CUCEK BME 1

NOTES FOR
BASIC
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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1105A/1205B BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Module 1

Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics systems – open, closed and isolated systems, equilibrium state of a
system, property and state, process, cycle, Zeroth law of thermodynamics- concept of temperature,
temperature scales. First law – internal energy, enthalpy, work and heat, Different processes, isobaric,
isochoric, isothermal and adiabatic processes. Second law – Kelvin-plank and Claussius statements,
Carnot Cycle. Simple problems only.
Properties of Steam & Steam Generator. Different types of boilers, boiler mountings and accessories.
Formation of steam at constant pressure, Thermodynamic properties of Steam, working of steam
turbines, compounding of turbines.

Module 2

Internal Combustion Engines: Air standard cycles – Otto and Diesel cycles, working of two stroke and
four stroke Petrol and Diesel engines, Carburatted and MPFI engines, fuel pump, fuel injector, ignition
system, cooling system, lubricating system.
Refrigeration & Air-conditioning: Introduction to refrigeration and air -conditioning, Rating of
refrigeration machines, Coefficient of performance, Simple refrigeration vapour compression cycle,
summer and winter air conditioning.

Module 3

Hydraulic Turbines & Pumps : Introduction, Classification, Construction details and working of Pelton,
Francis and Kaplan turbines, Specific speed and selection of turbines, Classification of water pumps,
working of centrifugal pumps and reciprocating pumps (elementary ideas only)
Power plants: Hydro-electric power plants, Thermal power plants, Nuclear power plants, Diesel power
plants, Wind mills, solar energy (Schematic representations only)
Industrial Engineering: Definition and history of Industrial Engineering, contributions of F W Taylor,
Henry Foyal, Gilberth, and Henry Gannt towards Industrial Engineering, basic concepts of time and
motion study, productivity, organizational performance, pricing, and depreciation.

Module 4

Introduction to Manufacturing Systems: Welding- different types of welding, resistance welding, arc
welding, gas welding, Brazing and soldering. Different welding defects. Casting- different casting
processes, sand casting, casting defects, Rolling- hot rolling and cold rolling, two high, three high ,
cluster rolling mills, wire drawing, forging, extrusion, Heat treatment of steel, elementary ideas of
annealing, hardening, normalizing, surface hardening.
Power Transmission Methods and Devices: Introduction to Power transmission, Belt, Rope, Chain and
Gear drive. Length of belt open and crossed. Ratio of belt tensions. Different types of gears (elementary
ideas only). Types and functioning of clutches.

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MODULE I
1.THERMODYNAMICS
1 BASIC CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS

Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer which deals with the relations among heat,
work and properties of systems. The name thermodynamics is derived from the Greek words therme
meaning heat and dynamis meaning power. Thus, thermodynamics is basically the study of heat and
power.

1.1 Application Area of Thermodynamics

Energy transfer is present in almost all the engineering activities. Hence, the principles of
thermodynamics are playing vital role in designing all the engineering equipments such as internal
combustion engines, rockets, jet engines, thermal and nuclear power plants, refrigerators etc.

1.2 Statistical and Classical Thermodynamics

Statistical Thermodynamics is microscopic approach in which, the matter is assumed to be made

of numerous individual molecules. Hence, it can be regarded as a branch of statistical mechanics dealing
with the average behavior of a large number of molecules.
Classical thermodynamics is macroscopic approach. Here, the matter is considered to be a
continuum without any concern to its atomic structure.
Consider a gas in a container. Pressure exerted at the wall of the container is the average force
per unit area due to the collision of the gas molecules on the wall surface. To determine this pressure, we
need not know the behavior of individual molecules of the gas.
This approach is macroscopic approach. However, the results obtained from macroscopic and
statistical study of matter.

1.3 Thermodynamic Systems and Surroundings

A Thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space whose behavior

is being investigated.
Everything external to the system is defined as surroundings. In its usual context the term
‗surroundings‘ is restricted to the regions in the immediate vicinity which has a detectable influence on
the system.
Boundary is the surface which separates the system from its surroundings. It may be fixed or
moving and real or imaginary.

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1.3.1 Types of Thermodynamic Systems

There are three types of thermodynamic systems:

a) Closed System
b) Open System and
c) Isolated System
In closed system, attention is focused on a fixed mass. Energy in the form of heat and work can
cross the boundary of the system. But there is no mass flow across the boundary. Hence, the possibility of
change in volume is always there in the closed systems.

Fig. 1.3 Open System.

In open system, both matter and energy can cross the boundary. Here, the behavior of a fixed
region in space called control volume is investigated and hence, there is no change in volume. The
surface of the control volume is known as control surface.
A system that exchanges neither energy nor matter with its surroundings is known as an isolated
system.

Fig. 1.4 Isolated System.

1.4 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as
viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity,
and even velocity and elevation.
Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are those that
are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties
are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume and total
momentum are some examples of extensive properties. An easy way to determine whether a property is
intensive or extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary partition, as shown
in Fig. 1.5. Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the original system, but half the
value of the extensive properties.

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Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties (with mass m being a major
exception), and lowercase letters are used for intensive properties (with pressure P and temperature T
being the obvious exceptions).

Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6

1.5 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

The properties are meant for describing the state of a system. To fix a state, all the properties need not be
specified. If any two independent intensive properties are specified, rest of the properties automatically assumes
certain values. This is known as state postulate.
Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the properties can be measured or
calculated throughout the entire system, which gives us a set of properties that completely describes the
condition, or the state, of the system. At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values. If
the value of even one property changes, the state will change to a different one.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system
in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.
There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the
conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied.
A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same throughout the entire system. That is,
the system involves no temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow.
Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no
change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition does not change with time, that is, no
chemical reactions occur.
A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied.

1.6 PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process,
and the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the process
(Fig. 1.6).To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.

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1.6.1 QUASI STATIC PROCESS

Consider a certain quantity of gas taken in a frictionless piston cylinder arrangement as shown in
Fig 1.7. The system is in thermodynamic equilibrium so that there is no unbalanced force acting on
piston.

(a) (b)

Fig.1.7 Illustration for Quasi equilibrium process

The moment the weight is removed from the piston, mechanical equilibrium does not exist and
as a result the piston is moved upward until mechanical equilibrium is restored again. Therefore the
actual process occurs only when equilibrium does not exist.
As shown in Fig.1.7.a, if the entire weight on the piston is removed at once, the deviation from
the equilibrium is high and the expansion is rapid. For such a process the intermediate states are not
equilibrium states and hence the process would be non-quasi equilibrium.
If the weight is assumed to be made of a large number of small pieces as shown inFig.1.7.b and
taken off one by one, the deviation from equilibrium is less. The process could be considered quasi-
equilibrium.

1.7 Point and Path Functions

Thermodynamic functions are classified into two categories

namely point and path functions.
Point functions are those for which the change depends on
only the end states and not on the path followed. Hence point
functions are inexact differentials

It can be observed the change in any property during

a process depends only on end states. Therefore all the properties Fig. 1.8
are point functions.

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Path functions are those for which the change depends not only on the end states but also on the
path followed. Hence path functions are exact differentials. Heat and work are inexact differentials. Their
change cannot be written as difference between their end states.
Examples: Heat, work etc.

1.8 Temperature and Zeroth Law

Maxwell defined the temperature of a system as its Thermal state considered with reference to
its ability to communicate heat to other bodies. When a hot body is brought into contact with a cold body,
the hot body becomes cooler and the cold body becomes hotter. After sufficient time, the temperature of
both the bodies will be equal. At that point, the two bodies are said to have reached thermal equilibrium.
Consider three bodies A, B and C. If the bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with C when
brought into contact separately, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This concept is
known as Zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Fig. 1.9

Several properties of materials are found to be varying with temperature in a predictable way.
This variation is used to measure temperature. In mercury thermometers, expansion of mercury with
temperature is used for temperature measurement.

1.9 Temperature Scales

Freezing point of water known as ice point and boiling point of water known as steam point are
taken as the reference states for all types of temperature scales. The various types as temperature scales in
use are:
a) Celsius scale b) Fahrenheit scale
c) Kelvin scale d) Rankine scale

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1.10 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems

Matter can exist in any one of the three phases namely solid, liquid and gas. A system consisting
of a single phase is known as homogeneous systems. If the matter exists in more than one phase, the
system is known as heterogeneous system.

1.11 The Characteristic Equation of State

Boyle’s law. It states that volume of a given mass of a perfect

gas varies inversely as the absolute pressure when temperature
is constant. If p is the absolute pressure of the gas and V is the
volume occupied by the gas, then

Or pV= Constant, so long as the temperature is

constant.
Fig. 1.11 shows the graphical representation of Boyle‗s law.
The curves are rectangular hyperbolas asymptotic to the p-v
axis. Each curve corresponds to a different temperature. For any
two points on the curve,

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Where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass (also called molecular weight)
of the gas. The constant Ru is the same for all substances, and its value is Ru= 8.31447 kJ/kmol.K

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2. WORK AND HEAT

2.1. Work

Work is done when the point of application of a force moves in the direction of the force. The
product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force is equal to the amount of the
work done.
This simple definition of work confines only to the area of mechanics and cannot be extended to
the more complex problems in thermodynamics. Hence a new definition should be introduced to cover
mechanical as well as the other forms of work.
Positive work is done by a system, during a given process, when sole effect external to the
system could be reduced to the lifting of a mass.
Consider a gas expanding in a piston cylinder arrangement as given in Figure 2.1. Here no mass is
actually lifted against gravity. But if the existing surroundings are fitted with an arrangement as given in
the Figure 2.2, there is a possibility of lifting the mass. Hence work is said to be done by the system.
While exploring the possibility of lifting a mass the effects that are external to the system alone must be taken into
account

Fig. 2.2

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In the international system (SI), the unit of force is Newton (N) and that of distance is meters
(m). Hence the unit of work is Nm which is also given a special name Joule. In most of the applications
large quantity of work is involved. Therefore kJ is commonly used.
Rate of doing work is known as power. Hence its unit is Nm/S or J/S which is again given
a special name Watts (W).

2.2. Sign Convention of Work

 Work done by the system on the surroundings is considered as positive work.

 Work done on the system by the surroundings is taken as negative work.

2.3. Displacement Work

Consider a piston cylinder arrangement as given in the Figure 2.4. If the pressure of the fluid is
greater than that of the surroundings, there will be an unbalanced force on the face of the piston. Hence,
the piston will move towards right

Force acting on the piston = Pressure x Area

=pA
 Work done = Force x distance
=pAx dx
=pdV
Where dV - change in volume.
This work is known as displacement work or pdV work corresponding to the elemental
displacement dx. To obtain the total work done in a process, this elemental work must be added from the
initial state to the final state, mathematically.

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2.4 Evaluation of Displacement Work

2.4.1. Constant Pressure Process

Figure 2.5 shows a piston cylinder arrangement containing a fluid. Let the fluid expands such
that the pressure of the fluid remains constant throughout the process. Figure 2.6 shows the process in a
p-V diagram.

The mathematical expression for displacement work can be obtained as follows:

W p (V2 – V1) ........................(2.1)
This expression shows that the area under a curve in a p-V diagram gives work done in the process.

2.4.2. Constant volume process

Consider a gas contained in a rigid vessel being heated. Since there is no change in volume,the
displacement work .

W=0

2.6.3 Isothermal process

Let the product of pressure and volume remains constant at all the intermediate states of
aprocess. In the p-V diagram it will be a hyperbola as given in Figure 2.7.

For
Ideal gases when

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temperature remains constant, pV will be constant i.e., isothermalprocess are hyperbolic processes for an
ideal gas.

2.6.4 Polytropic Process

Any process can be represented by the general form Based on the valve ofn,
the process differs as given below;For other values of n, the process is known as polytropicprocess.
Figure 2.8 shows the polytropic process of various possible polytropic index ‗n‘ on p-Vcoordinates.
Expression for displacements work for a polytropic process can be obtained asfollows :

Fig. 2.8

2.6.5 Reversible Adiabatic Process

A reversible process during which, the system and the surroundings do not exchange anyheat across the
boundary is known as reversible adiabatic process. For such a process, pressureand volume variation is
governed by the law :

Displacement work involved in a reversible adiabatic process can be expressed as

W=

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2.7 Heat

Heat is the interaction between systems which occurs by virtue of their temperaturedifference
when they communicate.
If a system, at a given temperature is brought in contact with another system
(orsurroundings) at a lower temperature, it can be observed that heat is transferred from the systemat the
higher temperature to the system at lower temperature. This heat transfer occurs solelybecause of the
temperature difference between the two systems. Another important aspect of thedefinition of heat is that
a body never contains heat. Rather, heat can be identified only as itcrosses the boundary. Similar to work,
heat is also a form of energy transfer occurring at theboundary of the system and is a path function.

2.12 Sign Convention of Heat

 Heat given into a system is positive

 Heat coming out of the system is negative

2.13 Comparison between work and heat

 Both heat and work are boundary phenomena, that is, they occur only at the boundary.
 The interaction due to the temperature difference is heat and all other interactions are to be taken
as work.
 Both work and heat are path functions, that is, they are inexact differentials.

2.14 Specific heats

The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperatureof a unit mass of a
substance by one degree. In general, thisenergy depends on how the process is executed. In
thermodynamics, we areinterested in two kinds of specific heats: specific heat at constant volume cvand
specific heat at constant pressure cp.
Flow of heat in a constant pressure process

KJ/KgK

Flow of heat in a reversible constant volume process

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KJ/KgK
For air,
Cp = 1.005 KJ/KgK
Cv = 0.718 KJ/KgK

We have
dQ = m cp dT For a reversible non-flow process at constant pressure
and, dQ = m cv dT For a reversible non-flow process at constant volume
The values of cp and cv, for a perfect gas, are constant for any one gas at all pressures andtemperatures.
Hence, integrating the above eqns. , we have
Flow of heat in a reversible constant pressure process = mcp (T2 – T1)
Flow of heat in a reversible constant volume process = cv (T2 – T1)

Questions

1. Air expands from 0.1 m3 to 0.23 m3 at a constant temperature of 50oC. Calculate the workdone per kg
of air. Rair = 0.287 kJ/kgK. [77.2 kJ]

2.. Oxygen contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston expands in a quasistatic processaccording to the
law . The initial pressure, temperature and volume are 5 bar, 300 k and
0.05 m3. After expansion, the pressure is 2 bar.Find the following :a. Final volumeb. Final temperaturec.
Work done [0.0921 m3 ; 221 K ; 13.16 kJ]

3. Air is compressed adiabatically from 0.92 m3 to 0.29 m3 in a piston cylinder arrangement.Taking its
initial pressure and temperature as 103 kPa and 300 k respectively, find the workdone. Also find the final
temperature. [139.04 kJ ; 476 K]

4. 0.15 m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 15 bar and 550 K is expandedisothermally to 4 times the initial
volume. It is then cooled to 290 K at constant volume and thencompressed back polytropically to its
initial state.Calculate the net work done and heat transferred during the cycle.

5. 0.1 m3 of an ideal gas at 300 K and 1 bar is compressed adiabatically to 8bar. It is then cooled at
constant volume and further expanded isothermally so as to reach thecondition from where it started.
Calculate :(i) Pressure at the end of constant volume cooling.(ii) Net work done during the cycle.

6. Air at 1.02 bar, 22°C, initially occupying a cylinder volume of 0.015 m3, iscompressed reversibly and
adiabatically by a piston to a pressure of 6.8 bar. Calculate :(i) The final temperature (ii) The final
volume ;(iii) The work done

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3. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

It is observed that when a system is made to undergo a complete cycle then net work is doneon
or by the system. Consider a cycle in which net work is done by the system. Since energy cannotbe
created, this mechanical energy must have been supplied from some source of energy. Now thesystem
has been returned to its initial state : Therefore, its intrinsic energy is unchanged, andhence the
mechanical energy has not been provided by the system itself. The only other energyinvolved in the cycle
is the heat which was supplied and rejected in various processes.
The first law of Thermodynamics cannot be proved analytically, but experimental evidencehas
repeatedly confirmed its validity, and since no phenomenon has been shown to contradict it,the first law
is accepted as a law of nature. It may be remarked that no restriction was imposedwhich limited the
application of first law to reversible energy transformation. Hence the first lawapplies to reversible as
well as irreversible transformations : For non-cyclic process, a more generalformulation of first law of
thermodynamics is required. A new concept which involves a termcalled internal energy fulfills this
need.
— The First Law of Thermodynamics may also be stated as follows :
―Heat and work are mutually convertible but since energy can neither be creatednor destroyed, the total
energy associated with an energy conversion remainsconstant‖.
Or
— ―No machine can produce energy without corresponding expenditure of energy, i.e., it is impossible to
construct a perpetual motion machine offirst kind‖.

3.1 First Law for a closed system undergoing a cycle

Fig. 3.1 shows the experiment for checking first law of thermodynamics.

Fig. 3.1

The work input to the paddle wheel is measured by the fall of weight, while the
correspondingtemperature rise of liquid in the insulated container is measured by the thermometer. It
isalready known to us from experiments on heat transfer that temperature rise can also be produced by
heat transfer. The experiments show : (i) A definite quantity of work is always required toaccomplish the
same temperature rise obtained with a unit amount of heat. (ii) Regardless ofwhether the temperature of
liquid is raised by work transfer or heat transfer, the liquid can bereturned by heat transfer in opposite
direction to the identical state from which it started. Theabove results lead to the inference that work and

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heat are different forms of something moregeneral, which is called energy. It can be stated as an
invariable experience that whenever a physical system passesthrough a complete cycle the algebraic sum
of the work transfers during the cycle.

bears a definite ratio to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers during the cycle.

Bythe law of conservation of energy, the net work done by the system is equal to the net heat
suppliedto the system. The First Law of Thermodynamics can, therefore, be stated as follows:

“When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to the system from the
surroundings is equal to net work done by the system on its surroundings.”
Or

where represents the sum for a complete cycle

3.2 First Law for a closed system undergoing a change of state

First law can be written for a closed system in an equation form as content of the system Change
in the energy the system Energy left into the system Energy entered For a system of constant mass,
energy can enter or leave the system only in two forms namely work and heat. Let a closed system of
initial energy E1 receives Q units of net heat and gives out h units of work during a process. If E2 is
energy content at the end of the process as given in Figure 3.2,

Fig. 3.2

applying first law we get

Q - W = E 2 - E1

Where the total energy content

Internal Energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy

U+ + mgz

Generally, when heat is added to a system its temperature rises and external work isperformed
due to increase in volume of the system. The rise in temperature is an indication ofincrease of internal
energy.

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3.3 Energy—A Property of system

Consider a system which changes its state from state 1 to state 2 by following the path
L,and returns from state 2 to state 1 by following the path M (Fig. 3.3). So the system undergoes acycle.
Writing the first law for path L
QL = ΔEL+ WL
and for path M
QM= Δ EM + WM
The processes L and M together constitute a cycle, for
which

From the above equations, it yields Fig. 3.3

Similarly, had the system returned from state 2 to state 1 by following the path N insteadof path
M

And,

Thus, it is seen that the change in energy between two states of a system is the same,whatever
path the system may follow in undergoing that change of state. If some arbitrary valueof energy is
assigned to state 2, the value of energy at state 1 is fixed independent of the path thesystem follows.
Therefore, energy has a definite value for every state of the system. Hence, it is apoint function and a
property of the system.

3.4 Perpetual Motion Machine Of The First Kind—PMM 1

The first law of thermodynamics states the general principle of the
conservation ofenergy. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but only gets
transformed from oneform to another. There can be no machine which would
continuously supply mechanicalwork without some form of energy
disappearing simultaneously (Fig.3.4). Such afictitious machine is called a
perpetual motion machine of the first kind, or inbrief, PMM 1. A PMM 1 is
thus impossible. Fig. 3.4

3.5 Enthalpy
One of the fundamental quantities which occur invariably in thermodynamics is thesum of
internal energy (u) and pressure volume product (pv). This sum is calledEnthalpy (h).

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i.e., h = u + pv

Consider a stationary system of fixed mass undergoing a quasi-equilibrium constant pressure

process
Applying first law,

The terms within brackets are all properties depending on the end states. This combinationof
properties may be regarded as a single property known as enthalpy. It is usually denoted bythe letter H.
ie, H = U + pV
(or) h = u + pv
Where
h is specific enthalpy in kJ/kg
u is specific internal energy in kJ/kg and
v is specific volume in m³/kg
For a perfect gas

3.6 Relationship Between Two Specific Heats

Consider a perfect gas being heated at constant pressure from T1 to T2.

According to non-flow equation,
Q = (U2 –U1) + W
Also for a perfect gas

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4. THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

4.1 Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics

If a well insulated tank of fluid is stirred by a rotating paddle wheel, the energy of the
fluidincreases. If the stirrer is stopped, however the energy of the fluid will not decrease and cause
thestirrer to rotate in the opposite direction. The possibility of this process proceeding in
theoppositedirection is not excluded by the first law of Thermodynamics. Hence first law of
thermodynamicsdoes not allow us to predict whether a proposed conceived energy conversion ispossible
or not.
In all the internal combustion engines fuel and air mixture is supplied at room temperature.This
mixture undergoes combustion inside the engine and gives out work. Exhaust gases comingoutof the
engine are always at higher temperature, indicating that some heat is taken away intoatmosphere. Hence,
in all the IC engines only a part of the heat is converted into work. Fromourexperience we know that if
any attempt is made to convert all the heat into work, our effortwillgo in vain. This limitation in the
extent of energy conversion has also not been addressed infirstlaw of thermodynamics

4.2 The Second law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin Planck’s statement :“It is impossible for any device

thatoperates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir
andproduce a net amount of work ’’
The term thermal reservoir refers to a very large system in
stableequilibrium, to which orfrom which, any amount of heat can
betransferred at constant temperature.
A thermal reservoir supplying heat continuously at
constanttemperature is known as source. (Example : Sun)
A thermal reservoir receiving heat continuously at
constanttemperature is known as sink. (Examples : River, Sea)
From Kelvin-Planck statement it is clear that for any
systemto operate in a cycle and togive out work continuously it
shouldinteract with a minimum of two reservoirs at different
temperatures.
The system will receive heat from the high temperature reservoir and reject heat to the lowtemperature
reservoir. Such devices are known as heat engines. Performance (or) Efficiency of aheat engine can be
expressed as the ratio of desired output to the required input. In a heat engine thedesired output is net
work output and the required input is total heat input.
The KelvinPlanck statement can also be expressed as no heat engine can have a thermalefficiency of100
percent or as for a power plant to operate, the working fluidmust exchange heatwith the environment as
well as the furnace.

