Female-Headed Households and Livelihood Intervention

in Four Selected Weredas in Tigray, Ethiopia

By Mirutse Desta, Gebregiorgis Haddis, and Selam Ataklt

May 2006

DCG Report No. 44

Female-Headed Households and Livelihood Intervention in Four
Selected Weredas in Tigray, Ethiopia

Endamekoni wereda, 2004

Mirutse Desta
Gebregiorgis Haddis
Selam Ataklt

DCG Report No. 44

May 2006
The Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) is an NGO-driven forum for exchange of practical experiences
and knowledge on food security and natural resource management in the drylands of Africa. DCG facilitates
this exchange of experiences between NGOs and research and policy-making institutions. The DCG
activities, which are carried out by DCG members in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Mali and Sudan, aim to contribute to
improved food security of vulnerable households and sustainable natural resource management in the
drylands of Africa.

The founding DCG members consist of ADRA Norway, CARE Norway, Norwegian Church Aid,
Norwegian People's Aid, The Strømme Foundation and The Development Fund. The secretariat of DCG is
located at the Environmental House (Miljøhuset G9) in Oslo and acts as a facilitating and implementing
body for the DCG. The DCG’s activities are funded by NORAD (the Norwegian Agency for Development
Cooperation).

This study was proposed and carried out by the Women’s Association of Tigray with the financial support from
the Drylands Coordination Group.

Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the DCG secretariat. The
findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this publication are entirely those of the author(s) and
cannot be attributed directly to the Drylands Coordination Group.

©Desta, M., Haddis, G., Ataklt, S., Drylands Coordination Group Report No. 44 (05, 2006)
Drylands Coordination Group c/o Miljøhuset G9
Grensen 9b
N-0159 Oslo
Norway
Tel.: +47 23 10 94 90
Fax: +47 23 10 94 94
Internet: http://www.drylands-group.org

ISSN: 1503-0601

Photo credits: T.A. Benjaminsen, Gry Synnevåg and Selam Atakalt.

Cover design: Spekter Reklamebyrå as, Ås.

Printed at: Mail Boxes ETC.
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...........................................................................................................................................VI
ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................................................. VII
GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS ............................................................................................................................VIII
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................IX
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 ORIGIN OF THE STUDY............................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 APPROACHES AND METHODOLOGIES ................................................................................................... 2
1.4 COVERAGE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................... 3
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT ............................................................................................................ 4
2. EXISTING POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN............................... 5
2.1 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGY ...................................... 5
2.2 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT LED INDUSTRIALIZATION........................................................... 5
2.3 AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY AND STRATEGY ......................................... 6
2.4 THE FOOD SECURITY STRATEGY ............................................................................................................ 6
2.5 THE CAPACITY BUILDING STRATEGY ................................................................................................... 7
2.6 NATIONAL POLICY OF WOMEN ............................................................................................................... 7
2.7 STRATEGIES CONCERNING GRAZING AND AGRO-PASTORALISTS ................................................ 8
2.8 COMMENTS ON THE POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES ................................................. 8
3. LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS.................................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLD HEADSHIPS .................................................................................................... 10
3.2 LIVELIHOOD ASSETS ....................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1 Human Resources ..................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.2 Physical Resources ................................................................................................................................... 14
3.2.3 Financial Resources.................................................................................................................................. 16
3.2.4 Natural Resources..................................................................................................................................... 19
3.3 LIVELIHOOD OUTCOMES ................................................................................................................................. 20
3.3.1 Livelihood Strategies ................................................................................................................................ 20
3.3.2 Vulnerability ............................................................................................................................................. 22
3.3.3 Livelihood Security and Coping................................................................................................................ 24
3.4 INSTITUTIONS............................................................................................................................................ 24
3.4.1 Land Tenure.............................................................................................................................................. 24
3.4.2 Awareness of Women’s Rights and Equality............................................................................................. 25
3.4.3 Women and FHHs’ Enrollment in Local Organizations........................................................................... 25
3.4.4 Market System........................................................................................................................................... 26
4. THE HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY EXTENSION PACKAGE PROGRAM......................................... 28
4.2 INITIATION OF THE FOOD SECURITY PACKAGE PROGRAM ........................................................... 29
4.3 ADOPTION OF THE PROGRAM AT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL ..................................................................................... 29
4.3.1 Criteria for Recruitments .......................................................................................................................... 31
4.3.2 The Food Security Package, Women and FHHs....................................................................................... 32
4.3.3 Reasons for Adoption................................................................................................................................ 34
4.3.4 Modifications Made on the FSP Program at the Household Level........................................................... 35
4.3.5 Opinions on FSP Program at Household Level........................................................................................ 36
4.3.6 Negotiation and Decision-making Power ................................................................................................. 37
4.4 IDENTIFIED GAPS ...................................................................................................................................... 38
4.5 IMPACTS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE FSP.......................................................................................... 39
4.6 SUGGESTIONS OF HHS ON HOW TO IMPROVE LIVELIHOODS OF FHHS.............................................................. 44

5. RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES ............................................................................................................................. 46

5.1 MIGRATION FROM RURAL TO URBAN AREAS ................................................................................... 46
5.2 CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION .......................................................................................................... 47
5.3 THE STRATEGY IN URBAN AREAS ........................................................................................................ 47
6. AVAILABLE DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCES AND ACTIVITIES........................................................... 49
7. CONTRIBUTIONS OF WAT FOR LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENTS ....................................................... 52
7.1 DIRECT DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS .......................................................................................... 53

iii
 7.1.1 The Capacity Building Program ............................................................................................................... 53
7.1.2 Skill Training Programs and Provision of Credit Facilities..................................................................... 53
7.1.3 Formal and Non-formal Education Programs.......................................................................................... 54
7.1.4 Health Related Development Interventions .............................................................................................. 55
7.1.5 Development of the Family Law in Tigray................................................................................................ 55
7.1.6 Involvement of Members in Different Positions........................................................................................ 56
7.1.7 Assistance to Displaced Women and Families.......................................................................................... 56
7.2 ADVOCACY FOR DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS.......................................................................... 56
7.2.1 The Food Security Package Program ....................................................................................................... 57
7.2.2 Environmental Rehabilitation Programs .................................................................................................. 57
7.2.3 Participation of Members in Cooperatives ............................................................................................... 58
7.3 PERCEPTIONS OF FHHS ON WAT’S CONTRIBITION TO LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENTS.............. 59
7.4 IMPACTS ACHIEVED AS THE RESULT OF WAT’S EFFORTS .............................................................. 59
7.5 CURRENT DRAWBACKS AND THREATS TO THE ASSOCIATION ..................................................... 60
8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. 61
8.1 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 61
8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................................... 65
9. REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................................... 68
10. ANNEXES......................................................................................................................................................... 70
ANNEX 1: CASE STUDIES ....................................................................................................................................... 70
ANNEX 2: LIST OF FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANTS ................................................................................................... 80
ANNEX 3: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS IN DISCUSSIONS WITH KEY INFORMANTS .......................................................... 81
ANNEX 5: SUMMARIES OF DISCUSSSIONS .............................................................................................................. 82

iv
List of Tables
TABLE 1 NAMES OF THE STUDY SITES ........................................................................................................................................3
TABLE 2 HOUSEHOLD HEADSHIP COMPOSITIONS .....................................................................................................................10
TABLE 3 MEAN AGE OF RESPONDENTS ....................................................................................................................................11
TABLE 4 HOUSEHOLD SIZE AND COMPOSITIONS ......................................................................................................................11
TABLE 5 EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS ..................................................................................................................12
TABLE 6 CHILD ILLITERACY .....................................................................................................................................................13
TABLE 7 CAUSES OF FEMALE-HEADSHIP ..................................................................................................................................13
TABLE 8 LAND OWNERSHIP......................................................................................................................................................14
TABLE 9 SIZE OF OWNED LAND ...............................................................................................................................................14
TABLE 10 MEAN AND PER CAPITA OF OWNED LAND ................................................................................................................14
TABLE 11 HOUSE OWNERSHIP ..................................................................................................................................................15
TABLE 12 OWNERSHIP OF HOUSEHOLD ITEMS .........................................................................................................................15
TABLE 13 MEAN OF DISTANCE TRAVELED TO SERVICE GIVING INFRASTRUCTURES IN MINUTES ............................................16
TABLE 14 LIVESTOCK OWNERSHIP ...........................................................................................................................................16
TABLE 15 AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF HOUSEHOLDS ......................................................17
TABLE 16 AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE OF FSP AND NON-FSP HOLDERS........................................................................18
TABLE 17 SAVINGS AND REMITTANCES ...................................................................................................................................18
TABLE 18 MAJOR OCCUPATIONS AS IDENTIFIED BY THE RESPONDENTS ..................................................................................20
TABLE 19 ACTIVITY DIVERSIFICATION.....................................................................................................................................21
TABLE 20 RENTING-IN/OUT ARRANGEMENTS...........................................................................................................................21
TABLE 21 HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION GAPS ...........................................................................................................................22
TABLE 22 CAUSES OF FOOD SHORTAGES .................................................................................................................................22
TABLE 23 HAVE HAD INFORMATION ON HIV/AIDS ................................................................................................................23
TABLE 24 RANKING OF COPING STRATEGIES ...........................................................................................................................24
TABLE 25 SECURITY OF OWNERSHIP OF LAND .........................................................................................................................25
TABLE 26 HAVE INFORMATION ON GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS ......................................................................25
TABLE 27 ENROLLMENT OF WOMEN AND FHHS IN LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS...........................................................................26
TABLE 28 ADOPTION OF THE FSP BY THE DIFFERENT ..............................................................................................................30
TABLE 29 AMOUNT OF CREDIT GIVEN IN THE FSP...................................................................................................................30
TABLE 30 TYPES OF ANIMALS BOUGHT WITH THE ...................................................................................................................30
TABLE 31 PREREQUISITES FULFILLED TO BE GIVEN THE FSP PROGRAM LOAN FROM HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS ..........................31
TABLE 32 CRITERIA FOR RECRUITMENT FROM FGDS ..............................................................................................................31
TABLE 33 CRITERIA FOR RECRUITMENT FROM KEY INFORMANT’S INTERVIEWS ......................................................................32
TABLE 34 ISSUES OF PARTICIPATION FROM FGDS....................................................................................................................33
TABLE 35 ISSUES OF PARTICIPATION FROM KEY INFORMANTS’ INTERVIEWS ...........................................................................34
TABLE 36: REASON FOR INVOLVEMENT IN THE FSP.................................................................................................................35
TABLE 37 OPINIONS ON FSP AT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL ...............................................................................................................37
TABLE 38 DECISION-MAKING POWER AT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL..................................................................................................38
TABLE 39 CAPACITY BUILDING TRAINING GIVEN TO MHHS ...................................................................................................38
TABLE 40 CAPACITY BUILDING TRAINING GIVEN TO FHHS ....................................................................................................38
TABLE 41 TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FROM THE MICRO LEVEL ...............................................................................................39
TABLE 42 TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FROM THE MACRO AND MICRO LEVELS ........................................................................39
TABLE 43 CONTRIBUTION OF FSP TO RURAL LIVELIHOODS FROM FGDS ................................................................................40
TABLE 44 CONTRIBUTION OF FSP TO RURAL LIVELIHOODS FROM KEY INFORMANTS’ DISCUSSIONS ......................................43
TABLE 45 SUMMARIES OF RESPONSES OF HHS ON WHAT TO DO TO IMPROVE THE LIVELIHOOD OF FHHS ...............................45
TABLE 46 MIGRATION IN SEARCH OF INCOME OR ....................................................................................................................47
TABLE 47 DEVELOPMENT ACTORS IN THE STUDY WEREDAS AND TABIAS AND THEIR INTERVENTIONS...................................49

List of Figures
FIGURE 1 PERCENTAGE OF DEPENDENT HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS ..............................................................................................12

v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Although too numerous to list here, many organizations and local community members have helped
the team during the study. Most thanks go to the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) and the
Women’s Association of Tigray (WAT) that have designed this study, given us the opportunity to
participate in it, and provided us with constructive comments and suggestions from the beginning
until the finalization of the report. Especially the staff at the head office, particularly W/o Teamrat
Belay, the chairperson, and Ato Kinfe Abraha, the program coordinator of the association have
played an important part by providing us with the appropriate guidance, an office, and the different
necessary office accessories.

The team would like to further extend its acknowledgement and appreciation to the chairpersons of
WAT assigned to the different weredas and tabias. These women contributed a great deal for the
completion on time of the field survey by staying fulltime in the field along with the team in their
respective weredas and tabias. The team is also indebted to the interviewed members of the
community, participants of the different focus group discussions, the key informants, and generally
the different people who provided the team with the required information at the different sites. All
gave their precious time and energy without any reservation and helped the team learn a lot from
the local community.

In the field, the role played by the drivers of WAT, Ato Solomon Halefom and Ato Solomon
Admasie in transporting the targeted people for the study was quite helpful. Their unreserved
contribution for the facilitation of the fieldwork in the selected sites has saved time and energy for
both the study team and the local community members.

Last but by no means least, the members of the study team would like to thank the participants of
the workshop in Mekelle. These people have raised important concerns, comments, and valuable
suggestions that have further enriched the quality of this document. It is therefore contributions of
all the above institutions, parties, and individuals that have helped the team go through the whole
process of the assignment and produce this comprehensive report.

vi
ACRONYMS

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industrialization
BESO Basic Education System Overhaul
BoANR Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources
BoARD Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development
BoFED Bureau of Finance and Economic Development
CFW Cash for Work
CIDA Canadian International Development Assistance
DAs Development Agents
DCG Drylands Coordination Group
DCI Development Cooperation Ireland
DCs Development Cadres
DF Development Fund
DECSI Dedebit Credit and Saving Institution
DFID Department for International Development
DPPC Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission
DVV/IIZ Des Deutchen Volshocheschul- Verbandeses/ Institut Für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (Institute for International Cooperation/ German Adult Education
Association)
EC Ethiopian Calendar
ERTTP Ethiopian Rural Travel and Transport Program
FAL Functional Adult Literacy
FAO Food Agricultural Organization
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic Ethiopia
FFW Food For Work
FGDs Focus Group Discussions
FHHs Female Headed Households
FSP Food Security Package
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GOs Governmental Organizations
GTZ German Technical Cooperation
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IIZ/DVV Institute for International Cooperation/German Adult Education Association
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
MHHs Male Headed Households
MOFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
MSE Micro and Small Enterprises
MSEDA Micro and Small Enterprises Development Agency
NGOs Non-governmental Organizations
PSNP Productive Safety Net Program
SDPRP Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
TBAs Traditional Birth Attendants
TDA Tigray Development Association
TDC Talent Development Consultants
TRDP Tigray Region Development Program
WAT Women’s Association of Tigray
WFP World Food Program

vii
GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS

Atela Left over from a traditional alcoholic drink made from barley
Baito The lowest administrative unit, similar to a village council
Birr Ethiopian currency equivalent to 100 cents denomination
Buda Person traditionally believed to have evil eyes
EC The Ethiopian calendar which counts seven to eight years behind the Gregorian
calendar. An Ethiopian year begins in the month of September of the seventh year
and ends in the month of August of the eighth year of the Gregorian calendar.
Iquib Type of saving or revolving fund arranged by members in a given community
Kushet Sub-tabia (synonymous with village)
Kollo Roasted grain (most commonly from barley)
Mahber A social religious association
Tabia Synonymous with kebele
Teff Grass like crop that produces tiny grains (the staple food in Ethiopia)
Tella Traditional alcoholic drink
Tenquai Person who is believed to practice witchcraft
Teskar Cultural mourning ceremony
Timad A local measurement of farm lands (approximately 0.25 ha)
Wereda Sub-zone administrative structure (district)
Zone Sub-region administrative structure

viii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Tigray region is known for the deeply rooted poverty situation that has caused for the majority
of its inhabitants to be food insecure and malnourished for decades. Many factors are pointed out as
causes for this situation. The commonly mentioned ones are the recurrently occurring drought;
severe physical environmental degradations; very small and fragmented landholdings; very low
levels of investment in the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors; lack of non-farm employment
opportunities; lack of skills and adequate initial capital to run income generating activities; and poor
rural-urban linkages. The major way in which the society managed to bridge its consumption gaps
throughout the years has been through food aid coming from surplus producing countries of the
west. This in turn has, however, engraved a serious attitude of dependency of the society at large.
To change the prevalent situation, different efforts are currently being made in the region by the
federal and regional governments.

Women in the region are estimated to represent about 51% of the entire population and, as is the
case in most developing countries, are the worst victims of poverty. Households, especially those
that are headed by women, are believed to lack the basic assets that could help them survive through
harsh living situations. In this study, the ownership and access of both rural and urban female-
headed households (FHHs) to basic livelihood assets was compared with that of households headed
by men in rural areas. In male-headed households (MHHs), family size was seen to be the largest.
Dependent members were also most common in these types of households. Women’s illiteracy and
a relative lower tendency to send children to school were also recorded to be high in MHHs. In
terms of ownership of large sized land, houses, livestock, and annual expenditure, MHHs showed
better status. However, when considering the size of land owned and annual household expenditure
on per capita terms, FHHs were found to be better-off. The other areas where FHHs were found to
be better than MHHs were in the levels of literacy of children and keeping savings in the form of
cash.

The basic constraint in FHHs was found to be shortage of labor, which forced them to enter into
share-cropping arrangements with men. In order to put the lands that they owned into use, they had
to rent them out to others in the local community. This arrangement along with the drought
situations made these households food insecure for over half of a year, which they over-came
through activity diversification in the non-farm sector, receiving more remittance, reducing the
amount and quality of food consumed, etc. Because of the large family size of MHHs, almost all of
them were found to be encountering food shortages within a year. When women in MHHs were
compared to women in FHHs, the latter were found to be better in terms of levels of literacy, access
to information on gender equality and women’s rights and memberships in different locally found
political and non-political groups.

When looking at the activities of different organizations working for the improved livelihood of the
local community, the Women Association of Tigray (WAT), as an indigenous NGO, was seen to
play a key role in the improvement of the livelihoods of women in Tigray. It designed and
implemented its own direct development programs, projects and activities and also carried out
advocacy activities to secure the rights and a favorable policy environment for women in the region
as a whole. This study further encompassed the attitude and perception of local communities
towards WAT’s development interventions. Almost all that had been consulted in the study warmly
indicated that the association was their vanguard organization in different aspects of their livelihood
situations. Some, however, had indicated that benefits coming from the association were not shared
fairly and that some people were marginalized.

In the focus made to promote secured livelihoods especially in the rural parts of the region, the
household oriented food security package (FSP) program through the provisioning of agricultural
credit had started approximately three years ago. The program envisaged to make the daily income
ix
of the rural society above the poverty line of 1 USD per person within three years from the date of
the individual’s enrollment in the program. 30 % of the total enrollment in this program was
reserved for FHHs. However, in all of the study sites, the participation from FHHs was seen to be
reserved. These households mainly feared being indebted or felt that they did not have the required
skill and labor to succeed with the program. Participants in the conducted focus group discussions
strongly agreed that the tactfulness of FHHs in the management and proper utilization of the
package credit excelled as compared to that of MHHs. These women were said to be empowered
with respect to socio-economic and decision-making aspects while women in MHHs were pictured
as relatively weaker and dependent upon their respective spouse.

However, with regard to benefiting from the FSP program, MHHs were seen to take the upper hand
since most of the development activities of the program were labor intensive and too cumbersome
for women in FHHs. Although too early to relate changes in livelihood to the FSP program, the
annual household expenditure of the different types of households that had enrolled in the program
and those that had not was compared. The expenditure of FHHs that have not taken credit from the
package program was found to be significantly lower than FHHs that had enrolled and MHHs that
had both enrolled and not enrolled in the program.

According to the assessment made in the study sites and observations of the team, there were
several positive aspects of the FSP program under implementation. Both men and women
participants of the focus group discussions had admitted that there were changes the program had
brought in the livelihoods of rural households. The positive contribution of the program in fact was
not felt only by the people that were involved. Many of the households that were not enrolled in the
package program but who were made to be participants of the discussions had also underlined the
benefits the program has brought about. Some of the highlighted points were: increase in the
number of livestock owned, improved access to the products of these livestock, and improved
access to draft power that had been the long time constraint of the agrarian society. Additional
income was made possible through cultivation of vegetables. Participants also indicated that the
work culture of the society had improved because of the FSP program.

Nevertheless, participants had in addition pointed out that there were areas in the program that
needed to be improved. The dissatisfactions that were forwarded by the different respondents
included mainly issues of interest and capacity of the beneficiaries. Some cases were highlighted
where obligatory mechanisms were used to make households adopt the FSP program. In general,
suggestions were made on ways to make the FSP program flexible as to accommodate individuals’
interests and capabilities. Furthermore, the non-participatory nature of the strategy at the period of
the study was strongly critiqued. During interviews with macro level officials, it was openly
admitted that the community members were not given the opportunity to participate in the designing
stage of the program. Apart from this, the other point that was made was related to the almost
inexistent efforts towards follow up, monitoring and evaluation of either the positive or the negative
effects of the program. Weak coordination was also observed among the government and the local
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) responsible for the implementation of the program.

