Environment and Ecology Biotechnology

Printed Study Material for IAS, CSAT Civil Services Exams
http://iasexamportal.com/civilservices/study-kit
WWW.IASEXAMPORTAL.COM
60 Days Crash
Course for IAS
(Pre.) G. S.
Paper – 1
Online Coaching for IAS Exams

http://iasexamportal.com/civilservices/courses Page 1
Environment & Ecology

Chapter: Biotechnology
Meaning, Scope and Organisational Set Up
A. Concept
Biotechnology is the use of complete living cells or part of living cells to produce new or improved
products of service systems. According to the U.S. National Science Foundation Biotechnology
consists of "the controlled use of biological agents, such as, micro-organisms or cellular
components, for beneficial use." The European Federation of Biotechnology define "Biotechnology
as the integrated use of biochemistry, microbiology, molecular biology and engineering sciences in
order to achieve technological application of the capabilities of micro-organisms, cultured
tissues/cells and part thereof”. In the modern context, an illustration of biotechnology would be the
practice, for centuries, of fermentation of wine into alcohol using micro-organisms.
B. Background
The crucial advance in biotechnology that laid the foundation took place in 1972 when the first
successful venture namely direct insertion of foreign DNA, the genetic material, in a host organism
was carried out in the U.S.A. The technique was termed recombinant DNA (rDNA) technique. This
in effect opened up immense possibilities of direct manipulation of the genetic material, the
blueprint of all living organisms, to produce chemicals and other products needed by man. This
pioneering work resulted in the award of the Noble prize to Professor Paul Berg of Stanford
University and others. The rDNA technique along with "cell fusion" -or "hybridoma" technology
constitutes broadly the areas of modern biotechnology. The cell fusion technique was developed
in 1971 by Dr. Milsein Kohler and Jeme. As a reaction to an antigen the host organism produces
what are called antibodies. This is basically a defence mechanism. The cell fusion technique has
immense potentialities for specific diseases arising out of viral, bacterial and other microbial
infection. A distinction is made between 'non-gene biotechnology' and 'gene biotechnology': the
former works with whole cells, tissues or even individual organisms; the latter deals with transfer of
genes from one organism to another or genetic engineering. Non-gene biotechnology is a more
popular practice, and plant tissue culture, hybrid seed production, microbial fermentation,
production of hybridoma antibodies are widespread biotechnology practices in our Country.
C. Organisation And Manpower

In 1982, Government of India setup the National Biotechnology Board which was replaced by a
separate Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in the Ministry of Science and Technology in 1986.
This was in recognition of the need for a focal point in the administration and structure of the
government for planning promotion and co-ordination of biotechnological programme. The main
responsibilities of the Department of biotechnology are:

i) To evolve integrated plans and programmes in biotechnology;

ii) To identify specific R&D programmes in biotechnology and biotechnology related
manufacturing;
iii) Establishment of infrastructure support at the national level;
iv ) To act as an agent of the Government for import of new recombinant DNA based
biotechnological processes, products and technology;
v) To evolve bio-safety guidelines for laboratory research production and applications;
vi) To initiate scientific and technical, efforts related to biotechnology;
vii) Programmes of manpower development in the areas of biotechnology;
viii) Establishment of international centre for genetic engineering and biotechnology,
D. Institutions
1. Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD), Hyderabad: CDFD provides service for
DNA fingerprinting, diagnostics, bioinformatics and automated genome analysis and undertakes
research and developments in the area of genetics, molecular and cellular biology, molecular
pathogenesis and bioinformatics.
2. Institute of Bio Resources and Sustainable Development (IBSD), Imphal (Manipur): IBSD has
been established with to develop utillse the rich bio-resources of the North-Eastern region of the
country through the application of modern tools of biology and biotechnology. The institute works
on medicinal, horticultural, microbial, insect and aquatic resources as well as eco restoration.
3. Institute of Life Science (IIS), Bhubaneshwar: The Institute of life sciences has been established
to conduct basic and applied research in frontiers areas of life sciences, to promote interaction
among scientists, conduct inter-disciplinary research and for dissemination of scientific knowledge.
4. National Institute of Immunology (NII), New Delhi: NII's primary responsibility is to help create
the scientific base for innovations of relevance for the development of the nation. Its main areas of
research are infection and immunity, molecular design, gene regulation and reproduction and
development.
5. National Centre for Plant Genome Research (NCPGR), JNU, New Delhi: NCPGR works in core
research area of plant genomics covering structural, functional and application components of
genomics. The institute has been working on nutritional genomics of potato, structural and
functional genomics of chickpea.
6. National Brain Research Centre (NBRC), Gurgaon: NBRC undertakes basic research to
understand brain function in diseases and normal conditions. NBRC has established networking
centres with 35 foreign institutions like NIMH, USA for research co-operation and training.
7. National Centre for Cell Sciences (NCCS), Pune: NCCS undertakes research and development
at the cutting edge of cell sciences, teaching, training in addition to providing services as a
national repository for cell lines and hybridomas. NCCS has developed technologies for
preservation and revival of bone marrow stem cells which led to a successful transplantation in a
neuroblastoma patient.
8. International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi: ICGEB
focuses on basic research in human diseases and agriculture, especially to look at problems of the

Indian subcontinent. IGCEB has 'state-of-art' facilities and it will be a National facility to be used by
scientific community. It has developed technology for hepatitis C disgnostic kit and a malaria
vaccine program is progressing as per time Schedule.
9. Bharat Immunological and Biological Corporation Limited (BIBCOL), Bulandshahr: BIBCOL, a

public sector undertaking has the most modern manufacturing unit based on good manufacturing
practice requirements as specified by WHO and US Federal standards.
10. Biotechnology parks and incubators: The Biotechnology Parks and Biotech Incubation Centres
established provide a good template for the promotion of Biotech startup companies and the
promotion of Public Private Partnerships. Biotech Park and incubation Centres have been
established at Lucknow, UP and Shapoorji Pallonji Biotech Park, Genome Valley, Hyderabad
(AP). The other projects approved for Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala for setting up of
biotech incubation/pilot plant facilities are at various stages of development.
(E) National Bio Resource Development Board (NBDB)

Following the Finance Minister's Budget Speech, 1999, a National Bio Resource Development
Board (NBDB) has been set up under the chairmanship of Minister of Science and Technology.
NBDB shall decide the broad policy framework for effective application of biotechnological and
related scientific approaches for R&D and sustainable utilisation of bio-resources, especially for
development of new products and processes. It shall develop a scientific plan of action for
contribution to the economic prosperity of the nation through accelerated research and
development using the modern tools of biosciences. The NBDB shall adopt both resource based
and region- based approaches. It shall also be involved in training, capacity building and
awareness generation in bio-resources.
A National steering committee has been constituted to support the activities of the board; the
board has identified 3 priorities:
1. Preparation of digitised inventories of plant, animal, microbial and marine resources.
2. R&D projects, programmes support, establishment of centres of excellence, training activities
and demonstrations, for the development of bio resources of special areas such as North-eastern
region, Himalayan region, coastal and land ecosystems, desert region etc.
3. Knowledge empowerment and human resource training would be a priority for the board.
Ques. 1 : Give an account of the techniques of

Biotechnology?
Ans. The main techniques of biotechnology are - genetic engineering, cell culture, tissue culture,
bio-processing, protein engineering, monoclonal antibody production and biosensor technology.
As has been recognised all over the world, in the last fifteen years, there has been revolution in
the field of Biotechnology as evidenced through new discoveries and inventions in the areas of
isolation and manipulation of genes, better understanding of biological molecules, the advent of
recombinant DNA technique enabling the genes to be transferred between organisms to produce
scare proteins of plant and animal origin as also human growth factors and hormones.
Ques. 2 : Discuss in brief the Genetic engineering?

Ans. Genetic Engineering : The utilisation of genetic machinery of life for production of any special
substance is called gene technology or genetic engineering. The genetic modification of micro-
organisms, so vital for their utilisation in the production of useful biochemical, can be brought
about by simple recombination or by complex genetic manipulations. Some of the techniques are:
Isolation of Genes: Appropriate sequence of genes is directly obtained from genome of normal cell
or from other cells. This is made possible by cleavage and denaturation of DNA extracted from the
cells.
Synthesis of Genes: This is done by chemical methods. Dr. Hargobind Khurana reported this in
1970.
Recombinant DNA: Breakage of DNA molecule at two desired places to isolate a specific DNA
fragment and then inserting it in another DNA molecule at a desired position results in a new gene
product which is called as recombinant DNA (r-DNA). The receiving organism is said to be
transgenic. Using this technique we can isolate and clone single copy of a gene or a DNA
molecule into an indefinite number of copies, all identical.
Gene Cloning: Isolation of gene and replication of a single copy of gene or DNA segment into an
infinite number of copies, all identical, is known as gene cloning. This becomes possible because
vectors like plasmids and phages reproduce in their usual style even after insertion of foreign
DNA. This inserted DNA will also replicate faithfully with parent DNA. Recently extensive use of
newly discovered polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has also been made for gene technology.
Ques. 3 : What is Tissue Culture?

Ans. Tissue Culture : Tissue culture is the technology of artificially growing micro-organisms or
cells or tissues or organs to the desired genetic purity with properties such as high yield and
disease resistance.
The microbes in culture are used in recombinant DNA technology and in a variety of industrial
processes, plant cells and tissues are used for a variety of genetic manipulations. For example
another culture is used for haploid breeding; gametic and somatic cell/tissue cultures are used for
tapping gametoclonal and somaclonal variations or for production of artificial seeds.
Transformation of protoplast in culture leads to production of useful transgenic plants. Embryo
culture technique has also helped extending the range of distant hybridisation for plant breeding
purposes. Animal cells are used for multiplication of superior livestock using a variety of
techniques like Cloning of superior embryonic cells, transformation of cultured cells leading to the
production of transgenic animals and in vitro fertilisation and transfer of embryos to surrogate
mothers.
Ques. 4 : Briefly discuss microbial bio-technology?

Ans. Microbial Biotechnology : Micro organisms have been harnessed by man for the production
of useful materials. The latest initiatives in Microbial Biotechnology have been taken in the
following matters:
i) Rehabilitation of degraded land such as alkaline soil, mine dumps and dump from metallurgical
factories, utilising microbial supports.
ii) Dissolution of pyretic shells by microbial methods to liberate entrapped noble metals like gold,

silver etc. through the process of bio-techning of low and lean grade orders.
iii) Degradation of polyphenolic compounds using microbial approaches.
iv) Standardisation of shuttling vectors for E-coli and streptomyces having capabilities of accepting
chester genes of Ansamycines.
v) Strengthening of microbial teaching and research in identified universities.
vi) Development of fungicides to contain fungal infections in plants and vegetables.
vii) Development of microbial enzymes active in extreme temperatures, novel antibiotics and
bioactive proteins and other bio-molecules for industrial use.
Ques. 5 : Briefly discuss the concept of Human Genetics?

Ans. Human Genetics : Genetic diseases have posed a serious threat to the health in the Indian
population. This has led to an increased demand for genetic counselling and screening tests both
for carrier detection and for identifying pregnancy at risk. Currently prenatal diagnosis is possible
for most chromosomal disorder and many major congenital malformations.
Diagnostic services are being provided to Thalassemia affected families and prenatal diagnosis of
pregnant women in those families. In AIIMS, New Delhi investigations relating to haemophilia are
carried out in various families affected by the disease and prenatal diagnosis had helped in
identifying the foetus that carries the disease in pregnant women in those families. In North-east,
Sickle-Cell anaemia was traced in certain tribal populations through screening of blood samples
for Haemoglobin-E in those persons. Based on the haematological results, it has been possible to
construct a linear discriminate function to identify suffering individuals with an error probability of
less than 5%.
Formation of gene is a very complex issue. Scientists have not achieved full control over their
formation. Indian Scientists have developed good expertise to understand gene structure and
therefore, it would be possible to identify genetic defects.
Genes consists of DNA. Each gene has a different sequence of bases. Each sequence has coded
information that ultimately leads to the production of a specific protein. These molecules govern
several life processes. Specific clinical trials are under way in case of a few selected genetic
disorders. Gene therapy is being tried only in terminal cases or where there is no other avenue for
survival. It is hoped that gene therapy will become a serious option in about 5 to 10 years.
Ques. 6 : What is DNA fingerprinting? Discuss its

importance?
Ans. DNA Fingerprinting : DNA finger printing technique was first developed by ALEC JEFFREYS
in 1985- 86 in UK. DNA finger printing is a technique, by which an individual can be identified at
molecular level; the technique identifies the repeating sequences in the DNA that are unique to a
particular individual.
DNA is the basic genetic material. It not only carries a blue print for our life, but also varies
significantly from one person to another. What DNA fingerprinting does is to look inside DNA,
regions of DNA that show a great deal of variations from one person to another. These regions
account for a small proposition of our genetic material, but the variations are such that we can
locate these regions, highlight and identify them using DNA probes and obtain a pattern, a series

of bands or stripes on X-ray film. These DNA patterns / sequences are essentially unique to an
individual, except in case of identical twins who have the same DNA.
The samples required for DNA fingerprinting examination are drop of blood, semen, saliva, and
any body part such as bones, tissue, skull teeth, hair with root etc.
DNA fingerprinting has revolutionised forensic medicine and its applications now, encompass
broad areas. The technology has made it possible to identify the source of biological samples at
scenes of crime. This will resolve disputes of maternity paternity, identification of mutilated
remains, identifications of rape/murder, identification of missing child, exchange of babies in
hospital words, forensic wildlife, investigate family relationships in animals, protection of farmers
rights and biodiversity (technology was used to prove the genetic distinctiveness of Indian Basmati
rice composed to Pakistani variety).
Latent of fingerprint was discovered by Sir William Hesschel, a British revenue office in British
India in 1860. Latent fingerprint is the identification of the individual by the impression of the
fingers. While DNA fingerprinting is the identification of an individual, by the genetic markers,
which are present on chromosomes. Latent fingerprints can be distorted by surgery. Latent
fingerprint despite its limitations has come to be a handy tool in crime investigation over the last
140 years.
In India, DNA fingerprinting using B Km probe has been developed by Dr. Lalji Singh at Centre for
Cell and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad. DNA fingerprinting tests are performed at centre
for DNA fingerprinting and diagnostics (CDFD). Hyderabad, a new DNA typing laboratory has
been established Central Forensic Science Laboratory at Kolkata by the Bureau of Police
Research and Development. Thus, the country has two DNA typing facilities.
Ques. 7 : What is Hybridoma?