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Clausius statement: “It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body’’
It is common knowledge that heat does not, of its own
volition, transfer from a cold medium to a warmer one. The
Clausius statement does not imply that a cyclic device that transfers
heat from a cold medium to a warmer one is impossible to construct.
In fact, this is precisely what a common household refrigerator does.
It simply states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless its
compressor is driven by an external power source, such as an
electric motor. This way, the net effect on the surroundings involves
the consumption of some energy in the form of work, in addition to
the transfer of heat from a colder body to a warmer one. That is, it
leaves a trace in the surroundings. Therefore, a household
refrigerator is in complete compliance with the Clausius statement
of the second law.
Devices that are used to transfer heat from a body at lower
temperature to a body at higher temperature are known as
refrigerators (or) heat pumps. If the high temperature side is
atmosphere it is a refrigerator. If the low temperature side is
atmosphere it is known as a heat pump. The performance index here
is called coefficient of performance (COP). In refrigerator (and heat
pumps) the performance is the ratio of two independent parameters
and hence the possibility of getting the value more than unity is
always there. But the term efficiency is restricted to a maximum of unity. Hence the term efficiency is not
used here. COP of refrigerator is

COP of heat pump is

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4.3THE CARNOT CYCLE

The cycle was first suggested by a French engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824 which works on
reversible cycle and is known as Carnot cycle.
Any fluid may be used to operate the Carnot cycle which is performed in an engine cylinder the
head of which is supposed alternatively to be perfect conductor or a perfect insulator of a heat. Heat is
caused to flow into the cylinder by the application of high temperature energy source to the cylinder head
during expansion, and to flow from the cylinder by the application of a lower temperature energy source
to the head during compression.
The assumptions made for describing the working of the Carnot engine are as follows:
(i)The piston moving in a cylinder does not develop any friction during motion.
(ii) The walls of piston and cylinder are considered as perfect insulators of heat.
(iii) The cylinder head is so arranged that it can be a perfect heat conductor or perfect heat insulator.
(iv) The transfer of heat does not affect the temperature of source or sink.
(v) Working medium is a perfect gas and has constant specific heat.
(vi) Compression and expansion are reversible.
Following are the four stages of Carnot cycle:
Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant). Initially (state 1), the temperature of the
gas is TH and the cylinder head is in close contact with a source at temperature TH. The gas is allowed to
expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings. As the gas expands, the temperature of the gas tends to
decrease. But as soon as the temperature drops by an infinitesimal amount dT, some heat is transferred
from the reservoir into the gas, raising the gas temperature to TH. Thus, the gas temperature is kept
constant at TH. Since the temperature difference between the gas and the reservoir never exceeds a
differential amount dT, this is a reversible heat transfer process. It continues until the piston reaches
position 2. The amount of total heat transferred to the gas during this process is QH.

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 CUCEK BME 25

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL). At state 2, the reservoir
that was in contact with the cylinder head is removed and replaced by insulation so that the system
becomes adiabatic. The gas continues to expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings until its
temperature drops from TH to TL (state 3). The piston is assumed to be frictionless and the process to be
quasi-equilibrium, so the process is reversible as well as adiabatic.

Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant). At state 3, the insulation at the cylinder
head is removed, and the cylinder is brought into contact with a sink at temperature T L. Now the piston is
pushed inward by an external force, doing work on the gas. As the gas is compressed, its temperature
tends to rise. But as soon as it rises by an infinitesimal amount dT, heat is transferred from the gas to the
sink, causing the gas temperature to drop to TL. Thus, the gas temperature remains constant at TL. Since
the temperature difference between the gas and the sink never exceeds a differential amount dT, this is a
reversible heat transfer process. It continues until the piston reaches state 4. The amount of heat rejected
from the gas during this process is QL.

Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature

rises from TL to TH). State 4 is such that when the low-
temperature reservoir is removed, the insulation is put back on
the cylinder head, and the gas is compressed in a reversible
manner, the gas returns to its initial state (state 1). The
temperature rises from TL to TH during this reversible
adiabatic compression process, which completes the cycle.
The P-V diagram of this cycle is shown in Fig. 4.4.
Remembering that on a P V diagram the area under the
process curve represents the boundary work for quasi-
equilibrium (internally reversible) processes, we see that the
area under curve 1-2-3 is the work done by the gas during the
expansion part of the cycle, and the area under curve 3-4-1 is
the work done on the gas during the compression part of the
cycle. The area enclosed by the path of the cycle (area 1-2-3-
4-1) is the difference between these two and represents the net
work done during the cycle.

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CUCEK BME 26

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 CUCEK BME 27

5. FORMATION AND PROPERTIES OF STEAM

Steam is a vapour of water, and is invisible when pure and dry. it is used as the working substance
in the operation of steam engines and steam turbines. Steam does not obey laws of perfect gases, until it
is perfectly dry.

Formation of Steam at a Constant Pressure from Water:-

Consider I kg of water at 0° C contained in the piston-cylinder arrangement as shown in fig.(a).

The piston and weights maintain a constant pressure in the cylinder. If we heat the water contained in the
cylinder, it will be converted into steam as discussed below:
I. The volume of water will increase slightly with the increase in temperature as shown in Fig. (b). It will
cause the piston to move slightly upwards and hence work is obtained. This increase in volume of water
(or work) is generally, neglected for all types of calculations.
2. On further heating, temperature reaches boiling point. The boiling point of water, at normal
atmospheric pressure of 1.013 bar is 100°C but it increases with the increase in pressure. When the
boiling point is reached, the temperature remains constant and the water evaporates, thus pushing the
piston up against the constant pressure. Consequently, the specific volume of steam increases as shown in
Fig (c). At this stage, the steam will have some particles of water in suspension, and is termed as wet
steam. This process will continue till the whole water is converted into wet steam.
3. On further heating, the water particles in suspension will be converted into steam. The entire steam, in
such a state, is termed as dry steam or saturated steam as shown in Fig (d). Practically, the dry steam
behaves like a perfect gas.
4. On further heating, the temperature of the steam starts rising. The steam, in such a state, is termed as
superheated steam as shown in Fig. (e)

Temperature vs. Total Heat Graph during Steam Formation

The process of steam formation, as discussed above, may also be represented on a graph, whose
abscissa represents the total heat and the vertical ordinate represents the temperature. The point A
represents the initial condition of water at QOC and pressure p (in bar) as shown in Fig. Line ABCD
shows the relation between temperature and heat at a specific pressure of p (in bar).
During the formation of the superheated Water steam, from water at freezing point, the heat is
absorbed in the following three stages:
I. The heating of water up to boiling temperature or saturation temperature (t) is shown by AB in Fig. The
heat absorbed by the water is AP, known as sensible heat or liquid heat or total heat of water.

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 CUCEK BME 28

2. The change of state from liquid to steam is shown

by BC. The heat absorbed during this stage is PQ,
known as latent heat of vaporisation.
3. The superheating process is shown by CD. The heat
absorbed during this stage is QR, known as heat of
superheat. Line AR represents the total heat of the
superheated steam.
If the pressure is increased (say P1bar), the
boiling temperature also increases. The point E
represents the boiling temperature or saturation
temperature at pressure P1 and F is the point of dry
saturated steam. Line FG shows the constant pressure
process, in which the steam is superheated. Similarly,
a family of curves may be drawn for different
pressures as shown in the figure. The line passing
through the points A, B, E, and K is known as
saturated liquid line which forms boundary line
between water and steam. Similarly, a line passing
through dry steam points L, F, C is known as dry
saturated steam line which forms boundary line
between wet and superheated steam. Sometimes, these terms are briefly written as liquid line and dry
steam line, but the word "saturated" is always understood.
It may also be noted from the figure, that when the pressure and saturation temperature increases,
the latent heat of vaporization decreases, it becomes zero at a point N where liquid and dry steam lines
meet. This point N is known as the critical point and at this point, the liquid and vapour phases merge,
and become identical in every respect. The temperature corresponding to critical point N is known as
critical temperature and the pressure is known as critical pressure. For steam, the critical temperature is
374.15°C and critical pressure is 221.2 bar.

Important Terms for Steam

Though there are many terms applied to steam, yet the following are important from the subject
point of view:

1. Wet steam: - When the steam contains moisture or particles of water in suspension, it is said to be wet
steam. It means that the evaporation of water is not complete, and the whole of the latent heat has not
been absorbed.
2. Dry saturated steam: - When the wet Steam is further heated, and it does not contain any suspended
particles of water, it is known as dry saturated steam. The dry saturated steam has absorbed its full latent
heat and behaves practically, in the same way as a perfect gas.
3. Superheated steam. When the dry steam is further heated at a constant pressure, thus raising its
temperature, it is said to be superheated steam. Since the pressure is constant, therefore the volume of
superheated steam increases. It may be noted that the volume of one kg of superheated steam is
considerably greater than the volume of one kg of dry saturated steam at the same pressure. In actual
practice, the superheated steam is produced in a separate apparatus known as superheater, so that it is Out
of contact with water from which it was formed.
4. Dryness fraction or quality of wet steam. It is the ratio of the mass of actual dry steam, to the mass of
same quantity of wet steam, and is generally denoted by ‗x‘. Mathematically,

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 CUCEK BME 29

The value of dryness fraction, in case of dry steam, is unity. At this stage, the mass of water in
suspension (mf) is zero.
5. Sensible hear of water: - It is the amount of heat absorbed by I kg of water, when heated at a constant
pressure, from the freezing point (00 C) to the temperature of formation of steam, i.e. saturation
temperature (t). The sensible heat is also known as liquid hear. The specific heat of water at constant
pressure is usually taken as 4.2 kJ/kg K. Therefore heat absorbed by 1 kg of water from 0°C to t °C or
sensible heat
= Mass x Sp. heat x Rise in temperature
= 1x4.21(t+273) - (0+273)] = 4.2t kJ/kg
Thus the sensible heat of water in kJ/kg may be obtained directly by multiplying the specific heat of
water and the saturation temperature (r) in °C. It may be noted that the sensible heat of water is taken
equal to the specific enthalpy (ie, total heat) of water. It is, usually, denoted by h 1 in steam tables and its
value may be determined for any given pressure in kJ/kg.
6. Latent heat of vaporisation: - It is the amount of heat absorbed to evaporate 1 kg of water, at its
boiling point or saturation temperature without change of temperature. It is denoted by hfg and its value
depends upon the pressure. The heat of vaporisation of water or latent heat of steam is 2257 kJ/kg at
atmospheric pressure.
It has been experimentally found that the value of hfg decreases as the pressure increases and it is
zero at critical pressure. If the steam is wet with a dryness fraction x, then the heat absorbed by it during
evaporation is xhfg
7. Enthalpy or total heat of steam: - It is amount of heat absorbed by water from freezing point to
saturation temperature plus the heat absorbed during evaporation. Enthalpy or total heat of steam
= Sensible heat + Latent heat
It is denoted by hg and its value for the dry saturated steam may be read directly from the steam tables.
The expressions for the enthalpy of wet steam, dry steam and superheated steam areas follows:
(i) Wet steam. The enthalpy of wet steam is given by:
h =hf+xhfg.........(i)
where x is the dryness fraction of steam.
(ii) Dry steam. We know that in case of dry steam, x = I.
h =hg=hf+hfg.............(ii)
(iii) Superheated steam. If we further add heat to the dry steam, its temperature increases while
pressure remaining constant. 'Ibis increase in temperature shows the superheat stage of the steam. Thus,
the total heat required for the steam to be superheated is:
hsup= Total heat for dry steam + Heat for superheated steam

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 CUCEK BME 30

Note: 1. The difference (tsup - t) is known as degree of superheat.

2. The value of cp, for steam lies between 1.67 kJ/kgK to 2.5 kJ/kg K.
8. Specific volume of steam: - It is the volume occupied by the steam per unit mass at a given
temperature and pressure, and is expressed in m³/kg. It is the reciprocal of density of steam in kg/m³.It
may be noted that the value of specific volume decreases with the increase in pressure. The expressions
for the volumes occupied by steam are as follows:
(i) Wet steam: Consider 1 kg of wet steam of dryness fraction x. We know that this steam will have x kg
of dry steam and (1- x) kg of water. Let vf be the volume of 1 kg of water, then Volume of 1 kg of wet
steam
= xvg+ (1 - x)Vf

Since Vf is very small as compared to vg therefore the expression (1- x) Vf may be neglected.
Volume of1 kg of wet steam = xvg m³
or specific volume of wet steam, v =xvg m³/kg
(ii) Dry steam: We know that in case of dry steam, the mass of water in suspension is zero and dryness
fraction is unity.
Therefore specific volume of dry steam =vgm³/kg.................. (ii)
(iii) Superheated steam: We have already discussed that when the dry saturated steam is further heated
under a constant pressure, there is an increase in volume with the rise in temperature. The superheated
steam behaves more or less like a perfect gas. Therefore, according to Charles' law

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 CUCEK BME 31

6. STEAM GENERATORS

A steam generator or boiler is, usually, a closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to transfer the
heat produced by the combustion of fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) to water, and ultimately to generate
steam. The steam produced may be supplied:
1. To an external combustion engine, i.e. steam engines and turbines,
2. At low pressures for industrial process work in cotton mills, sugar factories, breweries, etc., and
3. For producing hot water, this can be used for heating installations at much lower pressures.

Classifications of Steam Boilers

Though there are many classifications of steam boilers, yet the following are important from the
subject point of view:
1. According to the contents in the tube. The steam boilers, according to the contents in the tube may be
classified as (a) Fire tube or smoke tube boiler, and (b) Water tube boiler. In fire tube steam boilers,
the flames and hot gases, produced by the combustion of fuel, pass through the tubes (called multi-
tubes) which are surrounded by water. The heat is conducted through the walls of the tubes from the
hot gases to the surrounding water. Examples of fire tube boilers are Simple vertical boiler, Cochran
boiler, Lancashire boiler. Cornish boiler. Scotch marine boiler, Locomotive boiler, and Velcon boiler.
In water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes (called water tubes) which are
surrounded by flames and hot gases from outside. Examples of water tube boilers are: Babcock and
Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La-Mont boiler, Benson boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loeffler boiler.
2. According to the position of the furnace. The steam boilers, according to the position of the furnace
are classified as(a) Internally fired boilers, and (b) Externally tired boilers
In internally fired steam boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Most of the fire tube
steam boilers are internally fired.
In externally fired steam boilers, the furnace is arranged underneath in a brickwork setting. Water
tube steam boilers are always externally fired.
3. According to the axis of the shell. The steam boilers, according to the axis of the shell, maybe
classified as(a) Vertical boilers, and (b) Horizontal boilers.
In vertical steam boilers, the axis of the shell is vertical. Simple vertical boiler and Cochran boiler
are vertical boilers.
In horizontal steam boilers, the axis of the shell is horizontal. Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler
and Babcock and Wilcox boiler are horizontal boilers.
4. Accordingto the number of tubes. The steam boilers, according to the number of tubes, maybe
classified as:(a) Single tube boilers and (b) Multitubular boilers.
In single tube steam boilers, there is only one fire tube or water tube. Simple vertical boiler and
Cornish boiler are single tube boilers.
In multitubular steam boilers, there are two or more fire tubes or water tubes. Lancashire boiler,
Locomotive boiler, Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler are multitubular boilers.
5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam. The steam boilers, according to the
method of circulation of water and steam, may be classified as:(a) Natural circulation boilers, and
(b) Forced circulation boilers.
In natural circulation steam boilers, the circulation of water is by natural convection currents, which
are setup during the heating of water. In most of the steam boilers, there is a natural circulation of
water.
In forced circulation steam boilers, there is a forced circulation of water by a centrifugal pump
driven by some external power. Use of forced circulation is made in high pressure boilers such as La-
Mont boiler, Benson boiler, Loeffler boiler and Velcon boiler.

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 CUCEK BME 32

6. According to the use. The steam boilers, according to their use, may be classified as(a) Stationary
boilers, and (b) Mobile boilers.
The stationary steam boilers are used in power plants, and in industrial process work. These are
called stationary because they do not move from one place to another.
The mobile steam boilers are those which move from one place to another. These boilers are
locomotive and marine boilers..
7. According to the source of heat. The steam boilers may also be classified according to the source of
heat supplied for producing steam. These sources may be the combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous
fuel, hot waste gases as by-products of other chemical processes, electrical energy or nuclear energy
etc.

Simple Vertical Boiler

A simple vertical boiler produces steam at a low pressure and in
small quantities. It is, therefore, used for low power generation or at
places where the space is limited. The construction of this type of boiler
is shown in Fig. 6.1.
It consists of a cylindrical shell surrounding a nearly cylindrical fire
box. The fire box is slightly tapered towards the top to allow the ready
passage of the steam to the surface. At the bottom of the firebox, is a
grate. The firebox is fitted with two or more inclined cross tubes F, F.
The inclination is provided to increase the heating surface as well as to
improve the circulation of water. An uptake tube passes from the top of
the fire box to the chimney. The handholes are provided opposite to the
end of each water tube for cleaning deposits. A manhole is provided at
the top for a man to enter and clean the boiler. A mudhole is provided at
the bottom of the shell to remove the mud that settles down. The space
between the boiler shell and fire box is filled with water to be heated.

Cochran Boiler or Vertical Multitubular Boiler

There are various designs of vertical multitubular boilers. A

Cochran boiler is considered to be one of the most efficient
type of such boilers. It is an improved type of simple vertical
boiler. This boiler consists of an external cylindrical shell and
a fire box as shown in Fig. 6.2.Theshell and fire box are both
hemispherical. The hemispherical crown of the boiler shell
gives Manhole Chimney maximum space and strength to
withstand the pressure of steam inside the boiler. The
hemispherical crown of the fire box is also advantageous for
resisting intense heat. The fire box and the combustion
chamber is connected through a short pipe. The flue gases
from the combustion chamber flow to the smoke box through
a number of smoke tubes. These tubes generally have 62.5
mm external diameter and are 165 in number. The gases
from the smoke box pass to the atmosphere through a
chimney. The combustion chamber is lined with firebricks
on the shell side. A manhole near the top of the crown on the
shell is provided for cleaning.

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 CUCEK BME 33

At the bottom of the fire box, there is a degrate (in case of coal firing) and the coal is fed through the
fire hole. If the boiler is used for oil firing, no grate is provided, but the bottom of the fire box is lined
with firebricks. The oil burners fitted at the fire hole.

Locomotive Boiler

It is a multi-tubular, horizontal, internally tired and mobile boiler. The principal feature of this boiler is
to produce steam at a very high rate. A modern type of a locomotive boiler is shown in Fig. 6.3.
t consists of a shell or barrel having 1.5 metres diameter and 4 metres in length. The coal is Fed into
the fire box through the fire door and burns on grate. The flue gases from the grate are deflected by a
brick arch, and thus whole of the fire box is properly heated. There are about 157 thin tubes or fire tubes
F (47.5 mm diameter) and 24 thick or superheated tubes G (130 mm diameter). The flue gases after
passing through these tubes enter a smoke box. The gases are then lead to atmosphere through a chimney.
The barrel contains water around the tubes which is heated up by the flue gases and gets converted into
steam.

A stop valve as regulator is provided inside a cylindrical steam dome. This is operated by a regulator
shaft from the engine room by a driver. The header is divided into two portions, one is the superheated
steam chamber and the other is the saturated steam chamber. The steam pipe leads the steam from the
regulator to the saturated steam chamber. It then leads the steam to the superheated tubes, and alter
passing through these tubes, the steam returns back to the superheated steam chamber. The superheated
steam now flows through the steam pipe to the cylinder, one, on each side. The draught is due to the
exhaust Steam from the cylinders, which is discharged through the exhaust pipe. The front door can be
opened for cleaning or repairing the smoke box.

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

It is a straight tube, stationary type water tube boiler, as shown in Fig. It consists of a steam and water
drum (I). It is connected by a short tube with uptake header or riser (2) at the back end. The water tubes
(5) (100 mm diameter) are inclined to the horizontal and connects the uptake header to the down take
header. Each row of the tubes is connected with two headers, and there are plenty of such rows. The
headers are curved when viewed in the direction of tubes so that one tube is not in the space of other, and
hot gases can pass properly after heating all the tubes. The headers are provided with hand holes in the
front of the tubes and are covered with caps (18).

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 CUCEK BME 34

A mud box (6) is provided with each down take

header and the mud, that settles down is removed.
There is a slow moving automatic chain grate on
which the coal is fed from the hopper (21). A fire
bricks baffle causes hot gases to move upwards and
downwards and again upwards before leaving the
chimney. The dampers (17) are operated by a chain
(22) which passes over a pulley to the Front of a
boiler to regulate the draught.
The boiler is suspended on steel girders, and
surrounded on all the four sides by fire brick walls.
The doors (4) are provided for a man to enter the
boiler for repairing and cleaning. Water circulates
from the drum (1) into the header (2) and through
the tubes (5) to header (3) and again to the drum.
Water continues to circulate like this till it is
evaporated. A steam super heater consists of a large
number of steel tubes (10) and contains two boxes,
one is superheated steam box (11)and other is
saturated steam box (12).The steam generated above
the water level in the drum flows in the dry pipe (13) and through the inlet tubes into the superheated
steam box (11). It then passes through the tubes (10) into the saturated steam box (12). The steam, during
its passage through tubes (10), gets further heated and becomes superheated. The steam is now taken
through the outlet pipe (14) to the stop valve (15).The boiler is fitted with usual mountings, such as safety
valve (19), feed valve (20), water level indicator (8) and pressure gauge (9).

La-Mont Boiler:

This is a modern high pressure water tube steam boiler

working on a forced circulation. The circulation is maintained
by a centrifugal pump, driven by a steam turbine, using steam
from the boiler. The forced circulation causes the feed water to
circulate through the water walls and drums equal to ten times
the mass of steam evaporated. This prevents the tubes from
being over heated.
A diagrammatic sketch of La-Mont steam boiler is
shown in Fig. The feed water passes through the economiser to
an evaporating drum. It is then drawn to the circulating pump
through the tube. The pump delivers the feed to the headers, at a
pressure above the drum pressure. The header distributes water
through nozzles into the generating tubes acting in parallel. The
water and steam from these tubes passes into the drum. The
steam in the drum is then drawn through the superheater.

