In France and Scotland, by contrast, royal action to seize monastic income proceeded along entirely

different lines. In both countries, the practice of nominating abbacies in commendam had become

widespread. Since the 12th century, it had become universal in Western Europe for the household
expenses of abbots and conventual priors to be separated from those of the rest of the monastery,
typically appropriating more than half the house's income. With papal approval, these funds might be
diverted on a vacancy to support a non-monastic ecclesiastic, commonly a bishop or member of the
Papal Curia; and although such arrangements were nominally temporary, commendatory abbacies
often continued long-term. Then, by the Concordat of Bologna in 1516, Pope Leo X granted
to Francis I effective authority to nominate almost all abbots and conventual priors in France.
Ultimately around 80 per cent of French abbacies came to be held in commendam, the
commendators often being lay courtiers or royal servants; and by this means around half the income
of French monasteries was diverted into the hands of the Crown, or of royal supporters; all entirely
with the Popes' blessing. Where the French kings led, the Scots kings followed. In Scotland, where
the proportion of parish tiends appropriated by higher ecclesiastical institutions exceeded 85 per
cent, in 1532 the young James V obtained from the Pope approval to appoint his illegitimate infant
sons (of which he eventually acquired nine) as commendators to abbacies in Scotland. Other Scots
aristocratic families were able to strike similar deals, and consequently over £40,000 (Scots) per
annum was diverted from monasteries into the royal coffers.