Ans. Hybridoma : Hybridoma is a cell produced by" fusion of an antibody- producing cell and a
mycloma cell (tumour of B-Iymphocyte). The technique of fusing mycloma cell with antibody-
producing cell is called somatic cell hybridisation. Kohler and Milstein were awarded Nobel Prize in
medicine in 1984 for the development of 'hybridoma'. The value of hybridomas was not
appreciated until monoclonal antibodies were regularly produced in rodents for diagnostics.
Ques. 8 : What is Monolonal antibodies? Point out its uses?

Ans. Monoclonal antibodies are:
• Antibodies of exceptional purity and specificity
• Components of immune system
• Able to recognize and bind to a specific antigen.
Monoclonal antibodies (m Ab) are antibodies* that are identical because they are produced by one
type of immune cell, all clones of a single parent cell.
Production
If a foreign substance (an antigen) is injected into a vertebrate such as a mouse or a human, some
of the immune systems B-cells will turn into plasma cells and start to produce antibodies that bind
to that antigen. Each B-cell produces only one kind of antibody, but different B-cells will produce

structurally different antibodies that bind to different parts ("epitopes") of the antigen. This natural
mixture of antibodies is known, as polyclonal antibodies.
To produce m Ab, B-cells from the spleen of an animals which have been challenged with antigen
are removed. These b-cells are then fused myeloma cells (myeloma is a B-cell cancer/tumour).
The fused hybrid cells (hybridomas), being cancer cells, multiply rapidly and produce large
amounts of antibodies. From the hybridomas, we can obtain a number of different colonies but
each colony produces only one type of antibody (hence MONOCLONAL). Among the various
types of antibodies, the variety that effectively bind with antigen is then picked out.
Uses
Monoclonal antibodies are widely used as diagnostic and research reagents. They are currently
utilized in many diagnostic procedures including:
• Measuring protein and drug levels in serum
• Typing tissue and blood
• Identifying infectious agents
• Identifying the specific cells involved in immune response
• Identifying tumour antigens and auto-antibodies.
Ques. 9 : What is Artificial Insemination?

Ans. Artificial Inseminations : Artificial Insemination (AI) is the artificial introduction of semen into
the reproductive tract of female.
Depending upon the location of sperm insemination, Artificial Insemination is of different types:
a) Intra-cervical: semen placed into the cervical canal
b) Intra-uterine: semen inseminated inside the uterine cavity
c) Intra-follicular: semen introduced in the ovarian follicle
d) Intra tubal: semen placed in the fallopian tube.
Of the 4 different forms of Artificial Insemination, intrauterine insemination (IUI) is the most
commonly used form.
Ques. 10 : Discuss in brief the Artificial Insemination in

animals?
Ans. Artificial insemination in animals : Modern techniques for AI were first developed for the dairy
cattle industry to allow many cows to .be impregnated with the-sperm of a bull for improved milk
production, Now AI is used in various animals like horses, swine, pedigreed dogs, honey bees etc
to propagate desirable characteristics of one male to many females or to overcome breeding
problems.
In Artificial Insemination, the semen that is going to be inseminated is first collected, then frozen
and later transported to the female's location. To allow the sperm to remain viable during the time
before and after it is frozen, the semen is mixed in with a solution containing glycerol, in order to
allow the semen from a donor to impregnate more female, an "extender" solution is added-to the
donor semen so that insemination is possible with fewer sperms. Antibiotics such as streptomycin
diseases, (sexually- transmitted diseases)

Ques. 11 : What do you understand by Human Artificial

Insemination?
Ans. Human Artificial insemination : In humans, Artificial Insemination is usually part of an
infertility treatment. The sperms are either of husband (artificial insemination by husband, AIH) or
donor (artificial insemination by donor, AID).
In its simplest form, the women's menstrual cycle is closely observed and just when an ovum is
released, semen from donor is place in women's reproductive tract. If the procedure is successful,
she conceives and bears a baby, making her both the genetic and gestational mother.
Artificial Insemination is recommended when these are structural abnormalities in women,
moderate male factor infertility, cervical mucus insufficiency, hostile cervical mucus etc.
Artificial Insemination is advantageous over invasive procedures like In Vitro fertilisation (IVF) as it
is less invasive, relatively uncomplicated, and economical. Artificial Insemination however has
resulted in debated revolving around surrogate parenting. Legal issues have arisen in cases
where the gestational (and possibly genetic) mother decides to keep the child. Also, there have
been debates over thoughts of sperm donors. Some also argue that conceiving a baby without
sexual intercourse is not ethical.
Ques. 12 : Briefly discuss the In vitro fertilization?

Ans. In Vitro Fertilisation (Test Tube Baby): ‘In vitro’ in Latin means 'in glass' refers to the test
tubes, But in 'in vitro' fertilisation neither glass or test tubes are being used, this term (in vitro) is
used generally for lab procedures.
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) is a major treatment in infertility when all other methods of achieving
conception have failed. IVF is a technique in which egg cells are fertilized outside the woman's
body.
In this technique, ova (eggs) are removed from woman's ovary and sperms are allowed to fertilize
them in a fluid medium. The fertilized egg (zygote) is then transferred to the female's uterus to
establish a successful pregnancy.
The first ever 'test-tube baby' Lousie Brown was born on July 25, 1978 by this technique. This
technique was developed to overcome infertility due to problems of fallopian tube, but is now the
most successful method to overcome infertility cost considerations are the major drawback of this
technique.
Ques. 13 : Give an account of Embryo Transfer?

Ans. Embryo Transfer : Embryo transfer refers to a step in process of In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
where one or several embryos are placed into the uterus (womb) of female in order to establish a
pregnancy. In IVF, fertilisation between egg and sperm occurs outside female body. Once,
fertilization occurs, the resulting embryo has to be transferred back into womb for its development.
This method of transfer of fertilized egg is called embryo transfer.

Embryo can be transferred as either "fresh" from fertilized egg cells of same menstrual cycle or
"frozen" (i.e.) they have been generated in a preceding cycle and then cryopreserved. Before the
embryo is implanted inside the womb it must be-ensured that the uterine wrong (endometrium) is
appropriately prepared. The embryo's are generally transferred 3 days after fertilization. The
procedure of embryo transfer is preferred with the aid of ultrasound to allow for precise placement.
The Science and Technology project on Embryo Transfer Technology being implemented in
mission mode since 1987 had been successfully completed. The embryo recovery in cattle and
buffalo and establishment of embryo transfer and related techniques had come close to the
international standards. The four Regional Centres and 25 State Level Centres would provide the
infrastructure for training and actual application/utilisation of this technology. A stock of superior
germplasm has beer established to provide 100 embryo free of cost to the milk co-operative
societies to benefits the farmers. A large number of scientists have been trained and the expertise
has been developed in the areas of super ovulation, embryo splitting, cryopreservation etc. The
technology packages generated under this project will be transferred to the National Dairy
Development Mission and the National Bull Production Programme. Considerable progress was
made on embryo sexing, splitting and in vitro fertilization and maturation other activities in the area
of animal birth control vaccine, TALSUR; establishment of the genetically superior stock of cattle;
improvement in the growth rate of poultry broilers, development of immuno-diagnostics are under
implementation with promising results. The open nucleus breeding system (ONBS) for production
of crossbreed Sahiwal Bulls in under progress and the first batch of bulls is expected soon.
Ques. 14 : What is Recombinant DNA technique? Point out

its uses?
Ans. Recombinant DNA : Recombinant DNA is any DNA molecule that has been manipulated by
in vitro procedures to create a novel sequence. The recombinant molecule produced may have a
modified base sequence or contain sequences from two or more different genes or organisms.
They are usually introduced into an organism to create a novel protein or R NA molecule that
alters the properties of the organism.
Major recombinant DNA techniques include site-directed mutagenesis, doming and polymerase
chain reaction (PCR). Key enzymes required for recombinant DNA work are type II restriction
enzymes: DNA Ligase, DNA polymerase, reverse transcriptase and ON.A phosphatase.
Some of the uses of recombinant DNA techniques are:

• To done genes
• To knock out a gene in an organism
• To create: anti-sense RNAs in an organism so as to interfere with gene expression.
• To add a gene(s) to an organism to engineer a new or modified metabolic pathway.
Ques. 15 : What is proteome?

Ans. Proteome : 'Proteome' means protein complement expressed by a genome, the proteome all
the expressed genes or proteins of a genome., A cell type may display numerous sub proteomes
under different growing conditions, nutrition status, health or disease "Proteomics" is the use of
quantitative measurements of the level of a protein or gene expression to characterize biological

processes to decipher the mechanism and control of gene expression. Proteome research /
proteomics is the best path between genome and function studies.
Glossary of Biotech Terms

1. Antibody: is a protein secreted by B-Lymphocytes in response to an antigen.
2. Antigen: is a foreign substance that induces the formation of antibody.
3. Myeloma: is a tumour of B-lymphocyte cells arising in the bone marrow,
4. Bacteriophage: a virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
5. Biocatalyst: An enzyme that activates or speeds up a chemical reaction.
6. Biocatalyst: is a container used for bioprocessing.
7. Bio Processing: A technique in which microorganisms, living cells or their components are used
to produce a desired end product. Bio processing of biotech products consists of 2 major
processing steps:
1. Up streaming process: refers to the culturing of micro erg an isms to create a bulk bio product.
This processing is typically done using cell culture or fermentation.
2. Down streaming process: refers to reparation and processing of bulk bio product into a form
suitable for its end-use. Typically, this step involves separation, purification and sterilisation.
8. Callus: A duster of undifferentiated plant cells that have the capacity to regenerate a whole plant
in some species. This term is used in tissue culture technique.
9. Clone: a cell or collection of cells containing identical genetic material. Clones are produced
from a single parent cell.
10. DNA typing: more popularly called as DNA fingerprinting.
11. DNA probe: A molecule that has been labelled with a radioactive isotope, dye or enzyme and
is used to locate a particular portion of a DNA molecule.
12. DNA sequence: .The order of nucleotide bases in the DNA molecule.
13. In vitro: performed in a test tube or other laboratory apparatus.
14. In vivo: in the living organism.
15. Interferon: A protein produced naturally by the cells of our body. It increases the resistance of
surrounding cells to attacks by viruses.
16. Interleukin: A protein produced naturally by our bodies to stimulate our immune systems.
17. Gene Amplification: The increase, within a cell, of the number of copies of a given gene.
18. Genome: The total hereditary.-material of a cell.
19. Gene Mapping: determining the relative locations of genes on a chromosome.
20. Plasmid: A small circular piece of DNA found outside the chromosome in bacteria. Plasmids
are the principal tools for inserting new genetic information into micro organisms or plants.
21. Vector: The agent used to carry new DNA into a cell, viruses or plasmids are often used as
vectors.
22. Transposon: A mobile genetic element that can move from one location in the gene and
reinsert at another site.
23. Restriction Enzymes: Bacterial enzymes that cleave DNA at very specific location,
24. Protein Engineering: A technique used on production of proteins with new or artificial amino
acid sequences.
25. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): A technique for quickly making many copies of a specific
segment of DNA.
26. Anti-Sense Technology: The use of an RNA molecule to block gene expression by interfering
with protein production. This technique is used commercially in tomatoes to slow ripening for
better shipping and longer shelf life.