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 CUCEK BME 35

Boiler Mountings:

These are the fittings, which are mounted on the boiler for its proper and safe functioning.
Though there are many types of boiler mountings, yet the following are important from the subject point
of view:
1. Water level indicator; 2. Pressure gauge; 3. Safety valves; 4. Stop valve; 5. Blow off cock; 6. Feed
check valve and 7. Fusible plug.

1. Water level Indicator

It is an important fitting, which indicates the water level inside the boiler to an observer. It is a safety
device, upon which the correct working of the boiler depends. This fitting may be seen in front of the
boiler, and are generally level two in number.

2. Pressure Gauge:

A pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the steam boiler. It is fixed in
front of the steam boiler. One end of the tube gauge is fixed and connected to the steam space in the
boiler. The other end is connected to a sector through a link. The steam, under pressure, flows into the
tube. As a result of this increased pressure, the Bourden's tube tends to straighten itself. Since the tube is
encased in a circular curve, therefore it tends to become circular instead of straight. With the help of a
simple pinion and sector arrangement, the elastic deformation of the Bourden's tube rotates the pointer.
This pointer moves over a calibrated scale, which directly gives the gauge pressure. The pressure gauges
generally used are of Bourden type.

3.Safety Valves:

These are the devices attached to the steam chest for preventing explosions due to excessive
internal pressure of steam. A steam boiler is, usually, provided with two safety valves. These are directly

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 CUCEK BME 36

placed on the boiler. In brief, the function of a safety valve is to blow off the steam when the pressure of
steam inside the boiler exceeds the working pressure.

4.Steam Stop Valve:

It is the largest valve on the steam boiler. It is, usually, fitted to the highest part of the shell by
means of a flange. The principal functions of a stop valve are:
1. To control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main steam pipe.
2. To shut off the steam completely when required.

5.Feed check valve:

It is a non-return valve, fitted to a screwed spindle to regulate the lift. Its function is to regulatethe
supply of water, which is pumped into the boiler, by the feed pump. This valve must have its spindle
lifted before the pump is started. It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water level of the boiler.

6.Blow off Cock:

The principal functions of a blow-off cock are

I. To empty the boiler whenever required.
2. To discharge the mud, scale or sediments which are accumulated at the bottom of the boiler.

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 CUCEK BME 37

7.Fusible Plug:

It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or the fire. Its object is to put off the fire in the furnace
of the boiler when the level of water in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit, and thus avoids the explosion
which may take place due to overheating of the furnace plate.

Boiler Accessories:

These are the devices which are used as integral parts of a boiler, and help in running efficiently.
Though there are many types of boiler accessories, yet the following are important from the subject point
of view:
1. Feed pump; 2. Superheater , 3. Economiser; and 4. Air preheater.

1. Feed Pump:
Water in a boiler is continuously converted into steam, which is used by the engine. Thus
we need a feed pump to deliver water to the boiler. The pressure of steam inside a boiler is high. So the
pressure of feed water has to be increased proportionately before it is made to enter the boiler. Generally,
the pressure of feed water is 20% more than that in the boiler.
A feed pump may be of centrifugal type or reciprocating type. But a double acting reciprocating pump is
commonly used as a feed pump these days. The reciprocating pumps are run by the steam from the same
boiler in which water is to be fed.

2. Superheater:
A superheater is an important device of a steam generating unit. Its purpose is to increase
the temperature of saturated steam without raising its pressure. It is generally an integral part of a boiler,
and is placed in the path of hot flue gases from the furnace. The heat, given up by these flue gases, is
used in superheating the steam. Such superheaters, which are installed within the boiler, are known as
integral superheaters.

3. Economiser:
An economiser is a device used to heat feed water by utilising the heat in the exhaust flue
gases before leaving through the chimney. As the name indicates, the economiser improves the economy
of the steam boiler.

4. Air Preheater:
An air preheater is used to recover heat from the exhaust flue gases. It is installed between
the economiser and the chimney. The air required for the purpose of combustion is drawn through the air
preheater where its temperature is raised. It is then passed through ducts to the furnace. The air is passed
through the tubes of the heater internally while the hot flue gases are passed over the outside of the tubes.

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 CUCEK BME 38

STEAM TURBINES
A steam turbine is a prime mover in1iich rotary motion is obtained by the gradual change of
momentum of the steam. In a steam turbine, the force exerted on the blades is due to the velocity of
steam. This is due to the fact that the curved blades by changing the direction of steam receive a force or
impulse. The action of steam in this case is said to be dynamic. Thus, the dynamical pressure of steam
rotates the vanes, buckets or blades directly. The turbine blades ale curved in such a way that the steam
directed upon them enters without shock, though there is always some loss of energy by the friction upon
the surface of blades. In general, a steam turbine, essentially, consists of the following two pasts:
I. The nozzle in which the heat energy of high pressure steam is converted into kinetic energy, so
that the steam issues from the nozzle with a very high velocity.
2. The blades which change the direction of steam issuing from the nozzle, so that force acts on
the blades due to change of momentum and propel them.
Thus, the basic principle of operation of a steam turbine is the generation of high velocity. Steam jet by
the expansion of high pressure steam and then conversion of kinetic energy, so obtained into mechanical
work on rotor blades.
According to the mode of steam action
(i) Impulse turbine and (ii) Reaction turbine.

1. Impulse turbines:

In impulse turbines, high-velocity steam from fixed nozzles

impacts the blades, and this impulse drives the blades forward,
causing the rotor to turn. The main feature of these turbines is
that the heat drop per stage can be quite large, allowing for large
blades and a smaller number of stages. The steam passes through
the stationary nozzles and is directed at high velocity against the
rotor buckets causing the rotor to rotate at high speed. If steam at
high pressure is allowed to expand through a stationary nozzle,
the result will be a drop in the steam pressure and an increase in
steam velocity. In fact, the steam will issue from the nozzle in the form of a high-speed jet. If this high
velocity steam is applied to a properly shaped turbine blade, the steam will change in direction due to the
shape of the blade. The effect of this change in direction of the steam flow will be to produce an impulse
force on the blade causing it to move. If the blade is attached to the rotor of a turbine, then the rotor will
revolve.

2. Reaction turbines:

In reaction turbines, high-velocity steam from nozzles striking blades

also produces impulse, but the steam jet runs into the blades and the main
force turning the rotor is the reactive force produced by the expansion of
steam flowing off the rotor blades themselves.

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 CUCEK BME 39

The main feature of this type of turbine is that in contrast to the impulse turbine, the heat drop per stage is
lessened, so the blades become smaller and the number of stages increases.

If the moving blades of a turbine are shaped in such a way that the steam expands and drops in
pressure as it passes through them, then a reaction will be produced which gives a force to the blades. If
there is no escape opening or nozzle for the steam, then the pressure will be the same on all walls of the
container and the container will remain at rest. If, however, the container has an escape opening or
nozzle, then steam will expand through the opening and drop in pressure. Therefore there will be an
unbalanced pressure on the wall opposite to the opening and a reaction force will be produced causing the
container to move due to reaction effect. A reaction turbine has rows of fixed blades alternating with
rows of moving blades. The steam expands first in the stationary or fixed blades where it gains some
velocity as it drops in pressure. It then enters the moving blades where its direction of flow is changed
thus producing an impulse force on the moving blades. In addition, however, the steam upon passing
through the moving blades again expands and further drops in pressure giving a reaction force to the
blades. This sequence is repeated as the steam passes through additional rows of fixed and moving
blades.

Compounding of Impulse Steam Turbines (Methods of Reducing Rotor Speeds)

If the entire pressure drop (from boiler pressure to condenser pressure (say from 125 bar to I bar)
is carried out in one stage only, then the velocity of steam entering into the turbine will be extremely
high. It will make the turbine rotor to run at a very high speed (even up to 30000 rpm.). From practical
point of view, such a high speed of the turbine rotor is bound to have a number of disadvantages.

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 CUCEK BME 40

In order to reduce the rotor speed, various methods are employed. All of these methods consist of a
multiple system of rotors, in series, keyed to a common shaft and the steam pressure or the jet velocity is
absorbed in stages as it flows over the rotor blades. This process is known as compounding. The
following three methods are commonly employed for reducing the rotor speed:
1. Velocity compounding, 2. Pressure compounding, and 3. Pressure-velocity compounding

1. Velocity Compounding:

In velocity compounding of an impulse turbine, the expansion of steam takes place in a nozzle or
a Set of nozzles from the boiler pressure to the condenser pressure. The impulse wheel carries two or
three rows of moving blades. Fig. shows the three rings of moving blades, separated by two rings of fixed
or guide blades in the reverse manner.
The steam, after expanding through nozzles, enters the first ring of moving blades at a high
velocity. A portion of this high velocity is absorbed by this blade ring and the remaining is passed on to
the next ring of fixed blades. The fixed blades change the direction of steam and direct it to the second
ring of moving blades, without altering the velocity appreciably. After passing through this second ring
of moving blades, a further portion of velocity is absorbed. The steam is now directed by the second ring
of fixed blades to the third ring of moving blades and then enters into the condenser. The curves of
velocity and pressure on a base representing the axis of the turbine are shown. It may be noted, from the
figure, that no pressure drop occurs either in the fixed or moving blades. The entire pressure drop occurs
in the nozzles.

2. Pressure Compounding of an Impulse Turbine:

In a pressure compounding of an impulse turbine, the rings of the moving blades, each having a
ring of fixed nozzles, are keyed to the turbine shaft in series, as shown in Fig. The total pressure drop, of
the steam, does not take place in the first nozzle ring, but is divided equally among all the nozzle rings.

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 CUCEK BME 41

The Steam from the boiler is passed through the first nozzle ring, where only a small pressure
drop occurs with an increase in velocity of steam. The steam is now directed on the first moving blade
ring, where the pressure of steam does not alter, but the velocity decreases. This constitutes one stage. It
may be noted that a stage consists of a fixed nozzle ring and a moving blade ring. The steam from the
first moving blade ring enters the second nozzle ring, where its pressure is further reduced. A little
consideration will show, that the pressure drop per stage in the nozzle rings is not the same, but the
number of heat units, converted into velocity energy in each stage, is the same. The process is repeated in
the remaining rings, until the condenser pressure is reached. In Fig, the curves of velocity and pressure on
a base representing the axis of the turbine are also shown. It may be noted, from the figures, that by
arranging a small pressure drop per stage, the velocity of steam entering the moving blades, and hence
the speed of rotor is reduced.

3. Pressure-velocity Compounding of an Impulse Turbine:

Ina pressure-velocity compounding of an
impulse turbine, both the previous two methods are
utilised. The total pressure drop of the steam is divided
into stages, and velocity obtained in each stage
is also compounded.
A little consideration will show, that a pressure
velocity compounded impulse turbine allows a bigger
pressure drop, and hence less number of stages are
required. Fig. shows the curves of pressure and velocity
for this type of turbine. It may be noted that the diameter
of the turbine is increased at each stage, to allow the
increasing volume of steam at the lower pressures. A
ring of nozzles is fixed at the commencement of each
stage as shown in Fig.

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 CUCEK BME 42

MODULE II
1. REFRIGERATION& AIR CONDITIONING

1.1 Refrigeration:-
Refrigeration is the science of producing and maintaining temperatures below that of the
surrounding atmosphere. This means the removing of heat from a substance to be cooled. Heat always
passes downhill, from a warm body to a cooler one, until both bodies are at the same temperature.
Maintaining perishables at their required temperatures is done by refrigeration. Not only perishables but
to-day many human work spaces in offices and factory buildings are air conditioned and a refrigeration
unit is the heart of the system. In simple, refrigeration means the cooling of or removal of heat from a
system. The equipment employed to maintain the system at a low temperature is termed as refrigerating
system and the system which is kept at lower temperature is called refrigerated system.
All refrigeration systems must include at least four basic units as given below:
(i) A low temperature thermal ―sink‖ to which heat will flow from the space to be cooled.
(ii) Means of extracting energy from the sink, raising the temperature level of this energy, and delivering
it to a heat receiver.
(iii) A receiver to which heat will be transferred from the high temperature high-pressure refrigerant.
(iv) Means of reducing of pressure and temperature of the refrigerant as it returns from the receiver to the
―sink‖.

1.1.1 Co-efficient of Performance (C.O.P.):-

The performance of a refrigeration system is expressed by a term known as the ‗‗co
efficient of performance‘‘, which is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the refrigerant while passing
through the evaporator to the work input required to compress the refrigerant in the compressor; in short
it is the ratio between heat extracted and work done (in heat units).
If, Rn = Net refrigerating effect,
W = Work expanded in by the machine during the same interval of time,

1.1.2 Standard Rating of a Refrigeration Machine

The rating of a refrigeration machine is obtained by refrigerating effect or amount of heat
extracted in a given time from a body. The rating of the refrigeration machine is given by a unit of
refrigeration known as ‗‗standard commercial tonne of refrigeration‘‘ which is defined as the
refrigerating effect produced by the melting of 1 tonne of ice from and at 0°C in 24 hours. Since the
latent heat of fusion of ice is 336 kJ/kg, the refrigerating effect of 336 × 1000 kJ in 24 hours is rated as
one tonne, i.e.,

1.1.3 Simple Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle:

Out of all refrigeration systems, the vapor compression system is the most important system
from the view point of commercial and domestic utility. It is the most practical form of refrigeration. In
this system the working fluid is a vapor. It readily evaporates and condenses or changes alternately
between the vapor and liquid phases without leaving the refrigerating plant. During evaporation, it

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 CUCEK BME 43

absorbs heat from the cold body. This heat is used as its latent heat for converting it from the liquid to
vapor. In condensing or cooling or liquefying, it rejects heat to external body, thus creating a cooling
effect in the working fluid. This refrigeration system thus acts as a latent heat pump since it pumps its
latent heat from the cold body or brine and rejects it or delivers it to the external hot body or cooling
medium. The principle upon which the vapor compression system works apply to all the vapors for which
tables of Thermodynamic properties are available.
It consists of four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a compressor
2-3 Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion device
4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator

Fig 1.1

Functions of Parts of a Simple Vapor Compression System

Here follows the brief description of various parts
of a simple vapor compression system shown in Fig. 1.1
1. Compressor. The function of a compressor is to remove the
vapor from the evaporator, and to raise its temperature and
pressure to a point such that it (vapor) can be condensed with
available condensing media.
2. Discharge line (or hot gas line). A hot gas or discharge line
delivers the high-pressure, high-temperature vapor from the
discharge of the compressor to the condenser.
3. Condenser. The function of a condenser is to provide a heat
transfer surface through which heat passes from the hot
refrigerant vapor to the condensing medium.

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 CUCEK BME 44

4. Liquid line. A liquid line carries the liquid refrigerant from the receiver tank to the refrigerant flow
control.
5. Expansion valve (refrigerant flow control). Its function is to meter the proper amount of refrigerant to
the evaporator and to reduce the pressure of liquid entering the evaporator so that liquid will vaporize in
the evaporator at the desired low temperature and take out sufficient amount of heat.
6. Evaporator. An evaporator provides a heat transfer surface through which heat can pass from the
refrigerated space into the vaporizing refrigerant.
7. Suction line. The suction line conveys the low pressure vapor from the evaporator to the suction inlet
of the compressor.
In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor at
state 1 as saturated vapor and is compressed isentropically to the condenser pressure. The temperature of
the refrigerant increases during this isentropic compression process to well above the temperature of the
surrounding medium. The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated vapor at state 2 and leaves
as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection to the surroundings. The temperature of the
refrigerant at this state is still above the temperature of the surroundings. The saturated liquid refrigerant
at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by passing it through an expansion valve or capillary tube.
The temperature of the refrigerant drops below the temperature of the refrigerated space during this
process. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state4 as a low-quality saturated mixture, and it
completely evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor and reenters the compressor, completing the cycle.

1.2. Air-conditioning:-
Maintaining a living space or an industrial facility at the desired temperature and humidity
requires some processes called air-conditioning processes. These processes include simple heating
(raising the temperature), simple cooling(lowering the temperature), humidifying (adding moisture), and
dehumidifying(removing moisture). Sometimes two or more of these processes are needed to bring the
air to a desired temperature and humidity level.
The four important factors for comfort air conditioning are discussed as below:
1. Temperature of air: In air conditioning, the- control of temperature means the maintenance of any
desired temperature within an enclosed space even though the temperature of the outside air is above or
below the desired room temperature. This is accomplished either by the addition or removal of heat from
the enclosed space as and when demanded.
2. Humidity of air. The control of humidity of air means the increasing or decreasing of moisture contents
of air during summer or winter respectively in order to produce comfortable and healthy conditions. The
control of humidity is not only necessary for human comfort but it also increases the efficiency of the
workers.
3. Purity of air. It is an important factor for the comfort of a human body. It has been noticed that people
do not feel comfortable when breathing contaminated air, even if it is within acceptable temperature and
humidity ranges. It is thus obvious that proper filtration, cleaning and purification of air is essential to
keep it free from dust and other impurities.
4. Motion of air. The motion or circulation of air is another important factor which should be controlled,
in order to keep constant temperature throughout the conditioned space. It is, therefore, necessary that
there should be equi-distribution of air throughout the space to be air conditioned.

According to the season the air conditioning systems maybe broadly classified as

(a) Winter air conditioning system and

(b) Summer air conditioning system

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 CUCEK BME 45

Winter Air Conditioning System:-

In winter air conditioning, the air is heated,
which is generally accompanied by humidification.
The schematic arrangement of the system is shown
in Fig. The outside air flows through a damper and
mixes up with the recirculated air (which isobtained
from the conditioned space). The mixed air passes
through a filter to remove dirt, dust and other
impurities. The air now passes through a preheat-coil
in order to prevent the possible freezing of water and
to control the evaporation of water in the humidifier.
After that, the air is made to pass through a reheat
coil to bring the air to the designed dry bulb
temperature. Now, the conditioned airis supplied to the conditioned space by a fan.

Summer Air Conditioning System:-

It is the most important type of air conditioning, in which the air is cooled and generally
dehumidified. The schematic arrangement of a typical summer air conditioning system is shown in Fig.
The outside air flows through the damper, and mixes up with re circulated air (which is obtained from the
conditioned space). The mixed air passes through a
filter to remove dirt, dust and other impurities. The air
now passes through a cooling coil. The coil has a
temperature much below the required temperature of
the air in the conditioned space. The cooled air passes
through a perforated membrane and looses its moisture
in the condensed form which is collected in a sump.
After that, the air is made to pass through a heating
coil which heats up the air slightly. This is done to
bring the air to the designed temperature and humidity.
Now the conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned
space by a fan.

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 CUCEK BME 46

2. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2.1. Air Standard Cycles:

A cycle is defined as a repeated series of operations occurring in a certain order. It may be
repeated by repeating the processes in the same order. The cycle may be of imaginary perfect engine or
actual engine. The former is called ideal cycle and the latter actual cycle. In ideal cycle all accidental heat
losses are prevented and the working substance is assumed to behave like a perfect working substance.

2.1.1. Constant Volume or Otto Cycle:

This cycle is so named as it was conceived by ‗Otto‘. On this cycle, petrol, gas and many
types of oil engines work. It is the standard of comparison for internal combustion engines. Figs. 2.1 (a)
and (b) shows the theoretical p-V diagram and T-s diagrams of this cycle respectively.
 The point 1 represents that cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure p1 and absolute
temperature T1.
 Line 1-2 represents the adiabatic compression of air due to which p1, V1 and T1 change top2, V2
and T2, respectively.
 Line 2-3 shows the supply of heat to the air at constant volume so that p2 and T2 change top3 and
T3 (V3 being the same as V2).
 Line 3-4 represents the adiabatic expansion of the air. During expansion p3, V3 and T3change to
a final value of p4, V4 or V1 and T4, respectively.
 Line 4-1 shows the rejection of heat by air at constant volume till original state (point 1)reaches.

Fig 2.1

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 CUCEK BME 47

It is clear from the above expression that efficiency increases with the increase in the value of r,
which means we can have maximum efficiency by increasing r to a considerable extent, but due to
practical difficulties its value is limited to about 8.

A quantity of special interest in reciprocating engine analysis is the mean effective pressure.
Mathematically, it is the net work done on the piston, W, divided by the piston displacement volume, V 1
– V2. This quantity has the units of pressure. Physically, it is that constant pressure which, if exerted on
the piston for the whole outward stroke, would yield work equal to the work of the cycle. It is given by

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CUCEK BME 48

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 CUCEK BME 49

2.1.2. Constant Pressure or Diesel Cycle

This cycle was introduced by Dr. R. Diesel in 1897. It differs from Otto cycle in that heat is
supplied at constant pressure instead of at constant volume. Fig. 2.2 (a and b) shows the p-v and T-s
diagrams of this cycle respectively. This cycle comprises of the following operations:
 1-2......Adiabatic compression.
 2-3......Addition of heat at constant pressure.
 3-4......Adiabatic expansion.
 4-1......Rejection of heat at constant volume

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CUCEK BME 50

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 CUCEK BME 51

Questions:
1) The efficiency of an Otto cycle is 60% and γ = 1.5. What is the compression ratio?
2) An engine of 250 mm bore and 375 mm stroke works on Otto cycle. The clearance volume is 0.00263
m³. The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 50°C. If the maximum pressure is limited to 25
bar, find the following :
(i) The air standard efficiency of the cycle.
(ii) The mean effective pressure for the cycle.
3) An engine 200 mm bore and 300 mm stroke works on Otto cycle. The clearance volume is 0.0016 m3.
The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 60°C. If the maximum pressure is limited to 24 bar,
find :
(i) The air-standard efficiency of the cycle (ii) The mean effective pressure for the cycle
4) A diesel engine has a compression ratio of 15 and heat addition at constant pressure takes place at 6%
of stroke. Find the air standard efficiency of the engine. Take γ for air as 1.4.
5) The stroke and cylinder diameter of a compression ignition engine are250 mm and 150 mm
respectively. If the clearance volume is 0.0004 m3 and fuel injection takes place at constant pressure
for 5 per cent of the stroke determine the efficiency of the engine. Assume the engine working on the
diesel cycle.
6) An engine with 200 mm cylinder diameter and 300 mm stroke works on theoretical Diesel cycle. The
initial pressure and temperature of air used are 1 bar and 27°C.The cut-off is 8% of the stroke.
Determine:
(i) Pressures and temperatures at all salient points.
(ii) Theoretical air standard efficiency.
(iii) Mean effective pressure.
(iv) Power of the engine if the working cycles per minute are 380.
Assume that compression ratio is 15 and working fluid is air.