In general, the different development interventions including the FSP program were seen to serve
the relatively better-off and stronger segment of the local community. Most of the development
activities that were identified at the grassroots level were not designed in such a way as to offer
anything in particular for people that are old and can no longer work in the agricultural field; and
the extremely poor section of the community. The reason given for the exclusion of these groups
from the FSP program was their incapability to repay the credit they would be given. Such an
outlook, however, will have serious negative consequences on the envisaged poverty reduction if
immediate reformative actions are not taken to correct it.

In summary, the following conclusions can be made about the FSP program.

x
In principle, setting the benchmarks, the arrangements of the program components and the training
programs being carried out are acceptable. The program is designed and implemented to reduce the
degree of poverty within a relatively short time span. In the process of implementation, however,
the following problems are identified:

• One of the serious problems raised in the field was that the beneficiaries in the local
community did not participate in the design of the extension package program.
• Quotas were given to tabia level Development Agents (DAs). They were also applied in a
rush without making adequate explanations and clarifications to the people in the rural areas.
• In some places of the study areas, people who did not take the FSP credit could not
participate in the safety net program. This strategy was strictly implemented in Genfel.
• In the same wereda, honey production was taken as the central activity of the FSP program
and beehives were given to the program beneficiaries on an obligatory basis.
• Efforts made to monitor and evaluate the trends and achievements of the program did not
match up to the ambitions held at the outset. There was no as such organized government
body in place that could take adequate monitoring and evaluation actions.
• As the situation at the grassroots level indicates, there seemed to be a lack of proper
integration and coordination among the three bodies responsible for the FSP program (i.e.,
the local government, REST, and the food security coordination office).
• Older people who could not work and the extremely poor segment of the community were
not made to benefit from the program. Moreover, there was no other option made available
to them.
• There were problems in the timely dispersion of the necessary resources, inputs, and
technical assistance.
• Apart from that, local community members were not confident that they would be able to
get the expected outcome from the FSP program since almost the entire package
components depended highly on the availability of moisture.
• The Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) was in the process of implementation as a
supporting strategy for the success of the FSP program over five years. However, in the
event that reaching food self sufficiency is not possible by the end of the fifth year, people
will have no other option but to consume the assets they have accumulated as a result of the
FSP bringing them back to the vulnerable position they were initially in.

In general, the following key recommendations can be forwarded so as to improve the planning as
well as the implementation of the different development programs in the region.
• The provision of credit should be demand driven.
• Livelihood improvement strategies forwarded to the community at the grassroots level
should be based on the interests and the capabilities of those people aimed to benefit from
the program.
• It also appears recommendable to design a package program that specifically targets FHHs
considering the capabilities of such households.
• People found at the grassroots level have to be properly oriented and taught on the
appropriate management techniques of the components of the package program. The
training programs being arranged and carried out should be focus more on practical aspects
rather than on general theoretical ones.
• During the process of implementation and management of the interventions, strong
mechanisms of follow up, monitoring, and evaluation have to be developed and applied with
the authentic participation of the local community members.
• Region, wereda and tabia level government officials should work closely together. There
have to be frequent meetings and discussion forums in order to resolve important issues and
circulate up-to-date information among themselves.

xi
• Accurate information regarding the overall procedure, i.e., the adoption and the components
included, the progress made, the expected outcomes, and the stages of development should
be made known to the package program implementers at the grassroots level such as DAs.
• Local community members in particular have to be provided with the correct information
about the development interventions to be planned and implemented in their surroundings
and that will directly or indirectly affect their livelihoods.
• It is also quite important to disperse the required inputs and resources at the right time. If
this is not possible, information should be given to the beneficiaries in time so that they can
make their own alternative decisions.
• The quota approach of the FSP program should be implemented only after making the
required assessment of not only the agro-ecological situations of the physical environment
but also of the work culture, general attitudes, and psychological readiness of the targeted
society.
• Appropriate incentives have to be offered to the employees working at the grassroots level.
Otherwise, the large amount of investments being made to create improved livelihoods will
be futile without the committed services of the important practitioners in the field.
• Further education on the seriousness of HIV/AIDS is crucial in ways that are easily
comprehendible by the local community members.
• As most of the development activities currently taking place tend to over-look the old, the
handicapped, the weak, and the extremely poor section of the society, special mechanisms
have to be designed to support these people.
• Training programs arranged by WAT should be carried out based on the interests of the
members. Training contents should also be revised so as to make the activities offered new,
attractive, and with better revenue to make the members and FHHs self sufficient.

xii
 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

1. INTRODUCTION

In the country as a whole, stronger and committed steps are being taken to reduce the poverty
situation that had been prevalent for centuries. Ethiopia is taking part in the vision shared
internationally to halve world poverty by 2015. Tigray is one of the regions where the situation of
poverty is seen to be most severe. The region is represented by a high food insecurity situation
emanating from a number of factors such as recurrent droughts, degraded natural resources, limited
land size as compared to the size of the population, and declining soil fertility. The majority of the
inhabitants are agrarian and depend on rain-fed agricultural production system for subsistence. The
return is, however, extremely low and unable to satisfy the food demands of the local community.

To achieve poverty reduction, different development policies, programs, and activities are
underway in the different parts of the region. The household oriented FSP program, which had
started in 2002, is one such a strategy being implemented in the rural areas. It contains a range of
components designed to fit varying agro-ecological zones and different categories of households.
Other strategies being extensively applied include different development activities such as water
harvesting techniques like watershed management; river diversions; construction of micro-dams,
water wells, and ponds; conservation of soil from loss; afforestation programs; etc. Nevertheless,
all these strategies have not yet managed to make rural and urban households food self-sufficient.
The poverty situation of FHHs in particular is seen to be more severe, which stems basically from
the shortage of decisive livelihood assets in these households such as land, livestock, labor, etc.

While the different development interventions are being implemented, it is important to evaluate the
attitudes of local people and the outcomes being reflected on their livelihoods. In the same line,
considering the importance of the FSP program in rural areas, there is a need to assess its impacts,
implications and the trends being seen in the different types of households involved in the program.
An understanding of the causes of discrepancies in accessing benefits from on-going development
activities among the different types of households is also critical in order to avoid the
marginalization of women and other weaker portions of the society.

Studies and assessments done on FHHs particularly in Ethiopia portray these households as
voiceless and powerless. Such differences found between MHHs and FHHs, between women in the
FHHs and women in the MHHs deserve some exploring. The concern of the current study lies,
therefore, on the investigation of discrepancies among different types of households with regard to
livelihood options, adoption and benefit from the FSP program, urban-rural linkages, and benefits
from other development interventions. The field survey was carried out within September 13 –26,
2005 by a group of three consultants that were well familiar with the area under study.

1.1 ORIGIN OF THE STUDY

The initiator of the current study was WAT. The association had conducted another review entitled
Female Headed Households in Tigray in 2004 that aimed at recording and documenting the
availability of information on the situation of FHHs in the region. In this review, it was
documented that there was shortage of hard data and analytical research about the prevalence and
the situation of FHHs in Tigray (Meehan, 2004). For this reason, WAT designed the current study
which focused on the assessment of the available development interventions, in particular the FSP,
in relation to the livelihoods of FHHs. On the overall, by executing such a study, WAT expected to
create a better understanding of how on-going interventions were being perceived by and benefiting
FHHs.

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Drylands Coordination Group

With the financial support of the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) and the Development Fund
(DF), the association was able to conduct the survey to be able to bridge the gaps identified.

To meet the set out objectives, WAT hired three consultants who were well-familiar with the region
and the topic under study in order to carry out the field surveys, interviews, the overall data
gathering, analysis and write up. The three consultants carried out the assignment being guided by
the ToR developed by WAT. The task WAT took on at this stage was that of facilitating and
creating the awareness on the surveys being undertaken in the different areas in order to get the
support of concerned offices. Apart from such facilitation, WAT did not take part in the field data
gathering, data analysis or write-up. The findings and interpretations are solely that of the
consultants, although some feedback from WAT was obtained and incorporated after the
submission of the first draft of this report and during the workshop held at Mekelle on December
17, 2005.

1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The overall purpose of the study as highlighted in the terms of reference is to identify what
development assistance and interventions are made available to the FHHs of the Tigray region. In
particular the study tries to look at how rural FHHs perceive and assess the FSP program developed
and offered by the regional government and by so doing to come up with recommendations in order
to make both the underway development interventions and the policy framework more relevant for
the livelihoods of FHHs.

The subsidiary development objectives of the study are to:

• Describe the livelihood options open for both urban and rural FHHs in the region and how
these differ from that of MHHs;
• Assess the level of FHHs’ uptake and rejection of the FSP program;
• Assess rural urban-linkages and their impacts on the livelihood of FHHs; and
• Assess the gender aspects of the development interventions being planned and implemented
in the different parts of the region.

1.3 APPROACHES AND METHODOLOGIES

In carrying out the study, the team followed different approaches and methodologies. For primary
data collection, the methods and approaches used were:
• Structured and semi-structured questionnaires for qualitative and quantitative information
collection;
• Key informants’ interviews and group discussions with various people holding woreda and
tabia level administrative positions;
• Focus group discussions (FGDs) with local community members (with the group
comprising of both men and women) and case studies at tabia levels;
• Furthermore, participatory observation while in the field has helped to enrich the collected
information.

Secondary data were collected by reviewing different literature, studies and assessments conducted
in the region, and documents on the current national and regional policies that were guiding the on-
going development interventions of the country as a whole.

The analysis of the data was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. In
general, an attempt has been made to give balanced information with both quantitative and
qualitative nature in the report. The qualitative information that was mostly gathered from key
informants’ interviews and FGDs are presented in table formats. One precautionary point the reader
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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

has to bear in mind while reading the tables is that most of the comments are put as directly
forwarded by the respondents. Therefore, this deliberate lack of modification of the information
given in the tables should not be interpreted as inconsistency and negligence on the side of the study
team.

The paper further includes most of the comments and suggestions obtained from WAT, DCG, and
the participants at the validation workshop held at Mekelle on December 17, 2005.

1.4 COVERAGE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The study was carried out in four selected administrative weredas of Tigray. The weredas were
Atsibi-Womberta and Kilte-Awlaelo from the Eastern Zone, and Raya-Azebo and Hintalo-Wejerat
from the Southern Zone of the region. From the four administrative weredas, four rural tabias and
four adjacent towns were included as parts of the study sites.
Table 1 Names of the Study Sites

Zone Eastern Southern

Wereda Atsibi-Womberta Kilte-Awlaelo Raya-Azebo Hintalo-Wejerat
Rural Sites Barkadisibha Genfel Tsigea-Wargba Bahri-Tseba
Urban Sites Endaselasie Agulae Mehoni Adigudom

Overall, a total of 363 people have been contacted as information source during the field survey.
This included the following (see list of participants attached to the end of the document as annex 3).
• 117 FHHs for individual interviews from the four rural tabias (63 enrolled in the FSP
program and 54 not enrolled).
• 39 MHHs for individual interviews from the rural tabias (19 enrolled in the program and 20
not enrolled). In this case the wives within MHHs were contacted for the interviews.
• 10 rural FHHs that have enrolled in the program were invited for group discussions from
each site.
• 12 rural FHHs were recruited for case studies 8 of whom have enrolled in the program and 4
have not enrolled.
• 10 rural households (5 FHHs and 5 MHHs) that have enrolled in the program were invited
from each tabia for group discussions. For these group discussions, the MHHs were
represented by the male household heads.
• 4 key informants were invited from each tabia administration comprising the rural
development head, the tabia chairpersons of WAT, development agent and home agent for
final discussion and debriefing purposes. Except for the tabia chairpersons of WAT and
home agents, the rest of the informants were male.
• From the adjacent towns of the rural study sites, 79 FHHs were interviewed.
• 5 key informants were contacted from each wereda administration comprising of the rural
development head, the wereda chairperson for WAT, the wereda chairperson for the
women’s affairs bureau, head of the wereda office of Micro and Small Enterprises (MSE)
and the home agent of the respective weredas for final discussion and debriefing purposes.
Within these groups, the wereda chairpersons for WAT, the wereda chairpersons for the
women’s affairs bureau, and the home agents were women.

The people interviewed for the structured and non-structured questionnaires were selected through a
random sampling technique from the lists available in the respective tabias. Nevertheless, it has to
be kept in mind that the Tigray region has 34 rural administrative weredas. From these, the field
assessment was carried out in only four of the weredas. The information collected from these sites
is not adequate to represent the whole region or explain the current situations of the livelihoods of
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Drylands Coordination Group

FHHs in general. Another limitation of the study is that some of the questions asked required
respondents to recollect past events, amount of agricultural production, monthly/annual incomes
and monthly/annual expenditures. This information might not be accurate since it is based on
estimation and memory of the respondent.

In addition to the above, it has only been three years since the FSP program started in Tigray. Thus,
the time is quite short to bring about significant changes in the livelihoods of the people that have
enrolled in the program. It might therefore be misleading to make completely conclusive assertions
about the changes made in the livelihoods of the households or the gaps identified in the program.
However, a study as this one helps to see the trend in the development of the program so that
reformative actions can be taken at an earlier stage.

1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

This report comprises seven major sections. The first section of the report provides the preamble of
the document, the origin of the study, the overall and the subsidiary development objectives, the
approaches and methodologies followed, and the coverage as well as limitations of the study.
Section two concentrates on the existing national policies and development strategies while
stressing their practical implications on the livelihoods of women in general and FHHs in particular.
Section three focuses mainly on the comparison of the livelihood options open to rural and urban
FHHs, and between FHHs and MHHs. Section four of the report presents discussions on the
household oriented FSP program. It discusses the initiations, the criteria applied, the approaches
followed, the development impacts achieved and the implications as well as the gaps of the program
as perceived by the group under study. This section forms the main body of the report and contains
detailed discussions as well as major findings of the assessment. Section five of the report deals
with the identified rural-urban linkages in the surveyed areas. This is mainly with regard to rural-
urban migrations of the households and the impacts that come with it. Section six is mainly on the
available rural development programs, projects, activities as well as assistance in the different
consulted weredas and tabias. Under section seven, a brief presentation is made on the overall
contributions of WAT in the livelihood improvement of women and FHHs. This section tries to
highlight the development activities carried out by the association, the government and other rural
development programs; the impressions of members themselves and the advantages women can
draw from the organization. Section eight finalizes the report by making some concluding remarks
and key recommendations on the possible areas of improvement in the ongoing livelihood centered
development activities of the region.

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

2. EXISTING POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

FOR WOMEN

Since the change of government in May 1991, a number of national policies and development
strategies have been formulated that contributed a lot to facilitate the endeavors of economic
growth, social development, technological progress and cultural advancement of the nation. The
decentralization policy has, for instance, been formulated with aims to devolve power with a full
fiscal decentralization to the wereda level administration structures of the different regions of the
country. The civil service reform has also been formulated aiming at improving the efficiency of
the civil service to effectively implement the government’s policies and development strategies.

There are also a number of programs such as the human resource development program, the rural
development program, the urban development and the industrialization program which are under
implementation at the moment. The central theme of these reformulated strategies and programs is
the reduction of the severe poverty situation of the country. Although the time factor could not
allow for the revision of all the reformulated strategies of the country, an attempt will be made in
the following section to look at some of the pertinent ones, which are directly related to the current
study.

2.1 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGY

Poverty at its broadest sense can be conceived as a state of deprivation of decent human life. It is
caused by lack of resources and capabilities to acquire basic human needs as seen in many mutually
reinforcing parameters, which include malnutrition, ignorance, prevalence of diseases, weak
physical conditions, squalid surroundings, high infant, child and maternal mortality rates, low life
expectancy, low per capita income, poor quality housing, inadequate clothing, low utilization
capacity of technology, serious environmental degradation, high rates of
unemployment/underemployment, high rural-urban migrations and poor communications, etc.
(FDRE and MOFED, 2002).

The poverty situation in Ethiopia is a complex and deeply rooted phenomenon. If such a situation is
to be reversed, committed and integrated actions with the appropriate planning and mobilization of
resources have to be taken. As a remedy to this poverty situation, the federal government of
Ethiopia formulated a strategic paper that focused on poverty reduction in 2002. The objective of
this document (Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program – SDPRP) is to build a
free-market economy system in the country, which will enable the economy to develop rapidly and
to extricate itself from dependency on food aid that comes from the surplus producing countries of
the world (FDRE and MOFED, 2002). Given that poverty reduction will continue to be the core of
the agenda of the county's development, the strategy was built on four pillars (building blocks).
These are: Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI), Justice system and civil service
reform, decentralization and empowerment, and capacity building in public and private sectors.
Some of these ‘building blocks’ are presented below. A general comment is also found in the last
section of this chapter that critiques these development policies and strategies in relation to their
importance and applicability with regard to the livelihoods of women and FHHs.

2.2 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT LED INDUSTRIALIZATION

As indicated above, poverty reduction has been and still is the overriding development agenda of
Ethiopia since 1991 as opposed to the situations prior to that. As one of the country’s main pillars
for tackling the serious poverty situation, Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI),
presents agriculture as the starting point for initiating the structural transformation of the economy
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Drylands Coordination Group

as a whole. The intention of the strategy is to focus on creating suitable conditions for national food
self-sufficiency within the country. This strategy places agricultural production at the forefront of
economic growth with the development of related agro-industrial practices. This was first translated
into an input-based agricultural extension program, which did not stipulate growth in production to
a great extent. ADLI as a reform strategy measures the liberalization and the stabilization of efforts
and prudence exhibited in the macroeconomic management and programs that have been pursued
by the federal government (FRDE and MOFED, 2002).

As Ethiopia is a predominantly agrarian country, ADLI focuses on the development of the rural
sector. ADLI also focuses on the development of large-scale private commercial farms. In the
strategy, it is indicated that the development of agriculture helps expand the market for domestic
manufacture implying increased income for smallholders. ADLI is generally seen as a long-term
strategy to achieve faster economic growth and development. This is sought by making use of
appropriate technologies that are more labor intensive practices and applications. During the initial
stages of ADLI, agriculture is to play a leading role in the growth and development of the economy.
But the extremely small ratio of urbanization of the country threatens to make inadequacy of
domestic demand a critical constraint. This implies that agriculture has to be made internationally
competitive and that part of its production has to be oriented towards exports.

2.3 AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY AND STRATEGY

Based on ADLI as the rural development strategy, the government issued the Rural Development
Policy and Strategy in 2002. Rural development is not confined solely to agricultural development.
It rather embraces several different rural development sectors and activities outside the sector of
agriculture. These include education, health, attainment of food security, capacity building, rural
electrification, rural transport and communication networks, the supply of clean water for
consumption and sanitation, conservation of natural resources and the like. In the context of the
nation, however, agricultural development still remains the core activity in rural development
endeavors. The basic reason to include all other sectors and activities as part and parcel of the rural
development strategy is that efforts made in agriculture and rural development cannot be rapid and
sustainable unless and otherwise complemented by simultaneous development initiatives
undertaken in the non-agricultural sectors. The basic goal of the agriculture and rural development
strategy is to ensure accelerated economic growth to the optimum benefits of the people at all
levels, the freeing of the nation from dependency, and the creation of free market economy. The
strategy focuses on the attainment of sustainable and accelerated development through the efficient
utilization of key natural resources such as land and labor.

In the strategy, it is pointed out that agriculture needs to be labor intensive. This is in order to make
the nation self-reliant by making proper use of the existing development potentials. The strategy
focuses on the development of human resources in particular by promoting good work ethics,
training programs and education. The economic development strategy in general and the rural and
agricultural development strategy in particular are based, therefore, on building the productive
capacity of the labor force of the country.

2.4 THE FOOD SECURITY STRATEGY

Food insecurity is the dominant feature observed in almost all rural households in Ethiopia. To
address this food insecurity situation, the first version of the food security strategy was developed in
November 1996 and again revised in 2002 based on the lessons learned within the period that it was
under implementation. The overall objective of this strategy is to ensure food security at the
household level by targeting the chronically food insecure, moisture deficit and pastoral areas of the
country (FDRE, 2002). As a deviation from the 1996 strategy, clear focus was made on
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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

environmental rehabilitation as a measure to reverse the level of degradation of natural resources

and at the same time on source of income for food insecure households through their involvement in
the different rehabilitation activities being undertaken. In order to increase food production in good
moisture areas, the revised strategy tries to diffuse simple technology packages to smallholder
farmers via extension programs. The strategy tries to build the availability of and entitlement to
adequate food supply both at the national and the household level. Accordingly, the food security
strategy aims to:
• Increase the availability of food through increased domestic production;
• Ensure access to food for food deficit households; and
• Strengthen emergency response capacities.

The actual situation in Tigray, however, still is such that the problem of food insecurity is
aggravating overtime due to different natural and manmade factors. A research conducted on the
women of the region regarding their opportunities, constraints, and overall livelihood condition
states ‘an increasing proportion of the population has been facing food insecurity despite the
increased agricultural production and considerable external food aid. A combination of factors
have resulted in serious and growing problem of food insecurity in Ethiopia: Adverse climate
changes combined with high population pressure, environmental degradation, decline in the size of
per capita land holding…’ (Hagos, Mulugeta et al., 2005).

