FYP, there is a need to focus on better management of
constructed irrigation and drainage schemes, making them more efficient and productive,
particularly in relation to their water use. Madhya Pradesh provides a valuable example
of how significant improvements in agricultural production are possible with mainly
management interventions. In 2011-12 the irrigated area in MP was doubled, from 8
lakh ha to 16 lakh ha, by senior WRD management setting and closely monitoring
performance targets, delegating responsibility to middle management to take decisions
which would contribute to enhancing performance and rewarding good performance. The
procedures were refined and the performance improvement consolidated in 2012-13
resulting in a total irrigated area of just over 20 lakh ha.

209. Good management requires good information based on reliable and accurate
data - the 12th FYP has highlighted the need for improved data collection, processing and
analysis. These data need to be used by management to understand the performance
of irrigation and drainage schemes and to improve such performance where it is found to
be inadequate, with benchmarking being used to identify gaps between best practice and
less well performing schemes. For this reason this study has emphasised the
importance of performance assessment and benchmarking as a basic management tool,
it provides understanding of current performance (“where we are now”) with identification
of desirable and achievable performance (“where we want to be”) and, through gap
analysis, with actions required to achieve these desired levels of performance (“how we
plan to get there”).

210. It is recommended that the follow-on project (TA 7967-REG: Innovations for More
Food with Less Water – Task 2) develop standardized procedures for rapid performance
assessment appraisal of MMI schemes which will enable states to assess the current
status of their MMI schemes. Such assessment will act as a baseline against which to
measure improvements in performance of each and every MMI scheme over the coming
years.

211. The proposals made herein for the National Water Use Efficiency Improvement
Support Program (NWUEISP), as detailed in the draft Concept Paper provided in Volume
3, are intended to support the NWM and 12th FYP reform agendas through discrete
activities which enable reform-minded states to initiated reforms, test and establish new
processes and procedures through pilot studies, strengthen their management
information and decision making systems and build mature working relationships with
water users.

101
212. The findings of the report were discussed and accepted by an Inter-departmental
Working Group and State level representatives during a meeting held on 19th March
2014. The recommendations of the Inter-departmental working group and State
representatives and the replies of the ADB consultants are reported in table VII.1. The
general suggestions/comments of the Inter-departmental working group and state
representatives would be considered during implementation of future phases of the
project.

Table VII.1: Matrix of comments and replies

(On the recommendations made during the Inter-departmental Working Group and the State level
consultations on the National Water Use Efficiency Implementation Support Programme, held at Shram
th
Shakti Bhawan, New Delhi on 19 March 2014)

Recommendations Replies/ Action Taken

Secretary, MOWR

i) Rapid Project Appraisal (RPA) is to be raised
by the study team or by the States where
Pilots Projects are being undertaken up.
i) The study team is aiming to develop a RPA
approach that can be used to identify scheme
specific targeted interventions, which include both
engineering and non-engineering interventions.
RAP would help in reducing the time normally
required to assess the irrigation scheme
performance and modernization requirement.

ii) Cost curve is devised by the agencies having
insufficient regard to the Indian systems and
mechanism of working. ADB could modify the
Cost curve.
ii) The cost curve was developed in a study carried
out by the 2030 Water Resources Group in 2009
(Report title “Charting our water future: Economic
frameworks to inform decision-making”). The
curve is shown to demonstrate the principle of
relating the cost of an intervention to its
effectiveness in addressing the perceived gap
between the requirement and availability of water
resources. The ADB was not involved in the
study. This aspect is now deleted from the report.

iii) Desalination (in the WRG slide) is too
expensive and is not a solution at present,
cost is now reducing; may not be an option for
industry and agriculture sectors
iii) Indeed, as the 2030 WRG cost curve shows,
desalination is an expensive option for obtaining
freshwater. Even in the UK it is considered too
expensive. Agreed, at present it is only viable in
countries such as the Middle East with scarce
water resources but also significant financial
resources.

iv) The cost effectiveness term used in 2030 iv) Agreed, the slide is shown to demonstrate the
WRG slide is vague and does not truly reflect concept of linking the cost to the effectiveness of
the Indian scenario. The term should be used the intervention. The slide and the relevant
with a caution. (2030 WRG cost curve). portions in the report are now removed.

v) The information used in the slides on potential v) Agreed, the information has been updated using
irrigation development in States should use up latest available Planning Commission data.
to date data of the Planning Commission.

vi) Recharging and rainwater harvesting is a no-
no option. No addition to GW that is why we
do not go in for underground reservoirs.
Underground water is like bursting oil on
exploration by farmers; a characteristic is
underground water may move in different
directions and also has resulted into increased
use in MMI from shallow aquifers. (on gw
slide)
vi) Groundwater recharge is used in some countries,
such as the USA, to good effect. However it
needs good understanding and modelling of the
aquifers. Control on ground water would be
required initially through participatory efforts of
WUAs on maintain levels within safe zones and
modelling in the long run.