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 CUCEK BME 52

Internal Combustion Engines

As the name implies or suggests, the internal combustion engines (briefly written as I.C. engines) are
those nines in which the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder. These are petrol
diesel, and gas engines We have seen in steam engines or steam turbines that the fuel, fed into the
cylinder, is in the form of steam which is already heated (or superheated), and is ready for working in the
combustion cycle of the engine. But, in case of internal combustion engines, the combustion of fuel takes
place inside the engine cylinder by a spark and produces very high temperature as compared to steam
engines
.
Classification of I.C. Engines:

The internal combustion engines may be classified in many ways, but the following are important from
the subject point of view:

I. According to the type of fuel used

(a) Petrol engines, (b) Diesel engines or oil engines, and (c) Gas engines.

2 According to the method of igniting the fuel

(a) Spark ignition engines (briefly written as SI. engines), (b) Compression ignition engines (briefly
written as C.I. engines), and (c) Hot spot ignition engines.

3. According to the number of strokes per cycle

(a) Four stroke cycle engines, and (b) Two stroke cycle engines

4. According to the cycle of operation

(a) Otto cycle (also known as constant volume cycle) engines, (b) Diesel cycle (also known as constant
pressure cycle) engines, and (c) Dual combustion cycle (also known as semi-diesel cycle) engines.

5. According to the speed of the engine

(a) Slow speed engines, (b) Medium speed engines, and (c) High speed engines.

6. According to the cooling system

(a) Air-cooled engines, (b) Water-cooled engines, and (c) Evaporative cooling engines.
7. According to the method of fuel injection
(a) Carburettor engines, (b) Air injection engines, and (c) Airless or solid injection engines.

8. According to the number of cylinders

(a) Single cylinder engines, and (b) Multi-cylinder engines.

9. According to the arrangement of cylinders

(a) Vertical engines. (b) Horizontal engine-c. (c) Radial engines, (d) In-line multi-cylinder engines, (e)V-
type multi-cylinder engines, W Opposite-cylinder engines, and (g) Opposite- piston engines.

Main Components of IC. Engines

Cylinder: It is one of the most important part of the engine, in which the piston moves to and fro in order
to develop power. Generally, the engine cylinder has to withstand a high pressure (more than 50 bar) and

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 CUCEK BME 53

temperature (more than 2000°C). Thus the materials for an engine cylinder should be such that it can
retain sufficient strength at such a high pressure and temperature.

Main components of IC engines.

Cylinder head: It is fitted on one end of

the cylinder, and acts as a cover to
close the cylinder bore. Generally, the
cylinder head contains inlet and exit
valves for admitting fresh charge and
exhausting the burnt gases. In petrol
engines, the cylinder head also contains
a spark plug for igniting the fuel-air
mixture, towards the end of
compression stroke. But in diesel
engines, the cylinder head contains
nozzle (i.e. fuel valve) for injecting the
fuel into the cylinder.

Piston: It is considered as the heart of

an I.C. engine, whose main function is
to transmit the force exerted by the
burning of charge to the connecting
rod, the pistons are generally made of
aluminium alloys which are light in
weight.

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 CUCEK BME 54

Connecting rod: It is a link between the piston and crankshaft, whose main function is to transmit force
from the piston to the crank shaft. Moreover, it converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular
motion of the crankshaft, in the working stroke. The upper (i.e. smaller) end of the connecting rod is
fitted to the piston and the lower (i.e. bigger) end to the crank.

Crankshaft: In is considered as the backbone of an I.C. engine whose, function is to convert the
reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with the help of connecting V. This shaft
contains one or more eccentric portions called crank That part of the crank, to which bigger end of the
connecting rod is fitted, is called crank pin.

Crank case. It is a cast iron case, which holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C. engine. It also serves
as a sump for the lubricating oil. The lower portion of the crank case is known as bed plate, which is
fixed with the help of bolts.

Fly wheel. It is a big wheel, mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its speed constant.
It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is returned during other strokes.

Sequence of Operations in a Cycle

1. Suction stroke. In this stroke, the fuel vapour in correct proportion is supplied to the engine cylinder.
2. Compression stroke. In this stroke, the fuel vapour is compressed in the engine cylinder.
3. Expansion or working stroke. In this stroke, the fuel vapour is fired just before the compression is
complete. It results in the sudden rise of pressure, due to expansion of the combustion products in the
engine cylinder. This sudden rise of the pressure pushes the piston with a great force, and rotates the
crankshaft. The crankshaft, in turn, drives the machine connected to it.
4. Exhaust stroke. In this stroke, the burnt gases (Or combustion products) are exhausted from the engine
cylinder, so as to make space available for the fresh fuel vapour.

Two-stroke and four-stroke Cycle Engine.

In a two-stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of
the crankshaft. This is achieved by carrying out the Suction and compression processes in one stroke (or
more precisely in inward stroke), expansion and exhaust processes in the second stroke (or more
precisely in outward stroke). In a four-stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in four-strokes of
the piston or two-revolutions of the crankshaft. This is achieved by carrying out suction, compression,
expansion and exhaust processes in each stroke.

Advantages and Disadvantage of Two-stroke over Four-stroke cycle Engines

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of two-stroke cycle engines over four-stroke cycle
engines:

Advantages

1. A two stroke cycle engine gives twice the number of power strokes than the four stroke cycle engine at
the same engine speed. Theoretically, a two-stroke cycle engine should develop twice the power as that
of a four-stroke cycle engine. But in actual practice, a two-stroke cycle engine develops 1.7 to 1.8 times
(greater value for slow speed engines) the power developed by four-stroke cycle engine of the same
dimensions and speed. This is due to lower compression ratio and effective stroke being less than the
theoretical stroke.

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 CUCEK BME 55

2. For the same power developed, a two-stroke cycle engine is lighter, less bulky and occupies less floor
area. Thus it makes a two-stroke cycle engine suitable for marine engines and other light vehicles.
3. As the number of working strokes in a two-stroke cycle engine are twice than the four-stroke cycle
engine, so the turning moment of a two-stroke cycle engine is more uniform. Thus it makes a two-stroke
cycle engine to have a lighter flywheel and foundations. This also leads to a higher mechanical efficiency
of a two-stroke cycle engine.
4. The initial cost of a two-stroke cycle engine is considerably less than a four-stroke cycle engine.
5. The mechanism of a two-stroke cycle engine is much simpler than a four-stroke cycle engine.
6. The Iwo-stroke cycle engines are much easier to start.

Disadvantages

1. Thermal efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is less than that a four-stroke cycle engine, because a
two-stroke cycle engine has less compression ratio than that of a four-stroke cycle engine.
2. Overall efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is also less than that of a four-stroke cycle engine
because in a two-stroke cycle, inlet and exhaust ports remain open simultaneously for some time. lnspite
of careful design, a small quantity of charge is lost from the engine cylinder.
3. In case of a two-stroke cycle engine, the number of power strokes are twice as those of a four-stroke
cycle engine. Thus the capacity of the cooling system must be higher. Beyond a certain limit, the cooling
capacity offers a considerable difficulty. Moreover, there is greater wear and tear in a two-stroke cycle
engine.
4. The consumption of lubricating oil is large in a two-stroke cycle engine because of high operating
temperature.
5. The exhaust gases in a two-stroke cycle engine creates noise, because of short time available for their
exhaust.

Four stroke Cycle Petrol Engine

It is also known as Otto cycle engine. It requires four strokes of the piston to complete one cycle
of operation in the engine cylinder. The four strokes of a petrol engine sucking fuel-air mixture (petrol
mixed with proportionate quantity of air in the carburettor known as charge) are described below:

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 CUCEK BME 56

1. Suction or charging stroke. In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and charge is sucked into the cylinder
as the piston moves downward from top dead centre (T.D.C,). It continues till the piston reaches its
bottom dead centre (B.D.C.) as shown in Fig.

2. Compression stroke. In this stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed and the charge is
compressed as the piston moves upwards from B.D.C. to T.D.C. As a result of compression, the pressure
and temperature of the charge increases considerably (the actual values depend upon the compression
ratio). This completes one revolution of the crankshaft. The compression stroke is shown in Fig.

3. Expansion or working stroke. Shortly before the piston reaches T.D.C. (during compression stroke),
the charge is ignited with the help of a spark plug. It suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of
the products of combustion but the volume, practically, remains constant. Due to the rise in pressure, the
piston is pushed down with a great force. The hot burnt gases expand due to high speed of the piston.
During this expansion, some of the heat energy produced is transformed into is mechanical work. It may
be noted that during this working stroke, as shown in Fig., both the valves are closed and piston moves
from T.D.C. to B.D.C.

4. Exhaust stroke. In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. This
movement of the piston pushes out the products of combustion, from the engine cylinder and are
exhausted through the exhaust valve into the atmosphere, as shown in Fig. This completes the cycle, and
the engine cylinder is ready to suck the charge again

Four-stroke Cycle Diesel Engine

It is also known as compression ignition engine because the ignition takes place due to the heat
produced in the engine cylinder at the end of compression stroke. The four strokes of a diesel engine
sucking pure air are described below:

1. Suction or charging stroke: In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and pure air is sucked into the cylinder
as the piston moves downwards from the top dead centre (TDC). It continues till the piston reaches its
bottom dead centre (BDC) as shown in Fig.

2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, both the valves are closed and the air is compressed as the piston
moves upwards from BDC to TDC. As a result of compression, pressure and temperature of the air
increases considerably (the actual value depends upon the compression ratio). This completes one
revolution of the crank shaft The compression stroke is shown in Fig.

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 CUCEK BME 57

3. Expansion or working stroke: Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC (during the compression
stroke), fuel oil is injected in the form of very line spray into the engine cylinder, through the nozzle,
known as fuel injection valve. At this moment, temperature of the compressed air is sufficiently high to
ignite the fuel suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products of combustion. The fuel
oil is continuously injected for a fraction of the revolution. The fuel oil is assumed to be burnt at constant
pressure. Due to increased pressure, the piston is pushed down with a great force. The hot burnt gases
expand due to high speed of the piston. During this expansion, some of the heat energy is transformed
into mechanical work. it may be noted that during this working stroke, both the valves are closed and the
piston moves from TDC to BDC.

4. Exhaust stroke: In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as the piston moves from BDC to TDC. This
movement of the piston pushes out the products of combustion from the engine cylinder through the
exhaust valve into the atmosphere. This completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the
fresh air again.

Two-stroke Cycle Petrol Engine

A two-stroke cycle-petrol engine was devised by Duglad Clerk in 1880. In this cycle, the suction,
compression, expansion and exhaust takes place during two strokes of the piston. It means that there is
one working stroke after every revolution of the crank shaft. A two stroke engine has ports instead of
valves. All the four stages of a two stroke petrol engine are described below:

by SK
 CUCEK BME 58

1. Suction stage: In this stage, the piston, while going down towards BDC, uncovers both the transfer port
and the exhaust port. The fresh fuel-air mixture flows into the engine cylinder from the crank case, as
shown in Fig.

2. Compression stage: In this stage, the piston, while moving up, first covers the transfer port and then
exhaust port. After that the fuel is compressed as the piston moves upwards as shown in Fig. In this stage,
the inlet port opens and fresh fuel-air mixture enter into the crank case.

3. Expansion stage: Shortly before this piston reaches the TDC (during compression stroke), the charge is
ignited with the help of a spark plug. It suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products
of combustion. But the volume, practically, remains constant. Due to rise in the pressure, the piston is
pushed downwards with a great force as shown in Fig. The hot burnt gases expand due to high speed of
the piston. During this expansion, some of the heat energy produced is transformed into mechanical
work.

4. Exhaust stage: In this stage, the exhaust port is opened as the piston moves downwards. The products
of combustion, from the engine cylinder are exhausted through the exhaust port into the atmosphere, as
shown in Fig. This completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the charge again.

Note: The two stroke petrol engines are generally employed in very light vehicles such as scooters, motor
cycles, three wheelers and sprayers

Two-stroke Cycle Diesel Engine

A two-stroke cycle diesel engine also has one working stroke after every revolution of the
crankshaft All the four stages of a two stroke cycle diesel engine are described below:

1. Suction stage. In this stage, the piston while going down towards BDC uncovers the transfer port and
the exhaust port. The fresh air flows into the engine cylinder from the crank case, as shown in Fig.

2. Compression stage. In this stage, the piston while moving up, first covers the transfer port and then
exhaust port. After that the air is compressed as the piston moves upwards as shown in Fig. In this stage,
the inlet port opens and the fresh air enters into the crank case.

3. Expansion stage. Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC (during compression stroke), the fuel oil is
injected in the form of very fine spray into the engine cylinder through the nozzle known as fuel injection
valve, as shown in fig. At this moment, temperature of the compressed air is sufficiently high to ignite the

by SK
 CUCEK BME 59

fuel. It suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products of combustion. The fuel oil is
continuously injected for a fraction of the crank revolution. The fuel oil is assumed to be burnt at constant
pressure. Due to increased pressure, the piston is pushed with a great force. The hot burnt gases expand
due to high speed of the piston. During the expansion, some of the heat energy produced is transformed
into mechanical work.

4. Exhaust stage. In this stage, the exhaust port is opened and the piston moves downwards. The products
of combustion from the engine cylinder are exhausted through the exhaust port into the atmosphere as
shown in Fig. This completes the cycle, and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the air again.

Note : The two stroke diesel engines are mainly used in marine propulsion where space and tightness are
the main considerations.

Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines

by SK
 CUCEK BME 60

FUEL SYSTEM IN PETROL ENGINES

The fuel system of an internal combustion Engine is intended to produce a combustible mixture
composed of the fuel stored in the fuel tank and atmospheric air, and then deliver both to the cylinders.
Petrol engine use light grade gasoline fuel while the Diesel Engines utilize heavy diesel fuel, therefore
fuel supply systems and their differ greatly in petrol and diesel engine
Fuel Pump is used to supply petrol from the petrol Tank to the Carburettor. The fuel pump may be
of mechanical or electrical type. If mechanical fuel pump is employed, it has to be placed on the engine
since it is driven by the engine camshaft through an eccentric. However, the electrically operated fuel
pump may be placed anywhere on the vehicle.
Carburettor is the main device in this system. It vaporizes the petrol and mixes it with air in
desired proportions depending upon the requirements of operating conditions.

Fuel Pump:

As high pressure is not required to pump

the fuel in petrol engines, a diaphragm pump as
shown in fig. is used to pump fuel from the fuel
storage tank to the carburettor. It is actuated by
means of a cam. The drive for the cam is obtained
from the engine camshaft. As the engine camshaft
and thus the cam rotates, it actuates a rocker arm
which in turn pulls the link downwards. A flexible
diaphragm is connected to the upper end of the
Link" As the link is pulled downwards the
diaphragm also comes down against the pressure
of the spring. This creates a vacuum in the pump
chamber. Due to this a suction pressure is created

by SK
 CUCEK BME 61

and the fuel from the fuel tank enters the pump chamber through the inlet valve. On the return stroke the
spring forces the diaphragm upwards. Due to this upward force, the fuel is forced out though an outlet
valve which flows to the carburettor float chamber through an outlet pipe. When fuel is not required by
the carburettor a valve (not shown fig) closes the outlet pipe which will make the pump inoperative. The
rocker arm spring provides constant contact of rocker arm with the cam.

Carburettor:

The carburettor is a device

for atomising and vaporising the fuel
and mixing it with the air in the
varying proportions to suit the
changing operating conditions of the
engine. The process of breaking up
and mixing the fuel with the air is
called carburetion. There are many
types of the carburettors in use, but
the simplest form of the carburettor
is shown in Fig. It consists of a fuel
jet located in the centre of the choke
tube. A float chamber is provided for
maintaining the level of the fuel in
the jet and is controlled by a float
and lever which operates its needle valve. The fuel is pumped into the float chamber and when the correct
level of the fuel is reached, the float closes the needle valve, and shuts off the petrol supply. The suction
produced by the engine draws air through the choke tube. The reduced diameter of the choke tube
increases the velocity of air and reduces the pressure. The high velocity and low pressure in the tube
facilitates the breaking up of fuel and its admixture with the air. A throttle valve controls the flow of the
mixture delivered to the engine cylinder.

FUEL SYSTEM FOR DIESEL ENGINES

Fuel supply system for diesel engine consists of a fuel storage tank, filter, low pressure or
transfer pump, high pressure fuel pump and fuel injector. The main parts of this system are fuel pump
and fuel injector.

The fuel is supplied at very high pressure from the fuel pump to the fuel injector and is injected to the
engine cylinder towards the end of compression stroke.

Diesel fuel pump

Fig. illustrates a typical fuel injection pump. The plunger is driven by a cam and tappet mechanism at the
bottom (not shown in the fig). The plunger reciprocates on a barrel to which fuel enters through a fine
inlet passage. There is a rectangular vertical groove in the plunger which extends from top to another
helical groove. The delivery valve of the pump is a non- return valve and is kept in position by a spring.
When the pressure in the barrel exceeds a predetermined value, the valve opens against the compression

by SK
 CUCEK BME 62

of the spring and the pressure of fuel above the valve. The fuel pump is connected to the fuel injector
through a passage. When the plunger is at its bottom, the fuel inlet and the fuel overflow ports are
uncovered (as shown in fig.) and filtered fuel is forced into the barrel. When the plunger moves up due to
the cam and tappet mechanism, a stage reaches when both the ports (inlet and overflow) are closed. With
further upward movement of the plunger, the fuel in the barrel gets compressed. The high pressure thus
developed lifts the delivery valve from its seat and fuel flows to the injector through a passage. With
further rise of the plunger, at a certain moment the overflow port is connected to the fuel in the upper part
of the plunger through the rectangular vertical groove via the helical groove. Due to this, a sudden drop
in pressure occurs and delivery valve falls back and occupies its seats due to the spring force. The
plunger is rotated by a rack which is moved in or out by a governor. Due to the rotation of the plunger,
the angular position of the helical groove relative to the fuel inlet port changes. This varies the length of
stroke during which the fuel is delivered and thus the quantity of fuel delivered to the engine also varies.

Injector

Fuel Pump

Injector

The injector or atomiser is also an important part of the diesel engine which breaks up the fuel
and sprays into the cylinder into very fine divided particles. Fig. shows the type of an injector in which
fuel is delivered from the pump along the horizontal pipe connected at A. The vertical spindle of the
injector is spring loaded at the top which holds the spindle down with a pressure of 140 bar so that the
fuel pressure must reach this value before the nozzle will lift to allow fuel to be injected into the engine
cylinder. The fuel which leaks past the vertical spindle is taken off by means of an outlet pipe fitted at B
above the fuel inlet pipe.

by SK
 CUCEK BME 63

IGNITION SYSTEMS OF PETROL ENGINES

We have already discussed that the ignition in a petrol engine, takes place by means of a spark plug at the
end of the compression stroke. The voltage required to produce a spark across the gap between the
sparking points of a plug, is about 8000 volts. Thus, the ignition system in a petrol engine has to
transform the normal battery voltage (6 to 12 volts) to 8000 volts. In addition to this, the ignition system
has to provide spark in each cylinder at the appropriate time. Following two ignition systems of petrol
engines are important from the subject point of view:

1. Coil ignition system, and 2. Magneto ignition system.

Coil Ignition System

It is also known as battery ignition system, and has an induction coil, which consists of two coils
known as primary and secondary coils wound on a soft iron core as shown in Fig. The primary coil
consists of a few hundred turns (about 300 turns) of wire. Over this coil but insulated from it, are wound
several thousand turns (about 20000 turns) of secondary coil. The one end of the primary coil is
connected to ignition switch, ammeter and battery generally of 6 volts. The other end of the primary coil
is connected to a condenser and a contact breaker. A condenser is connected across the contact-breaker
for the following two reasons:
1. It prevents sparking across the gap between the contact breaker points
2. It causes a more rapid break of the primary current, giving a higher voltage in the secondary circuit.

The secondary coil is connected to a distributor (in a multi-cylinder engine) with the central terminal of
the sparking plugs. The Outer terminals of the sparking plugs are earthed together, and connected to the
body of the engine.
When the current flows through the primary coil, it sets up a magnetic field which surrounds primary
and secondary coils. As the switch is on, the contact-breaker connects the two ends. The magnetic field in
coil has tendency to grow from zero to maximum value. Due to this change in the magnetic field a
voltage is generated in both the coils but opposite to the applied voltage (of battery). Thus the primary
coil does not give the final value. The voltage in the secondary coil is, therefore, not sufficient to

by SK
 CUCEK BME 64

overcome the resistance of the air gap of the sparking plug, hence no spark occurs. When the current in
the primary coil is switched off by the moving cam the magnetic field generated around the coil collapses
immediately. The sudden variation of flux, which takes place, gives rise to the voltage generated in each
coil. The value of the voltage depends upon the number of turns in each coil. As a matter of fact, the
voltage required to produce a spark across the gap, between the sparking points, is between 10000 to
20000 volts. Since the secondary coil has several thousand turns, so it develops a sufficient high voltage
to overcome the resistance of the gap of the sparking plug. This high voltage then passes to a distributor.
It connects the sparking plugs in rotation depending upon the firing order of the engine. Hence, the
ignition of fuel takes place in all the engine cylinders.
The coil ignition system is employed in medium and heavy spark ignition engines such as in cars.

Magneto Ignition System

The magneto ignition
system, as shown in fig. has the
same principle of working as that
of coil ignition system, except that
no battery is required, as the
magneto acts as its own generator.
It consists of either rotating
magnets in fixed coils, or rotating
coils in fixed magnets. The current
produced by the magneto is made
to flow to the induction coil which
works in the same way as that of
coil ignition system. The high
voltage current is then made to
flow to the distributor, which
connects the sparking plugs in rotation depending upon the firing order of the engine. This type of
ignition system is generally employed in small spark ignition engines such as scooters, motor cycles and
small motor boat engines.