2.5 THE CAPACITY BUILDING STRATEGY

In the context of Ethiopia, capacity building is the creation of suitable conditions so that people are
able to exploit the different resources of the country; manufacture different tools, implements and
equipments to facilitate the process of implementation and hence improve the production and
productivity of the various sectors; and at the same time to facilitate the services of service
rendering institutions (FDRE, 2003). The overall goal of this strategy is to build the necessary
capacity of the human resource that Ethiopia has in abundance, in order to produce competent
manpower that can work towards the implementation of other national and sectoral development
objectives derived from the overall development strategy of the country. The content and the
horizon of the strategy are hence determined by its contribution towards the achievements of this
overall development strategy. The major focus of the strategy is on the following four areas:
• Carrying out multi-dimensional capacity building works in different aspects;
• Properly coordinating the capacity building works of the different areas;
• Harmonizing the capacity building works with the changing circumstances; and
• First building the capacity of capacity building institutions.

The strategy stresses the efforts to be exerted in order to build the capacity of the nation to be able
to implement its own development objectives, programs, and projects. In the Tigray region some
weaknesses in the implementation of this strategy are observed that mainly relate to the lack of
adequate skilled human resources, weak institutional set up, and lack of the necessary equipment in
the different government institutions and offices.

2.6 NATIONAL POLICY OF WOMEN

During previous governance regimes, although women in Ethiopia were actively involved in
productive activities, the majority of them were barred from owning any means of production. The
discriminatory political, economic and social rules and regulations prevailing in the country had
prevented them from enjoying the fruits of their labor. They were unable to perform public
functions in their communities and could not participate in the development of policies and
development strategies in the country. Nevertheless, since the change of government in 1991,
recognition was given to women in that since they constituted a larger proportion of the labor force
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Drylands Coordination Group

of the country’s economy, it was unthinkable to have sustainable development without their active
participation in the process. Therefore, the National Policy of Women (women’s policy) was issued
in 1993 with objectives focusing on:
• The facilitation of favorable conditions to speed up equality between men and women so
that they can participate in the economic, political, and social aspects of the country on
equal basis with men so as to ensure their rights to own property and other human rights;
• The facilitation of the necessary conditions whereby rural women can have access to basic
social services and to ways and means of easing their workload; and
• The elimination of prejudice and customary and other practices that are based on the idea of
male supremacy which will enable women to hold public office and participate in decision-
making in the process of development.

(FDRE and World Bank, 1998)

With the realization that problems arising from gender discrimination are not the problems of
women alone, the national government is working towards the active participation of both gender
groups in the creation of a conducive environment that will ensure the promotion of the capacities
of women as well as secure their rights.

2.7 STRATEGIES CONCERNING GRAZING AND AGRO-PASTORALISTS

The problem of food insecurity is also the problem of the agro-pastoralists of the country. This
problem mainly arises from the shortage of water for both humans and animals. Although some of
these places have a good surface and ground water potential, due to the lack of skills in exploiting
the available resource for irrigation development it is quite difficult to successfully promote
agricultural production. Due to such reasons, people residing in lowland areas of the country are
obliged to move from place to place in search of grass and water for their animals. The government
of Ethiopia has given this problem of agro-pastoralists due attention by developing strategies that
focus on their livelihoods. Nevertheless, since the mode of agricultural production found in Tigray
is sedentary and mixed where dependence is not entirely put on livestock production, the strategies
as a whole that are concerned with agro-pastoralism are not relevant to the region under
consideration. Nevertheless, issues related with feed for animals, resettlement program, and
development of irrigation schemes are the concerns of Tigray region as well.

The establishment of large-scale commercial agriculture is also recommended in the sparsely

populated areas, particularly in the northwestern and southern zones of the region. Expansion of the
livestock production at household level currently is a major component within the ongoing FSP
program. Efforts being made seem to incline towards building the asset base of rural households
which include increased livestock holding for these households. In order to make the FSP succeed
due attention should also be given to the carrying capacity of the land together with feed
development practices. Zero grazing is being introduced to the region to combat problems
associated with over-grazing. Nevertheless, this would not be an easy task in a society that regards
large cattle herds as indicators of wealth, respect, and prestige.

2.8 COMMENTS ON THE POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

The national policies and development strategies mentioned so far have their own implications on
the efforts being exerted for the reduction and ultimate eradication of poverty situation. They also
have implications on the livelihood improvements of women in general and that of the FHHs in
particular. The attempt to make women beneficiaries of development strategies is better reflected in
the FSP program in that at regional level women particularly FHHs are assumed to constitute 30 %
of the total beneficiaries. In almost all efforts being done nowadays, gender issues are getting some
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attention. In the recently held election in the country, for instance, an increased proportion of
women were seen competing for the various seats in the different administrative hierarchies and
managerial positions.

Nevertheless, even though some of the national policies (as the national policy of women) give
special attention to gender issues, at the implementation stage these commitments are rarely seen
being practiced (FDRE, 2002: Food Security Strategy). It is obvious that poverty experiences differ
across the gender groups. Studies have long indicated that poverty situations are not experienced
and reacted towards in the same manner by men and women. However, almost all of the
development strategies of the country including those mentioned above (excluding the national
policy on women and the food security strategy) appear to be oblivious to the discrepancies of the
effect of poverty among men and women. Hence, the strategies developed are mostly meant to
serve the general population irrespective of their relevance and applicability to the actual living
situation of the different gender groups. The development strategies do not exert an adequate effort
to mainstream gender thinking in the planning and implementation stages. For instance, a
preliminary report prepared by the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development in Tigray
(BoFED) in close cooperation with the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) has indicated that
‘the result oriented appraisal of the civil service reform discriminates against maternity leaves,
contradicting the national policy of women’ (2005: 63). These strategies do not specifically
indicate what and how things should be operated for change and adequate indicators are not
established for the measurement of the expected results achieved in the improvement of livelihoods.

Policies that focus on the utilization of natural resources such as grazing areas also do not
acknowledge that households may differ on the modes with which they use these resources. For
instance the cut and carry system being introduced in the region in order to remedy the sever
scarcity of grazing areas has different outcomes in a FHH and a MHH. As will be highlighted under
the section that addresses issues related to natural resources (sec 3.2.4), the labor shortage
encountered in rural FHHs has implications on the extent to which these households are able to
utilize the resources from their pieces of lands. Since FHHs give up almost the entire crop residue
from their farms to the men plowing their lands as they enter into share cropping arrangements, they
will not have any feed to cut and transport in order to supply to their livestock. This makes
households that enter such kind of plowing arrangements totally dependent on communal grazing
areas as source of feed for their livestock. But if enclosures are widely being practiced to prevent
grazing in these areas, some households may be exposed to a critical shortage of feed for their
animals. Hence, the policies to combat desertification and drought should be developed taking such
kind of discrepancies into consideration.

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Drylands Coordination Group

3. LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS

In the pursuit of their livelihoods, the options that people have depend upon their ownership and
access to resources, the environmental situation created by the present institutions and processes,
and their ability to utilize these in order to derive the livelihood outcomes they aspire to. From
these, assets serve as the basic building blocks upon which households are able to undertake
production, engage in labor markets, and participate in reciprocal exchange with other households
(Ellis and Freeman, 2004). Different circumstances may limit the ability of a household to own or
have access to a wide array of resources. Since it has an implication on the possible strategies and
outcomes, the status of FHHs and other households in terms of ownership of different assets has
been investigated.

3.1 COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLD HEADSHIPS

Different study documents have indicated the composition of household headships to be on average
about 30% women headed as opposed to 70% men headed in the Tigray region (Mulat and G/her
2002, Meehan 2005) with a range of variations from wereda to wereda. In a recent study on socio-
economic situation of women in the region conducted in 12 sample weredas with 1500 sample
households, the share of FHHs is found to be 40% (Hagos, et al 2005). An attempt has been made
to collect the composition of household heads in the sample weredas. The finding is within the
range of existing knowledge. Although dependable data is lacking in the two weredas, the portion
of FHHs is found to be about 32% in Hintalo-Wejerat wereda and 33% in Kilte-Awlaelo wereda.

Table 2 Household Headship Compositions

No. Wereda FHH MHH Total
No. Share % No. Share % No. Share
1 Kilte-Awlaelo 7157 33.02 14518 66.98 21675 100
2 Hintalo-Wejerat 6356 31.63 13736 68.37 20092 100
Total
Source: data collected from respective wereda

Apart from being a comparative figure, the headship type also has some social and economic
implications that have significant meanings in relation to livelihoods. The largest portion of the
poorest of the poor of the society in the region is assumed to be FHHs. Various societal analyses
have come up with findings that portray FHHs to be with a relatively lower possession as compared
to their MHHs counterparts. The findings of this study are in line with the already existing
information with regard to the livelihood situations of FHHs as could be understood from the details
presented subsequently.

3.2 LIVELIHOOD ASSETS

3.2.1 Human Resources

Available human resources within a household in terms of quantity and quality are among the
determinant factors in shaping livelihood situations. Elements that come under the human capital
components such as skill, knowledge, active labor, health and the like highly influence the ability of
households to acquire more income through purchasing various livelihood strategies and
concomitantly to withstand shocks. In view of this, the following features are identified in the
surveyed households.

Demography
The mean age of the heads in the sampled FHHs and the wives in MHHs were found to be

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comparable with the youngest mean age recorded in urban FHHs and oldest mean age for rural
FHHs.

Table 3 Mean Age of Respondents

The age range was the widest in rural FHHs (17 - 77), Mean Age
followed by age ranges of 20 – 66 in urban FHHs and 18 – 6 Rural MHHs 35.9
in rural MHHs. Rural FHHs 36.7
Urban FHHs 34.1

Although it is very difficult to make conclusions based on the age ranges recorded in the household
category, some possible explanations may be drawn from the information collected particularly for
the urban FHHs. The average mean age of urban FHHs being the youngest as compared to the rural
households may indicate that more younger ladies tend to flow to urban areas than relatively older
ones. On the other hand, divorces, separations and similar events may take place more at a younger
age in the urban than in the rural areas. As indicative of labor availability and dependency, average
family size and family composition was computed. The average family size of FHHs in both rural
and urban areas was found to be similar and small as compared to the average family size in rural
MHHs.

Table 4 Household Size and Compositions

Mean Size of Female Mean Size of Male
Households Mean Family Size Household Members Household Members
Rural MHHs 5.64 3.1 2.6
Rural FHHs 3.96 2.5 1.5
Urban FHHs 3.89 2.5 1.4

Even if not all the members in the interviewed households were necessarily in the working age
range at the time of the interview, the presence of male and female members had an implication on
the present and future labor availability of the households. The gender composition of the different
households in the rural and urban areas was such that the lowest average number of male household
members was recorded for urban FHHs, while the average size of female members was the highest
in rural MHHs.

The average family size recorded for the MHHs in this study is within the range of what has been
indicated in previous studies. Melaku (2003), for instance, has documented that the average family
size of MHHs for the two study weredas, i.e., Atsibi-Womberta and Raya-Azebo varied from 5 –
5.8.

Although it cannot be supported with hard data, according to the observation of the team during the
field work, the state of not being married was not a guarantee for a static family size. In fact, there
was a common tendency among the women to still have children after they become divorced,
widowed, and before marriage. The motivation for such a behavior was commonly a hope from the
women’s side to get support from the men involved. In some instances, women who do not have
the capacity to hire-in labor to plow their plots of land felt that if they bore children for a certain
man, that he would feel responsible to plow their lands for the sake of his children. However, this
tendency will lead to an uncontrollable population growth. These households should thus not only
be included but also have to be the primary focus in the family planning efforts along with MHHs.

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Drylands Coordination Group

In this study, dependent referred to underage children, elderly people who do not work and other
household members/children who have no occupation due to health or other reasons. FHHs showed
high percentage for a single dependent household member. As the number of dependent household
members increased, higher percentages were recorded in MHHs. Such features should be
attributable to the family size MHHs are having as compared to other household categories. Similar
findings are documented in other studies too (Melaku, 2003).

45
40
35
30
Rural MHHs
P e rc e n ta g e

25
Rural FHHs
20
Urban FHHs
15
10
5
0
None 1 2 3 4 5
Number of dependent members

Figure 1 Percentage of Dependent Household Members

Literacy
In the country in general, the literacy rate is documented to be only 29%. The rate for women is
even lower, 20% as compared to 40% for men (FDRE and MoFED, 2002). In Tigray, illiteracy
level accounts for 86.3%, which is considered significantly higher than even standards in other sub-
Saharan African countries (Wilberg, 2004). In this study, the illiteracy rate was the highest for
women in MHHs as compared to rural and urban FHHs. Moreover, in urban households illiteracy
rates were found to be the lowest, which could be attributed to the better access to educational
institutions in urban areas.

Table 5 Educational Status of Respondents

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Illiterate 27 69 71 61 32 40
Church education 0 0 1 1 0 0
Adult education 2 5 16 14 10 13
One-four 4 10 12 10 15 19
Five-eight 5 13 13 11 15 19
Nine-ten 1 3 4 3 7 9
>10 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 39 100 117 100 79 100

Except for church and adult education, comparable percentages of women from rural MHHs and
FHHs were found to have had different levels of education. In the attendance of classes from grade
1 to 10, urban FHHs showed a better standing. Nevertheless, it is worthwhile to take note that none
of the women from the surveyed households have proceeded with their education beyond grade 10.

With regard to educational status, different findings have been obtained in other studies. Pre-
existing knowledge states that the average illiteracy rate for women is above 75%. Meehan (2005)
found the illiteracy rate for FHHs to be 97% and for married women 83% in her study conducted in
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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

Kola-Tembien wereda taking a sample size of 1800 households. Riley (2005) on the other hand has
found the illiteracy rate to be 77.8% and 85.5% for male and female respectively in Raya-Azebo. As
opposed to this, Melaku (2003) has come up with a 53% illiteracy rate for mothers in Atsibi-
Womberta and a 74.6% illiteracy rate in Raya-Azebo. The differences are probably due to the
methodologies and sample size adopted by each study.

Table 6 Child Illiteracy

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
None 20 51 96 82 72 91
1 16 41 15 13 6 8
2 2 5 4 3 1 1
4 1 3 2 2 0 0
39 100 117 100 79 100

A higher tendency to send children to school was seen in FHHs than MHHs. As a result, there were
no illiterate children in the majority of the urban and rural FHHs, while there was at least one
illiterate child who had reached schooling age in almost close to 50% of the MHHs. One possible
reason for this could be because MHHs possessed higher livestock assets that required care and
herding. Children in most cases were given this responsibility, which prevented them from
attending school.

Causes of Female-Headship
The main way in which households become female-headed was found to be as a result of divorce.
Death of husbands was the second most common cause of female-headship while migration was the
least common cause. Prevalence of both divorce and death of spouse were the highest in rural
areas.

Table 7 Causes of Female-Headship

Rural Urban
FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq %
Migrated 2 4 5
Deceased 2 31 24 30
36
Divorced 51 37 47
60
Unmarried 7 7 9
9
Separated 10 9 7 9
Total 117 100 79 100

The very causes for divorce and separation of families require their own deep investigation in the
region. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to assume that economic and social factors might be
among the main causes. According to comments gathered in the different discussions during the
field survey, divorce was aggravated partly as a result of the empowerment of women following the
new policies and laws that were developed in favor of gender equality. Although development of
the various policies is quite recommendable, their implementation would not be easy in a society
dominated by cultural and traditional approaches. Men’s supremacy has been rooted for centuries in
the society. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that men would be less tolerant to such changes
since it is a matter of power sharing which is closely connected to resource management and
utilization. Similarly, women would not have the patience to continue with the age-old supremacy.

Most of the FHHs are said to be among the poorest of the poor in the society for they are less likely
to own the fundamental assets necessary for livelihood improvement. The issue of FHHs, therefore
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Drylands Coordination Group

calls for special attention; rather than simply documenting the present situation of FHHs in the
society the focus should be on the examination of the causes of their problems and constraints.

3.2.2 Physical Resources

The major components that come under the physical resources are mainly linked with
infrastructural aspects. But though the natural features of land are well understood, considering the
pivotal position they have in the provision of consumption goods crucial for livelihoods, the
households’ position in this regard is treated in connection with physical resources.

Land Ownership
In recent years, women’s access to and control over land and their property rights have received
considerable attention. In Ethiopia, 87% of women are said to be engaged in agriculture (Bashaw,
2002) and thus land ownership is a critical factor in their livelihoods. In this study, land ownership
was found to be the highest in rural MHHs and the least in urban FHHs.

Table 8 Land Ownership

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Yes 36 92 100 85 12 16
No 3 8 17 15 67 84
Total 39 100 117 100 79 100

Some 71% of the FHHs owned plots of less than 0.5 ha. Although a high percentage of MHHs also
owned similar sized land, close to 50% owned land with a size greater than 0.5 ha. From the
interviewed FHHs, 6% did not know the size of the land they owned.

Table 9 Size of Owned Land

Rural
MHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq %
< 0.25 ha 11 28 46 39
0.26 – 0.5 ha 10 25 37 32
0.51 – 1 ha 7 19 18 15
1.01- 1.5 ha 9 22 8 7
1.51 – 2 ha 1 3 1 1
> 2 ha 1 3 0 0
Don't know the size 0 0 7 6
39 100 117 100

Although in terms of land ownership MHHs appeared to be in a better position with respect to the
mean size of owned land and per capita, land ownership in rural FHHs was slightly better off. The
mean size of owned land was 0.8 ha in MHHs and 0.9 ha in FHHs while the per capita size was 0.1
ha in MHHs and 0.2 in FHHs.

Table 10 Mean and Per capita of Owned Land

Rural
MHHs FHHs
Mean size of owned lands 0.8 ha 0.9 ha
Per capita land size 0.1 ha 0.2 ha

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

Despite the fact that the findings indicate that FHHs are slightly better-off than MHHs in per capita
terms of land holdings, households headed by women are still at disadvantage since:
• FHHs are in shortage of labor to farm their own plots of land;
• Many of the FHHs do not own ox, which is a key asset in the farming system of Ethiopia;
• A combined effect of the above two points is that FHHs are forced to rent out their plots to
able men;
• Due to the recurrence of drought, which has become a common feature in many parts of the
region in general and that of the studied weredas in particular, households always have food
gaps.

Coupled with a steady deterioration of agricultural productivity, FHHs remain with no or minimum
harvest from their plots of land. Data indicated in Table 18 is evidence for this assertion. 72% of
FHHs rent out their land as opposed to 17% of MHHs. Regional average household land holding is
about 1 hectare while a number of households own up to 0.5 hectares. Hence, the finding is within
the existing range though there can be differences even among the study weredas. Under “normal
circumstances” (good rainy seasons) average crop productivity is usually assumed not to exceed six
quintals per hectare. However, most often than not “normal circumstances” do not happen.
Considering the recurrence of drought, the “not normal circumstances” appear to be normal unless
drought combating strategies are devised and practiced to reverse the prevailing situation.

House Ownership
The majority of urban FHHs do not own a house and live by renting someone other’s house. Rural
families have a better ownership of houses, which is mainly seen in families headed by men.

Table 11 House Ownership

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Yes 35 90 92 79 42 53
No 4 10 25 21 37 47
39 100 117 100 79 100

Houses with iron roofs were frequent in urban FHHs. Also in rural areas over 50% of both MHHs
and FHHs had houses with iron roofs. The rest have houses made from grass and stones.

Table 12 Ownership of Household Items

Rural Urban With regard to the ownership of

MHHs FHHs FHHs household items, agricultural
Freq % Freq % Freq% implements were most common in
Plow 31 80 30 26 n/an/a rural MHHs. Other than for beds, in
Hoe 27 69 45 39 n/an/a terms of ownership of other
Bed 7 18 30 26 68 86
household items such as chairs,
Chair 6 15 12 10 25 32
tables, radios and watches, rural
Table 7 18 11 9 40 48
Radio 14 36 22 19 43 54
MHHs still have better standing as
Watch 17 44 10 9 18 23 compared to rural FHHs.
TV 0 0 0 0 2 3 Nevertheless, with respect to the
ownership of most of these
household items, urban FHHs are even much better-off than rural MHHs.

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Drylands Coordination Group

Service Giving Infrastructures

When considering access to basic service providing infrastructure in all the four study areas in
terms of the average time taken to travel to them on foot, rural households are located the furthest
away.

Table 13 Mean of Distance Traveled to Service Giving Infrastructures in Minutes

Atsbi-Womberta Kilte-Awlaelo Raya-Azebo Hintalo-Wejerat
Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban
School 62 16 54 22 28 18 63 16
Road* 28 16 29 15 30 10 93 12
Mill plant 40 14 29 23 39 15 33 12
Clinic 68 27 46 20 44 13 44 21
Market 103 20 54 23 55 13 29 15
Drinking water 38 7 18 18 19 8 15 10
(*Road refers to highways suitable for vehicle transportation)

For the rural sites of Atsbi-Womberta wereda, it takes the longest time to travel to service providing
infrastructures such as the mill plant, clinic, market and potable water while rural Hintalo-Wejerat
wereda was the furthest away from the school and main road.