27. Gene Expression: The physical manifestation of the information contained in a gene,
28. Pleuripotent Stem Cells: are the multi-potential cell populations capable of developing into
various specialized cells and tissues of body such as muscle cells, nerve cells, fiver cells blood
cells etc.
29. Stem Cell Lines/Colonies: A stem cell line is a self-replenishing colony of embryonic cells.
Applications of Biotechnology
1. Medicine (Health Care)
• Prevention • Vaccine
• Gene therapy
• Genetic counselling
• Diagnosis • Diagnostic kits and
pathological kits
• DNA probes
• Monoclonal antibodies
• Therapeutics • Antibiotics
• Hormones
• Interferon
• Dotting factor
• Usokinase
• Transcription factor based drugs
• Digonucleotide antisense drugs
• Drug delivery systems.
• Other
• DNA fingerprinting and Applications auto antibody finger-
printing
• Fertility control (oral pills)
2. Agriculture
• Productivity (1) Photosynthesis
improver
(2) Transgenic plants
(3) Tissue culture
(4) Bio fertilisers
• Diversity • Hybrid seeds
• Synthetic/Artificial seeds
• Resistance • Disease, drought, pest
resistant varieties
• Allied Areas (1) Seribiotechnology
(2) Aquaculture
(3) Animal husbandry
(4) Food biotechnology
3. Environment and Energy
• Bioremediation
• Bio indicators
• Biodegradation
• Biomass production
• Bio fuels
4. Industry

• Fermentation products
• Mining (Bioleaching)
• Vaccines
• Steroids
• Chemicals
• Vitamins
5. Biotech Instruments
• Biosensors
• Cell analyser
• DNA/peptide synthesisers
Ques. 16 : Briefly discuss the main thrust of activities of

India in crop biotechnology?
Ans. Crop Biotechnology : Main Thrust of activities: Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian
Economy. Agriculture and Allied sectors contribute nearly 25 per cent of Gross Domestic
Production (GDP), while about 65-70 per cent of the population is dependent on agriculture for
their livelihood. India has achieved a major breakthrough in agricultural production as a result of
technology evolved by Indian scientists and its wide adoption by the farmers. However, India
would need to increase the food production to 250 millions tonnes by the 2020. Therefore, there is
a need for critical appraisal of the post-green revolution technology to draw up a balance sheet so
that strategies are evolved for achieving sustainable agriculture. The intensive agriculture in India
has caused widespread changes in the agro-ecosystem. The insect pest, disease and weed
complex has undergone a tremendous change. There is an overall depletion in soil fertility as a
result of intensive cultivation of crops. Poor productivity levels and inadequate investments in
infrastructure in the last two decades were masked by the huge surpluses, caused partly by low
food grain buying capacity and change in lifestyle patterns shifting food patterns. Presently Indian
agriculture appears to have reached a plateau and policymakers have been emphasizing the need
for new initiatives to boost agricultural outputs. This would not only be essential for ensuring
healthy economic growth in the country but also for improving the livelihoods of the poor in rural
India.
DBT's Ongoing programme: The department is supporting three main types of research activities
under the scheme; R&D projects in priority crops, multi-institutional projects and Plant Molecular
programmes in certain institutions/universities. The multi- institutional project involves interaction
amongst a number of institutions with well defined objectives. The project on (a) the development
of transgenics crops - cotton, rice mungbean and tomato resistance to biotic stresses (b) the
project-on molecular characterization and field trials of mustard transgenics for hybrid seed
production and low - till cultivation is being pursued by three institutions (c) development of
varieties with durable resistance to leaf and stripe rust using molecular marker technology in
wheat. This project deals with validation of genetic stocks for documented genes conferring seed
and adult plant resistant to leaf rust and stripe rust, identification of molecular markers for
important gene and pyramiding important APR and seed resistance genes in common cultivars
and (d) Salinity and dehydration stress tolerance in rice: cloning of responsive genes, their
promoters and development of transgenics. In this project vectors with proper promoters and
genes of interest will be constructed for rice transformation. Finally to utilize the known genes
isolated by the participating groups and develop protocols for transformation of rice cultivars. The
Plant Molecular Biology programmes are ongoing at MKU, Madurai; TNAU, Coimbatore; Bose

institute, Kolkata and UDSC, New Delhi, Indian initiative for rice genome sequencing: Under Indian
initiative for Rice genome sequencing, India has successfully decoded the genome information of
the rice chromosome number
11. The rice genome has been shown to have 37,544 genes, of which 1443 genes have been
identified in the region sequenced by Indian Scientists. Three projects in the area of Crop
biofortification have been sanctioned. Biofortification of wheat for micro nutrients through
conventional and molecular breeding approaches, Rice biofortification with enhanced iron and zinc
in high yielding non- basmati cultivars through marker assisted breeding and transgenic
approaches and development of micronutrient enriched maize through molecular breeding. Under
Indo- US collaboration in agriculture biotechnology, two network projects have been recently
sanctioned on "Development and evaluation of salt and drought tolerant transgenic rice". DRR
Hyderabad, GSSRI, Kamal, ICGEB, New Delhi and Cornell University, Ithaca are partners in the
project. The other project is “Fruit and Shoot Borer Resistant Eggplant” implemented at
IIVR,Varanasi; UAS, Dharwad and TNAU, Coimbatore
Ques. 17 : Discuss in brief the main thrust of activities and

achievements in environmental biotechnology?
Ans. Environmental Biotechnology : Main thrust of activities Realising-the tremendous potential of
biotechnology to offer unique, efficient, ecofriendly and economically viable options for waste
treatment in situ and degradation of hazardous toxic waste into relatively less harmful or harmless
byproducts, the Department of Biotechnology has given a major thrust to programmes for
ecorestoration of degraded ecosystems, mining spoil dumps, development of biosensors for
detection of pollutants, treatment of industrial effluents, use of molecular markers for
characterisation of biodiversity.
The major achievements are:
(a) Establishment of a Laboratory for conservation of endangered animal species CCMB,

Hyderabad The Department has established a Laboratory for conservation of endangered animal
species at GGMS, Hyderabad jointly with MOEF and AP State Government.
(b) Network programmes on pesticide degradation Three network programmes on degradation of

chloro and nitro pesticides in contaminated soils and stocks of banned pesticides involving 4
research institutions each have been supported.
(c) Programme on biodiversity conservation of North Eastern Region Six projects for ex situ
conservation, micro propagation and in vitro conservation of rare and endangered plants of
medicinal importance, orchids, ethno botanical plants and microbial diversity of north eastern
region have been supported.
(d) Programmes for conservation and use of lower plants as indicators of pollution Five projects on
biosystematics and conservation studies of liverworts, genetic diversity of ferns, lichens and their
use as indicators of pollution have been supported.
(e) Programmes on molecular biology for environmental amelioration. Six projects on

characterisation and molecular analysis of polyaromatic hydrocarbon degrading Pathways, genetic

engineering for improved heavy metal tolerance, cloning and characterisation of metal resistant
genes have been supported.
(f) Ecorestotation of mine dumps and other degraded ecosystems. An integrated biotechnological
approach (ISA) for bioremediation of mine spoil dumps and degraded ecosystems has been
developed by scientists at National. Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),
Nagpur and University of Delhi and has been successfully demonstrated at a number of sites.
(g) Mangrove afforestation through application of classical and biotechnological tools MSSRF,
Chennai has employed an integrated approach combining classical and biotechnological tools to
restore and rehabilitate mangrove forests and biodiversity in coastal areas by multi-species
enrichment planting. The plantations comprised genetically superior candidate plus-trees identified
by various morphological and physiological markers, and these were propagated through a sexual
methods (vegetative and tissue culture propagation).
Ques. 18 : Briefly discuss the main thrust of activities and

achivements in food biotechnology?
Ans. Food Biotechnology : Main thrust of activities: The Task Force on Food Biotechnology
considered R&D proposals in various areas of food processing using biotechnological approaches.
These included preparation of tropical fruit juices: food additives (flavours, colourants etc.); large
scale production of various species of mushrooms; food from seaweeds; Xanthan gum and on
areas of food safety. Development of low cost nutritious food supplements for malnourished
school going children was also taken up. Besides, steps were taken to develop diagnostic kits for
rapid identification of food borne pathogens. A network programme on the modification of oils and
fats using biotechnological approaches was initiated.
Achievements/Leads Obtained/Technologies Developed: The Biotechnology research for food

safety resulted in leads for the development of detection kits for various microbial toxins,
contaminants and toxicants, PCR assays have been perfected for rapid detection of various food
borne bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens.
Technologies transferred/commercialized: The technologies ‘already commercialized' are as

follows: Technology for large-scale production of oyster mushrooms was developed, for
processing of 300 kg fresh mushrooms per day. Technology for Spirulina production with an
estimated production capacity of 50 kg per day was developed
Ques. 19 : Briefly discuss the major achievements in Human

Genetics and Genome analysis?
Ans.
1. Main thrust of activities:
The programme was initiated with the main objective to develop basic capabilities, strengthen
existing Institutions which have good expertise, to initiate work in molecular genetics and to
support some application oriented projects so as to reduce the burden of genetic disorders in the

country. The proqramrne also aims at identifying, mapping and characterising genes associated
with genetic disorders and diseases prevalent in India and exploit in the knowledge created by the
available human genome, microbial and parasitic genomic sequences so as to usher in molecular
medicine tools for better management of disorders and diseases.
2. Achievements : Since its inception of this programme, the Department has implemented several
projects; including genetic diagnosis cum counseling units to provide diagnosis and counseling to
the affected families for the common genetic disorders prevalent in the country. Major
programmes have been initiated in the area of human genetics, functional genomics, human
genome diversity, gene therapy, microbial and computational genomics, structural genomics,
biocomputing, DNA micro array facilities, clinical proteomics, pharmacogenomics etc, involving
large number of clinicians, molecular geneticists and anthropologists. A strategy plan/roadmap
document for the 11th P1an was prepared to initiate major programmes in human genetics and
genome analysis including genetic education in the country.
Functional Genomics: Under the "Programme on Functional Genomics" implemented at Institute of

Genomics & Integrative Biology (formerly CBT), Delhi established good linkages with clinicians in
the three major areas i.e. spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA). schizophrenia and biploar disorder and
asthma. Developed high throughput capabilities and highly skilled manpower in the field of
genomics and computational biology. The considerable progress has been made to carry out
genetic research in SCA, schizophrenia & bipolar disorder and asthma. Susceptibility on locus on
chromosome 22 for schizophrenia and biopolar disorder in the Indian population has been
identified. A US patent was filed for a method to detect human spinocerebellar ataxia 2 gene
variants.
Human Genome Diversity: India is one of the first country to take up the project on "Human
Genome Diversity". A major consortium project has been implemented at ISI, IICB and SINP,
Kolkata. DNA typing of 25 autosomal markers in 53 ethnic groups (tribal, casts and religious
communities) of India has been completed. This study also provided evidence of human migration
from India to South-East Asia. It revealed that the expansion of the ethnic population took place
about 50,000 years ago. The studies indicate that austro-asiastic speaking tribal population in
India were the original inhabitants. The group also generated mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
polymorphism through restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) and sequence data on
several ethnic populations of India. Utilizing the DNA sequence data of the hypervariable segment
1 of the mtDNA, the group has demonstrated that the tribal population of India underwent a major
demographic expansion in prehistoric times.
Ques. 20 : Briefly discuss the main thrust of activities in

Medicinal biotechnology?
Ans. Medicinal Biotechnology : Main thrust of activities: Medical biotechnology and health care
areas have emphasis on: molecular diagnostics, genetic vaccines, molecular characterisation of
pathogens, new targets: and novel drug delivery systems relating to viral, bacterial and parasitic
infections markers for cervical and oral cancers, stem cell biology, development of products and
processes, and development of advanced infrastructure and expertise.
The priorities of the programme for health and health related biotechnologies have been taking
into consideration the criteria like: Disease burden; Cost effectiveness of technologies.

Considering emerging and reemerging diseases; Disorders because of prevalent life style and
potential utilities of these technologies at community level. Research on reproductive human
health and contraception with special-interest for developing along-term strategy for immunological
control of reproduction both in males and females. Edible vaccines for infections like cholera,
hepatitis, rabies contraception etc.
Ques. 21 : Give an account of the achievements in vaccines?

Ans. Vaccines
A. IMMUVAC
Achievements/leads/Technology: An immuno-modulator Based on killed Mycobacterium
developed by the National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi to be used as an adjunct to MDT
and for prophylaxis in leprosy patients. Upscaled and commercialized by M/s Cadila
Pharmaceuticals, Ahmedabad, initially as LEPROVACr, now as IMMUVACr It received Orphan
drug designation in USA as an adjuvant to MDT for multi-bacillary leprosy. Recently it has shown a
cure rate of 98% in category-II Tuberculosis patients in contrast to a cure rate of 56% with MDT
under DOTS (as per WHO report).
B. Rabies
Main thrust of activities: (i) Project Title: National Jai Vigyan Mission Programme on Rabies; (ii)
Objectives: Preclinical toxicity and protective efficacy of a Rabies DNA vaccine in Mice, Monkeys
and Dogs – IISc, Bangalore; Indian Immunologicals Ltd. & NIN, Hyderabad.
Ques. 22 : Briefly discuss the achivements in the field of

plant biotechnology?
Ans. Plant Biotechnology : Plant Biotechnology has been one of the thrust areas of the
Department and major programmes have been supported on Forest tree, horticulture and
plantation crops. The thrust is on application of tissue culture for regeneration of high quality
economically important plant species, demonstration of large-scale plantation and validation of
proven technology; germplasm characterization, improvement of crops through molecular biology
tools, basic research, genomics initiative; host pathogen interaction, resolving of taxonomic
problems by molecular interventions etc.
Achievements vis-a-vis goals/targets.
R&D: Studies were carried out for developing/standardization of micro propagation protocols of
important tree species. Under the horticulture crops, post harvest studies for improved shelf life of
Tomato, Grapes and Banana were supported. Transformation systems have been established.
Transgenics of tomato are undergoing field trial. Improvement of selected spices (black pepper,
cardamom, ginger, vanilla) through biotechno-logical tools were supported concentrating on
germplasm characterization and conservation and screening for disease resistance, developing
improved varieties through transformation and mutation breeding.
Solanaceae Genome Initiative: An International Solanaceae Genome Initiative has been launched
with the aim of creating a coordinated network of knowledge regarding the Solanaceae family and
addressed various key issues. The long-term goal of the SOL programme is to create a network of
map based resources and information and address key questions in plant adaptation and

diversification through this International effort. India Joined the International 'SOL' programme and
has sequenced chromosome 5 (12 Mb).
Basic Research: The thrust of the programmes supported under Basic research was to study the
signal transduction pathway in identified plants to understand the mechanism involved in
responding to extend stimuli and the process of adaptation to these changed environment
conditions. The study aims at identifying the components of Signaling pathway with respect to (a)
early signal transduction (b) transcription factors involved in gene expression and (c) molecular
events leading to protein turn aver. The role of hormones light and stress studies on plant
behaviour, floral development and root differentiation.
Impact: Tissue Culture Protocols developed for Important crops - Apple, Citrus have been
developed for the first time. National Certification System for Tissue Culture plants has been
developed for the first time.
Ques. 23 : Discuss in brief the major scientific achivements