Spark Plug
It is always screwed into the cylinder head for igniting the
charge of petrol engines. It is usually, designed to withstand a pressure
up to 35 bar and operate under a current of 10000 to 30000 volts. A
spark plug consists of central porcelain insulator, containing an axial
electrode length wise and ground electrode welded to it. The central
electrode has an external contact at the top, which is connected to the
terminal and communicates with the distributor. A metal tongue is
welded to the ground electrode, which bends over to lie across the end
of the central electrode. There is a small gap known as spark gap
between the end of the central electrode and the metal tongue, as
shown in Fig. The high tension electric spark jumps over the gap to
ignite the charge in the engine cylinder.
The electrode material should be suck which can withstand
corrosiveness, high temperature having good thermal conductivity.
The electrodes are generally made from the alloys of platinum, nickel,
chromium, barium etc.

by SK
 CUCEK BME 65

MULTI POINT INJECTION SYSTEM

Petrol engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into
the combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the intake
stroke. The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the
fuel through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on suction created by intake air
accelerated through a Venturi tube to draw the fuel into the airstream. Benefits of fuel injection include
smoother and more consistent transient throttle response, such as during quick throttle transitions, easier
cold starting, more accurate adjustment to account for extremes of ambient temperatures and changes in
air pressure, more stable idling, decreased maintenance needs, and better fuel efficiency.
Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the more precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the
concentration of toxic combustion by products leaving the engine.

Multiport fuel injection injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each cylinder's intake
valve. In this system each cylinder
has number of injectors to supply or
spray fuel in the cylinders intake
manifold space. MPFI system injects
fuel into individual cylinders, based
on commands from the ‗on board
engine management system
computer‘ – popularly known as the
Engine Control Unit/ECU. These
techniques result not only in better
‗power balance‘ amongst the
cylinders but also in higher output
from each one of them, along with
faster throttle response.

COOLING SYSTEMS FOR I.C. ENGINES

In case of Internal Combustion engines, combustion of air and fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder and hot gases are generated. The temperature of gases will be around 2300-2500°C. This is a
very high temperature and may result into burning of oil film between the moving parts and may result
into seizing or welding of the same. So, this temperature must be
reduced to about 150-200°C at which the engine will work most
efficiently. The following two systems are used for cooling the I.C.
engines these days:

1. Air cooling system:

The air cooling system, as shown in Fig. is used in the
engines of motor cycles, scooters, aeroplanes and other stationary
installations. In countries with cold climate, this system is also used in
car engines. In this system, the heat is dissipated directly to the
atmospheric air by conduction through the cylinder walls. In order to
increase the rate of cooling, the outer surface area of the cylinder and
cylinder head is increased by providing radiating fins and flanges. In
bigger units, fans are provided to circulate the air around the cylinder
walls and cylinder head.

by SK
 CUCEK BME 66

2. Water cooling system:

The water cooling system as shown in Fig. is used in the engines of cars, buses, trucks etc. In this
system, the water is circulated through water
jackets around each of the combustion
chambers, cylinders, valve seats and valve
stems. The water is kept continuously in
motion by a centrifugal water pump which is
driven by a V-belt from the pulley on the
engine crank shaft. After passing through the
engine jackets in the cylinder block and
heads, the water is passed through the
radiator. In the radiator, the water is cooled
by air drawn through the radiator by a fan.
Usually, fan and water pump are mounted
and driven on a common shaft. After passing
through the radiator, the water is drained and
delivered to the water pump through a
cylinder inlet passage. The water is again
circulated through the engine jackets.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM FOR I.C. ENGINES

As a matter of fact, the moving parts of an I.C. engine are likely to wear off due to continuous
rubbing action of one part with another. In order to avoid an early wearing of the engine parts, a proper
lubrication arrangement is provided in I.C. engines.

1. Splash lubrication system:

This is a most popular type of lubrication system duly used in cars extra. This is one of the
cheapest methods of the lubrication system. It consists of a scoop, which is fitted at the lower end of the
connecting rod as shown in the diagram. As when the engine runs scoop splashes, the oil from oil
through by centrifugal force to all engine parts.
In this system, the cap of the big end bearing on the connecting rod is provided with a scoop
which strikes and dips into the oil-filled through at every revolution of the crankshaft and oil is splashed
all over the interior of crankcase into the piston and over the exposed portion of the cylinder is shown in
the figure below. A hole is drilled through the connecting rod cap through which the oil passes through
the bearing surface. Oil pockets are provided to catch the splashed oil over all the main bearings and also
the camshaft bearings. From these pockets, oil passes to the bearings through a drilled hole. The surplus
oil dripping from the cylinder flows back to the oil sump in the crankcase.

by SK
 CUCEK BME 67

2. Forced lubrication:
This method, the lubricating oil is carried in a separate tank and is pumped at a high
pressure to the main bearings. It passes at a lower pressure to the camshaft and timing gears. As the oil
drains with the sump, it is pumped back by a pump known as scavenge pump through an oil cooler to the
oil tank, as shown in Fig.

by SK
 CUCEK BME 68

MODULE III

1. HYDRAULIC TURBINES & PUMPS

A hydraulic machine is a device in which mechanical energy is transferred from the liquid
flowing through the machine to its operating member (runner, piston and others) or from the operating
member of the machine to the liquid flowing through it. Hydraulic machines in which, the operating
member receives energy from the liquid flowing through it and the inlet energy of the liquid is greater
than the outlet energy of the liquid are referred as hydraulic turbines. Hydraulic machines in which
energy is transmitted from the working member to the flowing liquid and the energy of the liquid at the
outlet of the hydraulic machine is less than the outlet energy are referred to as pumps.

HYDRAULIC PUMPS

The machines whose functioning depends essentially on the change of volume of a certain
amount of fluid within the machine are known as positive displacement machines. The word positive
displacement comes from the fact that there is a physical displacement of the boundary of a certain fluid
mass as a closed system. This principle is utilized in practice by the reciprocating motion of a piston
within a cylinder while entrapping a certain amount of fluid in it. Therefore, the word reciprocating is
commonly used with the name of the machines of this kind. The machine producing mechanical energy is
known as reciprocating engine while the machine developing energy of the fluid from the mechanical
energy is known as reciprocating pump or reciprocating compressor. The machines, functioning of which
depend basically on the principle of fluid dynamics, are known as rotodynamic machines. They are
distinguished from positive displacement machines in requiring relative motion between the fluid and the
moving part of the machine. The rotating element of the machine usually consisting of a number of vanes
or blades is known as rotor or impeller while the fixed part is known as stator. Impeller is the heart of
rotodynamic machines, within which a change of angular momentum of fluid occurs imparting torque to
the rotating member.

Centrifugal Pump:

A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure of
a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are commonly used to move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters
the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially
outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from where it exits into the downstream piping
system. Centrifugal pumps are used for large discharge through smaller heads.

by SK
 CUCEK BME 69

Centrifugal Pump consists of a rotating impeller inside a stationary volute (casing). Liquid enters
the pump through the suction inlet into the eye of the impeller. The speed of the rotating impeller then
forces the liquid out through the discharge nozzle. The
liquid enters the inlet of the centrifugal pump under
atmospheric pressure, and flows into the eye of the
impeller. The Centrifugal force exerted on the liquid by
the rotating impeller, moves the liquid away from the
impeller eye and out along the impeller vanes to their
extreme tip where the liquid is then forced against the
inside walls of the volute and out through the discharge of
the pump. Due to the reduction of pressure occurring at
pump inlet and impeller eye, liquid is drawn into the
pump in continuous flow as it moves through the pump.
The shape of the volute casing is such that it is wider at
the discharge point than where the liquid is first forced by
the impeller against the volute. When the water from the
impeller strikes the side of the volute, the velocity is
increased. This accelerated motion is called ―Kinetic
Energy‖, which is the energy in motion. The shape of the
volute permits the liquid to expand, which slows down
the motion of the liquid. As soon as the liquid slows down
inside the volute, Kinetic Energy is transformed into
pressure. This pressure then forces the liquid out of the
pump discharge nozzle into the outlet pipe lines.

Reciprocating Pump:

Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement type of machines, where the system boundary
changes to cause the change in volume occupied by certain amount of fluid within the machine. A
reciprocating pump consists of a piston or plunger having a reciprocating motion inside a cylinder with
the help of a connecting rod and a crank as shown in Fig. The cylinder is connected to the suction and
delivery pipes each of which is provided with non-return valve. At the bottom end of the suction pipe
strainer in addition to foot valve is also provide. Suction pipe and clearance volume of the cylinder are
first filled with water to replace air. This is known as priming of the pump. The foot valve allows the
water to flow only in the upward direction in the suction pipe.
When the crank starts rotating, from 0° to
180° (i.e. in the suction stroke) the piston moves
outwards (towards right) creating a vacuum inside the
cylinder and the atmospheric pressure acting on the
free surface of the water in the sump. The water is
sucked and pushed through valves. Water continues to
enter the cylinder through suction pipe, till the piston
reaches the outermost position i.e. =180°. When the
crank is rotating from 180° to 360°, (i.e. in the
delivery stroke) the piston describes inward stroke
(towards left) and the water is pushed upwards in the
delivery pipe to the reservoir. Volume or capacity
delivered is constant regardless of pressure, and is
varied only by speed changes.

by SK
 CUCEK BME 70

If water acts on one side of the piston, the pump is

said to be single acting reciprocating pump. In a single
acting reciprocating pump, water is sucked into the cylinder
in the suction stroke and delivered out of the cylinder in the
delivery stroke. The motion of the piston is not uniform and
hence the discharge cannot be uniform.
If water is pumped by both sides of the piston, both
suction and delivery takes place in every stroke, (water is
sucked on one side of the piston and simultaneously water is
delivered from the other side of the piston these two
phenomena reverse during the other stroke), such pumps are
called double acting reciprocating pumps. The discharge is
usually taken to be double the discharge than that of a single
acting pump. Reason for that is, (as already mentioned) in a
double acting reciprocating pump, the water is sucked on
one side of the piston and delivered from the other side
during the same stroke.

The difference between the centrifugal pumps and reciprocating pumps is as described below.

by SK
 CUCEK BME 71

HYDRAULIC TURBINES

For turbines, the work is done by the fluid on the rotor, while, in case of pump, compressor, fan or
blower, the work is done by the rotor on the fluid element. Depending upon the main direction of fluid
path in the rotor, the machine is termed as radial flow or axial flow machine. In radial flow machine, the
main direction of flow in the rotor is radial while in axial flow machine, it is axial. For radial flow
turbines, the flow is towards the centre of the rotor, while, for pumps and compressors, the flow is away
from the centre. Therefore, radial flow turbines are sometimes referred to as radially inward flow
machines and radial flow pumps as radially outward flow machines. Examples of such machines are the
Francis turbines and the centrifugal pumps or compressors. The examples of axial flow machines are
Kaplan turbines and axial flow compressors. If the flow is partly radial and partly axial, the term mixed-
flow machine is used

Impulse and Reaction Machines

The relative proportion of energy transfer obtained by the change in static head and by the change
in dynamic head is one of the important factors for classifying fluid machines. The machine for which the
change in static head in the rotor is zero is known as impulse machine. In these machines, the energy
transfer in the rotor takes place only by the change in dynamic head of the fluid. The parameter
characterizing the proportions of changes in the dynamic and static head in the rotor of a fluid machine is
known as degree of reaction and is defined as the ratio of energy transfer by the change in static head to
the total energy transfer in the rotor.
In a turbine, blades or buckets are provided on a wheel and directed against water to alter the
momentum of water. As the momentum is changed with the water passing through the wheel, the
resulting force turns the shaft of the wheel performing work and generating power. A hydraulic turbine
uses potential energy and kinetic energy of water and converts it into usable mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy made available at the turbine shaft is used to run an electric power generator which is
directly coupled to the turbine shaft. The electric power which is obtained from the hydraulic energy is
known as Hydro- electric energy. Hydraulic turbines belong to the category of roto-dynamic machinery.
The hydraulic turbines are classified according to type of energy available at the inlet of turbine,
direction of flow through vanes, head at the inlet of the turbines and specific speed of the turbines.

According to the type of energy at inlet:

Impulse turbine: - In the impulse turbine, the total head of the incoming fluid is converted in to a large
velocity head at the exit of the supply nozzle. That is the entire available energy of the water is converted
in to kinetic energy. Although there are various types of impulse turbine designs, perhaps the easiest to
understand is the Pelton wheel turbine. It is most efficient when operated with a large head and lower
flow rate.
Reaction turbine: Reaction turbines on the other hand, are best suited for higher flow rate and lower
head situations. In this type of turbines, the rotation of runner or rotor (rotating part of the turbine) is
partly due to impulse action and partly due to change in pressure over the runner blades; therefore, it is
called as reaction turbine. For, a reaction turbine, the penstock pipe feeds water to a row of fixed blades
through casing. These fixed blades convert a part of the pressure energy into kinetic energy before water
enters the runner. The water entering the runner of a reaction turbine has both pressure energy and kinetic
energy. Water leaving the turbine is still left with some energy (pressure energy and kinetic energy).
Since, the flow from the inlet to tail race is under pressure, casing is absolutely necessary to enclose the
turbine. In general, Reaction turbines are medium to low-head, and high-flow rate devices. The reaction
turbines in use are Francis and Kaplan

by SK
 CUCEK BME 72

According to the direction of flow through runner:

Tangential flow turbines: In this type of turbines, the water strikes the runner in the direction of tangent
to the wheel. Example: Pelton wheel turbine.
Radial flow turbines: In this type of turbines, the water strikes in the radial direction accordingly, it is
further classified as,
a. Inward flow turbine: The flow is inward from periphery to the centre (centripetal type). Example: old
Francis turbine.
b. Outward flow turbine: The flow is outward from the centre to periphery (centrifugal type). Example:
Fourneyron turbine.
Axial flow turbine: The flow of water is in the direction parallel to the axis of the shaft. Example: Kaplan
turbine and propeller turbine.
Mixed flow turbine: The water enters the runner in the radial direction and leaves in axial direction.
Example: Modern Francis turbine.

According to the head at inlet of turbine:

High head turbine: In this type of turbines, the net head varies from 150m to 2000m or even more, and
these turbines require a small quantity of water. Example: Pelton wheel turbine.
Medium head turbine: The net head varies from 30m to 150m, and also these turbines require moderate
quantity of water. Example: Francis turbine.
Low head turbine: The net head is less than 30m and also these turbines require large quantity of water.
Example: Kaplan turbine.

According to the specific speed of the turbine:

Low specific speed turbine: The specific speed is less than 50. (varying from 10 to 35 for single jet and
up to 50 for double jet ) Example: Pelton wheel turbine.
Medium specific turbine: The specific speed is varies from 50 to 250. Example:Francis turbine.
High specific turbine: the specific speed is more than 250. Example: Kaplan turbine.

Specific speed of the turbine:

It is defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape, geometrical dimensions, blade
angles, gate opening etc., with the actual turbine but of such a size that it will develop unit power when
working under unit head. This is the speed at which the runner of a particular diameter will develop 1 kW (1
hp) power under 1 m (1 ft) head.

Impulse Hydraulic Turbine: The Pelton Wheel:

The only hydraulic turbine of the impulse type in common use, is named after an American engineer
Laster A Pelton, who contributed much to its development around the year 1880. Therefore this machine is
known as Pelton turbine or Pelton wheel. It is an efficient machine particularly suited to high heads. The rotor
consists of a large circular disc or wheel on which a number (seldom less than 15) of spoon shaped buckets
are spaced uniformly round is periphery as shown in Figure. The wheel is driven by jets of water being
discharged at atmospheric pressure from pressure nozzles. The nozzles are mounted so that each directs a jet
along a tangent to the circle through the centers of the buckets. Down the centre of each bucket, there is a
splitter ridge which divides the jet into two equal streams which flow round the smooth inner surface of the
bucket and leaves the bucket with a relative velocity almost opposite in direction to the original jet. The
Pelton wheel is efficient and reliable when operating under large heads. To generate a given output power
under a smaller head, the rate of flow through the turbine has to be higher which requires an increase in the jet
diameter. The numbers of jets are usually limited to 4 or 6 per wheel. The increase in jet diameter in turn

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increases the wheel diameter. Therefore the machine becomes unduly large, bulky and slow-running. In
practice, turbines of the reaction type are more suitable for lower heads.

Reaction Turbine:
The principal feature of a reaction turbine that distinguishes it from an impulse turbine is that only a
part of the total head available at the inlet to the turbine is converted to velocity head, before the runner is
reached. Also in the reaction turbines the working fluid, instead of engaging only one or two blades,
completely fills the passages in the runner. The pressure or static head of the fluid changes gradually as it
passes through the runner along with the change in its kinetic energy based on absolute velocity due to the
impulse action between the fluid and the runner. Therefore the cross-sectional area of flow through the
passages of the fluid. A reaction turbine is usually well suited for low heads. Eg:-Francis turbine, Kaplan
turbine.

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Francis turbine:-.
A radial flow hydraulic turbine of reaction type was first developed by an American Engineer, James
B. Francis (1815-92) and is named after him as the Francis turbine. The schematic diagram of a Francis
turbine is shown in Fig.

The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine, a category of turbine in which the working fluid
comes to the turbine under immense pressure and the energy is extracted by the turbine blades from the
working fluid. A part of the energy is given up by the fluid because of pressure changes occurring in the
blades of the turbine, quantified by the expression of degree of reaction, while the remaining part of the
energy is extracted by the volute casing of the turbine. At the exit, water acts on the spinning cup-shaped
runner features, leaving at low velocity and low swirl with very little kinetic or potential energy left. The
turbine's exit tube is shaped to help decelerate the water flow and recover the pressure

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Kaplan turbine:

The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of the Francis turbine. Its invention allowed efficient power
production in low head applications that was not possible with Francis turbines. Kaplan turbines are now
widely used throughout the world in high-flow, low-head power production. Power plants with net heads
ranging from 10 to 70 m. The Kaplan is a simple propeller with adjustable blades and the flow arrive on every
side of the rotor, as shown on the figure above. The inlet guide vanes can be on position open or close to
controlled the amount of water supply in the turbine. The inlet guide vanes also induce the water to turn
before the blades to be more efficient. The fact that we can controlled the water entry, enable to have a wide
operating discharge and so production of electricity. The nose of the turbine is carefully designed to reduce
the losses as long as the geometry of the pipe at the exit to decrease the pressure of water and so extracted all
possible energy available. The blades of the turbine are adjustable as a function of flow velocity, which allow
a wide range of discharge, as long as the number of blades.

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POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Power plant engineering deals with the study of energy, its sources and utilization of energy for
power generation. The power is generated by prime movers (example Hydraulic turbines, steam turbines,
diesel engines).Large amount of power is generated using prime movers in a site or layout called power
plants, where all the equipments and machineries required for power generation is located. The basic
sources of energy for power generation are coal, oil, nuclear fuels and gas. These sources are known as
―conventional sources of energy‖. These sources of energy will one day be used up and are
exhaustible. The most reassuring and promising energy, which is abundant in supply and is in exhaustible
is ―Non – conventional sources of energy‖ such as solar, wind, tidal, geothermal etc.

Classification of power plants

A power plant makes use of any one of the energy sources to produce
power. Depending on the type of energy source the power plants are classified as

 Thermal power plant (It makes use of coal)

 Internal combustion engine plants (makes use of petrol or diesel)
 Gas turbine power plant (makes use of a permanent gas)
 Nuclear power plant (makes use of nuclear fuels)
 Solar power plant (makes use of the suns radiation heat)
 Hydro electric power plant (makes use of the potential energy of water)
 Wind power (makes use of energy available in wind)

1. Thermal power plant:

Thermal power plant is also known as Steam power plant. A steam power plant converts the
chemical energy of the fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) into mechanical / electrical energy. This is achieved by
raising the steam in the boilers, expanding it through the turbines and coupling the turbines to the
generators which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy as shown in fig. The following two
purposes can be served by a steam power plant:
1.To produce electric power
2.To produce steam for industrial purposes besides producing electric power. The steam may be used for
varying purposes in the industries such as textiles, food manufacture, paper mills, sugar mills and
refineries

Steam is generated in the boiler of the thermal power plant using the heat of
the fuel burned in the combustion chamber. The steam generated is passed through steam turbine where
part of its thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy, which is further used for generating

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electric power. The steam coming out of the steam turbine is condensed in the condenser and the
condensate is supplied back to the boiler with the help of the feed pump and the cycle is repeated. The

function of the boiler is to generate the steam. The function of condenser is to condensate the steam
coming out of steam turbine at low pressure.
The function of the steam turbine is to convert part of heat energy of steam into mechanical energy. The
function of the pump is to raise the pressure of the condensate from the condenser pressure (0.015 bar) to
boiler pressure (200 bar). The other components like economiser, superheater and steam feed heaters
(steam from different points of turbine is fed to the heaters to heat the condensate to a higher
temperature) are used in the primary circuit to increase the overall efficiency of the thermal power plant.

Characteristics of steam power plant:

• Higher efficiency
• Lower cost
• Ability to burn coal especially high ash content, inferior coals
• Reduced environmental impact in terms of air pollution
• Reduced water requirement
• Higher reliability and availability

Advantages (merits) of thermal power plant

1.The initial cost of construction of the plant is low compared to hydroelectric plant
2.The power plant may be located near the load centre, so that the costof transmission and the losses due
to transmission are considerably reduced.
3.The quantity of water in hydroelectric plant depends on nature, such as rain and rivers. This is not so in
the case of thermal power plants.
4.The construction and commissioning of thermal power plant takes lesser period when compared to
hydro electric power plant

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Disadvantages (demerits) of thermal power plant

1. The fuel (coal or oil) used in thermal power plant will one day get exhausted since it is a non
renewable source of energy that is used
2. It cannot be used as peak load plant, as its part load efficiency decreases very rapidly with decreasing
load.
3. The transportation of fuel is a major problem for power plants located away from coal fields.
4. The cost of power generation is considerably high compared to hydro-electric power plant.
5. The smoke produced by the burning fuel when exhausted into the atmosphere causes air pollution.
6. The life of thermal power plant according to the Electricity supply act is 25 years and that of
hydroelectric plant is 35 years. The efficiency decreases to less than 10% after its life period.
Hydroelectric power plant can have a life of even 100 to 125 years.
7. The turbines in thermal power plants run at a speed of 3000 to 4000
rpm and they require special material and rigid construction as compared to hydro electric plant
which has a low running speed of 300 to 400 rpm

2. Diesel power plant:

This is a fossil fuel plant since diesel is a fossil fuel. Diesel engine power
plants are installed where supply of coal and water is not available insufficient quantity.
(i)These plants produce the power in the range of 2 to 50 MW
(ii)They are used as standby sets for continuity of supply such as hospitals, telephone exchanges,
radio stations, cinema theatres and industries.
(iii)They are suitable for mobile power generation and widely used in railways and ships.
(iv)They are reliable compared to other plants.
(v)Diesel power plants are becoming more popular because of difficulties experienced in
construction of new hydel plants and thermal plants

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The air and fuel mixture act as a working medium in diesel engine
power plant. The atmosphere air enters inside the combustion chamber during the suction stroke and the
fuel is injected through the injection pump. The air and fuel is mixed inside the engine and the charge is
ignited due to high compression inside the engine cylinder. The basic principle in diesel engine is that,
the thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy and this mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy to produce the power by using generator or alternator.