Issues of accessibility to the various social services expressed in terms of travel distance may not
give different meanings at face value when applied to the category of households. However, when
examined in relation to the responsibility of the heads of households, it is difficult to simply say that
FHHs and MHHs have equal chances. The former bears domestic work and at the same time has
outside responsibilities while the latter has support from her husbands. FHHs lack means of
transport to carry their requirements to and from the markets. A number of FHHs in tabia Barka Adi
Subuha, for example, have indicated that they carry kollo (roasted barley) on their backs and sell it
at Wukro town walking up and down for about 25kms.

3.2.3 Financial Resources

Livestock Ownership
Financial capital enables people to achieve their livelihood objectives. It can also be kept as
savings, which can be in the form of cash or other items that can be liquidated into cash at any
required time. Livestock can for example be a way of keeping money in the household.

Table 14 Livestock Ownership

Agriculture is the predominant means of Rural Urban
subsistence in the rural areas and as a result Animals MHHs (%) FHHs (%) FHHs (%)
abundance of farm animals is largely seen in
Oxen 62 17 1
rural households. With regard to the Cow 72 41 15
ownership of all the different types of Sheep 18 17 5
animals, households that are headed by men Goat 13 6 0
showed a better status. Especially with Donkey 41 12 1
respect to the ownership of oxen, the large Horse 0 0 0
gap that was seen between rural MHHs and Mule 0 0 0
FHHs confirms the labor poorness of the Poultry 56 38 15
latter type of households, which constantly Bee 23 10 0
constrains them from deriving sufficient
benefit from the agricultural sector.

As shown in table 12 the average time traveled to get to the closest market place from the rural
areas ranged between 30 to over 90 minutes. In the absence of donkeys, the load taken to and from
the market has to be carried on people’s back which may have serious health consequences
especially for FHHs since these women do such a task without the help from adult men. The extent
16
 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

of poverty in the study sites could somehow be seen in the fact that none of the interviewed
households owned horses or mules. As indicated during an informal conversation, at least mule
ownership used to be common in rural households since this animal was used to transport the bride
during marriage ceremonies. Now, however, people are forced to carry the brides on their backs
because of the scarcity of mules.

As can be seen in the above table, a big difference is observed particularly in terms of the
ownership of ox, which is a significant variable in the process of crop production and that highly
influences the total value of possession of households. In fact the difference is significant for
almost all types of livestock. It is quite definite that those with more livestock and other assets have
more of an opportunity to utilize different coping strategies and are in a better position to withstand
shocks and adversely affecting trends. Since FFHs have limited possessions, they are easily affected
by the slightest shock. The minimum availability of donkeys for FHHs shows at the same time that
the households they head depend upon their own labor power for transporting items and petty
commodities to and from the market.

Household Expenditure
It is quite difficult to get dependable information on the level of income of the surveyed households
because individuals were not usually frank enough to reveal their accurate earnings. Rural
households in particular linked such assessments with different benefits. An attempt had been made
to gather information on the incomes of the households. Nevertheless, the amount that was given
by most of the respondents was not a dependable one. Hence, in order to compare the economic
status of the different types of households, the expenditure data was preferred over income since
expenditure is assumed to be more stable as households try to attain a certain level of welfare
overtime. The expenditure data under consideration included money spent within a year on: cloths
and foot wear, health/medical treatments, traveling, repair of house, energy/fuel wood, education,
social activities such as wedding, teskar, christening, mahber, etc. and other commodities like
coffee, spices, and the like. Of the different items, coffee represented the largest proportion of the
households’ expenditure and the majority of the interviewees confessed that without consuming
coffee they did not feel motivated to work in the agricultural field or perform any other economic
activities.

In the study sites, households headed by men have the highest mean expenditure followed by urban
FHHs and lastly by rural FHHs. The differences in the mean of the expenditure of these different
types of households was found to be significant between rural FHHs and both urban FHHs and rural
MHHs. The difference in expenditure recorded for urban FHHs and rural MHHs was not
significant. The expenditure components of households do not include staple food items.

Table 15 Average Annual Expenditure of the Different Types of Households

N Mean *Sig However, when considering per capita
Rural MHHs 39 3187 *0.01 expenditure, the status of urban FHHs was better
Rural FHHs 117 2207 than rural MHHs. The per capita expenditure of
Rural MHHs 39 3187 0.63 rural FHHs was still the lowest.
Urban FHHs 79 2979
Rural FHHs 117 2207 * 0.02
Urban FHHs 79 2979
* Significant at < .05

Maximum effort was invested to make the amount of estimates realistic in a way that the
respondents could recall their possible expenditures. Of course, those relatively better off spend
more on non-staple food and discretionary items than the poorer people.

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Drylands Coordination Group

Since the theme of this study revolved around the FSP program and its development impacts on
rural livelihoods, the expenditure of the households that were enrolled in the program and those that
were not enrolled was compared.

Table 16 Average Annual Expenditure of FSP and non-FSP Holders

N Mean *Sig The mean expenditure of non-FSP program
FSP – FHHs 63 2643 0.49 holder FHHs was found to be significantly less
FSP – MHHs 19 2985
than the mean expenditure of FSP holder FHHs,
FSP – MHHs 19 2985 0.55
Non FSP – MHHs 20 3380 FSP holder MHHs and non FSP holder MHHs.
FSP – FHHs 63 2643 *0.00 There was no significant difference in the mean
Non FSP – FHHs 54 1698 expenditure of MHHs and FHHs that were
Non FSP – MHHs 20 3380 *0.00 package holders, and between MHHs that were
Non FSP – FHHs 54 1698 enrolled in FSP and those that were not enrolled.
FSP – MHHs 19 2985 *0.00
In fact, the mean expenditure of MHHs that were
Non FSP – FHHs 54 1698
Non FSP – MHHs 20 3380 0.21 not involved in the package program was found
FSP – FHHs 63 2643 to be greater than those who took part in the
program.
* Significant at < .05

This seems paradoxical as the assumption is that households involved in the FSP program would be
better off. On top of other things, temporal aspects may matter. Nevertheless, it has to be born in
mind that unless the expenditure is associated with own means of income, it may even lead to a
worsening of the household situation. Hence, the team is not concluding that the higher expenditure
illustrates livelihood improvement. Since the FSP program has been launched only a few years prior
to this study, it is still too early to conclude or to see any remarkable changes in the household
expenditures and the overall livelihood improvements of the local community members. The team
prefers, therefore, that focus be put on the qualitative information presented under the fourth section
that portrays the trend of development rather than on the quantitative data.

Savings and Remittances

In terms of keeping financial capital in the form of cash, urban FHHs were found to take the upper
hand. Most of them kept money in the form of Iquib in locally formed groups that are commonly
found in urban areas. Households headed by men have the least savings in the form of cash, which
may be due to the larger family size that these households have to support or due to the tendency
among husbands to over-spend impairing their ability to have cash savings. In case of FHHs, a
higher percentage of savings may be related to the careful management of the financial resources
that these women may practice. Women in FHHs shoulder all the responsibilities in their
households and thus fear risks, which may have motivated them to have savings set aside for some
security for the future.

Table 17 Savings and Remittances

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Savings 6 15 29 25 41 52
Remittances 4 10 28 24 11 14

More FHHs in rural areas received remittances followed by urban FHHs. In most cases, the sources
of the remittances were ex-spouses in rural areas and relatives in urban areas. Children and relatives
are the sources of remittances for rural MHHs.

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

3.2.4 Natural Resources

The phrase natural resource encompasses a wide spectrum of resources that are fundamental to
human beings. Societies particularly living in developing countries are highly dependent on the
exploitation of natural resources for the very subsistence of their livelihoods. The same is true for
the society in Tigray. The natural resources most important to this society are land and livestock as
the primary activity they base their livelihood on is agriculture related. However, in the four
weredas considered in the current study, the areas were highly degraded because of heavy
deforestation and the drought situation. Besides moisture stress, productivity of the land has been
steadily declining and the land was highly partitioned; even sloppy lands have come under
cultivation. Associated with high population growth, this has resulted in the decline of soil fertility
and productivity.

In an attempt to address the problem associated with the degradation of the natural resource base the
regional development strategy is framed to reflect the area of emphasis stated as “Natural Resources
Based Agricultural Development Led Industrialization”. To reverse the situation, various activities
are being carried out to conserve and develop the natural resources. In the past years, vast
development activities have been carried out in relation to the conservation of natural resources
such as soil and water conservation as well as water harvesting practices. Systems of land enclosure
and watershed management practices in particular are found to be encouraging. Building natural
capital has multi-faceted effects that are linked with the livelihood improvement of the society.
Especially the rural society in the region has been involved in the conservation and development of
natural resources which took place in the form of Food For Work (FFW) and Cash For Work
(CFW) activities. Women in the region in particular were considered to have been the primary
active participants. By its own right, the natural resource situation of the region demands the
application of a wide range of physical and biological conservation measures. But beyond that,
these arrangements contribute to smoothing the consumption gap periods further sustaining
livelihoods of rural communities. Interviewees indicated that FFW and CFW activities that were
mostly linked to the development of natural resources were critical coping mechanisms in times of
food shortage.

The degradation of the different natural resources affects mostly women since they are involved in
the collection of firewood, water for household consumption, and feed for their livestock by
traveling long distances. The burden becomes heavier in particular for those who earn additional
income from selling firewood. To combat the increasing incidence of deforestation, almost all the
available sources of wood in the study areas were enclosed and protected. Those FHHs that
depended on the income from selling fuelwood did not have an alternative source of fuelwood when
they were excluded from using the existing ones. These FHHs tried to overcome this problem by
one of three ways. They would travel long distances for over six hours to get to communal forests
and a fuel source that these women can access, or they would use the cover of darkness to go to
protected areas to gather fuelwood during the night time. But by so doing the FHHs expose
themselves to many risks such as rape and being beaten by the men guarding the protected forests.
Those women who did not find both these strategies to be viable abandoned the activity and turned
to alternative sources of income such as FFW, CFW, or other engagements as daily laborers.

The scarcity of grazing lands was also another serious problem in the region in general. Grazing
lands have dramatically declined because of their conversion into farm lands with increasing
population pressure, bush encroachment, and drought situations. As a strategy to combat the
degradation of these areas, cut and carry systems are being introduced to feed livestock. Areas
under watershed management practices and enclosed areas are believed to be good sources for cut
and carry feeding systems. The problem of grazing land scarcity affects FHHs in a different and
more severe way compared to households headed by men. The fundamental problem in the former
type of household is labor shortage, which brings with itself many more disadvantages to FHHs.
Although more than 90 % of the rural FHHs own pieces of lands (table 8), their labor poorness
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Drylands Coordination Group

forces these women to get into share cropping arrangements in order to have their lands plowed.
These arrangements involve the sharing of the production from the plots of the FHHs with the men
plowing the land. The proportion of the grain yield that the FHHs will get may be as low as only
one fourth of the total production. But in most cases, the men keep the entire crop residue as feed
for their livestock and rarely share these with FHHs. This arrangement puts FHHs in a critical feed
shortage position for their own livestock. Therefore, the scarcity of communal grazing lands and
enclosures that exclude grazing access bring the most severe and negative consequences on the
livelihoods of FHHs as compared to MHHs.

3.3 LIVELIHOOD OUTCOMES

People seek to achieve certain outcomes through the livelihood strategies that they implement.
These outcomes may slightly vary depending on place, time, context and individual. But overall, all
livelihood outcomes are concerned with the betterment of lives. In other words, livelihood
outcomes can be considered as the opposite of poverty (DFID, 2001). In this study, the group under
investigation followed different strategies towards food security and reduced vulnerability to risky
situations.

3.3.1 Livelihood Strategies

Primary and Secondary Occupation
Women in most of the rural MHHs and rural FHHs have identified farming as the major occupation
that they are engaged in for a living. The second most common activity for these two types of
households was working as daily laborers. In urban areas, FHHs are mostly engaged in their own
business such as tea and food shops, brewery shops, petty trade and the like. Those FHHs that do
not run their own business work as daily laborers for income.

Table 18 Major Occupations as Identified by the Respondents

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Farming 12 31 52 44 0 0
Daily laborer 11 28 39 33 13 16
Own business 2 5 16 14 59 75
Farming + daily laborer 8 20 4 3 0 0
Daily laborer + own business 3 8 2 2 4 5
Farming + own business 2 5 2 2 1 1
Dependent 1 3 0 0 0 0
Other 0 0 2 2 2 3
39 100 117 100 79 100

Although it was a low percentage, some dependent women were found in MHHs while there were
none in both rural and urban FHHs.

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

Table 19 Activity Diversification

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Petty trade 14 36 33 28 51 65
Pottery 0 0 1 1 1 1
Handicrafts 2 5 8 7 3 4
Hair plaiting 4 10 7 6 3 4
Tannery 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brewery 1 3 15 13 23 29
Blacksmith 0 0 0 0 0 0
Weaving 2 5 2 2 5 6
Wood selling 0 0 6 5 2 3
Charcoal selling 0 0 5 4 5 6
Masonry 5 13 1 1 1 1
Carpentry 0 0 0 0 1 1
Daily laborer 3 88 19 16 10 13
Off-farm 7 18 18 15 3 4
FFW 36 92 103 88 51 65
CFW 6 15 29 25 21 27
Tea and food shop 0 0 0 0 5 6
Other activities 6 15 10 9 3 4

Activity diversification was the strategy most widely applied in urban FHHs. 16 different types of
activities were recorded in these households. Rural FHHs also turned to many other economic
activities besides the activity they identified as their major occupation. Although activity
diversification was the strategy of MHHs as well, the number and the different types of economic
activities pursued were relatively fewer in these households. Even though the dependence seemed
to be stronger in rural areas, FFW activities were important activity diversification alternatives in
both rural and urban sites. Trading was largely pursued by urban households.

Plowing Arrangements
Since the agriculture system in Ethiopia is still traditional and very labor demanding, the major way
in which agrarian rural FHHs derived production from their land was by renting out their plots of
land to able-bodied men that would plow the land for them in exchange for part of the production
obtained. Though such instances could also be found in MHHs, renting out arrangements were still
predominantly the strategies of labor poor FHHs. In addition, it was considered as a cultural taboo
for women in the region to plow their plots of land. In the traditional division of labor, plowing of
plots was the activity of men. Although few of the women started plowing their lands by
themselves, the community people were discouraging them from doing so and gave them
unacceptable names.

Table 20 Renting-in/out Arrangements

Rural
MHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq %
Rent out all or part of the land 7 17 84 72
Rented-in land 9 23 7 6

As can be seen in the table, close to three fourths of the FHHs that were targeted in this study were
renting out their plots of land. On the other hand, households that have the labor required for
farming went beyond working their own plots of land and rented-in plots from other people. Even if
land renting-in arrangements in MHHs were not as high as expected, still more MHHs than FHHs
were renting in lands.
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Drylands Coordination Group

3.3.2 Vulnerability
Food Insecurity
Vulnerability could be considered as synonym to livelihood insecurity since it is the exposure and
sensitivity to different livelihood trends and shocks (Devereux, 2002). Livelihood insecurity is a
constant reality for many poor people. Different factors contribute to the vulnerable state in which
poor people live. Lack of access to different resources causes people to be exposed to negative
trends and shocks. Even when external factors are favorable, lack of access still prevents people
from taking advantage of this situation. In the survey that was undertaken, vulnerability to
consumption gaps was a common feature shared by most of the households. The causes for this
situation were not very different among the different types of households. However, as will be
shown below, the importance given for these causes varied depending on the type of the household
and the livelihood pursued.

Table 21 Household Consumption Gaps

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Encounter consumption gap within
a year (%) 97 86 57
Average number of months with
food shortage 7 7 5.8

Consumption gaps were relatively less frequently experienced in urban FHHs and mostly occurred
in households headed by men than women in rural areas. Almost all of the surveyed MHHs
claimed to encounter consumption gaps within a year. This situation could be attributed to the
larger family size that MHHs have to support. Moreover, these features of vulnerability were
consistent with the low savings found among such types of households. FHHs appeared to be better
off than MHHs with regard to experiencing consumption gaps, and accumulating more savings
(table 17) but as it has been observed during the field work, the family size of FHHs is increasing
such that the advantage of having fewer household members may soon disappear and in fact make
these households increasingly vulnerable to the problem of food insecurity in the near future unless
immediate measures are taken to arrest this trend by introducing family planning techniques to rural
areas.

The average number of months with food shortage for the households with consumption gaps was
equivalent for both types of households in rural areas and relatively lesser for FHHs in urban areas,
which could be due to better employment opportunities and alternative income sources in urban
areas. The existence of food gaps in almost all rural communities in the region is well documented.
Thus, the information indicated above is within the existing knowledge. In fact, it seems to depict a
better situation than what is usually stated. Poor households and particularly FHHs are said to have
their own production that does not cover more than two months’ requirements. The ranking of the
causes for this food insecurity situation slightly differed between the different types of households.

Table 22 Causes of Food Shortages

Rural MHHs (%) Rural FHHs (%)
Drought 90 Drought 74
Small land 36 Draft power shortage 37
Draft power shortage 18 Labor shortage 36
Pests/ diseases/ weeds 18 Small land 20
Labor shortage 8 Landlessness 15
Landlessness 8 Pests/ diseases/ weeds 18
Seed shortage 5 Poor quality of land 9
Poor quality of land 5 Seed shortage 2
Absence of employment 0 Absence of employment 2

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

As it would be expected, the agrarian rural households identified the drought situation as the major
reason behind their food shortage. But still, the drought situation was more strongly felt by
households headed by men as compared to those headed by women. This could come from the
incapability of FHHs to make the best use of the good weather situation as a result of landlessness,
lack of oxen and share cropping arrangements that they mostly adopted. In the ranking of the rest
of the causes, a high percentage of FHHs pointed at draft power and labor shortages as reasons for
their food shortage, while in MHHs sizes of owned land had more importance.

For urban households, food gaps emanated mainly from bad market situations. Especially during
the months of June to September the prices in the market were said to become very high due to the
scarcity of resources and hence made urban FHHs that depend upon the income obtained from
brewery, food and tea shops to be short of the raw materials they require to run their businesses. For
those involved in petty trading as well, the constrained market situation prevented them from
obtaining good prices for their commodities. The second source of the food insecurity experienced
in these households was related to the lack of diversity in the available employment opportunities
which had caused the different sectors to be saturated and with low return. Another reason pointed
out was the increase in migration from rural to urban areas. This according to respondents had
caused the scarcity in job availability in urban areas to be worse.

HIV/AIDS
Education on HIV/AIDS is widely spread in both the rural and urban areas of the country as a
whole. As a result, in this study more than 90% of the respondents from all types of households had
heard about the causes of HIV/AIDS and ways to prevent being infected with the virus. The access
to such type of information was seen to be slightly greater in urban areas.

Table 23 Have Had Information on HIV/AIDS

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Yes 36 92 108 92 77 97
No 3 8 9 8 2 3
39 100 117 100 79 100

Nevertheless, exposure to information does not necessarily guarantee behavioral change. As had
been mentioned earlier, multi partner practice was widely seen in all of the study sites. Women in
FHHs went on to have more children mostly from married men after becoming the heads of their
households. Since this behavior was common to many men and women in the surveyed
communities, it is contributing to the vigorous spread of HIV-AIDS in the country.

In other cases, as treatment of malaria, harmful practices were common where traditional healers
used the horn of animals to suck infected blood out of the body of patients. The healers used their
mouth to perform such operations and the equipments were also shared to treat different people.
Early marriages, teeth extraction, genital mutilation, tattoos, uvulacetomy and other practices were
also among the causes. Such behaviors show that the efforts being done to make the community
aware about HIV/AIDS is not yet adequate and well understood to bring about the desired changes.
There was thus still a high vulnerability to HIV/AIDS in all the surveyed areas.

As HIV/AIDS is a development problem in general, the fact that it is widespread has two serious
negative effects: one with short-term and the other with long-term consequences. In the short-term,
the immediate negative effect of the epidemic is sickness and death of individuals (especially those
within the productive age range). In this case, the life expectancy of individuals will greatly be
affected by the epidemic. In the long-term, however, the negative effect of the disease will start to
be reflected on families, institutions, and the performance of the different sectors of the country at
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Drylands Coordination Group

large. As studies indicate HIV/ AIDS is known to affect women in particular. One serious constraint
is, however, that data on the extent of the epidemic is scarce in the region in general and the study
areas in particular. Hence, there is a need to conduct extensive research to understand the depth of
this epidemic and its consequences for the livelihoods of the household under consideration.