in seri biotechnology?
Ans. Seri Biotechnology : The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) is implementing a programme
on application of biotechnology for increasing productivity, enhancing silk quality and improvement
of host plants in both mulberry and non-mulberry sericulture.
Major Scientific Achievements: Work accomplished on identification and characteri-zation of

silkworm microsatellites and utilization of microsatellite derived markers for strain typing,
phylogenetics, linkage mapping, Z-chramosome mapping and analysis of heterologous silkmoths.
Application of these markers for identification of productive silkworm hybrids in combination with
conventional breeding carried out. India joined "International Consortium on Lepidopteron
Genomics" and fulfilled the Indian commitments viz (a) Construction of high-density linkage map of
silkworm (Bombyx mori) (b) Isolation and characterization of ESTs from non-mulberry silkworms.
Microsatellite markers for tasar silkworm and muga silkworms have been developed which are
being, used to study population structure, gene flow and genetic polymorphisms. Characterization
of anti-bacterial proteins in silkworm has led to the discovery of unique insect specific lysozyme
(similar to C-type lysozyme and alpha lactalbumins). A Web-enabled DNA database on mulberry
has been developed for the first time in the world encompassing DNA fingerprinting studies carried
out on more than 250.genotypes including 50 selected- elite genotypes. Efforts have been initiated
for construction of a framework molecular linkage map of mulberry for mapping and identification
of useful genes. A Multi-institutional Network project has been launched on identification of DNA
markers associated with disease and pest resistance in mulberry involving CCMB, Hyderabad
alongwith four institutions of CSB and state governments.
Ques. 24 : What were the goals for seri biotechnology in the

eleventh plan?
Ans.
Goals for 11th Plan:
• To develop novel high yielding silkworm varieties producing good quality silk and resistant to
diseases through marker-assisted breeding and transgenic route.

• To develop biotic / abiotic stress tolerant mulberry varieties through marker assisted breeding
and transgenic route.
• To support more basic research in mulberry sericulture (both silkworm and host- plants) including
research on disease surveillance and casual agents of major disease of non-mulberry silkworm.
• To develop suitable technology(s) for by-product utilization in sericulture industry and value
addition to the system toward better economic gains. To develop various applications of silk
proteins (both sericin and fibroin) for medical and cosmetic purposes besides using pupa as a
source of protein and bio-fuel.
• To develop silkworm as bioreactor for producing high-value proteins.
• To promote HRD in the area of seribiotecnology by following novel and integrated approaches.
Ques. 25 : Briefly discuss the main thrust of activities and

achivements in stem cell research?
Ans. Stem CelL Research : Main Thrust-of Activities: The understanding of stem cells biology has
opened up new medical paradigm especially in tissue generation as embryonic stem cells could
be most powerful ones of all. Pluripotent stem cells are the multi-potential cell - populations
capable of developing into specialized cells and tissues of the body such as muscle cells, nerve
cells, liver cells and blood cells and may be used for replacement of cells and tissues to treat
many diseases and disorders like Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injury, stroke, burns, heart
disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis and also help us understand what
causes birth defects and cancer. The development of stem cell lines that may produce many
tissues of human body is an important scientific breakthrough. Recent studies, however, have
clearly led to development of technologies where by the stem cell either from the adult or from the
embryo can be isolated and grown in the tissue culture. This discovery has surprised many
scientists and this technology is now being utilized by several scientists specially in the developed
countries for organogenesis, transplantation of the stem cells to, rectify the ailing and disease
tissue, delivery of new therapeutics, delivery of interleukins to modulate immune responses and
also delivering candidate vaccine for several infectious diseases. This research has the potential
to revolutionise the practice of medicine and improve the quality and the length of life.
Achievements: A number of projects have been implemented on use of limbal stem cells in
repairing damaged ocular surface; neural stem cells to understand how stem cells get.
differentiated into different types of neural cells, haematopoietic stem cells, isolation, characteri-
zation and neuronal differentiation of human embryonic stem cells. In addition, the department has
also received the programmes on other aspects of stem cell biology. Significant achievements are:
Many patients have undergone cornea transplantation using limbal stem cells. First haploidentical
stem cell transplantation has been done. For this, CD34+ cells have been collected from the father
of a child suffering from glanzmann thrombasthenia who had severe persistent bleeding. This type
of transplantation is first of its kind in India.
Proposed Programmes: To establish stem cell banking facility in the country. To develop well
characterized stem cell lines. Potential use of embryonic stem cell lines to generate various
organs. Regeneration of tissues for stem cells obtained from aborted foetus. Basic understanding
of the signaling mechanisms and differentiation of stem cells.
Ques. 26 : What is cloning?

Ans. Cloning is the production of identical animals, plants or microorganisms from a single
individual. A clone is an organism that is derived from a single parent through non-sexual
activities.
Nature itself is the greatest cloning agent. In one out of 45 human conceptions the fertilized ovum
splits for some unknown reason and produces monozygotic (identical) twins. Each has a genetic
make up identical to the other. In cloning this operation is done intentionally in a laboratory.
It must be noted that natural cloning is common on plants, microorganisms and simple animals
such as corals. Many organisms which reproduce a sexually produce their own clones. But
mammals which reproduce sexually cannot clone naturally. The progeny of a mammals inherits
genetic matter not from one parent but half each from both parents. therefore the younger
produced is never an identical copy of anyone of its parents. Natural clones in mammals are
confined to the production of identical clones.
Ques. 27 : Give an account of the SCNT technique of animal

cloning?
Ans. Animal Cloning : In February 1997, a team of scientists led by Dr Ian Wilmut at the Roslin
Institute, Ediburgh, UK announced that they succeeded, for the first time in cloning a sheep,
named DOLLY, from the udder cell of an adult sheep. Dolly was the first mammal to be cloned,
from an adult cell.
“Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer”(SCNT) Technique Cloning of animals is based on a technique

known as "somatic cell nuclear transfer". In this 2 cells are fused together. A donor cell containing
all of its DNA (containing all of the genetic information) and an egg cell from which the DNA has
been removed. Once the two cells are fused with the help of an electric shock, the resultant egg
(donor nucleus has been transferred into the empty egg) is forced to divide, creating an embryo.
This embryo is then implanted into the womb of surrogate mother.
This nuclear transfer technique was successful in amphibians and even in mammals only if the
donor cell was taken directly from an early embryo. Using cells from an embryo was not difficult
since these cells had not differentiated and became specialized cells. However when attempts
were to clone animals from older cells which had differentiated (become specialised) they failed
consistently. The inability of scientists to clone from older cells. (i.e. both advanced embryos and
adult cells) proved that adult cells can't adapt themselves to the rapid reproductive rhythm of an
enucleated egg of the recipient.
It is here that the efforts of Dr Ian Wilmut and his team must be landed. They had succeeded in
cloning a sheep from older cell of an adult sheep. According to these scientists, the key to success
in cloning with the help of older cell lay in coordinating the status of donor cell and the recipient
egg. While cloning Dolly, they ensured that the adult cell was in the exact stage of its lifecycle as
the egg in which it was transplanted. The adult cell was forced into a state of inactivity quiescence)
thus, the adult cell was at start of cell cycle and had normal amount of DNA. After fusion, the
fertilized egg was implanted in surrogate mother and Dolly was born. The technology however has
not been perfected. Out of 277 fused pairs of cells where the donor was from adult tissue only one
(Dolly) survived.
Ques. 28 : Discuss in brief the Human cloning?

Ans. Human Cloning :

There are 3 different types of cloning
(1) Embryo cloning (Artificial twinning)
(2) Adult DNA cloning (Reproductive cloning)
(3) Therapeutic cloning (Biomedical cloning)
Embryo Cloning: This is a medical technique which produces monozygotic (identical) twins or
triplet involves removing one or more cells from an embryo and encouraging the cell to develop
into a separate embryo with the same DNA as original. Very limited experimentation has been
done with respect to humans.
How is Embryo Cloning Done Human embryo cloning starts with a standard in vitro fertilization
procedure. Sperm and egg cell are mixed together on a glass dish. After conception, the zygote
(fertilised egg) is allowed to develop into a blastula (a hollow mass of cells). The zygote divides
first into two cells, then four cells, then eight cells. A chemical is added to remove the zona
pellueida covering. This material provides nutrients to the cell to promote cell division and the
covering are removed. The blastula is then divided into individual cells which are deposited on
individual dishes. They are then coated with artificial zona pellueida and allowed to divide and
develop. Many of these pairs of zygotes were not able to develop beyond the 32-cell stage. It has
been understood that these zygotes had the potential to develop further, even mature into a viable
foetus but the original ovum used was defective (and would have died any way). For ethical
seasons, researches selected embryos which had no possibility of ever maturing into foetuses and
thus into newborn babies.
Ques. 29 : Give arguments in favour and against embryo

cloning of Humans?
Ans. Arguments 'For' Embryo Cloning of Humans :
• It might produce greater understanding of the causes of miscarriages; this might eventually lead
to treatment to prevent spontaneous abortions.
• It might lead to an understanding of the mechanisms by which a mosula (mass of cells that has
developed from a blastula) attaches itself to the wall of uterus. This might lead to development of
new; effective contraceptives that exhibit very few side effects.
• The rapid growth of mosula is similar to the rate at which cancer cells proliferate Cancer
researches believe that if a method is found to stop the division of human mosula then a technique
for terminating the growth of a career night be found ethical concerns.
Prolifers argue that embryo is also human life. During embryo cloning there is a possibility of
injuring or killing embryos. Hence they appose embryo cloning.
Ques. 30 : What is reproductive cloning?

Ans. Reproductive Cloning (Adult DNA Cloning) : Reproductive cloning is performed using
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer. The method of delivering a baby by transferring the nucleus of an
adult human cell to a enucleated human egg cell and allowing the manipulated egg cell to grow
normally in the womb (uterus) of surrogate mother is called reproductive cloning.
Reproductive human cloning experiments The successful cloning of adult animals has opened the
doors for human cloning. But the possibilities of human cloning has raised ethical questions. WHO

has condemned human cloning as 'ethically' unacceptable on ground that it can undermine
society's respect for human life.
United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) has approved a non-binding declaration urging
member- states to ban all forms of human cloning UNGA declaration has gone too far to include
therapeutic cloning as well. But most countries including U.S.A. and E.U have banned
reproductive cloning. The bioethics committee functioning under department of Biotechnology has
banned human cloning for reproductive purposes.
Ques. 31 : Discuss in brief Therapeutic cloning and its

benefits?
Ans. Therapeutic Cloning : Using stem cells from cloned human embryo to produce human
organs, and replacement cells for treatment purposes is called therapeutic cloning.
Procedure of therapeutic cloning
1. Ovum of a woman is taken and its DNA is removed.
2: DNA is taken out of an adult human cell and this DNA is then inserted into ovum,
3. Electric shock is give to the ovum to start up it embryo making operation and in a small
percentage of cases, a pre-embryo will be formed.
4. The pre-embryo is allowed to develop and produce many stem cells. (Till here the procedure is
identical to that used in reproductive cloning. However, in therapeutic cloning pre-embryo is not
implanted in womb to produce a pregnancy).
5. Stem cells are removed from the pre-embryo and this results in death of pre- embryo.
6. The stem cells are then encouraged to grow into whatever tissue or organ is needed.
7. The tissue or organ would be transplanted into patient.
Benefits of Therapeutic Cloning
Therapeutic cloning has the potential to revolutionise medical case. Diseases like diabetes,
blindness, Parkinson disease, Glaucoma. Cystic, fibrosis stroke, lymphoma could possibly be
cured. With research, the molecular mechanisms of how organs regenerate can be understood
thus increasing the range of possible treatments that could be considered. The embryonic stem
cells produced from therapeutic cloning procedure can be used to create skin for burn victims,
organs for transplant patients or cells for those with spinal cord injuries. The organ transplant by
this method would be more advantageous when compared to regular organ transplant devoted by
a second person as:
• These would be no danger of rejection of organ, as the organ DNA would match patients DNA
exactly.
• For transplants involving organs like kidney, another person has to experience pain,
inconvenience and some times a shortened life span in order to donate the organ.
Ques. 32 : Briefly discuss Stem Cells?

Ans. Stem cells are primal, undifferentiated cells that have on ability to transform into any kind of
cell/tissue in the body.
Literally, many cells in our body 'stem' from these primitive, undifferentiated stem cells. Stem cells
have two characteristics that separate them from the other cells of the body:
1. Proliferation: Stem cells have the ability to renew themselves over long period of time through
the process of cell division.
2. Differentiation: Originally, stem cells are unspecialised mononuclear cells Under certain

conditions that can be scientifically manipulated, stem-cells can be coaxed to become specialised
cells such as a pumping heart cells or an auditory hair cell, Stem cells are important because they
make us. The inner mass of cells in blastocyte is rich in stem cells, stem cells that will one day
form heart, lungs, muscle, hair etc. Stem cells are like the backbone of the immune system, they
sit waiting for something to go wrong and when it does go wrong they jump onto action. Stem cells
found in bone marrow will differentiate into mature cells that make up the immune system. For
example, stem cells reside in the skins basal layer against cuts and infections. Brain stem cells
help form nerve connections. In other words stem cells through out the body help regulate our
health.
Ques. 33 : Discuss in breif the categories of Stem Cells?