Advantages of diesel power plants:

1. More efficient than thermal plant
2. Design, Layout etc are simple and cheap
3. Part load efficiency is very high
4. It can be started quickly
5. Simple & easy maintenance
6. No problem with fuel & dust handling
7. It can be located in the heart of town
8. Less cooling water required.

Disadvantages:
1. There is a limitation for size of a diesel engine
2. Life of plant is comparatively less
3. Noise pollution is very high

3. Nuclear power plant:

A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more nuclear
reactors. As in a conventional thermal power station the heat is used to generate steam which drives a
steam turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity. Nuclear power plants are usually
considered to be base load stations, which are best suited to constant power output.

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Nuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and do useful work. Nuclear
Electric Plants, Nuclear Ships and Submarines use controlled nuclear energy to heat water and produce
steam, while in space, nuclear energy decays naturally in a radioisotope thermoelectric generator.
Scientists are experimenting with fusion energy for future generation, but these experiments do not
currently generate useful energy.

Advantages of nuclear power plant

1.The fuel used in nuclear power plant is uranium; it does not release chemical or solid pollutants into the
air during use.
2.Space required is less when compared with other power plants.
3.Fuel consumption is very less.
4.Fuel transportation cost is low and no large storage area for fuel is required.
5.The plant is not affected by weather conditions. The plant can function through out the year (Hydel
power plants depends on monsoon)
6.By using nuclear fuel we can conserve the fossil fuels like coal, oil, gas etc for other purposes.
7.Number of workers required is less.
8.Nuclear power plant is the only source which can meet the increasing demand of electricity.
9.A nuclear power plant uses much less fuel than a fossil fuel plant

Disadvantages of nuclear power plant

1.Nuclear plants cost more to build than thermal or hydro electricpower plants of the same capacity..
2.Radioactive wastes must be disposed carefully, otherwise it will adversely affect the health of workers
and the environment as a whole.
3.Maintenance cost of the plant is high.
4.Not suitable for varying load conditions
5.Well trained persons are required to operate the plant.

4. Wind Mill:

A wind mill is a mill that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of vanes
called sails or blades. Centuries ago, windmills usually were used to mill grain, pump water, or both.
Thus they often were grist mills, wind pumps, or both. The majority of modern wind mills take the form
of wind turbines used to generate electricity, or wind pumps used to pump water, either for land drainage
or to extract ground water.

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5. Solar Power Plants:

Solar thermal power plant comprises power plants which first convert solar radiation into heat.
The resulting thermal energy is subsequently transformed into mechanical energy by a thermal engine,
and then converted into electricity. For thermodynamic reasons high temperatures are required to achieve
the utmost efficiency. Such high temperatures are reached by increasing the energy flux densityof the
solar radiation incident on a collector. Concentrated radiation or concentrating collectors.Alternative,
with regard to technical/economic optimization of the overall system,also lower temperatures, resulting
in considerably reduced costs may be desired in some cases (use of large-surface cost-efficient
collectors).

6. Hydroelectric power plant:

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Hydroelectric power plant (Hydel plant) utilizes the potential energy of water stored in a dam
built across the river. The potential energy of the stored water is converted into kinetic energy by first
passing it through the penstock pipe. The kinetic energy of water is then converted into mechanical
energy in a water turbine. The turbine is coupled to the electric generator. The mechanical energy
available at the shaft of the turbine is converted into electrical energy by means of the generator. Because
gravity provides the force which makes the water fall, the energy stored in the water is called
gravitational potential energy. Above Fig. shows the schematic representation of a Hydro electric power
plant. The main components are

Water reservoir:
In a reservoir the water collected from the catchment area during rainy season is stored behind a
dam. Catchment area gets its water from rains and streams. Continuous availability of water is a basic
necessity for a hydroelectric power plant. The level of water surface in the reservoir is called Head water
level. The water head available for power generation depends on the reservoir height.

Dam:
the purpose of the dam is to store the water and to regulate the outgoing flow of water. The dam
helps to store all the incoming water. It also helps to increase the head of the water. In order to generate a
required quantity of power, it is necessary that a sufficient head is available.

Spillway:
Excess accumulation of water endangers the stability of dam construction. Also in order to avoid
the overflow of water out of the dam especially during rainy seasons spillways are provided. This
prevents the rise of water level in the dam. Spillways are passages which allow the excess water to flow
to a different storage area away from the dam.

Gate:
A gate is used to regulate or control the flow of water from the dam.

Pressure tunnel:
It is a passage that carries water from the reservoir to the surge tank.

Surge tank:
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due to sudden
changes in pressure. There may sudden increase of pressure in the penstock pipe due to sudden backflow
of water, as load on the turbine is reduced. This sudden rise of pressure in thepenstock pipe is known as
water hammer.

Penstock:
Pen stock pipe is used to bring water from the dam to the
hydraulic turbine. Penstock pipes are made up of steel or reinforced concrete. The turbine is installed at a
lower level from the dam. Penstock is provided with a gate valve at the inlet to completely close the
water supply. It has a control valve to control the water flow rate into the turbine.

Water turbine or hydraulic turbine (Prime mover):

The hydraulic turbine converts the energy of water into mechanical energy. The mechanical
energy (rotation) available on the turbine shaft is coupled to the shaft of an electric generator and
electricity is produced. The water after performing the work on turbine blade is discharged through the
draft tube. The prime movers which are in common use are Pelton wheel, Kaplan turbine, Francis
turbine.

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Draft tube:
Draft tube is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It converts
the kinetic energy available in the water into pressure energy in the diverging portion. Thus, it
maintains a pressure of just above the above the atmospheric at the end of the draft tube to move the
water into a tail race. Water from the tail race is released for irrigation purposes.

Tail race level:

Tail race is a water path to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river or canal. The
water held in the tail race is called Tailrace water level.

Power House:
The power house accommodates the water turbine, generator, transformer and control room. As
the water rushes through the turbine, it spins the turbine shaft, which is coupled to the electric
generator. The generator has a rotating electromagnet called a rotor and a stationary part called a stator.
The rotor creates a magnetic field that produces an electric charge in the stator. The charge is transmitted
as electricity. The step up transformer increases the voltage of the current coming from the stator. The
electricity is distributed through power lines.

Advantages of hydro electric power plant

1. Water source is perennially available. No fuel is required to be burnt to generate electricity.
2. The running costs of hydropower installations are very low as compared to thermal or nuclear power
stations.
3. There is no problem with regards to the disposal of ash as in a thermal station. The problem of
emission of polluting gases and particulates to the atmosphere also does not exist. Hydropower does
not produce any greenhouse effect.
4. The hydraulic turbine can be switched on and off in a very short time.
5. The hydraulic power plant is relatively simple in concept and self contained in operation.

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6. Modern hydropower equipment has a greater life expectancy and can easily last 50 years or more.
7. Being simple in design and operation, the hydro-plants do not require highly skilled workers.
Manpower requirement is also low.

Disadvantages of Water Power:

1. Hydro-power projects are capital-intensive with a low rate of return. The annual interest of this capital
cost is a large part of the annual cost of hydropower installations.
2. The gestation period of hydro projects is quite large. The gap between the foundation and completion
of a project may extend from ten to fifteen years.
3. Power generation is dependent on the quantity of water available, which may vary from season to
season and year to year. If the rain fall is in time and adequate, then only the satisfactory operation of the
plant can be expected.
4. Such plants are often far way from the load centre and require long transmission lines to deliver power.
Thus the cost of transmission line sand losses in them is more.
5. Large hydro-plants disturb the ecology of the area, by way of deforestation, destroying vegetation and
uprooting people. Strong public opinion against. Erection of such plants is a deterrent factor. The
emphasis is now more on small, mini and micro hydel stations.

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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

Industrial engineering is an engineering approach to the detailed analysis of the use and cost of
the resources of an organization. Industrial Engineering is concerned improvement, and installation of
integrated materials, and equipment. It draws upon and skill in the mathematical, physical, together
analysis with the principles and methods with the design, systems of men, specialized knowledge and
social sciences, of engineering and design, to specify, predict, and evaluate the results to be obtained
from such systems. The main resources are men, money, materials, equipment and machinery. The
industrial engineer carries out such analysis in order to achieve the objectives (to increase productivity or
profit etc.) and policies of the organization.

History of industrial engineering

 Industrial engineering had its roots in the Industrial Revolution (around 1750). The industrial
engineering resulted from advent of new inventions, especially in the textile industry, then steam
engine, advances in metal cutting and the production of machine tools.
 Adam Smith published the book ‗The Wealth of Nations‘ (1776).
 F.W. Taylor introduced the term ‗scientific management‘ (1881).
 Gantt charts (Gantt, 1916)
 Motion study (the Gilbreths, 1922)
 Quality control (Shewhart, 1924)
 Value engineering and system analysis (1940-1946)
 After World War II techniques such as Operations Research, Network planning, Behavioral science
etc. were introduced.

Contributions of F. W. Taylor:

 Known as the founder of Scientific Management.

 Developed the principle of breaking a task into elements for timing the same.
 He experimented to recognize losses of efficiency in industrial operations.
 Introduced the concept of scientific management.
 Studied about fatigue incurred by the workers and the time necessary to complete a task.
 Developed the concept of functional organization.
 Introduced and operated various costing systems.
 Suggested a wage incentive scheme known as Taylor‘s Differential Piece Rate Plan.

Contributions of Henry Fayol:

 Known as the father of principles of management.

 He divided all the work done in business enterprises into 6 groups
1. Technical activities (production, manufacturing, adaptation)
2. Commercial activities (buying, selling, exchange)
3. Financial activities (optimum use of capital)
4. Security activities (protection of property and persons)
5. Accounting activities (stock taking, balance sheet, costs, statistics)

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6. Managerial activities (planning, command, organization and control)

 Introduced the term ‗functions of management‘. The functions of a manager enumerated by him were,
1. Forecasting and planning
2. Organizing
3. Command
4. Coordination
5. Control

Contributions of Gilbreth:

 Improved work methods to discover the best way of accomplishing a task.

 Defined motion study to establish the scheme of least waste methods of labour.
 Evolved the principle of motion economy.
 Introduced process chart.
 Identified Trebligs (fundamental motions involved in doing an activity).
 Developed Micromotion study and Simo chart.
 Invented Microchronometer, Cyclegraph, Chronocyclegraph and flow diagram.
 Applied motion analysis to office procedures.
 Studied about fatigue and its elimination.

Contributions of Gantt:

 He improved Taylor‘s differential piece rate system and brought out his task and bonus plan.
 Developed daily balance chart, now known as the Gantt chart.
 Gantt pleaded for wider recognition of the human factor in management.
 Gantt emphasized on service rather than profits.
 Gantt‘s contributions were more in the nature of refinements rather than fundamental concepts.

Motion study:

Motion study is a technique of analyzing the body motions employed in doing a task in order to
eliminate or reduce ineffective movements and facilitates effective movements. By using motion study
and the principles of motion economy the task is redesigned to be more effective and less time
consuming.
The Gilbreths pioneered the study of manual motions and developed basic laws of motion
economy that are still relevant today. They were also responsible for the development of detailed motion
picture studies, termed as Micro Motion Studies, which are extremely useful for analyzing highly
repetitive manual operations. With the improvement in technology, of course, video camera has replaced
the traditional motion picture film camera.
In a broad sense, motion study encompasses micro motion study and both have the same
objective: job simplification so that it is less fatiguing and less time consuming. While motion study
involves a simple visual analysis, micro motion study uses more expensive equipment. The two types of
studies may be compared to viewing a task under a magnifying glass versus viewing the same under a
microscope. The added detail revealed by the microscope may be needed in exceptional cases when even
a minute improvement in motions matters, i.e. on extremely short repetitive tasks.
Traditionally, the data from micro motion studies are recorded on a Simultaneous Motion (simo)
Chart while that from motion studies are recorded on a Right Hand - Left Hand Process Chart.

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On analyzing the result of several motion studies conducted, Gilbreths concluded that any work
can be done by using a combination of some or all of 17 basic motions, called Therbligs. SIMO chart is
a graphic representation of an activity and shows the sequence of the therbligs or group of therbligs
performed by body members of operator.

Time study:

Time study is a technique to estimate the time to be allowed to a qualified and well-trained
worker working at a normal pace to complete a specified task by using specified method. This technique
is based on measuring the work content of the task when performed by the prescribed method, with the
allowance for fatigue and for personal and unavoidable delays.

Time Study Procedure:

Step 1: Define objective of the study. This involves statement of the use of the result, the precision
desired, and the required level of confidence in the estimated time standards.
Step 2: Verify that the standard method and conditions exist for the operation and the operator is properly
trained. If need is felt for method study or further training of operator, the same may be
completed before starting the time study.
Step 3: Select operator to be studied if there are more than one operator doing the same task.
Step 4: Record information about the standard method, operation, operator, product, equipment, and
conditions on the Time Study observation sheet.
Step 5: Divide the operation into reasonably small elements, and record them on the Time Study
observation sheet.
Step 6: Time the operator for each of the elements. Record the data for a few number of cycles on the
Time Study observation sheet. Use the data to estimate the total number of observations to be
taken.
Step 7: Collect and record the data of required number of cycles by timing and rating the operator.
Step 8: Calculate the representative watch time for each element of operation. Multiply it by the rating
factor to get normal time.
Normal time = Observed time x Rating factor
Calculate the normal time for the whole operation by adding the normal time of its various
elements.
Step 9: Determine allowances for fatigue and various delays.
Step 10: Determine standard time of operation.
Standard time = Normal time + allowances

Productivity:

Productivity may be defined as the ratio between output and input.

Productivity =

Productivity is nothing but reduction in wastage of resources like men, material, machine, time,
space, capital etc. It can be expressed as human efforts to produce more and more with less and less
inputs of resources so that there will be maximum distribution of benefits among maximum number of
people. Productivity denotes relationship between output and one or all associated inputs.
Productivity can be increased by:

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• Increasing outputs without changing inputs

• Decreasing inputs without changing the output
• By increasing outputs and decreasing inputs to change the ratio favorably

Productivity also implies effectiveness and efficiency, both of the individual and organizational
performance.
Effectiveness – gauged by the attainment of objectives
Efficiency – gauged by the achievement of objectives with minimum resources
The factors affecting productivity are the following:

Organization:

An organization is a group of individuals who came together in a formal structured system to

achieve a common goal.
• An organization structure means the systematic arrangement of people working for the organization and
their relationship between positions.
• Organizational structure improves teamwork and productivity.
• Organizational structure provides the pattern of communication and coordination.
• Organization structure helps a member to know what his role is and how it related to other.
• Organizational structure helps to establish authority and helps to avoid confusion.

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Formal organization

 Formal organization refers to the structure of jobs and positions with clearly defined functions and
relationships as prescribed by the top management.
 A formal organization is bound by rules, regulations and procedures.
 Formal organization does not consider the goals of the individuals and their sentiments. It is designed
to achieve organizational goals only.

Informal organization

 An informal organization is an organization which is not established by any formal authority, but
arises from the personal and social relations of the people.
 Informal organization refers to the relationship between people in the organization based on personal
attitudes, emotions, prejudices, likes, dislikes etc. These relations are not developed according to
procedures and regulations laid down in the formal organization structure.

Pricing:

Pricing a product or service is one of the most important decisions made by management. Pricing
is the only marketing strategy variable that directly generates income. All other variables in the marketing
mix—advertising and promotion, product development, selling effort, distribution—involve
expenditures. It is usual to think of price as the amount of money we must give up to acquire something
we desire. That is, we consider price as a formal ratio indicating the quantities of money (or goods and
services) needed to acquire a given quantity of goods or services. However, it is useful to think of price
as a ratio of what buyers receive in the way of goods and services relative to what they give up in the way
of money or goods and services. In other words, price is the ratio of what is received relative to what is
given up. Four basic rules for pricing are
 Know Your Objectives
 Know Your Demand
 Know Your Competition and Your Market
 Know Your Costs

Depreciation:

It represents the reduction in market value of an asset due to age, wear and tear and obsolescence.
The physical deterioration of the asset occurs due to wear and tear with passage of time. Obsolescence
occurs to due to availability of new technology or new product in the market that is superior to the old
one and the new one replaces the old even though the old one is still in working condition. The examples
of tangible assets for which the depreciation analysis is carried out are construction equipment, buildings,
machinery, vehicles, etc. Depreciation amount for an asset is usually calculated on yearly basis.
Depreciation is considered as expenditure in the cash flow of the asset, although there is no physical cash
outflow. Depreciation affects the income tax to be paid by an individual or a firm as it is considered as an
allowable deduction in calculating the taxable income.

Factors affecting depreciation

1. Physical causes (wear and tear, lack of maintenance and repairs, passage of time)
2. Abnormal causes (accidents, defects in materials etc.)
3. Technological developments and changes (new equipments superseding the existing ones)

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Scientific management:

Scientific management is the result of applying scientific knowledge to the various aspects of
management and various problems that arise from them. Scientific management grew from the
pioneering work of five people: Frederick W. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Henry Gnatt and
Harrington Emerson.

Principles of scientific management

1. Analyze work scientifically

2. Divide work and responsibility
3. Select workers best suited to perform the specific tasks
4. Provide guidelines for worker performance
5. Achieve support and cooperation from workman

Advantages of scientific management

1. Replacement of traditional rule of thumb by scientific techniques

2. Proper selection and training of workers
3. Incentive wages for workers for higher production
4. Standardization of tools, equipment, materials and work methods
5. Detailed instruction and constant guidance of workers
6. Establishment of harmonious relationship between the workers

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MODULE IV
1. INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

The word manufacture is several centuries old. The term manufacture comes from two Latin words,
manus (hand) and factus (make) that is something made from raw materials by hand or by machinery.
Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into products; encompasses the design and
manufacturing of goods using various production methods and techniques. Manufacturing process may
be classified into six major groups as primary shaping processes, secondary machining processes, metal
forming processes, joining processes, surface finishing processes and processes effecting change in
properties.

CASTING

Casting process is one of the earliest metal shaping techniques known to human being. It means
pouring molten metal into a refractory mold cavity and allows it to solidify. The solidified object is taken
out from the mold either by breaking or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called casting and
the technique followed in method is known as casting process. The casting processes can be broadly
classified into temporary mold casting and permanent mold casting processes. Sand casting is an example
of temporary mold casting and die casting is an example of permanent mold casting.

Sand Casting

Sand casting is defined as pouring of molten metal into a sand mold (molds are generally
provided with a cavity of the shape to be made) and allowing it to solidify inside the mould. Various
patterns are used to create cavity in the molds wherein, pattern can be said as the replica of the final
object to be made with some modifications. Depending on production quantities, different pattern
materials namely wood, aluminum, ferrous metals are used in practice. These materials are used for low,
moderate and high production quantities respectively.

Casting Terms

1. Flask or molding box: A frame made of metal or wood or plastic, in which the mold is formed. Lower
molding flask is known as drag, upper molding flask as cope and intermediate molding flask, used in
three piece molding, is known as cheek.

2. Pattern: The replica of the object to be cast is known as pattern. The cavity in the mould is created with
the help of the pattern.

3. Parting line: The dividing line between the two molding boxes that makes up the mold.

4. Molding sand: Sand, which is sued for making the mould is called as molding sand. It is a mixture of
silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions. The molding sand must possess various
properties such as permeability, flow ability, cohesive strength, etc.

5. Facing sand: In order to give a better surface finish to the casting, a small amount of fine carbonaceous
material, known as facing sand, is usually sprinkled on the paring surfaces of the molding boxes.

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6. Core: The part of mold, made of sand, used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the
castings.

7. Pouring basin: A funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is poured.

8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal flows from the pouring basin, and reaches the
mold cavity. It controls the flow of metal into the mold.

9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

10. Gate: A passageway through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.

11. Riser: The shapes of the Risers are like a sprue, which are placed at that part of the casting which is
solidified in the last. the risers takes care of the shrinkage of the solidifying metal.

12. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

13. Drag: The bottom half of a horizontally parted mold.

14. Cope: The top half of a horizontally parted mold.

Molding sands:
The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular
elements of rocks, and deserts. The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder (clay),
moisture content and additives. The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are
described as under.
Refractoriness: Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures
without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting.
Permeability: It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any air,
gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into it. All these

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gaseous generated during pouring and solidification process must escape otherwise the casting becomes
defective. Permeability is a function of grain size, grain shape, and moisture and clay contents in the
molding sand.
Cohesiveness: It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and attract
each other within the molding sand. Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand gets enhanced to
increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding and core sand.
Green strength: The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength and
toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e.
they must be capable of attaching themselves to another body and. therefore, and sand grains having high
adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the molding box.
Dry strength: As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand layer
adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient strength to its shape
in order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the flow of molten metal.
Flowability or plasticity: It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It will flow
uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly all around
in all directions.
Adhesiveness: It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign material such sticking of
molding sand with inner wall of molding box.

Steps involved in making a sand mold:

1. Initially a suitable size of molding box for creating suitable wall thickness is selected for a two piece
pattern. Sufficient care should also be taken in such that sense that the molding box must adjust mold
cavity, riser and the gating system (sprue, runner and gates etc.).
2. Next, place the drag portion of the pattern with the parting surface down on the bottom (ram-up) board
as shown in Fig. (a).
3. The facing sand is then sprinkled carefully all around the pattern so that the pattern does not stick with
molding sand during withdrawn of the pattern.