102
vii) Will there be any funding from inter-linking
angle.
viii) What could be the limitations of ADB’s support
th
versus 12 FYP’s targets
Chairman, CWC
i) Overall program is in line with objective of
NWM and 12 FYP. Effectiveness of any
enhancement and readiness of the program
will depend upon willingness and readiness of
the states. Capacity development and
awareness generation should be the two
primary components within any efficiency
enhancement programme. Key issue in
planning is to understand what is needed to
make the system performance optimum. The
importance of bringing innovation in the
planning and management process, such as
using portfolio project level approach and
strengthening the coordination with the
agriculture extension departments. IDs should
lean away the farmers from unrealistic
practices.
ii) Canals should be efficient and should be
developed to serve the intended purpose,
rather than being thought of as groundwater
recharge systems. There is also a need to
map the relationship between the surface and
ground water system.
Advisor (C&M), NWM, MOWR
i) Whether lining of the canal system is an
option which may reduce volume of ground
water recharge and conjunctive use, though
the research team has advocated conjunctive
use to improve the WUE of major and medium
projects. Diverted water when taken into the
account may bring in benefit to a large number
of farmers, which means additional area can
be brought under cultivation.
ii) Capacity building and training of the WRD/ID
is important
Adviser (Technical), NWM & Member WG
i) The issue on definition of the WUE should be
settled.
ii) Revision of the DPR guidelines to be included
in the report.
Joint Advisor, Planning Commission
i. ADB support is too little as compared to the
targets fixed by the 12th Five year Plan
103
vii) Not envisaged at this stage.
viii) Limitations may be related to the timelines as
preparation of an ADB financed program may take
at least 1.5 years. So the program may support
both 12 and part of the13 FYP.
i) Agree, the program is designed to ensure that it is
the States that propose and design their MMI
scheme modernization plan, involvement of the
CWC is to provide technical support for planning
and design, and sharing of knowledge and
experience, both from the international context but
also within India and between States.
ii) Fully agree.
i) It is clarified that the lining of the canals is
advocated in the crucial reaches of the canals,
where there is excessive seepage/leakage, where
losses are beyond the conjunctive use
requirements and that this should be determined
through modelling of the reaches. In lower order
of canals lining may be effective as the losses per
unit of discharge are higher. Also lining of minor
canals would help WUAs to move water quickly
down the minor, which would benefit the tail end.
ii) Fully agree, the report advocates for significant
training and capacity building of WRD/ID staff,
particularly in the use of modern technology
(ITES) and to complement WUA development.
i) Section III-C of the main report and chapter IV of
Volume II cover detailed review of the approaches
on defining WUE concept and the mechanism for
quick assessment of WUE.
ii) Section IV of the main report and Chapter VII of
Volume II covers this aspect.
i. Secretary (MOWR) opined that ADB may not be
able to provide fund to achieve the full target of
 agenda for ERM (extension, renovation and
th
modernisation) of irrigation projects. 12 FYP
has provision of 2 million ha to be covered
th
under ERM by the end of 12 FYP but only 3
lakh ha is proposed to be covered under
program. We should straightaway go in for
meeting the targets.
Representative from MOA
i) Effective Rainfall is to be taken up in water
balance and crop management. Increasing
application efficiency and creation of
secondary storage structures, particularly at
the tail-ends of the canal system need to be
considered to increase the water use
efficiency of the MMI systems. ICAR has
developed some of the very good local water
conservation technologies which should be
considered. There is need to integrate all
sources of water within the command.
Representative from ICAR
i) Instead of a generalized target of 20%, a state
specific improvement target can be adopted
for WUE improvement as the conditions in the
states and individual schemes vary.
ii) Many specific kinds of technologies are
developed by ICAR regional centres, which
can be adopted. These technologies refer to
specific management issues in the commands
and regions. Management issues are
dominant in the NWUEISP and should include
issues like promoting night irrigation, improved
scheduling, adequate fertilizer use to avoid
lynching to deep groundwater. Other small
interventions may include creation of
secondary water storages, use of sprinkler,
drip, etc. The interventions should be location
specific.
iii) In canal systems we need high frequency of
water supply and thus the canals should be
redesigned to their roles.
Director General (NWDA)
i) Concept is acceptable and concentrates on
management issues. The crux lies in its
implementation.
Representative from World Bank
i) Canal systems should be efficient. This should
104
ERM and suggested that the targets achieved
should commensurate with the present allocations
of funds.
ADB further clarified that ADB support will always
remain marginal compared to the total
requirement but if strategically used it can provide
strong support to achieving national plans and
programs. In the context of the NWEISP it could
for instance help states to leverage funds set up
under 12 FYP water programme such as National
Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF) etc. by
supporting them in implementing water agenda
and fulfilling criteria to leverage these funds.
i) Agreed and noted. Baseline WUE benchmarks
and performance indicators can guide which local
techniques could be more effective. Scientific
analysis is needed for judicious integration of all
resources within the command including ponds,
tanks, groundwater, off line storages with the
canal water. Coordination of the departments on
these issues is envisaged.
i) The figure of 20% is an average figure for the
country. Project specific targets for the WUE
improvement are envisaged under RPA and
proposals prepared accordingly. Different parts of
an irrigation system could have different physical
status and aging of canal systems so
rehabilitation work would remain an integral
component of any modernization programme.
ii) Noted and agreed, new technologies and
practices need to be taken up. The role of ADB is
to raise awareness and would prefer to work on a
‘finance plus’ mode, where capacity building,
institutional development and working directly with
farmers would be promoted. The low cost highly
effective management interventions having high
beneficial impacts would be adopted. Experience
gained in Madhya Pradesh has demonstrated that
strong leadership, use of modern technology and
empowerment of WRD staff and WUAs can also