Ans.
Types of Stem Cells
Stem cells can be categorized on basis of 'Potency' as
1. Totipotent Stem Cells: They are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells
produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg cell are also totipotent. These cells can
grow into any type of cell without exception.
2. Pluripotent Stem Cells: These are descendants of totipotent cells and can grow into only cell,
type except for totipotent stem cell.
3. Multipotent Stem Cells: They can produce only cells of a closely related family of cells (e.g.:
blood cells such as R.B.C., W.B.C and Platelets).
4. Unipotent Stem Cell: They can produce only one cell-type, but have the property of self-renewal
which distinguishes them from non-stem cells.
Stem cells can also be categorised according to their source, as either adult or embryonic.
Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells found among differentiated cells of a specific tissue and
are mostly multipotent cells. They are already being used in treatments for over one hundred
diseases. Adult bone marrow cells for example have been used for more than a decade for
various hematological. They are more appropriately called Somatic (Soma=Body) stem cells
because they need not come from adults but can also come from children or umbilical cords.
Embryonic stem cells are cultured cells obtained from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a
blastocyst. Embryonic stem cells as against adult stem cells are Pluripotent. Further embryonic
stem cells have the capacity to replicate themselves (proliferation). In about six months, cultured
embryonic stem cells can create millions of cultured embryonic stem cells can create millions of
new stem cells. Embryonic stem cells can replicate for a year or more in a Lab. However
embryonic stem cell research is still in basic research phase. Research phase, as these stem cells
were isolated in 1998 (at least for humans) whereas adult stem cells have been studied since the
1960's.
Ques. 34 : Briefly discuss the sources of stem cells?

Ans.
'Sources of Stem Cells'
1. Adult Stem Cells (AS) derived from:
(a) Bone marrow, richest source of AS cells bone marrow transplants used to treat genetic
disorder, immune system disorder and blood disorders
(b) Peripheral blood, tissue.

2. Cord Blood Cells derived from aborted foetal tissue, umbilical cord, placenta.
3. Embryonal Stem Cells derived from balstocysts or foetal tissues.
Ques. 35 : What is Cord Blood stem cells?

Ans. Cord Blood Stem Cells : Stem cells obtained from blood of placenta and umbilical cord are
called cord blood stem cell these stem cells are multipotent in nature and have been successful in
reconstitution of bone marrow in children in many diseased conditions. Since 1988, these cord
blood stem cells have been used to treat Gunthers disease, Hunter .syndrome, Hurler syndrome,
Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia etc diseases that mostly occur in children.
Cord blood stem cells can be multiplied and maintained in culture but don net have unlimited
capacity for .renewal like the embryonic stem cells. Research is ongoing to determine whether
these cells can also be made to differentiate into other tissues.
Umbilical cord blood use has become common and these are now umbilical cord blood banks that
accept devotions from parents.
It is collected by removing the umbilical cord, cleansing it and withdrawing blood from the umbilical
vein. This blood is then immediately analysed for infections agent and the tissue-type is
determined. The cord blood is processed and depleted of RBCs before being stored in liquid
nitrogen for later use. They are injected through a vein of the patient. This kind of treatment, where
the stem cells are collected from another donor is called allogeneic treatment. When the cells are
collected from the same patient on whom they will be used, it is called autologous treatment.
Ques. 36 : Briefly discuss the distinct advantages of cord

blood stem cells over adult stem cells?
Ans. Cord blood vs. Adult stem cells : Although umbilical cord blood is defined as adult or somatic
stem cells, because it is younger in nature; it has certain distinct advantages over adult stem cells.
1. As cord blood stem cells are younger, they have more plasticity (i.e.) they can give rise to a
greater variety of specilised cells.
2. They are also less affected by damaging environmental toxins that change the DNA, hence
compared with AS cells cord blood cells are healthier.
3. As they are more primitive chances of cell rejection are lesser than AS cells.
4. Cord blood is a richer source of stem cells, while adult stem cells can be found in numerous
mature tissues, they are found in minute quantities and are harder to locate.
5. With cord blood banking coming up in a large way, the availability of cord blood is more, unlike
other adult stem cell transplants such as bone marrow.
The biggest disadvantage of cord blood is, if due case is not taken during testing, genetic disease
could be transmitted very easily through cord blood. Because cord blood is a source of younger
stem cells, it is some where between adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells, offering the
benefits of each category.
Ques. 37 : Briefly discuss the important distinction between Adult stem cells and Embryonic stem
cells?
Ans. Adult Stem Cells vs. Embryonic Stem Cells : Human ES and AS cells have advantages and
disadvantages regarding potential use for cell-based regenerative therapies.
ES are plus potent and have unlimited ability for regeneration/ expansion. These unique abilities

make ES cells as potentially the ultimate source for regenerative medicine and tissue
replacement.
AS are multi potent and are often present in only minute quantities so are difficult to isolate; while
ES cells can be relatively easily grown in culture. This is an important distinction as large number
of cells are needed far stem cell replacement therapies.
AS cells may contain more DNA abnormalities caused by sunlight, toxins and errors in making
more DNA copies during the course of lifetime. The chances of such abnormalities in DNA in ES
cells are less.
A major advantage of AS cells is that since they are harvested from the patient, potential. "Ethical
Issues" and "Immunogenic" rejection are averted ES cells from a donor when introduced into a
patient could cause transplant rejection. Research with ES cells desired from humans is
controversial as it requires the destruction of blastocyst (human embryol which according to
prolifers tantamount to destruction of a human being. Ethical concerns about usage of ES cells is
the major hindrance for further research in studying the utility and scope of ES cells.
Ü Stem Cell Research around the World In July 2001, Britain became the first country to legalize
cloning, thus allowing scientists to create cloned embryos for stem cell research. All embryos
involved in research must be destroyed after 14 days. A one-year license has been granted to
scientists of new centre for life in northern England to clone human embryos so as to study on how
to clone early embryos efficiently and use them as source of stem cells with the potential to
develop into any tissue type and to understand disease.
Researches at Israel institute of technology, technician have for the first time succeeded in
growing the precursor for hast cells from human embryonic stem cells. They have demonstrated
that three precursors are indeed early-stage cardiomyocytes. It seem likely that if placed in an
adult human heart, these cells would produce mature human heart muscle cells, Dr. Lior Gepstein
who conducted the research says the next step is moving towards clinical applications, such as
injecting cardiomyocytes into damaged human hearts to significantly increase the number of cells
produced.
Ques. 38 : Briefly discuss the stem cell research in India?

Ans. Stem Cell Research in India : National Task Force on Stem Cell Research, has proposed a
sizeable 'priority fund' of un-mentioned size to finance research activities in stem cell research Dr.
D. Balasubramanian, Chairman of the task force said the on-going stem cell programmes of the 15
labs have a total used of Rs. 15 crores. CMC, Vellore. AIIMS, Manipal Hospital, NIMHANS.
Bangalore, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore, IIS, PGI Chandigarh, Reliance Life
Sciences, Mumbai and National Centre for Cell Science, Pune are some of the centres involved in
stem cell research in the country. The task force is mooting stem cell city clusters that share
facilities, ideas, clinical opportunities and business opportunities. The city cluster could be
promoted at Bangalore, Hyderabad, Vellore, New Delhi, Pune and Mumbai.
Ever since the U.S. Administration stopped funding embryo stem cell research in US in 2001,
India, along with Australia, Singapore, Japan, China and South Korea have been pitching for this
new slice in global biotechnology pie. The global revenue in stem cell and tissue engineering
market is forecast to exceed 10 billion by 2013.

Stem Cell Research by AIIMS, New Delhi AIIMS became the, first institute in the country to use
stem cell for treating end- stage cardiac patients in the country. ICMR has authenticated the work
done by the institute. AIIMS Director, Dr. P. Venugopal said the therapy had been tested on 35
patients and it has brought positive results. AIIMS is planning to b introduce a Robotic stem cell
delivery system and shall offer services to patients with muscular dystrophy, neurological
disorders, cornea treatment and other ailments.
Draft Guidelines for Stem Cell Research/Regulation: ICMR ICMR has drafted guidelines for stem
cell research in India. Under this, ICMR shall be the regulatory authority in the area of biological. It
has recommended for setting up a national apex committee for mammalian cell based research
and therapy which should be vested with regulatory powers. The, committee shall have the
responsibility to examine the scientific, technical, ethical, and legal and social issues in the area of
cell based research and therapy. All proposals from public or private sector shall of have to be
cleaned by the institutional ethics committee before submitting to apex committee. The institutional
ethics committee should a dune to the "ethnical guidelines for biomedical research on human
subjects" issued by ICMR in October, 2000.
Stem Cells and Biopolymers An exciting new approach is poised to revolutionise the treatment of
patients who need new vital structures, the creation of man-made tissue or organs, known as neo-
organs. In one scenario, a tissue engineer injects or places a given molecule, such as a growth
factor, into a wound or an organ that requires regeneration. These molecules cause the patient's
own cells to migrate into the wound site, turn into the right type of cell and regenerate the tissue.
Bio-molecules can be utilised to replace or repair tissue function, induce cell proliferation, or
provide a matrix for cell attachment and tissue in growth. Not only non-degradable synthetic
materials but also bodily tissues and biodegradable synthetic polymers can be used to replace or
repair the defective organ.
In the process of developing neo-organs, the core part of the structure is a biopolymer.
Biomaterials for organ regeneration involve biocompatible and biodegradable synthetic polymers.
These materials usually function as a scaffold for the growth and organisation of implanted organ
cells. Parenchymal cells are isolated from the growth and organisation of implanted organ cells.
Parenchymal cells are isolated from the tissue and seeded into the polymer and the cell-polymer
structure is implanted in the Chart. Basically, the scaffold degrades simultaneously as the cells
proliferate and excrete their Extra-Cellular Matrix (ECM) substances. The growing cells ECM and
nutrient supplying vascular tissue continually replace the void spaces of the disappearing scaffold-
until eventually the scaffold/cell implant has been replaced by natural organ tissue.
Since many cell populations can grow in vitro, cells from a small biopsy of organ tissue can be
cultured to produce a significant mass to be used for implantation. The biopsy tissue may be
obtained either from the patient or from a close relative. This approach would greatly increase the
donor pool and diminish the need to wait for cadaver organs, a time during which some transplant
candidates die. It also avoids additional surgical trauma for the patients and results in reduced
medical costs.
Indeed, evidence abounds that it is at least theoretically possible to engineer large, complex
organs such as livers, kidneys, and breasts, bladders and intestines, all of which include many
different kinds of cells. The proof can be found in any expectant mother's womb, where a small
group of undifferentiated cells finds the way to develop into a complex individual with multiple
organs and tissue with vastly different properties and functions. Barring any unforeseen

impediments, understanding the details of the process by which a liver becomes a liver, or a lung
a lung, will eventually allow researchers to replicate that process.
Biopolymers are the compounds, which have been very widely used for biomedical applications.
These are further classified into biostable and biodegradable polymers. Basic properties of
inertness, stabilities and durability of polymers have led to the development of biostable polymers
which have found regressive applications in the field of extra-corporeal and permanently implanted
devices like artificial kidney, teeth, heart, heart valves and contact lenses, vascular grafts, knee
caps, etc. and many more.
Ques. 39 : Give an account of Artificial Kidney?

Ans. Artificial-Kidney: Artificial kidneys are haemodiaiysis units with a polymeric semi- permeable
membrane, which removes waste products from the blood. Permeability limits the clinical utility of
polymeric membranes for these applications. Commercial dialysis membranes are made of
cellulose acetate, regenerated cellulose, polycarbonate, poly methacrylate (PMMA),
polyacryolonitrile and polysulfones.
Ques. 40 : Give an account of artificial Teeth?

Ans. Artificial Teeth: Dentistry has become one of the prime customers of bioorganic polymers.
Acrylic polymers in many forms have been used as dental cement, crown and bridge materials
and mainly as artificial teeth. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) has been most widely used in
manufacture of artificial teeth. The potential of injectable, biodegradable hydrogels-gelatin like,
water-filled polymers for treating dental defects, such as poor bonding between teeth and the
underlying bone, through guided bone regeneration. The hydrogels incorporate molecules that
both modulate cellular function and induce bone formation; they provide a scaffold on which new
bone can grow, and they minimise the formation of scar tissue within the regenerated region.
Ques. 41 : Give an account of Artificial Heart?