3.3.3 Livelihood Security and Coping

To overcome the consumption gaps during the year, the rural and urban households turned to a
number of strategies. Though the strategies employed were more or less similar, their importance
varied in the different types of households.
Table 24 Ranking of Coping Strategies
Rural Urban
MHHs (%) FHHs (%) FHHs (%)
FFW/ CFW 100 FFW/ CFW 100 FFW/ CFW 87
Reduce quality and number Reduce quality and number
Loan 41 of meals 51 of meals 62
Reduce quality and number
of meals 36 Loan 44 Income from own business 33
Daily laborer 31 Daily laborer 30 Loan 31
Income from own business 31 Income from own business 28 Daily laborer 29
Sell farm animals 28 Sell fuel wood 14 Food aid 2
Migration 5 Sell farm animals 13 Migration 2
Pension/ help from a
Food aid 3 Help from other people 3 deceased/ migrated spouse 2
Sell fuel wood 3 Food aid 2 Other strategies 2
Pension/ help from a
deceased/ migrated spouse 3 Migration 1 Sell farm animals 0
Pension/ help from a
Help from other people 3 deceased/ migrated spouse 1 Sell fuel wood 0
Other strategies 3 Other strategies 0 Help from other people 0

FFW/CFW arrangements were the most common coping strategies for all the different types of
households. The reliance on these types of economic activities was seen to be the strongest in rural
households. Reducing the quality and amount of meals consumed per day as a mechanism to
overcome food gaps was common in FHHs than MHHs. Loan as a coping strategy was more used
in rural areas. The percentage of respondents from the different types of households that turned to
the income earned from working as daily laborers and own-business to cope with adverse livelihood
situations were comparable. Selling farm animals in periods of crisis was commonly found in
households headed by men while selling fuel wood was a common strategy in rural FHHs. In this
study, rural urban migration as the means to cope with unfavorable situations was the least practiced
strategy. The information gathered is consistent with the findings of other studies, though some
differences exist in their order of importance (see Hagos, et al. 2005, Melaku 2003).

3.4 INSTITUTIONS

Institutions are the social cement which link stakeholders to access to capital of different kinds to
the means of exercising power and so define the gateways through which they pass on to positive or
negative livelihood adaptation (Scoones, 1998). Institutions could be both of the formal (land
tenure, market networks, civil service, etc) and informal (social customs) types.

3.4.1 Land Tenure

The land tenure system in Ethiopia has been subject to long held criticism. It is especially criticized
for being discouraging for farmers in terms of making long lasting investments and sustainable
improvements on their land as a result of the absence of tenure security and frequent land

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

redistribution. In the case of this study, security about ownership of land was nevertheless found to
be quite strong.

Table 25 Security of Ownership of Land

Rural
MHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq %
Yes 33 84 94 80
No 3 8 6 5
NA 3 8 17 15
39 100 117 100

Those who were insecure gave reasons such as government’s ownership of their lands and the
absence of guarantee that it will not take it back, or not being the registered owners of the land in
the case of those who had inherited land from parents and other relatives.

3.4.2 Awareness of Women’s Rights and Equality

At the policy level as well as in many organizations including WAT, there is a central interest to
create gender equality especially to protect the rights of women. The constitution also confirms the
need for affirmative actions to make women that have been subordinated for centuries to overcome
and also recover from their subordination. One mechanism of ensuring gender equality is to educate
women about their rights and ways of securing them. Reform in the judicial system is also another
strategy to help women get fair and timely trials. Following the understanding that women in rural
Ethiopia also deserve such awareness raising opportunities, we made enquiries as to whether they
have received any information regarding their rights, gender equality and the possibility to have
these rights protected. The majority of women who had received such information were FHHs that
reside in urban areas.
Table 26 Have Information on Gender Equality and Women's Rights
Rural Urban Rural FHHs have also had more exposure to
MHHs FHHs FHHs such information than women in MHHs.
Freq % Freq % Freq % Since women in FHHs are the decision
Yes 30 77 98 84 70 89 makers and bread winners in their households,
No 9 23 19 16 9 11 they have better opportunities to attend
39 100 117 100 79 100 meetings, to have stronger interactions with
society or to be involved in different groups. This has helped them be more informed. On the other
hand, women in MHHs would during most of their time be engaged in reproductive tasks and as a
result can mostly get information only through their husbands.

3.4.3 Women and FHHs’ Enrollment in Local Organizations

Though not an exclusive list, the team has tried to assess the level of involvement of women from
the different types of households in a few selected formal groups. These groups included the baito,
WAT, development cadres and Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs).

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Table 27 Enrollment of Women and FHHs in Local Organizations

Rural Urban
MHHs FHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Baito Leadership 0 0 1 1 5 6
Member 0 0 5 4 3 4
Not member 39 100 111 95 71 90
WAT Leadership 6 15 36 31 19 24
Member 30 77 79 67 60 76
Not member 3 8 2 2 0 0
Development Cadres Member 4 10 14 12 n/a n/a
Not member 35 90 103 88 n/a n/a
TBAs Member 1 3 6 5 5 6
Not member 38 97 111 95 74 94

In this study, women from MHHs were found not to participate in baito, while women from FHHs,
from both rural and urban settings were found to be involved in leadership as well as membership
positions. Better participation of the women from MHHs is seen in WAT. But still, those in the
leadership positions were mostly women from FHHs. In general, according to the findings of this
study, the involvement of women from MHHs in the groups under consideration was low when
compared to that of FHHs.

3.4.4 Market System

Conceptually markets are centers where buyers and sellers come together and make transactions in
a form of exchange of goods and services. Markets are assumed to enable exchanges to take place
in a relatively efficient way. But in practice, the proper functioning of markets is influenced by a
number of factors that cause markets to be inefficient and transaction costs very high. The main
market centers of the study sites were the wereda capitals namely, Endaselassie, Wukro, Mehoni
and Adigudom. The transactions in these areas take place directly between the producers and the
consumers and/or through other middle men that serve as a bridge. Considering the development
level and the socio-economic conditions of the towns, the transactions were mainly done directly
between producers and consumers.

The urban areas were underdeveloped and do not differ much from the rural areas. As a result, the
potential of urban areas to reinforce the rural production system even in its present form without
transforming the rural economy appeared to be weak. In relative terms, of course, urban areas were
said to be better in creating different employment opportunities and diversified economic activities
for their inhabitants. At the same time, the small towns serve as nodes to link the rural area with
towns having upper hierarchy development.

In the group discussions conducted in the study tabias, it was reflected that market prices showed
an increasing trend overtime particularly in the price of livestock and livestock products. These
changes were said not to have been given timely consideration by the government as was seen in
the disbursement of the same amount of credit for the purchase of agricultural inputs despite the
fluctuation in market prices. Answers in terms of access to markets differed among the different
types of households, as some respondents walked as far as 25kms on foot in search of better market
places. Individuals who prepare kollo (roasted barely) in tabia Barkadisbha, for example, carry it
on their backs and sell it in the town of Wukro that is found on the main road linking the bigger
towns of Mekelle and Adigrat. It takes the longest average traveling time to reach the nearest
market for women from this site (table 13). In general, it takes the longest average time for women
from rural areas to reach the nearest market than those in urban areas.

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

In Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) it was mentioned that market prices were not different for
products from FHHs and MHHs. In individual interviews, FHHs especially in urban households
that are involved in petty trade said to be short of money and food towards the end of the year (June
- September), which was associated with the increase in market prices arising from the scarcity of
supplies from rural areas in this season. The basic way to overcome this period was through
employment in the labor market that was non-discriminatorily made available for both FHHs and
MHHs. Trading was the activity the majority of the respondents expressed interest in. The reason
given for limited involvement in the sector was the absence of money to be used for initial
investment.

As will be presented later on in section 4, the government is adopting strong measures to reduce
poverty as is reflected in the provisioning of rural households with high amounts of credit. But
especially in Raya-Azebo wereda, beneficiaries were using the loan to establish trading businesses
rather than purchasing the intended inputs. With regard to this problem, the officials contacted at
both micro and macro levels also agreed that there was a wide interest for the involvement in this
sector from the side of the community and thus that it should get due attention. Additionally, these
officials pointed out that the undergoing agricultural production centered interventions might not
succeed if the current market system is not re-adjusted to be so absolvent of the outputs of the
farmers.

The need for strengthening the urban-rural linkage has to be underlined. Nurturing the rural-urban
link is a key to local economic development which will be reflected in the improved livelihood of
rural households. The linkage can be facilitated in a sustainable manner through the development
of small local towns that would be bridges for penetrating to the higher market areas. Some sort of
institutional arrangements like the farmers association and agricultural cooperatives might be
important to exploit the opportunities of economies of scale and to create bondage for better
negotiations.

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Drylands Coordination Group

4. THE HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY EXTENSION PACKAGE

PROGRAM

4.1 THE CONCEPT OF FOOD SECURITY

At present, the economy of Ethiopia is dominated by agriculture the produce of which does not go
beyond subsistence level. This subsistence sector contributes the highest proportion to the economy
in terms of GDP and employment opportunities for the rural population. Nevertheless, production
is always low mainly due to recurrent droughts and the aged agricultural practices. Ethiopia is,
therefore, always a food insecure country. The chronic food insecurity situations of the country are
attributed to a number of basic natural, as well as manmade factors. A publication by the
Development Cooperation Ireland – Ethiopia entitled “Towards a Development Cooperation
Strategy with Ethiopia” gives the following fundamental causes of food insecurity.

The causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia are complex. The ‘physical ecology’ in the food-insecure
areas, population growth, declining soil fertility, environmental degradation and shirking
landholdings - explains only part of the problem. Equally important are ‘social factors’ - for
example: gender inequalities; increased incidence of HIV/AIDS; limited access to social
infrastructure, such as health, education, water, roads etc; and the compromised nutritional status
of the population. ‘Political economy’ or governance factors also play a part, including inadequate
government policies and lack of leadership; weak and inefficient markets; limited space for private
sector involvement; limited opportunities for leaving uneconomic land holdings; lack of access to
alternative means of household income; institutional failures and lack of genuine community
participation and consultation, particularly for women; and conflict over resources (Davidson,
2005).

It is not very difficult to understand that what one can eat depends on the amount of food one gets.
What really matters is, however, the individual’s access to sufficient food. Food insecurity thus
indicates a form of vulnerability in the process of food entitlement. Food entitlement on the
contrary is based on the ownership of resources by the individual. According to the Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO), food security means access by all people at all times to the food
needed for an active and healthy life. At the household level, food security refers to the ability of
the household to secure, either from its own production or through the purchase of adequate food
for the dietary needs of its members. According to the International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD), on the other hand, food security can be defined as permanent access to
sufficient food for a normal healthy life in society.

According to the above two definitions, therefore, food security at a household level needs
sufficient and secure sources of income to buy its own food at prevailing prices and/or access to
agricultural resources such as land, machinery and credit facilities to produce its own food. To
attain food security means to enable different rural and urban households to produce or purchase
sufficient food both in terms of quality and quantity for the members of the households so that they
would be able to keep themselves healthy, strong, active, even more productive and the like.

Consequently, the above indicates that systematic and integrated efforts are still needed in the
agricultural and non-agricultural areas of the nation’s economy. The issue of food security should,
therefore, be considered as an important policy target because of the following three key factors:
• Food for its own sake is considered to be a basic human need, which should be fulfilled for
every citizen of the country;
• Insufficient food lowers the current productivity of people and hinders them to produce
enough food or earn sufficient income; and
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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

• Insufficient food hampers the healthy physical and intellectual growth of children and
reduces their future productivity.

4.2 INITIATION OF THE FOOD SECURITY PACKAGE PROGRAM

The previous Tigray Regional Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources Development started to
implement extension service programs in 1995. This was first done to ensure the conservation of
natural resources and to then improve the agricultural production of the region. As a result, some
increment in the productivity of food grain was achieved. For instance, the productivity of teff
increased from 1.9 qts per timad (one fourth of a hectare) under traditional plowing practices, to 3
qts, and sorghum increased from 2.7 to 4 quintals per timad in the moisture stressed areas of the
region (BoANR 1995 EC).

In the good moisture areas, further increment in the productivity of other food grains were seen as
well. In animal productivity too, there were clear differences recorded by the bureau itself and the
individual farmers in the different parts of the region. Despite all these, the changes witnessed in the
sector of agriculture were quite insignificant in relation to bringing about overall improvements in
the livelihood of rural households. According to the previous Tigray Regional Bureau of
Agriculture and Natural Resources Development, some of the major problems resulted from the
following:
• Lack of clear studies on the basic interests of the farmers, choices of appropriate
technologies, and absence of clear targets.
• Lack of adequate training programs for staff assigned to the technical support of the farmer.
• Limitations in the components of the package programs themselves both in terms of quality
and quantity (limited options available).
• The provision of inputs and other facilities to the farming community was not timely.
• There was also a lack of provision of adequate technical assistance to the farming
community.

To address all these problems, the household oriented extension package program was launched in
November 2002 with the overall aim of improving the livelihoods of rural households and raise the
average annual income from Birr 12,000.00 to Birr 18,000.00 in a period of three years. This
would be made possible through integrated efforts of training programs, monitoring procedures and
provision of improved agricultural inputs.

The program is implemented by the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) in
close association with the Dedebit Credit and Saving Institution (DECSI). Support is also provided
through the Tigray Regional Food Security Coordination Office. These bureaus are concerned with
monitoring, provisioning of improved inputs, and the introduction of mechanisms of impact
assessment for the success of the package program. Training programs are also carried out for both
farmers and the staff delivering the technical support.

4.3 ADOPTION OF THE PROGRAM AT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL

About eight years had passed since the food security program started. But the package approach is a
recent strategy, which had been launched approximately three years ago. Within this time an
extensive attempt has been made to involve households particularly in the previous two years. In
principle, FHHs are supposed to constitute about 30% of the total beneficiaries of the program. The
level of involvement of the different types of households from the two study sites in the past three
years is depicted in the following table.

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Drylands Coordination Group

Table 28 Adoption of the FSP by the Different

Types of Households and Wereda
Kilte-Awlaelo Hintalo-Wejerat
Freq % Freq %
MHHs 14518 67 13736 68
FHHs 7157 33 6356 32
21675 100 20092 100
Source: data collected from the two weredas

According to the communication made with wereda officials, current participation in the package
program has tremendously increased as compared to the base year (2002). In the discussions made
with the officers assigned at the micro level, it was stated that the involvement from FHHs was
aimed at 35% of the package adopters especially in the year 2004. But this ambition could not hold
true because most FHHs retreated from taking the package credit fearing being indebted. This study
includes 19 MHHs and 63 FHHs that have taken the FSP program in order to identify discrepancies
in adoption, use and benefits from the program among the different types of households.

Table 29 Amount of Credit Given in the FSP

Program in Birr
MHHs FHHs As can be seen in the table, taking credit from the FSP
Freq % Freq % program of more than Birr 3500.00 was not common in
1000-1500 6 31 25 40 both types of households. Still, at least 7 FHHs were
1501-2000 7 37 11 17 found to have taken the FSP program loan ranging from
2001-2500 0 0 9 14 Birr 3500.00 – 5000.00 as compared to only one from
2501-3000 3 16 6 10 MHHs who had taken a loan of more than Birr 6000.00.
3001-3500 2 11 5 8
Five of the FHHs that had taken a loan of more than
3501-4000 0 0 2 3
Birr 3500.00 were from Kilte-Awlaelo wereda while
4001-4500 0 0 2 3
4501-5000 0 0 3 5
two were from Raya-Azebo. As will be discussed later,
5001-5500 0 0 0 0 Kilte-Awlaelo wereda was a site where forcing means
5501-6000 0 0 0 0 were widely used to make rural households adopt the
> 6000 1 5 0 0 FSP program. In Raya-Azebo it was common to use the
19 100 63 100 loan for purposes other than the purchase of agricultural
inputs. This relative tendency of FHHs to take higher
credits can not, therefore, necessarily be associated to the conviction or courage of FHHs. In fact,
the major obstacle for the attainment of the desired enrollment rate from FHHs was mainly their
fear of being indebted. With the credit taken, program beneficiaries purchased different agricultural
inputs. From the many components, small ruminant animals and chicken appeared to be more in
the interest of FHHs than MHHs.

Table 30 Types of Animals Bought with the

FSP Program Loan
Rural Most purchase of oxen was done by MHHs, while a
MHHs FHHs comparable purchase of cows had been done in both
Freq % Freq % households. Despite the cultural taboo that indicates
Oxen 5 13 4 3 beekeeping as a task reserved for men, an equal percentage
Cow 17 44 47 40 of FHHs had purchased bee colonies and hives with the
Sheep 3 8 17 15 loans that they had taken from the package program.
Goat 3 8 11 9 Nevertheless, as will be discussed later in this chapter,
Poultry 1 3 22 19 almost all of the FHHs that had taken bees as part of their
Bees 6 15 17 15 FSP program loan have not done it so willingly.
Seed 3 8 10 9

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

4.3.1 Criteria for Recruitments

Households had to fulfill certain criteria in order to be considered for the FSP program credit.
Because of the requirement of water for rearing the different animals, construction of water
harvesting structures such as wells and ponds were the preconditions in many MHHs particularly in
the earlier years of the FSP program.

Table 31 Prerequisites Fulfilled to be given the FSP Program Loan from Household Surveys
MHHs FHHs
Freq % Freq %
Pond/ well construction 9 47 23 37
Previously repaid debt 10 53 32 51
Nomination by Baito 1 5 10 16
Other 1 5 2 3

The other important criterion was freeness from any form of debt plus timely repayment of previous
debts. Even if this latter criterion had its merits, some of the community members have certain
criticisms with regard to it especially in relation to the livelihoods of FHHs. According to these
critiques, FHHs were mostly forced to pay their debts late because of share cropping and other
arrangements that caused them to get constrained and late incomes. As a result, by the time these
women heading households are able to raise the necessary amount to repay their debt, the due date
has already passed and they end up in the list among the unwilling and late debt payers, which
deprived them from accessing the FSP program credit.

Table 32 Criteria for Recruitment from FGDs

Issue of Discussion Group - 1 (FHH with MHHs) Group - 2 (FHHs)
Criterion applied to • Pond construction (in earlier periods) • Acceptance to
select beneficiaries • Free from loan indebtedness construct pond
for the food security • Commitment and acceptance of the program • Some have become
package program • One who fulfils what is expected from him such involved in the
as house construction for poultry package program for
• There was an orientation in that one who does not otherwise they were
become involved in the package program could going to be rejected
not be involved in food for work activities. As a from food for work
result many who were not interested in being activities.
involved in the package were indirectly forced to • Not being indebted
join the program (tabia Genfel).
• The poor (not having cow, oxen) are given
priority.

According to focus group discussions conducted with both men and FHHs, pond construction was a
requirement in earlier periods that had become flexible now. Both groups indicated that freeness
from debt was a strict and appropriate requirement. These groups agreed that taking a loan from
different sources at the same time would not be feasible considering the current repaying capacity
of rural households. In the group with men and women participants, the loan takers’ commitment
and acceptance of the program was a requirement but in the same group, the participants included a
comment on the forceful mechanism that was used to make people become involved in the FSP
program. This idea was raised again in focus group discussions with only FHHs where they
indicated that taking FSP program loan was the only way to stay involved in FFW/CFW activities
that were important to fill consumption gap periods for all these households (Ref. table 24).

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Drylands Coordination Group

Table 33 Criteria for Recruitment from Key Informant’s Interviews

Issue of Discussion Key Informants at Tabia Level
Criteria adopted to • First assessment is made of what the
select FSP program household already possesses and then only
beneficiaries and the components that it is lacking are given
their appropriateness out as a package.
• Capability of the household to implement
the package program in terms of interest,
sense of responsibility to wisely use the
resources, place availability to keep the
components, etc.
• Being resident in the area
• Capacity to repay
• Free from an outstanding debt
• Able to work considering health and age
• The criteria are appropriate to screen the
beneficiaries who are hard working to the
effect of the food security package program.
Key Informants at Wereda Level
• Interest of households to
involve and implement
the package
• Economic status, i.e. the
poor are given priority
• Free from indebtedness
• Labor availability, but not
strictly applied on FHHs.
• The poorest of the poor.
In fact it is difficult to
assume beneficiaries were
the poorest of the poor
because these people
always fear to take credit.

In both of the interviews done with the people that were responsible for the implementation of the
FSP program at macro and micro levels, it was mentioned that the interest of loan takers was one of
the points that was taken into consideration. But this contradicted with the findings from especially
tabia Genfel where people were made to take the FSP program loan through some sorts of
obligatory means. Again at the macro level, the poorest of the poor were mentioned as the entitled
beneficiaries of the package program. The reason given at this level for the reluctant participation
from this group was that the poorest of the poor in particular feared indebtedness.

Nevertheless, according to the criteria set forth by the group that was close to the ground level and
responsible for the actual implementation of these criteria, issues of capability were repeatedly
mentioned. These capabilities included capacity to repay, place availability, being of sound health
and age, etc. But one point worth mentioning here is that it is the absence of these capabilities that
cause people to be among the poorest of the poor in the first place. Therefore, if these criteria are
what actually is expected to be met at the ground level, then it is difficult to assume that the actual
beneficiaries will really be the so called poorest of the poor.

It is understood that the objective of the FSP is to make the income of rural households reach the
benchmark of at least 1 USD per person per day. The amount of credit given out, the types of
components included and the timeframe set are all planned to make this practical. These factors
could explain the attitude of the executioners in keeping issues of capability as a central
requirement. If the FSP program is given out in smaller components, reaching the benchmark will
not be feasible. Therefore, in order to reconcile the concern of policy makers and implementers and
the group being marginalized from the lack of the necessary capabilities, simpler and affordable
technologies should be devised and implemented. Package programs that are not necessarily
confined only to agricultural activities or minimum agricultural packages that match the capacity of
the beneficiaries could be arranged and carried out.