have a measureable impact on the performance
of the irrigation systems and agricultural
productivity.
iii) Yes we agree.
i) Agreed.
i) Program concept advocates improving the
 be our main concern.
ii) There should be certain sensitive issues,
which need collective approach.
Representative from WALMTARI, Andhra
Pradesh
i) Under different restructuring projects of the
World Bank pilot projects are being
undertaken. Rather than starting fresh pilots it
could be better if one could learn from the
existing projects and then leapfrog.
ii) Largely the management comes first. Assured
and reliable water supply to farmers,
promotion of volumetric supply, promotion of
solar powered water saving technologies
could be some options, but delivery should be
based on crop water requirements (demand
mode). Most of these measures are required
to improve water and land productivity as well
as improved land reclamation efforts.
iii) WALMIs in the states can bring management
changes.
Representative from WALMI, Gujarat
i) Measures to address the issues should be
replicable. Also ground water reserve is
difficult to assess.
Principal Secretary (Maharashtra)
i) What are the criteria for selection of pilots?
ii) It is important to give farmers the right to
choose their cropping pattern and the issue of
water entitlements for farmers as two critical
issues which would affect WUE in MMI.
iii) Importance of training and capacity building
for ID/WRD staff is also a critical concern.
How WUAs and IDs implement reforms needs
to be critically evaluated and established.
105
performance of the canal systems through
coordination of physical and management
interventions issues.
ii) Agreed.
i) Agreed that experience from past and existing
projects, such as the World Bank funded Water
Sector Restructuring Projects, should be
incorporated in any project design. In the context
of this program pilot projects (or studies) are
required to develop some of the thinking set out in
the report, particularly in relation to practical
approaches for Rapid Performance Assessment
(RPA).
ii) Agreed. In fact RPA is to be designed to take care
of the issues concerning the project and available
options to address the concerned issues. This
aspect is proposed to be further examined under
the pilots.
iii) Agreed, this is exactly what is envisaged under
the programme.
i) Agreed. Rapid Performance Assessment and
baseline WUE bench mark studies will examine
these issues and based on these studies possible
options could be explored.
i) The Pilots are identified based on broad selection
criteria in consultation with MOWR, CWC and the
state governments. The intention of these pilot
studies is to test out some of the
recommendations of the report, such as Rapid
Performance Assessment procedures and the use
of remote sensing for performance assessment.
Secretary MoWR opined that the pilot projects
should be chosen given the diverse agro-geo-
climatic regions of the country.
ii) Fully agree, experience of schemes such as
Waghad in Maharashtra show the benefits of
freeing up the cropping pattern, combined with
participatory management of the scheme. Also
agree that water entitlements are important and
help farmers plan their cropping patterns.
iii) Fully agree, a great deal more needs to be done
to build the capacity of the WRD/ID staff, as well
as support, training and capacity building for
WUAs and water users. The report emphasizes
the central importance of WRD/ID training and
capacity building.
Representative from Punjab
i) Rehabilitation of the age-old canal systems in
Punjab is required to raise WUE. Ensuring
benchmarks for WUE should be state/project
and location specific.
ii) What is the advantage of ADB funding over
NABARD funding?
Representative from Haryana
i) Water scarcity is the key issue in Haryana,
which has predominance of small and
marginal farmer land holdings. Affordability of
water saving technologies is a challenge, for
which PIM is an effective intervention. People
still use field to field flood irrigation.
Importance of field channels is the key to
improving WUE.
Representative from Tamilnadu
i) Irrigation is being looked after by PHE, Canal
area is looked after by MI department and
CADAs is looked after by Agriculture
Department. There is a need for bringing the
attitudinal change among the departments.
ii) Solar powered water saving technologies and
PIM to increase WUE are already practiced in
the state.
Representative from WALMI, Uttar Pradesh
i) Increased inflow has resulted in saving water
through PIM. This has been demonstrated in
the WB restructuring project on Sharda
Sahayak Canal. Ramganga canal system is
now being taken up for modernization. Water
is provided free. Holdings are small. Attitudinal
change among the staff in the irrigation
department for better management of the
canal system is required.
Representative from Jharkhand
i) Water underneath ground is moving; major
amount of water is in the hard rock; integrated
water management (conjunctive use) is
required. The issue is - how do we implement
it?
106
i) Agreed that in some cases rehabilitation will be
required, but the focus of this program is to
improve the performance of irrigation systems
through both physical and management
interventions. It is agreed that WUE benchmark
are to be location and project specific.
ii) ADB representative clarified that ADB funding are
in principle cheaper than NARBARD and come
with the finance plus element like capacity
building, support for soft component such as
participatory irrigation management, technical
assistance etc. ADB representative also clarified
that ADB financing is not appropriate and ADB is
not interested to finance routine/standard project
which are easy for the states to design and
implement. States should consider ADB financing
for projects that are innovative/challenging to
design and implement as ADB is well placed to
provide necessary support and guidance.
th
i) The main emphasis of the 12 FYP agenda is on
these aspects. These aspects have been
effectively taken care of in the programme
concept.
i) Agreed, departmental realignment and
cooperation to support the programme is required
if higher efficiencies are to be achieved. Program
concept lays emphasis on coordination among
various departments
ii) Noted. This could be one option under the
program depending upon its cost effectiveness.
i) Agreed. The very purpose of the NWUEISP is to
save water through efficient use, encourage
coordination of institutions, recover ISF to
promote NIMF and provide capacity building of
farmers and functionaries. Integration of various
organizations dealing with these aspects would
definitely promote the cause.
i) Conjunctive use is very much envisaged in the
th
NWEUISP. It is also a suggestion of the 12 FYP
plan agenda. Its implementation is not difficult.
Strengthening piezometer network, data collation
on water levels and coordination of IDs, and
WUAs can realistically implement conjunctive use
to begin with. Later this can be improved through