Ans. Artificial Heart: Most recently there have been several clinical significant applications of a
totally artificial heart in humans. The success of these applications as bio-medical development is
widely accepted. The first patient survived 112 days and others much longer. The most widely
tested design and the one used most in these early procedures was the Jariwk-7-type artificial
heart with a pump body composed of polyurethane. The polymeric materials that have been used
in artificial heart studies include polyvinylchloride, silicone rubber, plyurethance (Avcothane), and
polyolefin rubber Artificial valves generally made up of Dacron and polyurethane polymer have
replaced diseased and injure valves. The valves have a normal heart beat and proved to be very
successful.
Ques. 42 : Give an account of ophthalmologic application of bio-

organic polymers?
Ans. Ophthalmologic applications: Soft contact lenses are the most widely used applications of
stable biomedical polymers. These lenses are poly (hydroxyethyl methaacrylate) hydrogels, which
are copolymerised with vinyl pyrrolidinone. Soft contact lenses have replaced the intraocular

lenses of PMMA which were previously used of eye surgery mainly for cataract extraction.
Ques. 43 : Briefly discuss the orthopedic application of bio-organic polymers?
Ans. Orthopedic application: Polymeric artificial joints have been used in most orthopedic
replacements, especially for hips, knees, shoulders and fingers. Ultra high molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMWPE) is used for acetabulum cups in total artificial hips and as the gliding parts
in knee, shoulder, ankle and elbow joints.
Similarly, for many years there has been interest in the synthesis of biocompatible and
biodegradable polymers for biomedical applications. In these applications, the polymer serves a
temporary function of a support or barrier; whose ultimate degradability is a pre-requisite for
successful medical use. The bio-degradable polymers must be fabricated to allow for cell adhesion
and for retention of cell function and to enhance the growth rate. Important classes of degradable
polyester biomaterial, include polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid and their copolymers, which are
among the few synthetic polymers approved for human clinical use.
To match the specifications for a given application, there is need for polymer with a controlled rate
of biodegradation. These synthetic polymers can be fabricated in specific shapes needed for
implants, their pore size and surface area can be altered for degradaticn rates can be tailored to
vary from a few days to years. Biomolecules can be physically introduced into a polymer matrix or
chemically, bonded to a polymer backbone.
The majority of the polymers used in cell transplantation are polyesters and polyanhydrides. They
have been produced in sheets, in porous scaffolds, and in fibrous strands that can be woven into a
mesh. The degradation of the material can occur by bulk degradation, bulk erosion or surface
erosion.
Ques. 44 : Give a brief description of non-medical

applications of Bio-polymers?
Ans. Non-Medical Applications of Bio-Polymers : Advances in the production of bio-engineered
spider silk that could lead to the large-scale manufacture of a biodegradable fibre that surpasses
Kevlar in tensile strength and elasticity. Promising new research into the use of biopolymers in anti
bacterial coatings that prevent medical implants from becoming infected.
A polymer-based drug is about to come on the market that has been proven to control
phosphorous in kidney patients without the risks posed by traditional remedies, Polymer gels that
shrink or swell in response to small changes in temperature, pH, or electric fields, with potential
applications as artificial muscles in robotics and medical prosthetics. Tissue-engineered heart
valves constructed around scaffold minimise the danger of rejection, infection, and complications
from blood clots.
Ques. 45 : Define Bioinformatics? State its implications?

Ans. Bioinformatics is the collection organization and analysis of large amounts of biological data,
using networks of computers and databases. Bioinformatics refers to the convergence of IT and
biotechnology.

Since the last Decade the growth of biotechnology has been phenomenal, Advancements in
biology and new technologies have produced large high quality data. One such example is the
human genome project; which has produced large data. The analysis of such large data and
extraction of knowledge from this data is possible-only with the help of new algorithms and
compute intensive techniques. Thus biologists needed to use almost every new technical
development in IT and computer sciences to solve complex biological problems leading to the
development of multidisciplinary area called bioinformatics.
Bioinformatics has now become a frontline applied science and is of vital importance to study new
biology; which is widely recognized as the new scientific endeavour of the twenty-first century.
The growth in full genome sequencing, structural genomics, proteomics, micro assay etc will be
very slow without application of bioinformatics. In fact usefulness of these areas to solve complex
biological problems will be limited without bioinformatics and thus the very high importance to
bioinformatics.
India was the first country in the world to establish in 1987 a Bio Technology Information System
(BTIS) network to create an infrastructure that enables it to harness, biotechnology through the
application of bioinformatics. BTIS is today recognized as one of the major scientific network in the
world dedicated to provide the state-of-the art infrastructure, education, manpower and tools in
bioinformatics. At present, these are 61 bioinformatics centres spread across the country including
an Apex centre, 10 distributed information centres (DIC) and 46 sub-distributed information
centres (sub-dises). Thus, we have a national bioinformatics network for sustainable utilization of
rich biodiversity of our country. R&D activities are also carried out at these centres for
development of computational tools for biotechnology application.
Examples of Bioinformatics
1. Computer Grid: The grid is a kind of hyper network that links computer and data storage owned
by different groups so that computing power can be shared. By comparison, today's Interact allows
independent users to trade data, not computer resources.
2. Proteomics Software: It is software to eliminate a major bottleneck in protein search by
automating the processing of the protein under research.
The following are the major research areas in bioinformatics: sequence analysis, measurement of
biodiversity, gene expression analysis, protein expression analysis, high-through put image
analysis, regulation analysis computational evolutionary biology.
Ü R&D On Genetically Modified Plants And Foodgrains In India
Indian scientists at several National Institutions/Universities are working on development of
Genetically Modified Plants/Food grains. The work is at various developmental stages. Central
Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry: Bose Institute, Kolkata; Tamilnadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore; Delhi University .South Campus, New Delhi; Indian Agricultural Research
Institute (JARI), New Delhi; ICAR Sub- station, Shillong; Central Potato Research Institute, Simla;
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi; Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai; Directorate of Rice
Research, Hyderabad are some of the institutions involved in development of transgenic crops.
Work has progressed with important research leads in tobacco, rice, mustard rapeseed; potato,
brinjal, tomato, cauliflower and pulses. These crops are expected to have improved agricultural
productivity or land enhanced nutritional quality. Although none of the Genetically, Modified Plants/
Foodgrains have come to a stage of introduction into commercial agriculture, the work in Potato,
rapeseed, pigeon pea and brinjal are in advanced stage. Transgenic potato with enhanced protein
quality, quantity, and increase in yield is under field evaluation.