4.3.2 The Food Security Package, Women and FHHs

One merit of the FSP program was the equal opportunity given to both women and men to
participate in the program. But when coming to the implementation and benefits obtained from the
program, some discrepancies were highlighted.

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

Table 34 Issues of Participation from FGDs

Issue of Discussion Group - 1 (FHHs with MHHs) Group - 2 (FHHs)
Participation of • Equal opportunities are given to both women • There is equal
women and FHHs as and men to involve in FSP. opportunity to both
compared to that of • Women are better in the utilization of the loan sexes
men. • Women particularly FHHs show better • No big differences in
endeavor in the implementation of FSP. results. They are
• In terms of results, that of MHHs are assumed comparable.
to be higher for FHHs lack labor. • MHHs can diversify
• In irrigation development men are better than their activities more
women because it demands intensive labor. than FHHs through
• Women heading households are stronger than expansion of irrigation
those with husbands. The latter mostly lack the that sometimes requires
necessary skill and depend on their husbands. working during night
• The benefits for women with husbands depend time which is difficult
on the attitude and consciousness of their for FHHs.
respective spouses. • FHHs are more serious
in the implementation
process of the FSP
program.

In FGDs, there was an agreement that most women were better at the appropriate utilization of the
loan they had taken. Especially FHHs were said to be serious in investing the loan for the right
purpose. But in terms of the benefits derived from the activities that require labor, women with
husbands were said to benefit the most. Nevertheless, the benefits in MHHs were shown to depend
on the tactfulness of husbands, while in FHHs the women were free to make any decision and take
any action that they deemed to be beneficial.

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Drylands Coordination Group

Table 35 Issues of Participation from Key Informants’ Interviews

Issue of Key Informants at Tabia Level
Discussion
Are FHHs • An equal opportunity is given to both. In
benefiting from fact 30-35% of households are expected
the package to be FHHs.
program on an • FHHs are found to be more effective in
equal level with their achievements.
men and with • WAT is found to be strong and organized
women in in encouraging and supervising its
MHHs? members to enroll in FSP
• While FHH are strong in implementing
the package programs and in managing
the resources, women with husbands are
not strong and actually do not have a clear
knowledge of the program.
• Definitely women with husbands will be
better off as compared to FHHs since the
latter lack labor. They can not carry out
activities during the night and it is
difficult for them to run here and there to
facilitate all activities because at the same
time they have responsibilities at home.
• Though FHHs are given priority in
policies, from a practical point of view
they are in a disadvantaged position.
• Women are afraid of taking the whole
package.
Key Informants at Wereda Level
• As a policy 30% of FSP
beneficiaries are assumed to be
FHHs.
• FHHs are generally hard
working as compared to women
with husbands.
• Although they are committed in
terms of implementation and
resource management, it is
reasonable to assume that the
cumulative benefit is greater in
MHHs as FHHs lack labor. The
bases of FHHs have do not
enable them to benefit equally as
men.
• Since FHHs involve themselves
in various activities they differ in
getting information from women
with husbands - FHHs manage
resources and hence relatively
are economically empowered
while in MHHs the decision
power is largely in the hands of
the husbands.
• Of course, there are also hard
working women with husbands.
• Many FHHs retreat from taking
the package fearing
indebtedness.

As can be seen from this table, the policy of the FSP ensures that equal opportunity is given to
FHHs to be involved in the program. According to the key informants interviewed, FHHs were said
to be better at carrying out their responsibilities, exposure to information and economic
empowerment as compared to women in MHHs. The latter stayed at home while husbands were
attending meetings and other awareness raising programs and hence do not have accurate
information. But still, because of the nature of livelihoods in the rural areas, at the end of the day
MHHs were seen to be benefiting more from the program because of the opportunity they had to
engage in diverse labor demanding activities.

4.3.3 Reasons for Adoption

Open-ended questions were raised to the interviewees to find out their reasons for enrolling in the
FSP program. As would be expected, most of the responses given were that they had taken the
credit hoping that it would improve their livelihood situation. Such broad statements encompassed
the desire to own an increased number of livestock, improvements in the consumption patterns and
food security situation within the households. To accomplish their aspirations for improved
livelihoods, the respondents did not necessarily use the loan for agricultural related development
activities. The credit from the FSP program was also invested in various non-agricultural
development activities such as trading, establishing own businesses, construction of houses and for
immediate unproductive consumption. The modifications made at the household level will be
further discussed in the following section.

As can be inferred from the following table, tabia Genfel was a special case where the majority of
the respondents enrolled in the FSP program against their own interests. Voluntary participation in
the package program was the motivation for the enrollment of the respondents from all the rest of
the sites, while in Genfel the majority were forced to join the program. The forcing strategy used in
34
 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

this site was seen to be the strongest on FHHs where 87% had said they were threatened that they
would be expelled from FFW/CFW opportunities if they did not become involved in the FSP
program. Similarly in 60% of the MHHs a similar scenario caused their involvement in the
program.

Table 36: Reason for Involvement in the FSP

Livelihood Improvement Obligation
MHHs FHHs MHHs FHHs
Tabias Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq %
Barka Adi Subuha 4 100 17 100 0 0 0 0
Genfel 2 40 2 13 3 60 13 87
Tsigea-Wargba 5 100 17 100 0 0 0 0
Bahri-Tseba 5 100 14 100 0 0 0 0

4.3.4 Modifications Made on the FSP Program at the Household Level

The FSP program components were designed in such a way that they would be suitable for the
different agro-ecological conditions of the region. In so doing, the components varied from wereda
to wereda. In general, the components included livestock (oxen and cows), small ruminants (sheep
and goats), poultry, beehives, seed and fertilizers. Nevertheless, from the FGDs and individual
interviews, it was discovered that quite a number of the households had used the loan fully or
partially for purposes other than the ones stipulated. Some had used it for petty trade, while others
used it to buy different types of animals such as camels and donkeys, for consumption, send their
children to school, for ornaments, etc. The reasons given for the modifications made in the FSP
credit program at household level are summarized below:
• The drought situation caused households to change their minds while in the process of using
the credit for the intended purpose;
• The severe poverty situation forced households to consume the money;
• High fluctuations in market prices made it difficult for loan takers to use the money for the
purchase of the intended animal. Instead, people were forced to buy other types of animals
for a cheaper price;
• Concern regarding the manageability of the components originally included in the package;
• People’s involvement in the program without interest had resulted in their negligence;
• Lack of openness from the beneficiaries with regard to expressing their real interests;
• The relatively fixed approach of the package program;
• Weak follow-up and supervision efforts;
• Widespread attitude of dependency, which had created the assumption that the debt would
be cancelled and that people would not be asked to repay.

A case study about a woman from a FHH who had modified the FSP program to fit her
circumstances is presented below. However, the reader of report should keep in mind that this is
just one example of the real attitude and practice found at the ground level. More of such case
studies that provide additional information are presented in annex 2.

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Drylands Coordination Group

Case Study: 1
Name: Azmera Teka
Age: 38
Spouse Condition: Widowed
No. of HH members: 8
No. of children: 6
Wereda: Atsibi-Womberta
Tabia: Barka Adi Subuha

W/o Azmera took the food security package credit in 2005. The criterion that she had to fulfill
to be enrolled in the FSP program was being a member of the Women’s Association of Tigray.
This criterion according to her was appropriate. The amount of the loan she took was birr
1,100.00 for the purchase of one dairy cow. This was not her choice because she could not
afford feeding the cow and hence decided to buy 5 sheep instead for Birr 800.00. The
remaining Birr 300.00 were used to send her 4 children to the near by school which she could
not afford to do before.

When the kushet leader came to her locality for supervision and understood that Azmera had
bought 5 sheep instead of a cow, she was told to sell the 5 sheep and buy the cow according to
the agreement made and the common understanding reached at the beginning. Nevertheless, she
decided to keep the 5 sheep she had already bought. The problem however was that, she and her
daughter were dismissed from the FFW arranged by the PSNP of the area as a punishment for
her disobedience.

Regarding the changes she had observed in her livelihood as a result of the FSP program, she
said that she was able to send her 4 children to school which she was not able to do before. Her
sheep were having more and more lambs. Other than that, she indicated that no changes had
taken place because it was only 5 months since she took the loan from the package program.
When asked about her general opinion on the whole arrangement of the package program, she
said that the package was much better than the previous credit and savings system. She also
indicated that the repayment period was a bit longer which gave her an opportunity to think and
carry out other activities.

The problem she pointed out was with regard to the implementation procedure of the package
program at the grassroots level. She said that she should be consulted and allowed to have her
own choice with regard to the components of the package because she was the one who is going
to repay the debt at the end of the day. She also said that her interest and capacity should be
taken into consideration as much as possible and that things had to be carried out in a
participatory manner rather than being told what component to take and what to carry out.

The top-down nature of the FSP program is intensifying the deviation of the actions taken by the
beneficiaries from the original objectives. Open participation from this group is missing even
though the program is intended to bring about positive changes in their livelihoods. On the side of
the policy makers, transparency and the need to identify and address the real interest of households
are fundamental. Strict follow up, supervision, technical support as well as advice are crucial if the
overall objective of the FSP program is to be attained.

4.3.5 Opinions on FSP Program at Household Level

When asked what their opinion was on the FSP program, most of the FHHs felt that some
modifications were necessary, while most women from MHHs suggested that it should continue as
it is.

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

Table 37 Opinions on FSP at Household Level

Few from FHHs also had the opinion that the FSP
program should be stopped completely. Especially MHHs FHHs
in tabia Genfel, the suggestions of the majority
Fr
revolved around the forcing strategy the FSP Freq % eq %
program implementers used to convince the Continue as it is 11 58 24 38
community to accept the loan. Secondly, the Be modified 7 37 37 59
interviewees also indicated that not all the FSP Be stopped 0 0 2 3
program components were the choice of the loan I don’t know 1 5 0 0
takers. In the same tabia, bee colonies and hives 19 100 63 100
were taken as the pillar components of the
program. Any household that was interested in taking other livestock and ruminants was forced to
take bee colonies and hives as well. But according to the respondents, in most cases the bee
colonies died or were lost as a result of the unsuitability of the material used in the construction of
the hives. Culturally, beekeeping was regarded as a masculine task and most FHHs were not
comfortable with its adoption. The community was therefore very much against the inclusion of bee
colonies as an obligatory part of the FSP program loan. In this regard, suggestions were made to
make the FSP program flexible as to entertain the choice of individuals. Others also felt that the
time set for debt repayment was still short and should be extended.

4.3.6 Negotiation and Decision-making Power

As mentioned earlier, the FSP program was designed in such a way as to fit different environmental
circumstances. Nevertheless, although an assessment had been done to ensure that the program
fitted the different agro-ecological requirements of the region, a study on the psychological
readiness, culture, behavior, and tendency of the group it was supposed to benefit was overlooked.
The rural society did not have the opportunity to negotiate and reach mutual decisions with the
group that designed and approved the policy. As a result, during this research the negotiation power
of the agrarian society with the officials at the hierarchy immediately above it, and similarly the
negotiation power of the local officials with macro level actors was seen to be weak and without a
significant impact on the decisions reached.

Of course, the resistance of the society with regard to their inability to openly negotiate and
influence decisions was reflected in the modifications that they had made of the FSP program
components at their own will. When using the loan for other purposes that they believed would
benefit them, the staff assigned to the different tabias did not try to negotiate with them or
understand what motivated such actions. Instead, beneficiaries were told to return to the originally
intended plan. Similarly, a quota system was used to decide how many households should enroll in
the program annually without consulting the people working at tabia levels to decide on the status
of the tabia inhabitants with regard to the willingness and conviction of local beneficiaries.
Household decision-making power also differed for a number of reasons. In the context of this
study, the type of household, i.e. whether it is headed by a man or a woman had a profound effect
on the freedom to make decisions and take actions.

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Drylands Coordination Group

Table 38 Decision-making Power at Household Level

Issue of Discussion Group - 1 (FHHs with MHHs) Group - 2 (FHHs)
Decision regarding • In most households major decisions are made • Everything is owned
resources and benefits through the discussion between the husband and controlled by
gained by women in and wife in MHHs. women in FHHs,
MHHs and FHHs • Difficult to generalize as there are husbands while income is
who dictate their wives. shared between
• Younger husbands tend more to decide by husband and wife in
their own without consulting their wives. MHHs.
Older husbands are more considerate as • Not all husbands are
opposed to the younger ones. the same but there are
• In FHHs all responsibility is in the hands of a number of them
women. who dominate their
wives.

Although it was not denied that some husbands dominate their wives, according to the participants
of the FGDs, major decisions in most MHHs were reached mutually. But such privileges were
pointed out to be more common in MHHs headed by older men than those that were headed by
younger ones. Younger husbands were said to have a tendency to make decisions by themselves
without involving their wives. FHHs were believed to be better-off in this respect as they owned
and managed their resources themselves.

4.4 IDENTIFIED GAPS

In the implementation of the FSP program, some gaps were identified due to gender blindness and
other reasons.

Table 39 Capacity Building

Training Given to MHHs
MHHs A capacity building training program was organized prior to taking the
Freq % FSP program loans and was given to the person registered as the loan
Wife 1 5 taker from a household. In the MHHs that were surveyed for this
Husband 12 63 study, in 12 out of the 19 households that had taken FSP program
Both 2 11 loans, the capacity building training opportunity was given to only the
None 4 21 husbands leaving out the women. According to this table, in only three
19 100
instances women got the opportunity to be trained alongside their
husbands or by themselves.

Table 40 Capacity Building

Training Given to FHHs
FHHs In FHHs, although a higher proportion have had capacity building training
Freq % that is compulsory in the effective management and utilization of large
Yes 49 78 amounts of loan such as the FSP program, 22% still did not get this
No 14 22 opportunity. Similarly, when discussing in focus groups with men and
63 100 women, there were mentions of both the strong and weak points of
training sessions organized for FSP program loan takers.

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

Table 41 Training Opportunities from the Micro Level

Issue of Discussion Group - 1 (FHHs with MHHs) Group - 2 (FHHs)
Who participated in • Some of the participants were only • No training was given
the training given to husbands but some of the trainees were both (tabia Barka Adi Subuha)
the people involved (husband and wife). • Women themselves were
in the food security • From MHHs only husbands took the trained (in other tabias)
package program training. • Training was given on
and what is the • The training was good since it was related how to purchase the
opinion on the to our experiences. items, how to manage the
training sessions • Training was given on how to use the loan resource, how to construct
but there was no detailed technical houses for livestock
orientation

The first weak point mentioned was that the sessions were more inclined towards theoretical
orientation and did not give equal emphasis to the practical aspects. The second point was that as
indicated in the earlier tables, for most MHHs, training programs were exclusively given to men.
Thirdly, in FGDs with only women heading households from tabia Barkadisbha of Atsibi-
Womberta wereda, they commented that training programs were not given. But from individual
interviews the study team was able to find some who have had training programs; nevertheless, the
percentage of coverage was still the lowest for this tabia. Strong points such as the training program
opportunities given to women heads of households and the inclusion of both husbands and wives in
training sessions in some tabias were also raised. Generally, there appears to be a lack of
consistency in the arrangement of training sessions across the study sites, which finally may
constraint the effectiveness of the development interventions.

Table 42 Training Opportunities from the Macro and Micro Levels

Issue of Discussion Key Informants at Tabia Level Key Informants at Wereda Level
Who takes the • FHHs take the training • FHHs participate themselves
training? themselves • Training is given generally to the husband in
• Training is given to both MHHs
wife and husband, but in • In fact there are tabias, although they may
most cases husbands take not be many, that gave training to both
the advantage husband and wife.
• But in the issue of • Training provision to both is quite important
training both mates and there are cases where it is found to be
should be given due more advantageous.
attention

When discussing the same issue with tabia and wereda level officials, it was admitted that in most
instances men got the opportunity to participate in the training program but they also acknowledged
that benefits could be obtained by involving both husbands and wives in training sessions. What
can be generalized from the different information sources is, therefore that some sort of orientation
was given to households. Nevertheless, it does not seem to have been well understood by many of
them.

4.5 IMPACTS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE FSP

Since the program started only almost three years ago, it is difficult at this stage to assess if the
objective of the FSP program to make rural households food secure has actually been attained or
not. However, it should be easy to trace the development trend. At the time of the survey,
respondents talked about improvements in their livelihoods with regard to the ownership of an
increasing number of farm animals and improved access to their products.

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Drylands Coordination Group

Table 43 Contribution of FSP to Rural Livelihoods from FGDs

Issue of Discussion Group – 1 (FHHs with MHHs)
Contribution of the • There is an important change in terms of
food security livestock ownership, livestock products
package to rural for consumption and sale, and income
livelihoods and earning through production of
opinions on the vegetables. As a result, households are
continuity of the in a position to cover expenses for
program education and clothes.
• Increase in production through farming
own plots that used to be rented out. The
livelihood of some households has
improved as a result
• There is an important change in the
work attitude; everybody is working
hard since the FSP is linked with a loan.
• Except the problem with the beehives,
the remaining package components are
important. Thus, the package program
should continue with a modification of
the types of components and by
entertaining the individual’s interests.
Group – 2 (FHHs)
• Households own livestock and
earn income through selling
livestock products.
• Increased milk consumption
that has nutritional values.
• But some consideration is
needed from the government’s
side when drought is
encountered
• Because some parts of the tabia
are not appropriate places for
bees, many have already lost
their bee colonies. Others have
not bought the hives after
learning about these episodes
(tabia Genfel). If bees are lost
the advantage to be gained
from other components might
be off-set because in such cases
households may be forced to
sell the few assets that they
have accumulated to repay the
debt for the lost bees.

Both men and women participants of the FGDs have recognized the changes the FSP program has
brought about to the livelihoods of rural households. Some of the highlighted points were
ownership of livestock and hence access to their produce plus access to draft power that had been
the long time constraint of the agrarian society. Additional income was made possible through
vegetable cultivation. Improvement of the work culture of the society was also noticed by these
groups. But the participants further pointed out areas in the package program that should be revised.
Some of these suggestions were that individual’s interests should be respected and only appropriate
components should be given out.

The consequence of imposing inappropriate components on the society was said to aggravate
indebtedness. Information collected from many of the case studies also evidences the impacts the
FSP program has on the livelihood of households. One of the case studies is depicted below.
Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind that this is just one example of the real attitude and
practice found at the ground level. More of such case studies in the field that provide additional
information are presented in annex 2.

40
 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

Case Study: 2

Name: Zenebu Teka

Age: 30
Marital Status: Divorced
Family Size: 5
Wereda: Atsibi-Womberta
Tabia: Barka Adi Subuha

Zenebu Teka became a beneficiary of the FSP program in 1996 Ethiopian Calendar (EC). Zenebu
states that the requirements she had to fulfill to qualify for the program were being free of any
indebtedness, hard working, commitment and being interested in taking the FSP program loan. She
also strongly believes that such criteria are important since it would be unbearable to have loans
from different sources and unless one is interested and committed, one can possibly misuse the
resources obtained that would finally analysis would lead to bankruptcy further deepening the
degree of poverty in the area.

Zenebu says that she bought one cow with its heifer, 5 chickens and 25kgs of seed with Birr
1,200.00 loans. Birr 1,000.00 was supposed to be for the cow but she was asked to buy it for Birr
900.00 and with the remaining Birr 100.00 she bought a sheep. In fact she only wanted to buy a
cow for fear of indebtedness as she had no other means of covering the loan. Since the package
program was composed of some components that should be taken together in order to enable a
household to earn a certain pre-estimated amount that at the end of the program would lead to
reaching a pre-estimated benchmark, she took the components highlighted above.

Zenebu is now happy to have taken the package program. With respect to the training program,
Zenebu confirms that it was given for all those who took the package including herself. She
remembers particularly the financial management aspect of the loan but she seems to have limited
knowledge of the technical part. In connection with this, she highlighted that the support given to
her by the development agents in the past year was limited probably since her house was located a
bit far from the center.

As for the changes brought about to her livelihood as the result of her involvement in the package
program, Zenebu said that she did not even have a single livestock before while she now owns a
cow with two heifers and a sheep with its lamb though unfortunately five of her chickens died
because of some disease. Although she does not sell milk, she is gladly consuming it, which of
course has good nutritional value. She also uses the butter for consumption and ointment stating that
she would otherwise have to purchase it from the market when in need.

Zenebu again understands the knowledge she has received in the process in terms of financial
management and the strategies to cope with poverty. Surprisingly Zenebu feels that having
livestock and the efforts she is making must have gained her respect in the society given that
households with good livestock holding status and work culture are respected by the community
members. Finally, she appreciates the program and hopes that it will help improve even more her
living conditions in the future.

The opinions of the professionals who were assigned with the task of implementing and closely
monitoring the FSP program did not deviate much from the thoughts of the beneficiaries that were
collected during FGDs (ref. table 43 below). At tabia and wereda levels, the changes brought about
in the livelihoods of the rural community were associated with improved livestock ownership,
consumption pattern, and opportunity to access alternative sources of income. As was also
commented in the FGDs, these officials also acknowledged that the community’s attitude towards

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Drylands Coordination Group

work was improving. Lastly, there was an opinion that instead of encouraging new entrants to join
the FSP program, focus should be given to help those already involved to bring about observable
changes and that any development intervention should only continue considering the interests and
capacities of the program beneficiaries.