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 CUCEK BME 94

4. The drag is then filled with loose prepared molding sand and ramming of the molding sand is done
uniformly in the molding box around the pattern. Fill the molding sand once again and then perform
ramming. Repeat the process three four times,
5. The excess amount of sand is then removed using strike off bar to bring molding sand at the same level
of the molding flask height to completes the drag.
6. The drag is then rolled over and the parting sand is sprinkled over on the top of the drag [Fig. (b)]
7. Now the cope pattern is placed on the drag pattern and alignment is done using dowel pins.
8. Then cope (flask) is placed over the rammed drag and the parting sand is sprinkled all around the cope
pattern.
9. Sprue and riser pins are placed in vertically position at suitable locations using support of molding
sand. It will help to form suitable sized cavities for pouring molten metal etc. [Fig. (c)].
10. The gaggers in the cope are set at suitable locations if necessary. They should not be located too close
to the pattern or mold cavity otherwise they may chill the casting and fill the cope with molding sand and
ram uniformly.
11. Strike off the excess sand from the top of the cope.
12. Remove sprue and riser pins and create vent holes in the cope with a vent wire. The basic purpose of
vent creating vent holes in cope is to permit the escape of gases generated during pouring and
solidification of the casting.
13. Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the cope surface and roll over the cope on the bottom board.
14. Rap and remove both the cope and drag patterns and repair the mold suitably if needed and dressing
is applied
15. The gate is then cut connecting the lower base of sprue basin with runner and then the mold cavity.
16. Apply mold coating with a swab and bake the mold in case of a dry sand mold.
17. Set the cores in the mold, if needed and close the mold by inverting cope over drag.
18. The cope is then clamped with drag and the mold is ready for pouring, [Fig. (d)]

Permanent mold casting:

Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds ("permanent
molds"), and can be used to make many castings. The main advantages are the reusable mold, good
surface finish, good dimensional accuracy, and high production rates. Die casting is an example of
permanent mold casting. Die Casting Machines are two types: 1. Hot-chamber Die Casting machine 2.
Cold-chamber Die Casting machine.

Hot-chamber Die Casting machine:

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Hot chamber machinery contains the alloy melting pot as part of the machine itself and uses a
gooseneck to inject material from the pot into the die. Internals of the machine pair the plunger and port
to control how much molten metal is injected into the die.
When the port seals, the metal rests in the cavity to cool and solidify. Next, the plunger retracts
and the casting itself can be removed once the die opens. This design allows hot chamber die casting to
be a continuous process.
Because the melting pot is internal, hot chamber machinery is used for materials with lower
melting points. The alloys are also limited to materials that won‘t erode or dissolve the metal of the
machine when put under heat or high pressure. Typical materials used in hot chamber die casting are
zinc, lead and magnesium alloys.

Cold Chamber Die Casting:

Cold chamber die casting is a preferred manufacturing process for metals that have high melting
points, and it‘s used by most of the top parts manufacturers in the industry. Typically, this will include
metal alloys of aluminum, brass and copper. Cold chamber machinery requires additional equipment;
usually an outside furnace and a ladle to pour the metal into the machine for die casting. However, this
allows the process to use materials that may be stronger and have versatile industry applications.
Molten metal must be ladled into the chamber directly, either through a ladle system or
manually. Once the molten metal is loaded to a sufficient volume, it
will be injected into the die through a high-pressure hydraulic plunger. Pressure requirements for cold
chamber castings are typically higher than those of hot chamber die castings. Cold chamber die casting
can also take as short as seconds for the die to solidify, though other simple designs take just a few
minutes.
Cold chambers are typically built to contain multiple cavities, so different machine parts can
be created at the same time either duplicates or a variety of different parts in the same mold.

Casting Defects:
Casting Defects are discontinuities in castings that exhibit a size, shape, orientation, or location
that makes them detrimental to the useful service life of the casting. The various casting defects that
appears in casting process are

Shrinkage: - Shrinkage of molten metal as it solidifies is an important issue in casting. It can reduce the
5-10% volume of the cast. Gray cast iron expands upon solidification due to phase changes. Need to
design part and mold to take this amount into consideration. The thickness of the boss or pad should be
less than the thickness of the section of the boss adjoins and the transition should be gradual. The radius
for good shrinkage control should be from one half to one third of the section thickness. Shrinkage defect
can be reduced by decreasing the number of walls and increasing the draft angle.

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 CUCEK BME 96

Porosity: - Porosity is a phenomenon that occurs in materials, especially castings, as they change state
from liquid to solid during the manufacturing process. Casting porosity has the form of surface and core
imperfections which either effects the surface finish or as a leak path for gases and liquids. The poring
temperature should be maintained properly to reduce porosity. Adequate fluxing of metal and controlling
the amount of gas-producing materials in the molding and core making sand mixes can help in
minimizing this defect.
Hot tear: - Hot tears are internal or external ragged discontinuities or crack on the casting surface, caused
by rapid contraction occurring immediately after the metal solidified. They may be produced when the
casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes take place; no proper fillets and corner radii are
provided, and chills are inappropriately placed. Hot tear may be caused when the mold and core have
poor collapsibility or when the mold is too hard causing the casting to undergo severe strain during
cooling. Incorrect pouring temperature and improper placement of gates and risers can also create hot
tears. Method to prevent hot tears may entail improving the casting design, achieving directional
solidification and even rate of cooling all over, selecting proper mold and poured materials to suit the cast
metal, and controlling the mold hardness in relation to other ingredients of sand.

Scar: - It is usually found on the flat casting surface. It is a shallow blow.

Blowhole: - Blowholes are smooth round holes that are clearly perceptible on the surface of the casting.
To prevent blowholes, moisture content in sand must be well adjusted, sand of proper grain size should
be used, ramming should not be too hard and venting should be adequate.
Blister:- This is a scar covered by the thin layers of the metal.
Dross:- The lighter impurities are appearing on the top of the cast surface is called the dross. It can be
taken care of at the pouring stage by using items such as a strainer and a skim bob.
Dirt:- Sometimes sand particles dropping out of the cope get embedded on the top surface of a casting.
When removed, these leave small angular holes is known as dirts.
Wash:- It is a low projection on the drag surface of a casting commencing near the gate. It is caused by
the erosion of sand due to high velocity liquid metal.
Buckle:- It refers to a long fairly shallow broad depression at the surface of a casting of a high
temperature metal. Due to very high temperature of the molten metal, expansion of the thin layered of the
sand at the mold face takes place. As this expansion is obstructed by the flux, the mold tends to bulge out
forming a V shape.

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 CUCEK BME 97

Rat tail:- It is a long shallow angular depression found in a thin casting. The cause is similar to buckle.
Shift:- A shift results in a mismatch of the sections of a casting usually as a parting line. Misalignment is
common cause of shift. This defect can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment of the pattern for die
parts, molding boxes, and checking of pattern flux locating pins before use.
Warped casting:- Warping is an undesirable deformation in a casting which occurs during or after
solidification. Large and flat sections are particularly prone to wrap edge. Wrap edge may also be due to
insufficient gating system that may not allow rapid pouring of metal or due to low green strength of the
sand mold or inadequate / inappropriate draft allowance in the pattern / mold cavity.
Metal Penetration and Rough Surfaces:- This defect appears as an uneven and rough external surface of
the casting. It may be caused when the sand has too high permeability, large grain size, and low strength.
Soft ramming may also cause metal penetration.
Fin:- A thin projection of metal, not intended as a part of casting, is called a fin. Fins occur at the parting
of the mold or core sections. Molds and cores in correctly assembled will cause the fin. High metal
pressures due to too large downsprue, insufficient weighing of the molds or improper clamping of flasks
may again produce the fin defect.
Cold Shut and Mis-Run:- A cold shut is a defect in which a discontinuity is formed due to the imperfect
fusion of two streams of metal in the mold cavity. The reasons for cold shut or mis-run may be too thin
sections and wall thickness, improper gating system, damaged patterns, slow and intermittent pouring ,
poor fluidity of metal caused by low pouring temperature, improper alloy composition, etc.

METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Forming is the process of obtaining the required shape and size on the raw material by subjecting
the material to plastic deformation through the application of tensile force, compressive force, bending or
shear force or combinations of these forces. Different types of metal forming processes are

FORGING:

Forging is a process in which material is shaped by the application of localized compressive

forces exerted manually or with power hammers, presses or special forging machines. The process may
be carried out on materials in either hot or cold state. When forging is done cold, processes are given
special names. Therefore, the term forging usually implies hot forging carried out at temperatures which
are above the recrystallization temperature of the material.
Forging is an effective method of producing many useful shapes. The process is generally used to
produce discrete parts. Typical forged parts include rivets, bolts, crane hooks, connecting rods, gears,
turbine shafts, hand tools, railroads, and a variety of structural components used to manufacture
machinery. The forged parts have good strength and toughness; they can be used reliably for highly
stressed and critical applications. Forging processes can broadly be classified as follows.

Hand forging: - Hand forging is performed in the black smithy shop. The job is heated at the forging
temperature in hearth and it is then brought on anvil using tong. It is then forged using hand hammers and
other hand forging tools for imparting specific shape.

Drop forging: - Drop forging is a type of closed-die forging. It is used when a large quantity of certain
components with sound and good quality forgings are to be produced. The die used in drop forging
consists of two halves. The lower half part of die is fastened to the anvil while the upper half part is fixed
to the movable ram. The heated bar or billet is kept in the lower die while the ram delivers four to five
strokes (blows) on the metal. When these two die halves come together in closed alignment, the metal

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 CUCEK BME 98

spreads and completely fills the die cavity. The number of blows depends upon the shape of component,
desired grain flow direction, the type of metal or alloy being forged.

Press forging: - The forging done with the help of presses is known as press forging. The press forging is
similar to drop forging but uses a single, continuous, slow squeezing action instead of a series of impact
blows. Because of slow ram travel and continuous action of the hydraulic presses, the deformation
penetrates deeper so that the entire volume of the work piece simultaneously and uniformly undergoes
plastic deformation. While in case of drop forging, the energy is only transmitted into the surface layers
of the work part.

Machine forging:- The machine forging involves the upsetting operation, and is also known as upset
forging. Though, drop and press forging are also done by machines, but historically, only upset forging is
referred as machine forging. Machine forging is done on horizontal forging machines. Originally
machine forging was developed for bolt heads, but now-a-days it is widely used to produce a variety of
shapes. It is used for making gear blanks, shafts, axles, rods with flanges, and similar parts.

Forging operations:

1. Upsetting: - Upsetting or heading is the process of increasing the thickness of a bar at the expense of
its length and is bought about by end pressure.
2. Drawing Down:- Drawing down is a process of elongate the length and reduce the cross section area
of work piece. Simply in this operation, the length of work piece increases and the cross section area
decreases. In this process, a compressive force is applied at perpendicular direction of its length axis.

3. Cutting:- Cutting of metals in hot or cold state is done by means of hot or cold chisels
respectively. This operation is required in removing extra metal from the job before
finishing it, cutting required lengths of pieces from a stock, splitting a metal piece into two
at a desired location and similar other requirements.

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4. Bending: - Bending of bars, flats and other similar stock material is usually done in a
smithy shop. This can be done to produce different types of bent shapes such as angles,
ovals and circles, etc. Any desired angle can be made through this operation. For making a
right angle bend that particular portion of the stock, which is to be subjected to bending, is
heated and jumped on the outer surface.
5. Punching and drifting:- Punching and drifting are used for producing and finishing holes and
preparatory for producing other shapes. Punching should be done in two stages. In the first stage the
work piece is kept flat on the anvil and holes performed half way through. Then job is turned upside
down. The application of punching, producing the slot a number of holes are punched and the
remaining excess material is cut out using a chisel. The slot may then be finished hot drifting or may
be finished by filing when cold.
6. Fullering: -It a similar to material cross-section is decreased and length increased. To do this; the
bottom fuller is kept in angle hole with the heated stock over the fuller .the top fuller is then kept
above the stock and then with the sledge hammer, and the force is applied on the top fuller.
7. Setting down: - It is a localized drawing down or swaging operation. Usually the work is fullered at
the place where the setting down is effected by the set hammer.

8. Swaging: - Swaging is done to reduce and finish work for desire size and shape, usually either round
or hexagonal. For small jobs top and bottom swage pair is employed, where as for large work swage
block can be used.
9. Welding: - It is a process of joining two metal pieces to increase the length. By the pressing or
hammering then when they are at forging temperature. It is performed in forging shop and hence is
called forged welding.

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 CUCEK BME 100

EXTRUSION:

It is the process of enclosing the heated billet or slug of metal in a closed cavity and then pushing
it to flow from only one die opening so that the metal will take the shape of the opening. The pressure is
applied either hydraulically or mechanically. Extrusion process is identical to the squeezing of tooth paste
out of the tooth paste tube. Tubes, rods, hose, casing, brass cartridge, moulding-trims, structural shapes,
aircraft parts, gear profiles, cable sheathing etc. are some typical products of extrusion.
The extrusion setup consists of a cylinder container into which the heated billet or slug of metal is
loaded. On one end of the container, the die plate with the necessary opening is fixed. From the other
end, a plunger or ram compresses the metal billet against the container walls and the die plate, thus
forcing it to flow through the die opening, acquiring the shape of the opening. The extruded metal is then
carried by the metal handling system as it comes out of the die.
Extrusion process is classified as
1. Direct or forward hot extrusion
2. Indirect or backward hot extrusion

1. Direct or Forward Hot Extrusion:

Fig. (a) shows the direct extrusion operational setup. In this method, the heated metal billet is
placed in to the die chamber and the pressure is applied through ram. The metal is extruded through die
opening in the forward direction, i.e. the same as that of the ram. In forward extrusion, the problem of
friction is prevalent because of the relative motion between the heated metal billet and the cylinder walls.

2. Indirect or Backward Hot Extrusion

Fig. (b) shows the indirect extrusion operational setup. In indirect extrusion, the billet remains
stationary while the die moves into the billet by the hollow ram (or punch), through which the backward
extrusion takes place. Since, there is no friction force between the billet and the container wall, therefore,
less force is required by this method. However this process is not widely used because of the difficulty
occurred in providing support for the extruded part.

ROLLING:

Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into

desired shapes by plastic deformation through compressive
stresses using two or more than two rolls. It is one of the
most widely used of all the metal working processes. The
main objective of rolling is to convert larger sections such as
ingots into smaller sections which can be used either
directly in as rolled state or as stock for working through
other processes. The coarse structure of cast ingot is

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 CUCEK BME 101

convened into a fine grained structure using rolling process as shown in Fig. Significant improvement is
accomplished in rolled parts in their various mechanical properties such as toughness, ductility, strength
and shock resistance. The majority of steel products are being converted from the ingot form by the
process of rolling. There are different types of rolling mills, which are described as under.

1. Two-High Rolling Mill: - A two-high rolling mill (Fig (a)) has two horizontal rolls revolving at the
same speed but in opposite direction. The rolls are supported on bearings housed in sturdy upright side
frames called stands. The space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or 1owering the upper roll.
Their direction of rotation is fixed and cannot be reversed. The reduction in the thickness of work is
achieved by feeding from one direction only. However, there is another type of two-high rolling mill,
which incorporates a drive mechanism that can reverse the direction of rotation of the rolls. A Two- high
reverse arrangement is shown in Fig. (b). In a two-high reversing rolling mill, there is continuous rolling
of the work piece through back-and-forth passes between the rolls.
2. Three-High Rolling Mills: - It consists of three parallel rolls, arranged one above the other as shown
in Fig. (c). The directions of rotation of the upper and lower rolls are the same but the intermediate roll
rotates in a direction opposite to both of these. This type of rolling mill is used for rolling of two
continuous passes in a rolling sequence without reversing the drives. This results in a higher rate of
production than the two-high rolling mill.
3. Four-High Rolling Mill: - It is essentially a two-high rolling mill, but with small sized rolls.
Practically, it consists of four horizontal rolls, the two middle rolls are smaller in size than the top and
bottom rolls as shown in Fig. (d). The smaller size rolls are known as working rolls which concentrate the
total rolling pressure over the work piece. The larger diameter rolls are called back-up rolls and their
main function is to prevent the deflection of the smaller rolls, which otherwise would result in thickening
of rolled plates or sheets at the centre. The common products of these mills are hot or cold rolled plates
and sheets.
4. Cluster Rolling Mill: - It is a special type of four-high rolling mill in which each of the two smaller
working rolls are backed up by two or more of the larger back-up rolls as shown in Fig. (e). For rolling
hard thin materials, it may be necessary to employ work rolls of very small diameter but of considerable
length. In such cases adequate support of the working rolls can be obtained by using a cluster-mill. This
type of mill is generally used for cold rolling work.

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 CUCEK BME 102

WIRE DRAWING:

Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce the cross-section of a wire by pulling the
wire through a single, or series of, drawing die(s). Wire drawing consists of pulling a metal wire through
a small circular opening called a die. This results in a stretching or elongation of the material along with a
reduction in cross sectional area. The pulling force is limited by the strength of the material: pull too hard
and the metal will break. The force needed to pull the wire through the die is determined by the extent of
the reduction in cross-sectional area: the larger the reduction, the greater the force needed.

The drawing of the wire starts with a rod or coil of

hot rolled steel, which is 0.8 to 1.6 mm larger than the final
size required. In this process, there is no force is applied for
pushing the wire into the die from the entrance side. The
material should be sufficiently ductile since it is pulled by
the tensile forces. Hence, the wire may have to be annealed
properly to provide the necessary ductility. Further, the wire
is to go through the conical portion and then pulled out
through the exit by the gripper.

PROCESSES EFFECTING CHANGE IN PROPERTIES.

HEAT TREATMENT:

Heat treatment is a heating and cooling process of a metal or an alloy in the solid state with the
purpose of changing their properties. It can also be said as a process of heating and cooling of ferrous
metals especially various kinds of steels in which some special properties like softness, hardness, tensile-
strength, toughness etc, are induced in these metals for achieving the special function objective. It
consists of three main phases namely (i) heating of the metal (ii) soaking of the metal and (iii) cooling of
the metal. The major objectives of heat treatment are given as under
1. It relieves internal stresses induced during hot or cold working.
2. It changes or refines grain size.
3. It increases resistance to heat and corrosion.
4. It improves mechanical properties such as ductility, strength, hardness, toughness, etc.

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 CUCEK BME 103

5. It helps to improve machinability.

6. It increases wear resistance
7. It removes gases.
8. It improves electrical and magnetic properties.
9. It changes the chemical composition.
10. It helps to improve shock resistance.
11. It improves weldability.
The above objectives of heat treatment may be served by one or more of the following heat treatment
processes:
1. Normalizing
2. Annealing.
3. Hardening.
4. Surface hardening

NORMALIZING
Normalizing is a defined as softening process in which iron base alloys are heated 40 to 50°C
above the upper-critical limit for both hypo and hyper eutectoid steels and held there for a specified
period and followed by cooling in still air up to room temperature. Objectives
1. To soften metals
2. Refine grain structure
3. Improve machinability after forging and rolling
4. Improve grain size
5. Improve structure of weld
6. Prepare steel for sub heat treatment

ANNEALING
It is a softening process in which iron base alloys are heated above the transformation range held
there for proper time and then cool slowly (at the of rate of 30 to 150°C per hour) below the
transformation range in the furnace itself. Heating is carried out 20°C above upper critical temperature
point of steel in case of hypo eutectoid steel and the same degree above the lower critical temperature
point in case of type eutectoid steel. The purpose of annealing is to achieve the following
1. Soften the steel.
2. Relieve internal stresses
3. Reduce or eliminate structural in-homogeneity.
4. Refine grain size.
5. Improve machinability.
6. Increase or restore ductility and toughness.

HARDENING
Hardening is a hardness inducing kind of heat treatment process in which steel is heated to a
temperature above the critical point and held at that temperature for a definite time and then quenched
rapidly in water, oil or molten salt bath. It is some time said as rapid quenching also. Steel is hardened by
heating 20-30°C above the upper critical point for hypo eutectoid steel and 20-30°C above the lower
critical point for hyper eutectoid steel and held at this temperature for some time and then quenched in
water or oil or molten salt bath.

SURFACE HARDENING
Surface Hardening is a process by which a steel is given a hard, wear resistant surface, while
retaining a ductile but tougher interior. Surface hardening is usually done for the following reasons: -
1. To improve wear resistance

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2. To improve resistance to high contact stresses

3. To improve fracture toughness
4. To improve fatigue resistance, and, sometimes,
5. To improve corrosion resistance

JOINING PROCESSES

WELDING PROCESS:

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The
fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from combustion of
gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction. During some type of welding processes,
pressure may also be employed, but this is not an essential requirement for all welding processes.
Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components. It is
therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of the critical components. The
welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries.

1. OXY-ACETYLENT WELDING
In this process, acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding torch and
ignited. The flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal. The
oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature of about 3300°C and thus can melt most of the ferrous and
non-ferrous metals in common use. A filler metal rod or welding rod is generally added to the molten
metal pool to build up the seam slightly for greater strength. In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most
important means to control the welding joint and the welding process. The correct type of flame is
essential for the production of satisfactory welds. The flame must be of the proper size, shape and
condition in order to operate with maximum efficiency. There are three basic types of oxy-acetylene
flames.
1.Neutral welding flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportions, commonly used for the welding of
mild steel, stainless steel, cast Iron, copper, and aluminium.).
2. Carburizing welding flame or reducing (excess of acetylene, used for welding high carbon steel).
3. Oxidizing welding flame (excess of oxygen, oxidizing flame is of limited use in welding. It is not used
in the welding of steel. A slightly oxidizing flame is helpful when welding (i) Copper-base metals (ii)
Zinc-base metals and (iii) A few types of ferrous metals such as manganese steel and cast iron.).
The gas welding flames are shown in Fig.(a)

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 CUCEK BME 105

An arrangement of oxy acetylene welding set

up is shown in Fig (b). Acetylene and oxygen
gas is stored in compressed gas cylinders.
These gas cylinders differ widely in capacity,
design and colour code. However, in most of
the countries, the standard size of these
cylinders is 6 to 7 m³ and is painted black for
oxygen and maroon for acetylene. An
acetylene cylinder is filled with some
absorptive material, which is saturated with a
chemical solvent acetone. Acetone has the
ability to absorb a large volume of acetylene and release it as the pressure falls. If large quantities of
acetylene gas are being consumed, it is much cheaper to generate the gas at the place of use with the help
of acetylene gas generators. Acetylene gas is generated by carbide-to-water method. The hose pipes are
used for the supply of gases from the pressure regulators. Fig c shows the construction of the welding
torch. It is a tool for mixing oxygen and acetylene in correct proportion and burning the mixture at the
end of a tip. Gas flow to the torch is controlled with the help of two needle valves in the handle of the
torch.