Under the Indian Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Rules, 1989, all genetically modified
foods are to assessed for their safety, before they are permitted for commercial release in the
country. The "Recombinant DNA Safety Guidelines” were formulated in 1990 and subsequently
these were revised in 1994 and in 1998. The guidelines incorporate the testing requirements of
genetically modified food materials to assess their adverse effects, if any, in human and animals.
A three-tier mechanism for biosafety is under implementation. There are 145 Institutional Biosafety
Committees, Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation and Genetic Engineering Approval
Committee to monitor, evaluate and recommend various proposals, Government of India has not
yet accorded approval for commercial release of any genetically modified food in the country.
Genetically modified food is considered as novel food the world over. Expertise is gradually getting
generated in developed and developing countries. Indian expertise, is being strengthened
continuously along with creation of state- of- the- art infrastructure for the past one decade. A
Transgenic Containment Facility has been set up at National Bureau of Plant Genetic resources.
New Delhi. Research projects have been formulated on development of analytical methods, for
testing genetically modified food and products derived therefrom.
Genetically Modified Food: Safety Concerns
With increasing population on the planet, the focus of agricultural scientists is now on enhancing
food production at pace which would meet the future needs of the population. The rapid advances
in biotechnology have come in handy for their efforts in this direction. Many scientists like the
Nobel Peace Prize winner Norman Borlaug have been advocating development of genetically
modified crops and their use by farmers.
But, of late, there has been strong opposition from environmentalists all over the world, to the
genetic alteration of crops and their consumption.
The debate picked up momentum when the US Department of Agriculture and the Delta and Pine
Land Co. collaborated in March 1998 to support research on the development of new seeds by the
Rural Advancement Foundation International. The research was on the development of a new
seed technology called Terminator. This technology threatened to put on end to the age-old
practice in which farmers saved their seeds for used in the next harvest season. With Terminator
seeds, crops would become sterile and farmers would have to buy seeds every year for farming.
After a lot of protests, this project was finally shelved.
A good example of genetic modification is the Starlink corn, bio-engineered corn variety that
contains Bt insecticide proteins (Cry 9c protein). It was developed for control of the European corn
borer and the Southeast corn borer and for suppression of the Black cut worm and the Corn stalk
borer. On an application from Aventis Crop Science (Aventis), this corn variety was approved for
animal feed and industrial uses, in the US by the US Environment Protection Agency, in May
1998. However, the agency hesitated to give full approval for its use as human food. This was
based on the potential allergic nature of the Cry 9c protein. Aventis did not seek regulatory
approval outside the US because the company did not intend to market this corn internationally.
However, as a result of the breakdown of the channelling system in the US which segregates
distribution of animal feed from human feed, Starlink corn entered the human food supply chain.
There were extensive food recalls. Following a positive detection of this variety in a product by a
Japanese consumer group, Japan's health ministry requested the US to curb exports of this corn.
According to Greenpeace, many biotech products are being exported to Asian and African
countries with the aim of experimenting their effects in the third world population.
In India alone, more than 60 million tonnes of foodgrain are stacked, bulk of it in the open, while
some 320 million go to bed hungry every night. In neighbouring Bangladesh and Pakistan too food
silos are bursting. And yet, these there countries are home to nearly half the world's population of
the hungry and the marginalised. After all, science and technology is aimed at removing hunger.
The green revolution was aimed at address in the problem of hunger, and did a remarkable job
within its limitation.
And now, when we have stockpiles of food surpluses, the global community appears reluctant to
make the food available to the marginalised communities. No aid agency-Ford, Rockefeller, Action
Aid, Christian Aid, Oxfam, British BFID and others - is willing to take the bull by the horn. The Food
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations too has shied away, and has instead
convened a meeting of the Heads of State at Rome in November, five years after the World Food
Summit, to reiterate its promise of halving world's hunger by the year 2015. Technological
develop-ment is essential but has to be used in a way that helps promote human development.
Ignoring food security in the name of ensuring 'profit security' for the private companies can further
marginalize the gains; if any. And herein lies a grave danger. At almost all the genetic engineering
laboratories, whether in the North or in the South, the focus of research is on crops which will
produce edible vaccines, address the problems of malnutrition or 'hidden hunger' by incorporating
genes for Vitamin A, iron, and other micro-nutrients. What is not being realised is that if the global
scientific and development community were to aim at eradicating hunger at the first place, there
would be no 'hidden hunger'.
Take, for instance, the much-touted 'golden rice', which contains the genes for Vitamin A. It is true
in India alone 12 million people suffer from Vitamin A deficiency. But to say that 'golden rice' would
provide the poor with a choice of such 'novel foods' is to ignore that the Vitamin A-deficient
marginalised and poor people cannot or do not have access to two square meals a day.
If these poor people cannot afford to buy their normal dietary requirement of rice for a day, how do
we propose to make available 'golden rice' to them is something that has been deliberately left
unanswered. With even the UNDP buckling, under, industrial pressure, the monumental task to
feed the hungry and that too at a time when food grains are rotting - may eventually be left to the
market forces. The underlying message is very clear, the poor and hungry will have to live on
hope.
Studies On Human Genome
On 26 June 2000, a working draft of the human genome sequence had been announced. In this
international programme, six countries have participated namely USA, UK, Germany, France,
China and Japan. The draft sequence is like a jumble of parts of a functional device and the task is
to make the device with a rough idea of how to assemble the parts. It contains gaps and errors. It
provides scientists with a road map to an estimated .90% genes on every chromosome. All Human
Genome Project (HGP) data have been placed in the public domain (on the Internet).
Genome may be defined as the complete genetic information carried by an individual or the range
of genes found in a given species. The carriers of genetic information inside animal and plant cells
are chromosomes, threadlike bodies. Chromosomes get their name from the fact that they take
certain strains more heavily than do other parts of the cell, the terms being derived from the Greek
'Chromos' (colour) and 'soma' (body). Chromosome number is characteristic of a species. For
example humans have 46 chromosomes, mosquitoes 6, frogs 26, earthworms 36, chimpanzees
48.> amoebas 50 and horses 64. Human chromosome comprises 22 matched pairs called
autosomes and two sex chromosome (X and Y). Every cell of our body has "the same number of
chromosomes except the reproductive cells. Each chromosome consists of one very large strand
of DNA (deoxyribo nucleic acid) and proteins. The DNA is coiled and folded to produce a compact
body. DNA, the chief constituent of chromosome, contains in chemically coded form, all the
information needed to build, control and maintain a living organism. The structure of DNA, first
proposed by J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick in 1953, is made of a double helix of two chains coiled
around each other. Each chain is made up of alternating pentose sugar (deoxy ribose) and
phosphate groups, with an organic base attached to each pentose group.
Some scientists in the country had given a proposal in 1989-90s to the Government. Thereafter,
discussions were held amongst scientists to evolve a strategy for human genome initiative.
Accordingly, programmes have been initiated in three major areas viz. Human Genome an Indian
Initiative, Human Genome Diversity and Gene Therapy and Bioethics. Fourteen genetic diagnosis
cum counselling units have been established in different regions to provide prenatal diagnosis and
counsellinq to the affected families for common genetic disorders prevalent in the country.
Programmes on functional genomics and human genome diversity are also under implementation
with promising research leads. Also, a research proposal on sequencing of human 'Y'
chromosome has been, implemented since 1995, by Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology,
Hyderabad. A sound Infrastructure and expertise has been created in functional genomics and
related areas in India.
Proposals for Human Genome Research before ICMR
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has considered so far 120 proposals on human
genome research, The usual pattern of funding followed by ICMR will be adopted for these also by
way of giving research staff, contingencies and required equipments.
The criteria adopted for evaluating these proposals is the proven track record of the investigators
through prior research publications, availability of infrastructure at the parent institution and the
condition that the same work is not being funded by any other agency. Council has been working
in the area of genome research for the last decade or so where it had already progressed to
certain extent so that the leads could be further taken to the logical conclusion. In addition, work
related to drug development, population genetics, cancer genomics, microbial genomics, vector
genomics, reproduction, neuro- genetics pharma cogenomics, and nutrition genomics is also in
progress.
The research on human genome and human genetic is a global effort launched by USA, Japan,
France, Germany and China. The first map of human genome was released in June, 2000 and
final one in February, 2001 for entire scientific community in the world to utilise this information for
appropriate analysis for improving Health care system in respective countries. Structure of
genome is announced and function of each gene, as relevant to each country has to be taken up
by all countries. For identification of new genes for complex diseases and of genes that confer
susceptibility/resistance to disease in human, it is necessary to collect and create a database of
partial genomic sequences of multiple individuals.
Ques. 46 : Discuss in brief the areas identified for Genome research in India?
Ans. Areas Identified for Genome Research in India : A mega-plan has been drawn up to boost
genomics research in India and the areas suggested for research include the following:
• Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) studies relating to clinical status of diseases like
hypertension, coronary heart diseases, diabetes, neurological disorders and infectious diseases;
• Molecular genetic studies relating to cancers;
• Micro-array technology development to identify proper candidates for vaccine and diagnosis of
infectious and non-infectious disorders,
• Heterozygous mutation in thalassemia, ambiguous genitalia;
• Structural and functional genomics;
• Microbial genomics;
• Pharma cogenomics DNA banking and EV transformed cells banking;
• Development of knockout/transgenic animals;
• Development of knockout strains/pathogens;
• Genetic disorders counselling units;
• Gene therapy studies.
Ques. 47 : What is Intellectual Property?
Ans. Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and
symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Intellectual property is divided into two
categories: Industrial property. which includes inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs,
and geographic indications of source; and Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works
such as novels, poems and plays, films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings,
photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs. Rights related to copyright include those of
performing artists in their performances, producers of phonograms in their recordings, and those
of broadcasters in their radio and television programs.
Ques. 48 : Define Patent and point out its certain conditions?
Ans. Patent : A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a product of a
process that provides, in general, a new way of doing something, or offers a new technical solution
to a problem. In order to be patentable, the invention must fulfili certain conditions.
• A patent provides protection for the invention to the owner of the patent. The protection is
granted for a limited period, generally 20 years.
• Patent protection means that the invention cannot be commercially made, used, distributed or
sold without the patent owners consent. These patent rights are usually enforced in a court, which,
in most systems, holds the authority to stop patent infringement. Conversely, a court can also
declare a patent invalid upon a successful challenge by a third party.
• A patent owner has the right to decide who may - or may not - use the patented invention for the
period in which the invention is protected. The patent owner may give permission to, or license,
other parties to use the invention on mutually agreed terms. The owner may also sell the right to
the invention to someone else, who will then become the new owner of the patent. Once a patent
expires, the protection ends, and an invention enters the public domain, that is, the owner no
longer holds exclusive rights to the invention, which becomes available to commercial exploitation
by others.
• Patents provide incentives to individuals by offering them recognition for their creativity and
material reward for their marketable inventions. These incentives encourage innovation, which
assures that the quality of human life is continuously enhanced.
• Patented inventions have, in fact, pervaded every aspect of human life, from electric lighting
(patents held by Edison and Swan) and plastic (patents held by Baekeland), to ballpoint pens
(patents held by Biro) and microprocessors (patents held by Intel, for example).
• All patent owners are obliged, in return for patent protection, to publicly disclose information on
their invention in order to enrich the total body of technical knowledge in the world. Such an ever-
increasing body of public knowledge promotes further creativity and innovation in others. In this
way, patents provide not only protection for the owner but valuable information and inspiration for
future generations of researchers and inventors.
• An invention must, in general, fulfill the following conditions to be protected by a patent. It must
be of practical use; it must show an element of novelty, that is, some new characteristic which is
not known in the body of existing knowledge in its technical field. This body of existing knowledge
is called" prior art". The invention must show an inventive step which could not be deduced by a
person with average knowledge of the technical field. Finally, its subject matter must be accepted
as 'patentable" under law. In many countries, scientific theories, mathematical methods, plant or
animal varieties, discoveries of natural substances, commercial methods, or methods for medical
treatment (as opposed to medical products) are generally not patentable.
Ques. 49 : Briefly discuss the role of WIPO?
Ans. The Role of WIPO : The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) is an international
organisation dedicated to promoting creativity and innovation by ensuring that the rights of
creators and owners of intellectual property are protected worldwide, and that inventors and
authors are thus recognised and rewarded for their ingenuity.
As a specialised agency of the United Nations, WIPO exists as a forum for its Member States to
create and harmonise rules and practices to protect intellectual property rights. Most industrialised
nations have protection systems that are centuries old. Many new and developing countries,
however, are now building up their patent, trademark and copyright laws and, systems. With the
rapid globalisation of trade during the last decade, WIPO plays a key role in helping these new
systems to evolve through treaty negotiation, legal and technical assistance, and training in
various norms, including in the area of enforcement of intellectual property rights.
The field of copyright and related rights has expanded dramatically as technological developments
have brought new ways of disseminating creations worldwide through such forms of
communication as satellite broadcasting, compact discs, DVDs and the Internet. WIPO is closely
involved in the on-going international debate to shape new standards for copyright protection in
cyberspace.
WIPO administers the following international treaties on copyright and related rights:
• Berne Convention for the Protection of Literacy and Artistic Works.
• Brussels Convention Relating to the Distribution of Program-Carrying Signals Transmitted by
Satellite.
• Geneva Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorised
Duplication of Their Phonograrns.
• Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting
Organisations.
• WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT).
• WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT).
WIPO also provides an Arbitration and Mediation Centre, which offers services for the resolution of
international commercial disputes between private parties involving intellectual property. The
subject matter of these proceedings includes both contractual disputes (such as patent and
software licenses, trademark coexistence agreements, and research and development
agreements) and non-contractual disputes (such as patent infringement). The Centre is also now
recognised and the leading dispute resolution service provider for disputes arising out of the
abusive registration and use of Internet domain names.
Ques. 50 : Discuss in brief the works of National Intellectual Property Organisation (NIPO)?
Ans. NIPO is dedicated to mobilising the use of intellectual property for economic and social
development by creating an IP culture and enhancing knowledge and competencies in tune with
the global environment. NIPO works for advancing an intellectual property agenda that promotes
business practices, commercial infrastructure and law fostering economic growth through efficient
development, use and exchange of IP rights at the point where technology development,
intellectual property rights, and jobs creation all intersect.
NIPO provides all stakeholders with a strong voice on IP matters affecting their future business
through regular publications, meetings and conferences to both educate and engage the public in
debate on IP enforcement, trade and exchange, IP management, litigation, alternative dispute
resolution and related issues.
Ü Consequences of Violations of IP
Counterfeiting any piracy drains out businesses, causes huge tax revenue and employment
lossess to governments, depletes society of creative talent and jeopardises consumer safety.
There is evidence to link the proceeds from counterfeiting and piracy activities being diverted to
fund organised crime.
While the terms piracy and counterfeiting are generally used interchangeably the former refers
mainly to copyright violations in films, music and software while counterfeiting is used in
connotation of trademark violations.
The items being counterfeited and pirated include everything from shoe-polish, shampoos and
sunglasses to drugs, food, computer hardware and software, movies, music automobile parts and
even aircraft spares. The advent of the Internet as a marketing tool has made the job to peddle
counterfeits even easier, substantially lowering the cost of such operations and making identifi-
cation and pursuit of pirates more difficult. A significant factor in the proliferation of fake goods is
the reduced and in some cases, significantly discounted prices, which attract buyers.
The gravity that the issue of counterfeiting and piracy has assumed can be gauged by the fact that
the G8 countries have agreed to examine the problem of international differences on intellectual
property rights (IPR) and its enforcement and each nation has made a commitment to take a
tougher stance on piracy and counterfeiting to strengthen and enforce intellectual property rights.
Ques. 51 : Give an account of the Biotechno-logy Patent facilitating cell (BPFC)?
Ans. Biotechnology Patent Facilitating Cell (BPFC) Department of Biotechnology : During few
years of its existence, BPFC has carved out a unique identity of its own among the biologists and
biotechnologists in the country; with several achievements in the field of technology development
in the Indian context. BPFC has facilitated filing more than 100 Indian and international patent
applications out of which more than 10 patents have been granted. BPFC now look forward to
Industry for taking up of these technologies to the market and to the consumers.
The BPFC has organized a series of national roving seminars on "Patenting in Biotechnology" and
"IPR in Biotechnology" at various institutions and universities around the country, in collaboration
with World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Geneva, to enhance the awareness of the
scientists about the inventions, process of patenting, issues in IPR in biotechnology and the
strategic importance of the IPR in post-GAIT era.
Ques. 52 : Discuss in brief the new millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative?
Ans. The New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative (NMITLI) is the largest public-
private partnership effort within the R&D domain in the country. It looks beyond today's technology
and thus seeks to build, capture and retain for India a leadership position by synergising the best
competencies of publicly funded R&D institutions, academia and private industry. The Government
finances and plays a catalytic role. It is based on the premise of consciously and deliberately
identifying, selecting and supporting potential winners. NMITLI has carved out a unique niche in
the innovation space and enjoys an excellent reputation. NMITLI has so far evolved 57 largely
networked projects in diverse areas viz. Agriculture and Plant Biotechnology, General
Biotechnology, Bioinformatics, Drugs and Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals, Materials, Information and
Communication Technology and Energy. These projects involve 80 industry partners and 270
R&D groups from different institutions. Approximately 1700 researchers are engaged in these
projects. These 57 projects cumulatively have had an outlay of approximately RS.500 crore.
Objective
NMITLI seeks to catalyse innovation centred scientific and technological developments as a
vehicle to attain for Indian industry a global leadership position, in selected niche areas in a true
Team India' spirit, by synergising the best competencies of publicly funded R&D institutions,
academia and private industry.
Ques. 53 : Briefly discuss the applications of Biotechnology in Health and Medicine in India?
Ans. Biotechnology in India (Health and Medicine) : Biotechnology has wide range of applications
in medicine. While dealing with diseases, applications of biotechnology include prevention,
diagnosis, and cure of diseases.
Through human genetics, Biotechnology has been useful in genetic counselling, antenatal
diagnosis and gene therapy. In hereditary diseases, key genes are flawed or missing. Gene
therapy attempts to either modify or replace the key genes, thus correcting the abnormality.
Biotechnology has enabled in production of safe, effective, cheap vaccines at commercial quantity
in short period to immunize population against epidemics. Also R&D in Biotechnology has resulted
in production (or expected to be produced in near future) of vaccines against Japanese
encephalitis, Hepatitis B, Plasmodium falciparum causing malaria, rabies virus, foot and mouth
disease virus.
Biotechnology has enabled in the development of bio diagnostic kits like DNA probes and
monoclonal antibodies (including ELISA tests) for diagnosis if various diseases like Gilarriasis,
hepatitis-B. malaria, kala-azar, typhoid, std and antenatal diagnosis (foetus with a genetic defect).
Biotechnology has wide therapeutic applications as well. Biotechnology was first used in medicine
for growing cultures of molds in order to produce antibiotics. Today a number of antibiotics such as
penicillin, streptomycin, erythromycin, amoxycillin can be produced. Hormones like growth
hormone, insulin (both are proteins) can be produced by micro organisms that have been
genetically modified. Artificial generation is especially useful in cases where hormone to be made
is a protein and can-therefore be made directly from a single gene. Biotechnology also helps in
development of therapeutic proteins like interferons, production of usokinase (which dissolves
blood clots) factor VIII (blood clotting factor). Transcription factor based drugs, oligo nucleotide anti
sense drugs are exciting developments in therapeutic biotechnology.
Biotechnology can also be used for fertility control. Efforts are being made for developing safe,
effective, long lasting and -reversible contraceptives. Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI),
Lucknow has developed an oral, once-a-week, non-hormonal contraceptive pill called
'Lentchroman' which is sold commercially as Saheli. It is the only non-hormonal contraceptive pill
of the world. DNA fingerprinting and auto-antibody finger printing are a great boon to forensic
medicine for facilitating the identification of criminals like murderers and rapists through the study
of DNA or antibodies from blood, semen, urine etc.
Ques. 54 : Briefly discuss the applications of Biotechnoloyg in Agricultural in India?
Ans. Biotechnology in Agriculture : Biotechnology has revolutionised the research activities in
agriculture. It has faciltated in enhancing agricultural productivity, diversity and development of
resistant varieties.
The development of genetically engineered crops is one of the best-known applications of
biotechnology in agriculture. Using tissue culture technique, unlimited number of plants can be
propagated from a single plant possessing the desired characteristics. Through biotechnology,
naturally occurring chemically called photosynthesis improver have been developed, which have
the potential for increasing plant productivity biotechnology can be used to utilize the ability of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria like rhizobium, azobacter, clostridium and blue-green algae, these bio
fertilisers shall increase the nitrogen fixing ability and serve as ecologically safer alternatives to
chemical fertilisers.
Biotechnological methods can be used for development of hybrid seeds which are capable of
performing their functions more efficiently than their parents under different, agronomic conditions.
Biotechnology can be used in development of synthetic/artificial seeds.
Never biotechnological methods have enormously increased the scope for evolving improved
varieties of plants of all kinds. It is now feasible to develop and propagate -plants that are resistant
to different constraint such as drought, salinity, and various pests and disease's. Biotechnology
facilitates in development of alternative strategies towards pest control. These include the use of
biological control agents, attractants and grow-affecting agents. These bio-pesticides are
environment-friendly, non-carcinogenic and have a higher degree of inert-specificity.
Seri biotechnology is the application of biotechnology for increasing the production of silk.
Biotechnology methods are being utilised for generating improved races with high silk yield.
In the field of Animal husbandry, biotechnology is used to increase production efficiency through
manipulation and control of physiological systems and by improving the health and well-being of
animals. Embryo transfer, artificial insemination, cloning and genetic engineering have resulted in
never varieties of animals that are disease- resistant, and have and higher production levels.
Applications of Biotechnology in food include areas like efficient grain storage by eliminating pests
and rodents, increased nutritive value of food (nutracenticals which are cross between nutritional
supplements and pharmaceuticals. They include anti-oxidants, which are thought to reduce the
risk of cancer), enhancement of flavour, single cell protein for human consumption or as fodder,
fermented foods through enzyme engineering (bakers yeast, wine, beer etc), mushroom cultivation
development of tests for detection of food-contaminating micro organisms and the toxins they
produce.
Ques. 55 : Discuss in brief the role of Biotechnology in environment and enrgy?
Ans. Biotechnology in Environment and Energy : Biotechnology is also being used for dealing with
environmental problems tears are also being expressed about the implication of advances in
biotechnology in terms of release of harmful organisms developed through recombinant DNA
technology.
Biotechnological methods have been devised for some environmental problems like (i) pollution
control (ii) depletion of natural resources for non-renewable energy (iii) restoration of degraded
lands and (iv) biodiversity. The applications may be of three different types viz. clearing up
pollution, monitoring environmental health and producing energy and materials in less harmful
ways.
Bioremediation: Bacteria can be genetically modified to digest all major hydrocarbons of oil and
thus clean up an oil spill such a Process of clearing up is known as bio- seduediation. In 1989,
microbes were used in the clean up of oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez tanker off the coast of
Alaska. The microbes used in oils clean up the .oil as energy source and in the process; complex
molecules were broken down into simpler ones. Microbes have been developed identified which
can break down toxic materials e.g. phenol, methylene chloride etc. just like in human body,
microbes use enzymes (bio catalysts) which convert one chemical into another and microbes use
the energy generated from the chemical change in route. Microbes take time to clean up.
Depending on the nature and extent of the pollution, microbes can take few months to a year or
more. After the clean up, the bacteria itself gradually vanishes, being replaced by microbes native
to the area. The reliability of bioremediation is not always ensured. The effectiveness and speed of
microbes depend on climate, surrounding soil and water, available nutrients etc. scientists are
working to develop bacteria that can produce reliable results and to expand scope of
bioremediation in areas contaminated by metals, pesticides, radioactive elements etc.
Bio indicators: Micro-organisms can be modified to act as bio-indicators who can indicate the
presence of pollutants at a very early stage so that effective remedial measures can be taken.
Bio Degradation: Microbes can be modified to biodegrade plastics, pesticides, synthetic materials
and polymers. Microbes break down the polluting molecules into simple, harmless products or at
times useful products. Since ages, bacteria are being encouraged to decompose domestic savage
to make toxic products into harmless ones. The major challenge in environmental biotechnology is
to find the sight kind of microbes to degrade a particular pollutant. A great deal of research is
directed towards this end.
Biomass Production: Biotechnology is playing an important role in the productivity of biomass. The
tissue culture technique for mass multiplication offers means for biomass production and also for
rapid afforestation of degraded forests. Genetic engineering, mycorrhizae, root nodulation are also
being used for reclamation of degrade Lands. Through biotechnological methods the biomass
conversion into versatile fuels like gaseous methane and liquid ethanol, other products like solid
fuels, hydrogen can be improved. This shall reduce the pressure on existing sources of energy.
Bio fuels: Bio fuels are renewable fuels that are predominantly produced from domestically
produced biomass feed stocks or as a by product from the industrial processing of agricultural or
food products, or from the recovery and- reprocessing of products such as cooking and vegetable
oil. Bio fuel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with petroleum fuel to create
a bio fuel blend. It can be used in conventional healing equipment or diesel engine with no major
modification. Bio fuel is simple to use, biodegradable, non-toxic and essentially free of sulphur and
aromatics. Ethanol and biodiesel are most widely recognized bio fuel sources for transport sector.
Research is being conducted to develop complete agronomic practices for oil and hydrocarbon
yielding species like euphorbia calotropis salvadora. madhuca and the development of thermo
tolerant microbial strains for enhanced ethanol production.
Ques. 56 : Briefly discuss the applications of Biotechnology in Industrial Products?
Ans. Biotechnology in Industrial Products : Industrial microbiology is also receiving major attention
of biotechnologists. A number of pharmaceutical drugs and chemicals are being produced, or will
be produced in future utilising techniques of biotechnology to increase substantially both the
quality and quantity of the product. Enzyme biotechnology technique has allowed the production of
a variety of substances e.g. production of high fructose corn syrup (as a sweetening agent for soft
drink industry) using glucose isomerase. The other applications of biotechnology in industry are:
production of chemicals from agricultural wastes, production of antibiotics, vitamins, amino-acids,
steroids, biofuel employing microbial transformation and prevention of industrial products from
spoilage.
Microbes are being increasingly used in mining. Thiobacillus ferroxidans, a group of oxidising
bacteria; were the first microbes to be used in bio-mining. These microbes are mainly used in
copper mining. The extraction of metals from ores by microbes is known as bio leaching which
involves dumping finely crushed ore outside the mine and microbes are mixed with it. In case of
copper extraction by Thiobacillus ferroxidance, the ore is sprayed with dilute sulfuric acid to
encourage the bacteria to grow. Bio leaching is now routinely used in copper mines in the USA,
Canada, Australia, Chile and South Africa producing about one-quarter of all copper worldwide.
Ques. 57 : Define Biosensors and discuss its applications?
Ans. Biosensors : A biosensor is a device that detects, records, converts, processes and transmits
information regarding a physiological change or process. Biosensors combine a biological
component (such as an enzyme) with various electronic components to trigger a circuit when a
particular type of chemical is defected. Biosensors are capable of detecting extremely low levels of
proteins, hormones, pollutants, gases and other molecules.
Biosensors can be viewed as an interface media between any two of the three entities: human
body (as a loving body), artificial system (such as a, computer, or a robot), and the environment.
Information exchanges between these entities are made possible by these sensors. Biosensors
are therefore the basis or key elements of reliable, rapid, compact and uses-friendly instruments
and systems.
Applications of biosensors can be broadly categorized into the following areas:
1. Medicine: Biosensors are integral components of instruments used for monitoring of blood
oxygen, blood glucose, blood pressure, heart rate, pregnancy etc. smart biosensors can be used
by patient themselves to improve the management of their chronic diseases.
2. Industry: Biosensors are used for rapid detection and measurements of levels of acids, alcohol
and phenols. Advanced systems are being developed in which biosensors shall be coupled to
alarm systems in industrial plants to warn workers of dangers before critical exposure levels of
toxins are reached.
3. Mining: Biosensors help geologists to detect small quantities of valuable manuals in the
samples of ores from deep underground.
4. Biosensors are used in environmental monitoring control, such as "electronic nose" for industrial
pollutants in air or water.
Ü New initiatives for the 11th Plan
The support to projects in the area of microbial and industrial biotechnology with emphasis on
development of product/process having industrial importance and environment friendly techniques
would be continued. There would be efforts to develop inter-institutional projects under the aegis
of the Task Force on Biotech Product and Process Development with special emphasis on
projects in the identified areas.
A. Research and Development
Strengthening of existing areas: Industrially important microbial enzymes, Microbial waste
management, Process optimization for products having applications in healthcare sector.
Exploitation of microbial diversity, Biosynthesis of value added industrial products, Diagnostics and
Bio-formulation for agriculture area.
New Initiatives: Bioinstrumentation concer-ning biopharmaceuticals, down-stream processing,
telemedicine, immuno-biologicals, biosensors, nuclear magnetic resonance and biomedical
imaging, molecular biodiversity, DNA chips for biological applications, tissue engineering,
biomaterials, computational bioengineering, agriculture, horticulture etc. and other related areas,
Polythene biodegradation through microbial consortia, Microbial taxonomy, Nano-biotechnology.
B. Policy Issues: Patenting of the products and processes emanating through R&D efforts will be
strengthened. Technology transfer of the. process/product developed through R&D efforts would
be undertaken through active interaction with Industry. Efforts will be taken for networking of
institutions with similar projects for a consolidated approach in technology development.
Biotechnology for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
About 80% of the world population primarily in developing countries depends on traditional system
of medicine for their primary health care needs. India has a rich traditional system of medicine.
Ayurveda, Unani, Homeopathy, Sidha and Amchi system are popular, make extensive use of
herbs in therapeutic treatments. The historical usage of traditional medicine of over 5000 years
provides some level of confidence about its safety and efficacy. There is growing interest of
natural products as a source of new chemical entities for development or modern, drugs, also use
of natural products as dietary supplements (nutraceuticals), ingredients to food and beverages,
phytocosmetics and other herbal products. Global market for herbal products which includes
medicine, health supplement, herbal cosmeceuti-cals is around US$65 billion. According to World
Bank report the international herbal medicine market is expanded to reach US$ 5 trillion in 2050
with an annual growth rate of between 10 to 20 per cent. According to Ayurvedic Drug
Manufacturers Association (ADMA) estimates, the current value of Indian trade in ISM & H
medicines is about Rs.4200 crores.
Objectives: Application of biotechnology for conservation, characterization, micro propagation, cell
culture production of secondary metabolites, isolation and characterization of novel bioactive
agents, development of standardized and safe herbal formulations and genetic improvement of
selected medicinal and aromatic plants.
Major Scientific Achievements
Conservation and characterization: A Network of four national gene banks on medicinal and
aromatic plants at TBGRI, Thiruvananthapuram; CIMAP, Lucknow: NBPGR, New Delhi and RRL,
Jammu have been further strengthened. A germplasm bank for medicinal plants used in Ayurveda
has been set up at Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal, Kerala.
Micro propagation: In vitro protocols have been developed for multiplication of selected medicinal
and aromatic plants. Field evaluation of the performance of tissue-culture raised elite varieties of
large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) over a total area of 50 acres in Uttaranchal initiated in
association with the Spices Board.
Cell-culture production of therapeutic agents: Efforts initiated towards protocol development of
production of important therapeutic agents through cell culture methods.
Cell-based screening system: In vitro bioscreens developed for screening plan extracts having
anti-cancer and anti-diabetic properties. Multi-institutional project implemented on using these
bioscreens alongwith modern cell signal targets to identify anti-diabetic, anti-cancer and
immunomodulatory agents from plants that have been used in Indian traditional system. Screening
system has been developed for screening extracts from medicinal plants (used for amoebios is in
Indian traditional system of medicine) against Eniemoebe histolytica trophozytes.
Isolation and characterization of new bioactives/therapeutic agents: Under multi- institutional
project, after bio-activity based in vitro screening of 60 medicinal plants (used in Indian traditional
system of medicine), a total of 35 lead molecules identified so far: Anti-cancer - 15, Anti-diabetic -
5, Immunomodulatory - 15, Two anti-cancer lead molecules have been patented.
Development of standardized herbal formulation: Based on leads already available, a collaborative
project has been initiated to develop a standardized and safe herbal product for left ventricular
dysfunction. Clinical trials are an integral component of this project. Animal models for left
ventricular dysfunction have been successfully developed. Projects for developing standardized
herbal products for heptoproteciton, diabetes - type 2, amoebiosis and atherosclerosis- are in
progress. A multi-institutional network project has been recently initiated for developing a
standardized herbal product for bovine mastitis.