42

Table 44 Contribution of FSP to Rural Livelihoods from Key Informants’ Discussions
Issue of Discussion Key Informants at Tabia Level
Benefits obtained from • Households are able to own livestock that have multiple purposes. As
FSP and opinions on the a result they are in a position to cover educational expenses
program • The different components of FSP are means to diversify sources of
income for households.
• Important behavioral changes are observed in the community in
general in reducing the dependency syndrome on food aid.
• Breakthrough in poverty reduction is a long term process since the
area is drought prone.
• Production is increasing but in many aspects market issues will be a
problem in the near future.
• There is no doubt that the food security package program should
continue; but
- Market issues should be given due attention.
- Adequate training should be given to beneficiaries
- Governmental employees at the tabia level, especially DAs, have
to be motivated through appropriate mechanisms otherwise it will
be difficult to ensure sustainable improvement
- Planning should start from below to make it realistic rather than
focusing on physical targets for the provision of effective
technical guidance and monitoring of activities.
- Courageous and hard working women should be recruited so that
they can be models for the other women in the society.
- Larger water harvesting mechanisms should be thought about.
Rather than sparsely distributing resources to construct small
ponds, it is better to concentrate and invest in larger aspects that
can bring about observable changes.
- Although there are changes attributed to FSP, due to the
frequency of droughts, it is difficult to confidently assume that it
leads to poverty reduction. On top of that there are other
shortcomings such as, low awareness of beneficiaries, low follow
up and control, and less commitment from all hierarchies.
43
Female-headed households and livelihood intervention
Key Informants at Wereda Level
• Households that have used the credit appropriately have shown
improvements, and those who misused the resources will be in
trouble.
• There are already households who have attained the benchmark that
was pre-set, while there are a number of them whose performance is
below expectations.
• Changes in the consumption pattern are created which have nutritional
consequences.
• Changes are recorded in natural resource development.
• It however should be recognized that these achievements cannot be
attributed solely to FSP:
- Package programs seem to have overburdened FHHS because
every body is involved in natural resource development while
package components demand heavy efforts.
- The focus has been on physical targets and hence modification is
needed in order to set plans on which concentrated technical
support can be provided.
- The policy direction was to prioritize the poorest of the poor but
the progress has to be evaluated in detail to see if the actual
practice has held true and for necessary amendments otherwise.
- Although the program has to accommodate new entrants yearly,
the pace should be slowed down and focus should rather be put on
the transformation of the livelihoods of those who are already
involved in the package.
- The menu of the package should be there but interests of
individuals have to be accommodated for better achievements.
- Obligatory features should be avoided. Choices on package
components should be based on individual interest and capacity.
Drylands Coordination Group

Both groups have indicated a number of obstacles that should be thought about if poverty reduction
is to be achieved as targeted. The unpredictable drought situation was one issue that was raised as a
major obstacle that can have a reversing effect on what has already been achieved at the community
level. In the same line, the following was mentioned by wereda official in Raya-Azebo wereda, that
the FSP program is developed assuming moderate weather condition. But in the previous
production season, the same wereda experienced a severe crop failure. As a result, production was
only 13%. This has retarded the whole process of the implementation of the FSP program. The
income level that the FSP program loan takers are supposed to reach within a year’s time was not
attainable. There was a cutback on the expected income levels by almost 50% (from key
informants’ interview, Raya-Azebo wereda). Due to this situation, the official suggests that agro-
ecological assessments should go even beyond wereda level to tabia and kushet levels since the
regional environmental situation is highly contrasted.

The other scenario put forward by these government officials was that if success in the
implementation and output from the FSP program should be achieved as planned, the market
system would become an obstacle since there were no well organized outlets through which the
farmers can sell their outputs. Another comment was on the ‘training programs’ that were given to
the beneficiaries of the FSP program. The training programs according to these officials were not
adequate or well organized. The following comment was made by a wereda official from Atsibi-
Womberta, poverty is high and the population is also high. But the training program for capacity
building is low. Sometimes in training sessions we have to accommodate up to 30 farmers at once
and therefore there is no question that the quality will be compromised. Such training programs
really are not efficient (from key informants’ interview, Atsbi-Womberta wereda). A similar
criticism was made on the inadequacy of technical support given to the people who are involved in
the program.

Bitter remarks were made with regard to the absence of motivation from the employees who acted
on the government’s behalf at tabia level as DAs. In some of these remarks it was pointed out that
most development strategies including the FSP program were top-down and were designed without
studying the psychological readiness of the rural communities, geographical situations or capacity
of the areas and rather concentrated on fulfilling certain set quotas. The following statement was
made by a rural development officer in one of the tabias: we were never given any opportunity to
evaluate the developments of the FSP program with the authorities at wereda levels. We were just
given a quota to convince 1006 households to involve in FSP program. We only managed to
convince 397. We were told that we have failed to fulfill the requirement. There are many people
who are interested to take the loan but for other purpose such as house construction, to go abroad,
or to trade with the money. And all of these don’t seem to be recognized at wereda levels (From
key informants’ interview). Additionally, it was mentioned that stronger monitoring and evaluation
should be made to asses the direction and level of progress reached.

In relation to FHHs a comment was made that the FSP program related development activities are
particularly cumbersome for these households since they have to divide their time and limited labor
between community development activities and the task of managing the program components. The
implementers also showed some doubts whether the real beneficiaries are really the poorest of the
poor as was the intention of the FSP program.

4.6 SUGGESTIONS OF HHS ON HOW TO IMPROVE LIVELIHOODS OF FHHS

At the end of the questionnaire that was presented to the households in the rural areas, an open
ended inquiry was included which intended to get insight into how they view the possible solutions
on the existing problems of poverty. Alongside with this, it is a means of extracting suggestions
from the households as to how to solve their own respective problems. The details of the responses

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

by tabia can be found in annex 5. In summary, as seen in the table below, in one way or another, the
suggestions revolve around the availability of credit facility, expansion of employment
opportunities and diversification of the sources of incomes of the households. A number of items
and ideas are in fact listed by the households. In the summary table, one may therefore feel that the
presentations are repetitive. The expressions are written as directly forwarded by the households not
only for appreciation purposes of their responses but if examined in detail to be able to extract
differences in interests of households can be extracted which could guide the development of a
variety of realistic development interventions.

Table 45 Summaries of Responses of HHs on what to do to Improve the Livelihood of FHHs

Issue of Discussion Responses Forwarded by Households at Tabia Levels
Suggestions on what • Special focus should be given to FHHs with big family sizes.
can be done to improve • A credit facility should be made available with a reasonable interest rate.
the livelihoods of • The food security package program should first prioritize FHHs.
FHHs • Expanding education is a mean to improve the poverty situation.
• Together with the expansion of education, the opening of high schools for
students helps a lot FHHs.
• Provision of different and adequate training programs to FHHs.
• Involvement of FHHs in the productive safety net program is essential.
• Expansion of employment opportunities that diversify the incomes of FHHs.
• The selection criteria of the FSP program have to possibly be transparent.
• Consideration of repayment problems during drought periods
• Development and expansion of water harvesting development activities
• Technical support should be provided to encourage rural FHHs
• The commitment from upper hierarchies should be strengthened
• Energy should be made available to help FHHs expand their activities
• Support and assistance should be given to old, sick and weak people, etc.

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Drylands Coordination Group

5. RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES

The poverty situation was seen to be equally shared by the rural and the urban sites of this survey.
In both cases, the low level of development of the overall economy made these community
members to remain living in extremely poor conditions. In the rural areas of the Tigray region, for
instance, the majority of the people lived in very poor conditions. There are a number of
fundamental root-causes for the poverty in rural areas. Some of these are the fact that rural people
own very small or no agricultural land, own very few or no domestic animals, have no rural
employment opportunities for daily and monthly income, have no adequate skills to run income-
generating activities, lack different options of appropriate technology, have very big family sizes as
compared to their income levels, have a number of religious holidays that kept them away from
working in the field, have very low or no savings due to unproductive consumptions such as
weddings, teskar and other cultural ceremonies, have less or no assistance in the form of
remittances from other relatives living elsewhere, exercise low level of genuine participation and
involvement in the efforts exerted for rural development and so on. The study team was able to
observe all the above mentioned situations in the selected rural weredas and tabias of the study
sites. All these can be taken, therefore, as the major push factors for the rural poor people to migrate
to nearby and even distant urban areas.

In the urban areas as well, the majority of the people live in very mediocre conditions. Some of the
causes for urban poverty in the region arise from the absence of different employment
opportunities, lack of adequate financial resources to cover initial investment costs to run petty
trade or other businesses, lack of adequate monthly/annual income that keep the family members
well-fed and dressed, lack of own house, absence of assistance in the form of remittances from
relatives and other people residing elsewhere, and the expensiveness of the costs of living in the
urban areas as compared to the level of income. This being the reality in all the four urban sites, it
can be said that the pull factors that can attract FHHs to move from the rural to the nearby urban
areas were weak. However, the opportunities were still better in urban areas. In rural households
when the drought situation occurs it puts almost all of the households in a vulnerable position at
once. This is mainly due to the uniformity of the type of activity these households are engaged in to
derive their income, which almost always is agriculture related. So if a natural calamity occurs
affecting the agricultural sector, rural households will be faced with acute poverty and food
insecurity. But a food insecurity situation in urban areas does not come only as a result of the
drought situation but as the result of the collective action of many more factors which can be
mitigated by having more livelihood options compared to in rural settings.

5.1 MIGRATION FROM RURAL TO URBAN AREAS

Despite the push factors in rural areas as those mentioned above, it was not common that the rural
FHHs migrated to urban areas for better income and in search of other employment opportunities.
The weak pull factors of the urban areas were also well understood by the rural FHHs. Some rural
women went to the urban areas due to certain marriage arrangements, some for daily labor and
some for marketing purposes mostly not on a permanent basis.

Some women in Atsibi-Womberta wereda, for instance, went to the town of Wukro, the political
center of Kilte-Awlaelo wereda, in search of better markets for their agricultural products. Generally
speaking, rural-urban migration was not identified as an important coping strategy for the different
poverty situations including food insecurity by the targeted FHHs. Most of the respondents in the
urban sites of this study were not migrants from rural areas. Only 8 % among the FHHs surveyed in
the urban areas migrated from rural areas in search of better livelihoods, as a result of eviction from
Eritrea due to the Ethio- Eritrean war, or other reasons.

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Table 46 Migration in Search of Income or

Other Reasons (Urban FHHs)
Frequency Percentage
Yes 6 7.6
NA 73 92.4
Total 79 100
NA- Not Applicable (have not migrated
from rural areas)

5.2 CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION

Although rural-urban migration was not taken as a solution for the poor living conditions of the
majority of the people in the study areas, it does not mean that there were no migrants at all. There
were some migrants from the nearby rural areas and even from other urban areas due to different
reasons. The consequences of migration, however, varied from individual to individual depending
upon the situation, effort, as well as the motivation of the person. While some of the women
coming from the nearby rural areas were in a better situation compared to the past, most particularly
those coming from the neighboring country Eritrea due to political reasons, claimed to not have
seen any progress in their livelihood. Most, in fact, claimed that their living conditions had
deteriorated as they were forced to leave their assets behind when they were evicted from Eritrea.

In general, there was a low level of urban development in the study areas in particular that did not
encourage the FHHs to migrate from the rural areas to the nearby urban areas for better living
conditions. In fact, it was even sometimes quite difficult for the study team to make clear
distinctions between the rural dwellers and the urban dwellers in the different sites because FHHs
from both areas were equally physically deteriorated and poorly dressed.

As was shown in table 13, some of the positive aspects about urban areas were that all service
providing infrastructures were quite close as compared to those in rural areas. Urban FHHs had a
tendency to get involved in a wide range of income generating activities, which may have arisen
from relatively better employment opportunities (table 18). Literacy levels were also recorded to be
better in these households. Apart from such positive points, the so called ‘urban’ places surveyed in
this study were very much under-developed and did not offer special opportunities for rural FHHs
that could have triggered high rural-urban migrations. Therefore, the finding of the current study
challenges the existing theories regarding urban pull. However, the reader has to bear in mind that
the places referred to as ‘urban’ among the surveyed sites were at a very low level of development.
This may be the reason behind the weak motivation or rural dwellers to migrate to these ‘urban’
areas. Hence, this finding should be taken to indicate the status of the surveyed sites and not the
general situation of the overall region.

5.3 THE STRATEGY IN URBAN AREAS

In the earlier years, the focus of the government’s development efforts was inclined towards the
rural areas only for the simple reason that the economic base of the country was an agrarian one.
The rural-centered efforts were assumed to bring a breakthrough in the sluggish socio-economic
development of the country. Through time, however, the importance of the rural-urban linkages has
been well recognized. Moreover, the poverty situation in the urban areas was recognized to be no
better than that of the rural areas. Above 60 % of urban dwellers in Tigray are assumed to live under
the poverty line. Hence, without bringing some changes in urban areas, it is quite difficult to think
of satisfactory improvements in rural areas. This is because of the existing high interdependence
between urban and rural areas. Therefore, any action that improves the means of income of the
urban areas would have a positive impact on the livelihoods of rural households as well.

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As part of the government’s strategy to develop urban areas, the Micro and Small-scale Enterprise
Development Agency (MSEDA) has been established in Tigray. The role of these small-scale
enterprises is to create the potential for economic progress especially in developing countries. In the
Tigray region small-scale industries are suitable for the existing structure and resource base of the
region and also have some specific advantages. These benefits include the creation of markets for
different outputs, creation of favorable conditions for small private business operations, creation of
employment opportunities, accumulation of capital at household level etc. The attainment of these
conditions will strengthen existing rural-urban linkages. For the success of these Micro and Small
Enterprises (MSEs) training programs and credit facilities are made available through branch
offices found in the different weredas.

According to a census carried out by MSEDA on the existing small-scale development activities in
23 small towns of the region, about 9,522 people were found to be engaged in different small-scale
activities, out of which 5041 (53 %) were run by women. 85 % of the owners were within the
economically active age group, i.e., 15-50 years old (MSE, 2003). However, the smallness of the
enterprise was manifested in that the capital capacity for most (51 %) was only up to Birr 500.00.
Those having beyond Birr 5,000.00 as capital were only 10.6 %. Of the total, 57.2 % were run with
their own capital while 31 % of them have taken credit. Nevertheless, different factors constrain the
current strategy from attaining the envisaged livelihood improvement in urban areas. 30.8 % of the
participants within the enterprise have pointed to the market as being the major problem hindering
the success of MSEs. Shortage of working place was mentioned as the second problem by 25 %.
Shortage of finance as a problem was identifies by only 13.7 % of those people who take part in the
different enterprises. As part of these MSEs, 29 different activities were identified. Of the people
included in the survey the majority, i.e. 22 %, were engaged in preparing local drinks such as (tella,
tejj, local liquor, etc) and the other 17 % were running shops. Hotels, small restaurants, cafeteria,
teashops, etc and textile tailoring stood third in their proportion sharing only 8 % each.

All of the four urban towns of the current study were also included within the survey conducted by
MESDA. As was observable during the field survey, except for a few practical efforts undertaken to
organize the youth section in metal works, woodworks, and construction groups in the town of
Mehoni, no major performance of the MSEs was recorded in the remaining towns of the study. As
understood from the discussions held with the different groups of FHHs in the urban areas, most of
the FHHs did not in fact even know about the availability of an agency to facilitate the
establishment of small-scale industries in their vicinity. Nevertheless, almost all of the interviewed
households identified the shortage of capital to start their own businesses as part of the cause for
their poverty. Hence, it is easy to see that MSEs are a good strategy to satisfy the felt-needs of the
society but some work is still needed in making the society obtain adequate information on the
opportunity of becoming involved in such an agency. Mobilization of the necessary resources was
also seen to lag behind after some of the FHHs were made aware of this possibility and received the
appropriate training. Therefore, it is also crucial to realize that the poverty situation that is observed
among urban dwellers is an acute one that deserves a rapid remedy and that all the resources needed
to mitigate this situation should be disbursed in time. Expansion of the MSEs is very fundamental to
improve the livelihoods of these FHHs. Upgrading the demand capacity of urban areas in terms of
consumption requirements would contribute to reinforcing the rural economy. That is only possible
through the practical transformation of the different socio-economic affairs of the urban areas and at
the same time by strengthening the rural-urban linkages.

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6. AVAILABLE DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCES AND ACTIVITIES

Certain development actors were operating in the surveyed weredas as indicated in the following
table. Some of them were involved in the specific tabias that were covered by the study. Interviews
were held with key informants at tabia and wereda levels with the aim to know as to how the
process of planning was undertaken to ensure optimum integration of the efforts of the different
actors and scarce resources so as to avoid overlaps and repetition of developmental efforts. As a
result, it is understood that specific areas of intervention were determined for the different
development actors through interactions during the planning period. The level of intervention of the
various actors differed in scope and depth. Some of them operated in a very specific and limited
area with very few components, while others dealt with a wide range of aspects. In the process of
understanding the impacts of FSP or any other intervention it is important to understand that the
changes observed in the livelihoods of people are a result of the cumulative effects these different
on-going developmental activities and not the effect of one single activity over a period of time.

In the following table an exhaustive list of the different development actors and activities taking
place in all the study sites are presented. Nevertheless, despite the developmental efforts being
undertaken by these different actors, it was clearly observable that most of the households led a
very miserable life. Repetitive drought has depleted the asset base of these households and
consumption gaps always existed even during relatively good harvesting seasons. Just to mention
some among the multitude of factors responsible for this situation, the age-old farming practice of
the country has caused natural vegetation cover to decline to the extent that nearly all forms of land
remain bare with consequences such as heavy erosion and eventual decrease in productivity. Such
trend is also associated with rapid population growth. Hence, this situation demands that effective
and appropriate approaches remain in place that gradually enable households to substantially build
their different forms of assets.

Table 47 Development Actors in the Study Weredas and Tabias and their Interventions
Development Operation Areas Development Activities Implemented
Actors Weredas Tabias
World Vision Atsibi- Barkadisbha • Involved mainly in the supply of ruminants and beehives
Ethiopia Womberta for honey production;
• Gives priority to women beneficiaries; and
• Carries out education related activities.
GTZ ‘’ ‘’ • Undertakes different watershed management activities
taking one kushet as a model;
• Carries out soil and water conservation related development
activities through FFW.
BESO ‘’ ‘’ • Involved in supporting education related development
activities through school feeding;
• Provides a revolving fund for income-generating
The World ‘’ development activities where both poor women and men
Bank are the beneficiaries of the interventions;
• Its development operations are linked with the productive
safety net program to carry out construction of hand-dug
wells, ponds, rural roads, micro-dams and development of
springs.
ILRI ‘’ • Starting on limited development activities;
• Focuses on agri-business to create value added;
• Women are assumed to benefit more from the program;
• Focuses particularly on school drop out girls,
• The program is a research based operation being
implemented at pilot level at the moment.
IFAD and • undertake limited development activities linked mainly
ICAF with soil and water conservation

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Drylands Coordination Group

ERTTB ‘’ • Focuses on the construction of access roads to create

funded by conducive situations for the existing transportation systems
DfID and such as horse-drawn carts;
DCI • Involves also in some other development activities like
construction of health posts.
St. Mary Kilte- Genfel • Gully protection;
Awlaelo • Livestock production;
• Vegetable production.
CIDA ‘’ ‘’ • Soil and water conservation activities.
REST Kilte- • Natural resources development;
Awlaelo • Livestock production;
• Water supply development.
World Vision • Watershed management;
• Water supply development;
• Fruit development.
Catholic ‘’ • Water supply development;
Church • Irrigation development in limited areas.
TRDP • Social services development;
• Water supply development.
Wukro • Natural resource development;
Catholic • Water supply development;
Church • Livestock development.
WFP • Watershed development.
CIDA ‘’ • Catchment’s treatment around dam areas.
FAO ‘’ • Seed supply.
REST Raya- Tsigea- • Emergency activities – pond construction;
Azebo Wargba • FFW activities – forage development.
Orthodox ‘’ ‘’ • Water supply development on a limited scale;
Church • Seed supply.
FAO Hintalo- Bahri-Tseba • Seed supply – taking one village as a model;
Wejerat • Credit supply.
REST ‘’ • Natural resource development;
• Livestock resource development;
• Irrigation development.
FAO ‘’ • Irrigation development;
• Provision of credit facilities;
• Provision of inputs;
• Training programs.
WFP ‘’ • Natural resource development.

The above organizations and their respective activities were inline with the interests and the
priorities of the regional and national government’s development programs. As the programs and
the respective development activities are based on the felt needs of the regional government and
local community at large, they support the undergoing FSP program of the region. Because of this,
the organizations and the development activities being carried out in the different parts of the region
complement the FSP program.