ii) Frequent construction of outlets over
conveyance and distribution channels has
reduced WUE. Water saving technologies can
effectively increase WUE.
iii) States should be members of the proposed
PTCU in the Centre.
Representative from Rajasthan
i) Use of water saved through improved WUE
may not be shared for other purpose. It should
be used to increase the command area.
ii) Enforcing the cropping pattern is a challenge.
iii) WALMI at Kota needs to be strengthened.
Chairman, CWC
i) ADB program might have a bouquet of
interventions that the states and individual
projects may choose from based on their
location-specific conditions. In that way lop-
sided development would be avoided and a
more holistic growth could be envisaged.
ii) The Chairman suggested that the draft final
report of the NWUEISP be accepted subject to
incorporation of the observations/suggestions
of the inter-departmental working group and
the state representatives. Chairman also
suggested moving forward to next step of the
study, i.e. formulation of the project subject to
approval of GOI.
107
modelling.
ii) Redesigning and modernizing of the outlets and
field channels is included as a component of RPA.
iii) Agreed. This is proposed with the establishment
of a Program Steering Committee (PSC) on which
participating states will have representatives.
i) How best the water saved can be utilized would
depend upon the location where it is saved.
Normally the water saved in the commands is
either through reduced supplies or ground water
reserve. It is for the State Governmnets to decide
how best the water saved is allocated.
ii) This relates to the earlier point made by the PS,
Maharashtra. Freeing up the cropping pattern can
be beneficial, but needs agreement with the water
users (through their WUAs).
iii) We agree. In fact strengthening of all WALMIs is
th
included in the 12 FYP Agenda and is very much
the recommendation of the NWUEISP.
i) Indeed agree that any interventions need to be
coordinated to optimise the beneficial impacts.
Some interventions will be common in projects
carried out by different states, the role of the
PTCU is to assist States in identifying and
selecting relevant interventions.
ii) Acknowledged. ADB will submit final report and
move forward as suggested.
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