ARC WELDING
The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work piece or between two electrodes is
utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process. The basic principle of arc welding is shown
in Fig.

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 CUCEK BME 106

In this process, the heat is generated by an electric arc between base metal and a consumable electrode. In
this process electrode movement is manually controlled hence it is termed as manual metal arc welding.
This process is extensively used for depositing weld metal because it is easy to deposit the molten weld
metal at right place where it is required and it doesn‘t need separate shielding. This process is commonly
used for welding of the metals, which are comparatively less sensitive to the atmospheric gases. This
process can use both AC and DC. The constant current DC power source is invariably used with all types
of electrode irrespective of base metal (ferrous and non-ferrous). However, AC can be unsuitable for
certain types of electrodes and base materials. Therefore, AC should be used in light of manufacturer‘s
recommendations for the electrode application. In case of DC welding, heat liberated at anode is
generally greater than the arc column and cathode side. The amount of heat generated at the anode and
cathode may differ appreciably depending upon the flux composition of coating, base metal, polarity and
the nature of arc plasma. To avoid contamination of the molten weld metal from atmospheric gases
present in and around the welding arc, protective environment must be provided. In different arc welding
processes, this protection is provided using different approaches. In case of shielded metal arc welding,
the protection to the weld pool is provided by covering of a) slag formed over the surface of weld
pool/metal and b) inactive gases generated through thermal decomposition of flux/coating materials on
the electrode. However, relative effect of above two on the protection of the weld metal depends on type
of flux coating.

RESISTANCE WELDING
In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated by their resistance to the flow of an
electrical current. Usually this is the only source of heat, but a few of the welding operations combine
resistance heating with arc heating, and possibly with combustion of metal in the arc. The process applies
to practically all metals and most combinations of pure metals and those alloys, which have only a
limited plastic range, are welded by heating the parts to fusion (melting). Some alloys, however, may
welded without fusion; instead, the parts are heated to a plastic state at which the applied pressure causes
their crystalline structures to grow together. The major types of resistance welding are given as under:
(1) Spot Welding
(2 Resistance Butt Welding
(3) Flash Butt Welding
(4) Seam Welding

Spot Welding:
In this process
overlapping sheets are
joined by local fusion at
one or more spots, by the
concentration of current
flowing between two
electrodes. This is the most
widely used resistance
welding process. A typical
resistance spot welding
machine is shown in Fig.
It essentially consists of two electrodes, out of which one is fixed. The other electrode is fixed to a
rocker arm (to provide mechanical advantage) for transmitting the mechanical force from a pneumatic
cylinder. This is the simplest type of arrangement. The other possibility is that of a pneumatic or

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 CUCEK BME 107

hydraulic cylinder being directly connected to the electrode without any rocker arm. For welding large
assemblies such as car bodies, portable spot welding machines are used. Here the electrode holders and
the pneumatic pressurizing system are present in the form of a portable assembly which is taken to the
place, where the spot is to be made. The electric current, compressed air and the cooling water needed for
the electrodes is supplied through cables and hoses from the main welding machine to the portable unit.
In spot welding, a satisfactory weld is obtained when a proper current density is maintained.

Resistance Upset Butt and Flash Butt Welding:

This welding is also used for joining metal pieces end to end but it has largely replaced the butt-
welding method for weld articles small cross-sections. It can be used for thick sections also. Initially the
current is switched on and then one end the moveable part to be welded is brought gently closer to the
fixed end of the other part to localize heat at the ends and thus raises the temperature of the ends quickly
to the welding heat. On acquiring contact of fixed end and moveable end with each other, the moveable
end is then pressed against one another by applying mechanical pressure. Thus the molten metal and slag
to be squeezed out in the form of sparks enabling the pure metal to form the joint and disallowing the
heat .to spread back.

The principle of upset butt welding and flash butt welding are depicted in Fig.(a) & (b). In this resistance
welding single phase A.C. machines are commonly employed.

Resistance Seam Welding:

It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein
spot welds overlap each other to the desired extent. In
this process coalescence at the faying surfaces is
produced by the heat obtained from the resistance to
electric current (flow) through the work pieces held
together under pressure by circular electrodes. The
resulting weld is a series of overlapping resistance-
spots welds made progressively along a joint by
rotating the circular electrodes. The principle of seam
welding is shown in Fig. The seam welding is similar
to spot welding, except that circular rolling electrodes
are used to produce a continuous air-tight seam of
overlapping welds. Overlapping continuous spot welds
seams are produced by the rotating electrodes and a
regularly interrupted current.

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 CUCEK BME 108

BRAZING:
Brazing is a process of joining metals without melting the base metal. Filler material used for
brazing has liquidus temperature above 450°C and below the solidus temperature of the base metal. The
filler metal is drawn into the joint by means of capillary action (entering of fluid into tightly fitted
surfaces). Brazing is a much widely used joining process in various industries because of its many
advantages. Due to the higher melting point of the filler material, the joint strength is more than in
soldering. Almost all metals can be joined by brazing except aluminum and magnesium which cannot
easily be joined by brazing. Dissimilar metals, such as stainless steel to cast iron can be joined by
brazing. Because of the lower temperatures used there is less distortion in brazed joints.
During brazing, the base metal of the two pieces to be joined is not melted. An important
requirement is that the filler metal must wet the base metal surfaces to which it is applied. The diffusion
or alloying of the filler metal with the base metal place even though the base metal does not reach its
solidus temperature. The surfaces to be joined must be chemically clean before brazing. However, fluxes
are applied to remove oxides from the surfaces. Borax is the most widely used flux during the process of
brazing. It will dissolve the oxides of most of the common metals.

SOLDERING:
Soldering is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by heating them to a suitable
temperature and by means of a filler metal, called solder, having liquidus temperature not exceeding
450°C and below the solidus of the base material. Though soldering obtains a good joint between the two
plates, the strength of the joint is limited by the strength of the filler metal used.
Solders are essentially alloys of lead and tin. To improve the mechanical properties and
temperature resistance, solders are added to other alloying elements such as zinc, cadmium and silver in
various proportions. Soldering is normally used for obtaining a neat leak proof joint or a low resistance
electrical joint. The soldered joints are not suitable for high temperature service because of the low
melting temperatures of the filler metals used. The soldering joints also need to be cleaned meticulously
to provide chemically clean surfaces to obtain a proper bond. Solvent cleaning, acid pickling and even
mechanical cleaning are applied before soldering. To remove the oxides from the joint surfaces and to
prevent the filler metal from oxidizing, fluxes are generally used in soldering.

WELDING DEFECTS:

1. Lack of Penetration (Fig.(i))

It is the failure of the filler metal to penetrate into the joint.
It is due to
(a) Inadequate de-slagging
(b) Incorrect edge penetration
(c) Incorrect welding technique.

2. Lack of Fusion (Fig. (ii))

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 CUCEK BME 109

Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the parent metal. It is duo to
(a) Too fast a travel
(b) Incorrect welding technique
(c) Insufficient heat
3. Porosity (Fig. (iii))
It is a group of small holes throughout the weld metal. It is caused by the trapping of gas during
the welding process, due to
(a) Chemicals in the metal
(b) Dampness
(c) Too rapid cooling of the weld
4. Slag Inclusion (Fig. (iv))
It is the entrapment of slag or other impurities in the weld. It is caused by
(a) Slag from previous runs not being cleaned away,
(b) Insufficient cleaning and preparation of the base metal before welding commences

5. Undercuts (Fig. (v))

These are grooves or slots along the edges of the weld caused by
(a) Too fast a travel
(b) Bad welding technique
(c) Too great a heat build-up.

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 CUCEK BME 110

6. Cracking (Fig. (vi))

It is the formation of cracks either in the weld metal or in the parent metal. It is due to
(a) Unsuitable parent metals used in the weld
(b) Bad welding technique.
7. Poor Weld Bead Appearance (Fig. (vii))
If the width of weld bead deposited is not uniform or straight, then the weld bead is termed as
poor. It is due to improper arc length, improper welding technique, damaged electrode coating and poor
electrode and earthing connections. It can be reduced by taking into considerations the above factors.

8. Distortion (Fig. (viii))

Distortion is due to high cooling rate, small diameter electrode,
poor clamping and slow arc travel speed
9. Overlays
These consist of metal that has flowed on to the parent metal
without fusing with it. The defect is due to
(a) Contamination of the surface of the parent metal
(b) Insufficient heat
10. Blowholes
These are large holes in the weld caused by
(a) Gas being trapped, due to moisture.
(b) Contamination of either the filler or parent metals.
11. Burn Through
It is the collapse of the weld pool due to
(a) Too great a heat concentration
(b) Poor edge preparation.
12. Excessive Penetration
It is where the weld metal protrudes through the root of the weld. It is caused by
(a) Incorrect edge preparation
(b) Too big a heat concentration
(c) Too slow a travel.

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 CUCEK BME 111

POWER TRANSMISSION METHODS AND DEVICES

Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to a location where it
is applied to performing useful work. These are used to transfer power (torque) from one location
to another. From driver motor, peddles, engine, windmill, turbine to driven: conveyor belt, back
wheels/ bike, generator rock crusher, dryer. Different types of power transmissions are Belt drives, Gear
drives, chain drives & rope drives.

BELT DRIVES
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted depends upon the
following factors:
1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used.

Types of Belts
Though there are many types of belts used these days, yet the following are important from the
subject point of view:
1. Flat belt:- The flat belt as shown in Fig. (a), is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not
more than 8 metres apart.
2. V- belt:- The V-belt as shown in Fig. (b), is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a great
amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are very near to
each other.

3. Circular belt or rope:- The circular belt or rope as shown in Fig. (c) is mostly used in the factories and
workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two
pulleys are more than 8 metres apart.
If a huge amount of power is to be transmitted, then a single belt may not be sufficient. In such a
case, wide pulleys (for V-belts or circular belts) with a number of grooves are used. Then a belt in each
groove is provided to transmit the required amount of power from one pulley to another.

FLAT BELT DRIVES:

The power from one pulley to another may be transmitted by any of the following types of belt
drives.
1. Open belt drive:- The open belt drive, as shown in Fig. below, is used with shafts arranged parallel and
rotating in the same direction. In this case, the driver A pulls the belt from one side (i.e. lower side RQ)
and delivers it to the other side (i.e. upper side LM). Thus the tension in the lower side belt will be more
than that in the upper side belt. The lower side belt (because of more tension) is known as tight side
whereas the upper side belt (because of less tension) is known as slack side, as shown in Fig.

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 CUCEK BME 112

2. Crossed or twist belt drive:-

The crossed or twist belt drive, as shown in Fig. above, is used with shafts arranged parallel and
rotating in the opposite directions. In this case, the driver pulls the belt from one side (i.e. RQ) and
delivers it to the other side (i.e. LM). Thus, the tension in the belt RQ will be more than that in the belt
LM. The belt RQ (because of more tension) is known as tight side, whereas the belt LM (because of less
tension) is known as slack side, as shown in Fig.

Velocity Ratio of a Belt Drive

It is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the follower or driven. It may be expressed,
mathematically, as discussed below:

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 CUCEK BME 113

Slip of the Belt

In the previous articles we have discussed the motion of belts and pulleys assuming a firm
frictional grip between the belts and the pulleys. But sometimes, the frictional grip becomes insufficient.
This may cause some forward motion of the driver without carrying the belt with it. This is called slip of
the belt and is generally expressed as a percentage. The result of the belt slipping is to reduce the velocity
ratio of the system. As the slipping of the belt is a common phenomenon, thus the belt should never be
used where a definite velocity ratio is of importance (as in the case of hour, minute and second arms in a
watch).
Let, s1 % = Slip between the driver and the belt, and
s2 % = Slip between the belt and follower,
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 CUCEK BME 114

Velocity of the belt passing over the driver per second,

and velocity of the belt passing over the follower per second

Length of an Open Belt Drive

In an open belt drive, both the pulleys rotate in the same direction as shown in Fig.

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CUCEK BME 115

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 CUCEK BME 116

Length of a Cross Belt Drive

In a cross belt drive, both the pulleys rotate in the opposite directions as shown in Fig.

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 CUCEK BME 117

Power Transmitted by a Belt

Fig. shows the driving pulley (or driver) A and the driven pulley (or follower) B. As already
discussed, the driving pulley pulls the belt from one side and delivers it to the other side. It is thus
obvious that the tension on the former side (i.e. tight side) will be greater than the latter side (i.e. slack
side) as shown in Fig..

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 CUCEK BME 118

Ratio of Driving Tensions for Flat Belt Drive

Consider a driven pulley rotating in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig.

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 CUCEK BME 119

The above expression gives the relation between the tight side and slack side tensions, in terms of
coefficient of friction and the angle of contact.

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 CUCEK BME 120

ROPE DRIVES:
The rope drives are widely used where a large amount of power is to be transmitted, from one
pulley to another, over a considerable distance. It may be noted that the use of flat belts is limited for the
transmission of moderate power from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more than
8 meters apart. If large amounts of power are to be transmitted, by the flat belt, then it would result in
excessive belt cross-section. The ropes drives use the following two types of ropes:
1. Fiber ropes, and 2. Wire ropes.
The fibre ropes operate successfully when the pulleys are about 60 metres apart, while the wire ropes are
used when the pulleys are upto 150 metres apart.
.
CHAIN DRIVE:
In belt and rope drives that slipping may occur. In order to avoid slipping, steel chains are used.
The chains are made up of number of rigid links which are hinged together by pin joints in order to
provide the necessary flexibility for wraping round the driving and driven wheels. These wheels have
projecting teeth of special profile and fit into the corresponding recesses in the links of the chain as
shown in Fig.

The toothed wheels are known as sprocket wheels or simply sprockets. The sprockets and the chain are
thus constrained to move together without slipping and ensures perfect velocity ratio.

GEARS:

The slipping of a belt or rope is a common phenomenon, in the transmission of motion or power
between two shafts. The effect of slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system. In precision
machines, in which a definite velocity ratio is of importance (as in watch mechanism), the only positive
drive is by gears or toothed wheels. A gear drive is also provided, when the distance between the driver
and the follower is very small.
The motion and power transmitted by gears is kinematically equivalent to that transmitted by
frictional wheels or discs. In order to understand how the motion can be transmitted by two toothed
wheels.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Drives

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of the gear drive as compared to other drives,
i.e. belt, rope and chain drives:
Advantages
1. It transmits exact velocity ratio.
2. It may be used to transmit large power.
3. It may be used for small centre distances of shafts.
4. It has high efficiency.
5. It has reliable service.
6. It has compact layout.

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 CUCEK BME 121

Disadvantages
1. Since the manufacture of gears requires special tools and equipment, therefore it is costlier than
other drives.
2. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.
3. It requires suitable lubricant and reliable method of applying it, for the proper operation of gear
drives.

Terms used in Gears

The following terms, which will be mostly used in this chapter, should be clearly understood at
this stage. These terms are illustrated in Fig below.

1. Pitch circle:-. It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same motion as the
actual gear.
2. Pitch circle diameter: - It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually specified by
the pitch circle diameter. It is also called as pitch diameter.
3. Pitch point: - It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.
4. Pitch surface: - It is the surface of the rolling discs which the meshing gears have replaced at the pitch
circle.
5. Pressure angle or angle of obliquity: - It is the angle between the common normal to two gear teeth at
the point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. It is usually denoted by φ. The
standard pressure angles are 14 ½° and 20°.
6. Addendum: - It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
7. Dedendum: - It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.
8. Addendum circle: - It is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric with the pitch
circle.
9. Dedendum circle: - It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also called root circle.
10. Circular pitch: - It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a point of
one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. It is usually denoted by Pc.

TYPES OF GEARS

1. Spur Gear: - This is a cylindrical shaped gear in which the teeth are parallel to the axis. It has the
largest applications and, also, it is the easiest to manufacture.

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 CUCEK BME 122

2. Helical Gear:- This is a cylindrical shaped gear with helicoid teeth. Helical gears can bear more load
than spur gears, and work more quietly. They are widely used in industry. A disadvantage is the axial
thrust force the helix form causes.

3. Double Helical Gear:- This is a gear with both left-hand and right-hand helical teeth. The double
helical form balances the inherent thrust forces.

4. Worm And Worm Gear:- Worm set is the name for a meshed worm and worm gear. The worm
resembles a screw thread; and the mating worm gear a helical gear, except that it is made to envelope
the worm as seen along the worm‘s axis. The outstanding feature is that the worm offers a very large
gear ratio in a single mesh. However, transmission efficiency is very poor due to a great amount of
sliding as the worm tooth engages with its mating worm gear tooth and forces rotation by pushing and
sliding. With proper choices of materials and lubrication, wear can be contained and noise is reduced.

5. Spur Rack:- This is a linear shaped gear which can mesh with a spur gear with any number of teeth.
The spur rack is a portion of a spur gear with an infinite radius.

6. Internal Gear:- This is a cylindrical shaped gear but with the teeth inside the circular ring. It can mesh
with a spur gear. Internal gears are often used in planetary gear systems.

7. Hypoid Gear:- This is a deviation from a bevel gear that originated as a special development for the
automobile industry. This permitted the drive to the rear axle to be nonintersecting, and thus allowed
the auto body to be lowered. It looks very much like the spiral bevel gear. However, it is complicated
to design and is the most difficult to produce on a bevel gear generator.

8. Spiral Bevel Gear:- This is a bevel gear with a helical angle of spiral teeth. It is much more complex to
manufacture, but offers a higher strength and lower noise.

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 CUCEK BME 123

CLUTCHES

A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that the driven shaft
may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. The use of a clutch is mostly found
in automobiles. A little consideration will show that in order to change gears or to stop the vehicle, it is
required that the driven shaft should stop, but the engine should continue to run. It is, therefore, necessary
that the driven shaft should be disengaged from the driving shaft. The engagement and disengagement of
the shafts is obtained by means of a clutch which is operated by a lever.

Types of Clutches

Following are the two main types of clutches commonly used in engineering practice:
1. Positive clutches and 2. Friction clutches.

Positive Clutches
The positive clutches are used when a positive drive is required. The simplest type of a positive clutch is
a jaw or claw clutch. The jaw clutch permits one shaft to drive another through a direct contact of
interlocking jaws. It consists of two halves, one of which is permanently fastened to the driving shaft by a
sunk key. The other half of the clutch is movable and it is free to slide axially on the driven shaft, but it is
prevented from turning relatively to its shaft by means of feather key. The jaws of the clutch may be of
square type or of spiral type as shown in Fig.

Friction Clutches
A friction clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts and machines
which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in cases in which power is to
be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of friction is used to start the driven shaft
from rest and gradually brings it up to the proper speed without excessive slipping of the friction
surfaces. In automobiles, friction clutch is used to connect the engine to the drive shaft. In operating such
a clutch, care should be taken so that the friction surfaces engage easily and gradually bring the driven
shaft up to proper speed. The proper alignment of the bearing must be maintained and it should be
located as close to the clutch as possible. It may be noted that:
1. The contact surfaces should develop a frictional force that may pick up and hold the load with
reasonably low pressure between the contact surfaces.
2. The heat of friction should be rapidly dissipated and tendency to grab should be at a minimum.
3. The surfaces should be backed by a material stiff enough to ensure a reasonably uniform distribution
of pressure.

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 CUCEK BME 124

Single Disc or Plate Clutch

A single disc or plate clutch, as shown in Fig, consists of a clutch plate whose both sides are faced with a
frictional material (usually of Ferrodo). It is mounted on the hub which is free to move axially along the
splines of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the clutch body which is bolted to the
flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate with the engine crankshaft or the driving shaft.
The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate towards the flywheel by a set of strong springs which are
arranged radially inside the body. The three levers (also known as release levers or fingers) are carried on
pivots suspended from the case of the body. These are arranged in such a manner so that the pressure
plate moves away from the flywheel by the inward movement of a thrust bearing. The bearing is mounted
upon a forked shaft and moves forward when the clutch pedal is pressed.
When the clutch pedal is pressed down, its linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in
towards the flywheel and pressing the longer ends of the levers inward. The levers are forced to turn on
their suspended pivot and the pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the knife edges, thereby
compressing the clutch springs. This action removes the pressure from the clutch plate and thus moves
back from the flywheel and the driven shaft becomes stationary. On the other hand, when the foot is
taken off from the clutch pedal, the thrust bearing moves back by the levers. This allows the springs to
extend and thus the pressure plate pushes the clutch plate back towards the flywheel.

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 CUCEK BME 125

Questions:

1. Two pulleys, one 450 mm diameter and the other 200 mm diameter, on parallel shafts 1.95 m apart are
connected by a crossed belt. Find the length of the belt required and the angle of contact between the
belt and each pulley.
What power can be transmitted by the belt when the larger pulley rotates at 200 rev/min, if the
maximum permissible tension in the belt is 1 kN, and the coefficient of friction between the belt and
pulley is 0.25?
2. An engine shaft running at 120 r.p.m. is required to drive a machine shaft by means of a belt. The
pulley on the engine shaft is of 2 m diameter and that of the machine shaft is 1 m diameter. If the belt
thickness is 5 mm; determine the speed of the machine shaft, when . there is no slip; and 2. there is a
slip of 3%. [Ans. 239.4 r.p.m. ; 232.3 r.p.m.]
3. A pulley is driven by a flat belt running at a speed of 600 m/min. The coefficient of friction between
the pulley and the belt is 0.3 and the angle of lap is 160°. If the maximum tension in the belt is 700 N;
find the power transmitted by a belt. [Ans. 3.974 kW]
4. An open belt 100 mm wide connects two pulleys mounted on parallel shafts with their centres 2.4 m
apart. The diameter of the larger pulley is 450 mm and that of the smaller pulley 300 mm. The
coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is 0.3 and the maximum stress in the belt is
limited to 14 N/mm width. If the larger pulley rotates at 120 r.p.m., find the maximum power that can
be transmitted. [Ans. 2.387 kW]

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