Environment and Ecology Biotechnology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environment and Ecology Biotechnology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Printed Study Material for IAS, CSAT Civil Services Exams

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Environment & Ecology

C. Organisation And Manpower

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

i) To evolve integrated plans and programmes in biotechnology;

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

9. Bharat Immunological and Biological Corporation Limited (BIBCOL), Bulandshahr: BIBCOL, a

(E) National Bio Resource Development Board (NBDB)

Ques. 1 : Give an account of the techniques of

Ques. 2 : Discuss in brief the Genetic engineering?

Ques. 3 : What is Tissue Culture?

Ques. 4 : Briefly discuss microbial bio-technology?

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 5 : Briefly discuss the concept of Human Genetics?

Ques. 6 : What is DNA fingerprinting? Discuss its

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 7 : What is Hybridoma?

Ques. 8 : What is Monolonal antibodies? Point out its uses?

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 9 : What is Artificial Insemination?

Ques. 10 : Discuss in brief the Artificial Insemination in

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 11 : What do you understand by Human Artificial

Ques. 12 : Briefly discuss the In vitro fertilization?

Ques. 13 : Give an account of Embryo Transfer?

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 14 : What is Recombinant DNA technique? Point out

Some of the uses of recombinant DNA techniques are:

Ques. 15 : What is proteome?

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Glossary of Biotech Terms

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 16 : Briefly discuss the main thrust of activities of

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 17 : Discuss in brief the main thrust of activities and

The major achievements are:

(a) Establishment of a Laboratory for conservation of endangered animal species CCMB,

(b) Network programmes on pesticide degradation Three network programmes on degradation of

(e) Programmes on molecular biology for environmental amelioration. Six projects on

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 18 : Briefly discuss the main thrust of activities and

Achievements/Leads Obtained/Technologies Developed: The Biotechnology research for food

Technologies transferred/commercialized: The technologies ‘already commercialized' are as

Ques. 19 : Briefly discuss the major achievements in Human

1. Main thrust of activities:

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Functional Genomics: Under the "Programme on Functional Genomics" implemented at Institute of

Ques. 20 : Briefly discuss the main thrust of activities in

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 21 : Give an account of the achievements in vaccines?

Ques. 22 : Briefly discuss the achivements in the field of

Achievements vis-a-vis goals/targets.

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 23 : Discuss in brief the major scientific achivements

Major Scientific Achievements: Work accomplished on identification and characteri-zation of

Ques. 24 : What were the goals for seri biotechnology in the

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 25 : Briefly discuss the main thrust of activities and

Ques. 26 : What is cloning?

Online Coaching for IAS Exams

Ques. 27 : Give an account of the SCNT technique of animal

“Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer”(SCNT) Technique Cloning of animals is based on a technique