One important issue, however, appears to not be getting the appropriate attention. . As the
information obtained from the Bureau of Finance and Economic Development (BoFED) indicates,
the different NGOs working in the different parts of the region do not take part in the planning
process of the overall development strategy of the region. Details of the supports and agreements
made with the various bilateral and multilateral organizations are held at the federal level with the
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MOFED). MOFED simply passes the
summarized information either to BoFED or to the respective regional level sector bureaus. In this
case, it sometimes creates problems to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the different
activities taking place. The NGOs of the region mainly work in coordination with the Disaster

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Prevention and Preparedness Commission (DPPC) and as a result overlaps are observed between
the mandates of MOFED and DPPC. Moreover, there is a lack of strong follow-up of the activities
of the various NGOs from the regional DPPC bureau. As there are several problems in the region
related to the process of implementation, it is quite important to establish strong cross-sectoral
cooperation among the different NGOs found in the different weredas. Hitherto, such cooperation
has not been established among these NGOs and this may lead to a duplication of efforts and the
unnecessary expenditure of scarce resources that otherwise could have been utilized for other
important developmental activities. Therefore, possibilities for such integrated actions should be
created to achieve a sustainable improvement in the livelihood of local communities.

Except from some of the organizations identified above such as the World Vision and ILRI that
particularly attempted to target women as beneficiaries of their programs, most of the other NGOs
focused on benefiting the poor in general without discriminating between gender groups. As will be
presented under chapter 7, the Women Association of Tigray (WAT) is an important association
that is responsible for organizing women in the region into groups so as to make organized demands
and exert pressure to benefit from ongoing developmental interventions. The women’s affairs
bureau also makes appropriate advocacy in order to mainstream gender into activities and policies
being planned to take place in the overall region.

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7. CONTRIBUTIONS OF WAT FOR LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENTS

Women in the Tigray region, as in any other parts of the country and even in Africa at large, are the
real backbones of society. They are also the custodians of the physical and the cultural environment.
If the opinion of women is taken into consideration, they might have equal or sometimes even better
ideas and knowledge on rural development compared to their male counterparts in the community.
Despite this, women have never had the necessary power that could be used for decision-making
processes in the individual households let alone at community level. Women were rather always
found at the center of all sorts of oppression and discrimination throughout the past. This was
mainly due to gender imbalance attitudes of the community and lack of access to formal and non-
formal education systems as well as other skill training.

The above situation of discrimination somehow changed when the women of the region started to
actively participate in the armed struggle fought against the former military government of the
country. From the outset of the struggle, it was realized that without the participation of the women
section of the community, no meaningful equality, peace, democracy and the like could practically
be achieved and sustained. The association was therefore established in the year 1977 during the
armed struggle and has gone through different processes and development objectives since its
establishment to date. During that period, the association has contributed a lot in different aspects:
organizing and coordinating women for political, social and economic freedom.

After the downfall of the military regime in 1991, however, the focus of the association shifted
drastically to development. WAT is now a vibrant non-political, non-religious and non-profit
making indigenous organization. At the moment the association has more than 450,000 members
and numerous development activities striving for the betterment of the marginalized women of the
region. In practical terms, WAT is dealing with the promotion of the welfare and the rights of
women through the design, implementation and management of various development programs,
projects and activities. There is also a lot of advocacy work that has had far reaching positive
impacts on the livelihoods of women in general and the members of the association in particular.

According to the five-year strategic plan, the overall goal of the association is to improve the
political, socio-economic and socio-cultural situations and participation of women in all spheres of
the poverty reduction endeavors being carried out in the region (Desta and Haddis, 2003). Since its
formal involvement in the process of development to the present situation, WAT has achieved a lot
of tangible results and development impacts in the region. One of the association’s first
achievements was lobbying for the amendment of the family law in order to allow women to
possess productive assets. WAT also made other efforts to bring about fundamental changes in the
livelihood situation of women in different parts of the region in social, political, cultural,
environmental, economic and psychological aspects.

At the moment, WAT has grown into one of the country’s largest grassroots level based women’s
organization addressing the practical and strategic needs of women in general and that of FHHs of
the region in particular. It is now the vanguard organization in Tigray working with a lot of
members in different parts of the region. For such achievements and development impacts, WAT
has different donors, partner organizations and stakeholders.

As has already been indicated, the association has developed its five-year strategic plan that has
covered the period from 2004-2008. This was actually in order to make its efforts and resources
visionary and even more practical. It was wise for the association to think and examine the lessons
learned in the past, analyze the concrete situation and come up with the strategic plan that has
speculated the future areas of development interventions in a more strategic and practical manner

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and that would serve as a framework in improving the livelihoods of the women section of the
community in general and the FHHs in particular. According to the developed strategic planning
document, the vision of the association is as stated:
to see fundamental changes in the livelihoods of women in Tigray in general and members
of the association in particular through their equal participations in and benefits from the
political, economic, social and cultural aspects undertaking in the region with their male
counterparts. (ibid: 46)
The programs designed in the strategic plan are comprehensive in order to ensure sustainability of
the already reached achievements and to reinforce the endeavors of the association through
implementing additional components. The practical contributions of the association in the
improvements of the livelihoods of women in the region in general and the FHHs in particular
through its own direct development programs, projects and activities and through its indirect
advocacy work are briefly highlighted in the following section.

7.1 DIRECT DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS

7.1.1 The Capacity Building Program

Empowering women also includes building the capacity of women to get involved and be active
participants in the decision-making processes in the community. This requires leadership and
managerial skills. WAT has thus been working in this area to create and develop the leadership and
managerial skills of its members in particular and of course of the whole community in general. In
1996 EC year alone WAT has provided leadership and management training for 3681 tabia and
wereda level WAT leaders which aimed at developing the decision making and leadership capacity
of the association.

7.1.2 Skill Training Programs and Provision of Credit Facilities

One of the development activities planed and implemented by the association itself is a skill
training program and the provision of credit facilities for small-scale income generation activities so
that association members in general and the FHHs in particular would use the resources for their
economic and financial improvement. According to Special Issue No. 4 of the association, about
6915 members were provided skill training in the fiscal years of 1994, 1995 and 1996 EC worth
Birr 2.8 million in the vocation training centers of the association in different agricultural and non-
agricultural areas such as: goat and sheep production, poultry production, beekeeping, pottery, petty
trading, knitting and other handcrafts, etc. These training programs were provided with start up
capitals that played important roles in helping women establish their businesses. For this, a start up
capital of Birr 3 million had been distributed in the form of credit in the same time periods (WAT,
1998).

In 1997 EC as well, it was planned to train 3987 members in different skill training programs.
Nevertheless, the training was given to only 1892 members (47.5% of the women targeted initially)
as a result of failure of the members to consistently attend training sessions and their lack of
interest. These have already started carrying out different income generating activities in the
different parts of the region with the provision of credit amounting to Birr 1,457,540.00 from the
association itself. In this case, it can be said that many members of the association are supporting
themselves and their respective families thanks to the skill training program and provision of credit
facilities from the association. This is also what the document on “Evaluation Report of KUW
Funded Skill Training Program Implemented by WAT in Western Zone of Tigray Region”
practically indicates. Some FHHs have improved their livelihoods thanks to the various income
generating activities. The conclusion of the report says: … Generally the contribution of the project
to the improvement of livelihoods is well felt by beneficiaries, though some differences are observed
across the field of trainings….’, (Desta and Haddis, 2005).

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Drylands Coordination Group

7.1.3 Formal and Non-formal Education Programs

WAT strongly believes that education is the key factor for change. It also believes that education
has a special role to play in creating equality between women and men. The common saying:
Educating the man is educating one individual, while educating woman means educating the whole
family is well understood and taken by the association. Even in practice, it is possible to observe
how an educated mother compared to an illiterate one ensures better health conditions, resource
management and a small family size. It is because of the above general truth that WAT is involved
in both formal and non-formal education programs in the region using the available resources into
under consideration.

Formal Education
At the moment, the enrollment rate of female students particularly in primary schools (grades 1-4)
is 49.9%. Nevertheless, this varies from wereda to wereda and even from one school to another.
The proportion of girls and their competition in higher education programs keeps lowering. WAT is
therefore trying its best to convince its members to send their female children to nearby schools and
carries out different activities with the respective teachers in schools. It also encourages female
students in different ways. In the past (during the academic years of 1994, 1995 and 1996 EC), for
instance, WAT rewarded 839 female students who had shown good performance in their education
worth Birr 35,587.00.

In the academic year of 1997 as well, WAT rewarded as an incentive 338 female students who have
shown good academic performances in their education worth Birr 33,273.00. Such rewards and
incentives create a good academic atmosphere and competition among other female students in
different schools. WAT provided special assistance to 65,690 female students found in different
grades ranging from 4th to 12th. WAT is also working as a member of the advisory (steering)
committee in 20 administrative weredas and 200 primary schools in close collaboration with the
Tigray Development Association (TDA). This is done to raise the participation of female students
in education in the region.

Apart from the above, the association is assisting 32 female orphans who lost their parents because
of HIV/AIDS to get free education in different colleges in the region. In addition to the above, there
are different efforts and initiatives being carried out by the association to reduce the rates of
dropouts and repeaters of female students by arranging tutorial classes in different schools located
in different places of the region. These kinds of assistance and incentives have good encouragement
effects not only for the female students but also for the attainment of the overall quality of
education in the region.

Non-formal Education Programs

WAT has its own 9 model literacy program in 9 different kushets. In 2002, 1,490 women graduated
in 6 kushets. There were also 900 members in 3 kushets who started in 2003 out of these, 885 (98%)
of the total have completed the 3rd year special illiteracy eradication program in 1997 EC with the
assistance of the association with financial resources particularly coming from German Adult
Education Association/Institute for International Cooperation (DVV/IIZ). Compared to other
illiteracy eradication program followers in the past, these have better reading and writing skills as
perceived by the association itself. WAT commenced the new program on Functional Adult
Literacy (FAL) in 2004. Since the program is a practical one that deals with the daily life of the
participants, the association is quite interested in strengthening the approach even in the future. In
other words, as the training program is given very close to their home, participants do not need to
go to too far sites and hence like this program better than others. For both the formal and the non-
formal education programs carried out in the region, the association works in close collaboration
with the Tigray Regional Bureau of Education. This kind of close collaboration with the right

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government institution helps the organization to properly sustain its education related development
activities.

7.1.4 Health Related Development Interventions

Various lessons related to preventive health were given to about 70% of the members, the major
focus being on vaccination for mothers and children, prenatal and postnatal services, family
planning practices, personal and environmental sanitation programs and the prevalence of
HIV/AIDS. WAT has developed a project proposal to help orphans and is now in the process of
gathering all sorts of resources. WAT has also conducted an evaluation of the HIV/AIDS activities.
So far, 750 different community members have been trained. The result of this approach is found to
be encouraging for many people are showing behavioral changes.

Apart from the above, WAT has trained 524 commercial sex workers on the prevalence of the
disease and donated Birr 524,000.00 in the years 1994, 1995 and 1996 EC which enabled them to
run different income-generating activities. The training includes not only HIV/AIDS but also other
components such as petty trade management, which enables them to employ themselves. For rural
area dwellers, particularly those who serve as traditional birth attendants (TBAs) in the local
community, refresher training programs were arranged and carried out for 2382 beneficiaries for 10
days on the prevalence of HIV/AIDS. On completion of the programs, delivery kits were distributed
to the participants. In all the above cases, several achievements and real impacts have been recorded
by the association.

Using the community conservation approach/method in 1997 E.C. 52166 people (of both sexes)
have been trained. As the report of the association (1997 EC) indicates, out of the total, 3359 (6.4%)
got married and the remaining have shown better behavioral changes in the community. The report
indicates also that training has been given to 220 commercial sex workers in the same year and a
grant (non-repayable) of Birr 220,000.00 has been made available by the association. 121 male and
female victims are also trained in petty trade activities and dairy cow production as well as
management. They are given an initial capital for rehabilitation ranging from Birr 4,000.00 to Birr
5,500.00 for each respectively.

7.1.5 Development of the Family Law in Tigray

The family law in Tigray is not the first of its kind in the region. There was a family law at the
national level. However, it did not show the equality of women and is more to the advantage of
men. Thus, WAT’s role was rather to lobby to amend the family law. As WAT strongly believes
that family is the basis for a community, family law has been developed and approved in the region.
As the law is directly related to the rights of women and children, it has its own contributions in
ensuring the equality of women in the local community. The association arranged and carried out
different workshops for a total of 2960 men and women participants including religious leaders,
prosecutors and association leaders. As a result, positive changes in attitudes have been achieved by
the various participants.

The other important component of the family law, which has meaningful contributions to women’s
rights, is the case of early marriage. Although the family law of the region indicates that women can
only get married when above 18 years of age, the community is not very sensitive to the negative
effects of early marriage for young girls. To solve the problem WAT studied 6053 girls in the past
four years including 1997 E.C., which thought or planned to get married at an early age. Out of
these, the association managed to save 4219 young girls (70% of the total) from early marriages. As
a result, they were not only saved from marriages but were also able to continue their education.

Since the association strongly believes that education (not merely the formal and the non-formal
education programs treated above) is generally the fundamental solution for the true liberation and

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empowerment of women in all aspects of the development process in the region, it has provided
several awareness creation activities. As a result of the overall education given by the association at
different times and at different meetings, it has managed to upgrade the knowledge of its members.
Furthermore, WAT is also advocating the need for the improvement of the current family law of the
region. It has identified the articles that should be amended and presented them to the Tigray
Regional Bureau of Justice. This is in progress at the moment and will hopefully bring better
implementation procedures as well as results in the future.

7.1.6 Involvement of Members in Different Positions

WAT exerts maximum efforts to empower women in different aspects as well. In the Federal and
Regional parliament elections carried out in 1998, for instance, the political involvement of women
in different councils was represented by 28%, 34% and 30% at regional, wereda and tabia levels
respectively. Given the above, in the restructuring program of the regional government carried out
in 2003, the participation of women in administration structures seriously declined. In the same
token, the managerial positions of women in different government offices of the region have
declined tremendously. Efforts are, therefore, being made by the association to involve more
women in politics and managerial positions in different government offices.

By involving members in different positions, the roles played by the association in improving the
political position of women include:
• Advocacy and convincing parties to include women in different positions;
• Make women aware of their rights during the election;
• Convince and increase the knowledge of women candidates to take part in the election; and
the like.

As a result of the above, the participation of women in the regional and federal parliament
representing Tigray has reached 50% and 37% respectively. Moreover, thanks to the work of the
association in creating awareness to exercise their rights in the elections, the participation of its
women members in the election has increased to 98%.

7.1.7 Assistance to Displaced Women and Families

WAT has carried out a study on the concrete conditions of displaced women and children. As a
result of the Ethio-Eritrea conflict, over 315,936 people were eventually displaced out of which
75% were women and children. Based on this, the association has gathered assistance from
different sources. As a result, 14,347 displaced women were given household utensils worth Birr
1,344,530.00 and clothes as well as additional nutrition for their children. The association also
understands that there are still many more mothers and children that require similar assistance. This
shows that the association is expected to exert more efforts in lobbying for additional assistance to
be rendered to these families from GOs and NGOs.

7.2 ADVOCACY FOR DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS

As women in the region suffer from deep-rooted poverty, WAT does not believe that this can be
solved solely by its efforts and the resources it mobilizes. WAT strongly believes that such deep-
rooted poverty would rather be reduced and sustainable development enhanced by the formulation
of appropriate policy frameworks, the preparation of development strategies and integration of
efforts as well as resources by the regional government, for other rural development agents and for
the efforts of the local community at large. Hence, the strong belief of the association is that women
in general and the FHHs in particular have to genuinely participate in the rural development process
and benefit from the wealth being created equally with their male counterparts within the local
community. One of the important missions of the association is to play an advocacy role in all
possible aspects that directly or indirectly influence women’s participation in the process of

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development of the region (Desta and Haddis, 2003: 46). To make the above practical, i.e. reduce
the degree of poverty and ensure women’s food security, the association has exerted maximum
efforts and conduct different initiatives in different areas such as those mentioned in the following
paragraphs.

7.2.1 The Food Security Package Program

WAT as an influential organization for the livelihoods of women of the region played an important
role in the promotion of the FSP strategy that is devised by the regional government. WAT as an
advocator of this program attempted to convince its members to be involved in the FSP program by
showing them the possible benefits. As drought is the common feature in the region that should be
alleviated in a sustainable manner, participation in the FSP program and water conservation
activities is quite important. In 1997 E.C, for instance, WAT identified 61,757 FHH members to
participate in the program out of which 43,998 (71%) were trained and 25,645 (58%) took a loan. In
the same year, WAT identified 98,772 MHH members to participate in the planned activity out of
which 83,980 (85%) were trained and 62,799 (64%) took a loan.

Water harvesting activities (construction of ponds and hand dug wells) for the development of
irrigations schemes were planned for 28,020 members. Out of these, only 10,119 (36%) members
benefited from the program. This is one of WAT’s contributions although it is clear that the number
of beneficiary members is quite small at the moment. In 1997 EC, for instance, 30% of the plan of
the FSP program of the region was thought to be for FHHs. As a result of the efforts made by the
association 78,444 members were able to participate in different training programs and were
provided with credit facilities from the FSP program of the region.

For the minimum package extension program of the region the association made stronger efforts to
involve 37,582 members. Out of these, 34,335 members (91%) of the total have benefited from the
program in the different parts of the region. While the above measures are to be strengthened in the
future, there are certain conditions that can be seen as potential problems such as smallness of
farmlands, laborious conditions of constructing ponds for FHHs, and so on.

In the FSP program, the practical roles played by the association include the following:
• Identifying members to be enrolled in the package program;
• Identifying gaps and drawbacks;
• Awareness raising and convincing women members to participate in and benefit from the
program; and finally;
• Work closely together with the organizations responsible for the FSP program in order to
make women benefit from the program.

7.2.2 Environmental Rehabilitation Programs

Forestation and reforestation programs have positive impacts in arresting the serious process of
desertification in general and reducing recurrent droughts in particular. They also contribute to the
improvement of agricultural production by attracting heavy clouds to specific areas. Taking this
into consideration, efforts are being made by the Women’s Association to make its members
participate in the programs either individually or on a collective basis every year. The association is
also making different efforts to introduce the use of modern energy saving stoves to its members
and train them regarding the advantages and applications so that misuse of resources would greatly
be minimized.

In practical terms, however, results are always below expectations due to the low level of
consciousness of the local community in general and the members of the association in particular.
In other words, mechanisms of modern energy saving stoves have not been well introduced to the
areas; hence, degradation of natural resources particularly green plants is being aggravated, while at

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the same time women are forced to invest most of their time in the collection of wood and other
natural fuel sources such as dung to satisfy their energy requirements.

7.2.3 Participation of Members in Cooperatives

WAT mobilizes its members to participate in the cooperatives. So far, more than 80,456 members
are participants and beneficiaries of the existing cooperatives. One of the major challenges in this
regard is shortage of capital. As a result, their participation in the managerial positions is extremely
low.

All the above different activities and roles played by the association in the form of either direct
implementation and supervision of development programs and projects or indirect in the form of
advocacy have a lot to contribute to the reduction of the existing degree of poverty and to the
livelihood improvements of the FHHs in the different parts of the region. In order to perform all the
above, the association has a good organizational structure established at all administrative levels of
the region (wereda, tabia and kushet) which facilitates proper planning, implementation,
management and advocacy work of development programs, etc.

WAT has also established smooth working relationships with all collaborating government agencies
in the region. The working relationship and cooperation created especially between the association
and the Women’s Affairs Bureau is quite strong. The working relationship and cooperation created
between the association and other non-governmental organizations in the region is still good and
should be maintained. Such smooth relationship and cooperation have made the association
successful in the implementation, management and operation of all its development programs.
WAT has rich experiences that could be exploited not only for its own further development and
sustainability but that could also provide important lessons to other similar organizations
established in different parts of the country.

Nevertheless, the observation made by the study team of the association so far is its inability to be
involved in the supply of clean water for consumption and sanitation. To properly accomplish most
of the tasks for which women are responsible greater deals of time, energy and physical strengths
and the like are required. For instance, women in the region have the duty of fetching water from
available sources for the consumption of all the family members. This, however, involves not only
waiting for many hours at water collection points but also carrying home for hours a very heavy
ceramic pot over long distances of mountainous terrain. While doing this, there is no one left behind
who can manage the remaining domestic tasks. In this case, it would have been appropriate for the
association to be involved in the supply of clean water so that a greater deal of women’s problems
would be minimized.

WAT as an association may lack financial and other resources to directly involve in the provision of
water for consumption and sanitation its members or the society at large. Nevertheless, the
association can play the role of fund raising from different international organizations who are
interested in becoming involved in the supply of potable water to the rural community. The
practical implementation of the proposed activity could be contracted to the relevant government
body in the region such as the Water Works Construction Enterprise. In following such kind of
development approach with regard to water, it seems possible to reduce on one hand much of the
physical workload of women in general and FHHs in particular and the time spent to fetch water
while and on the other hand the entire family members would have the opportunity to consume
clean water in their vicinity.

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7.3 PERCEPTIONS OF FHHS ON WAT’S CONTRIBITION TO LIVELIHOOD

IMPROVEMENTS

One of the assignments of the consultants that carried out this survey was to assess how the women
residing in the sampled sites perceived the activities of WAT. Most women recognize the
association as the vanguard organization for all female sections of the region in general and the
FHHs in particular. The contributions of the association to livelihood improvements are well
understood by almost all the women consulted. During this field assessment in the four weredas, the
four tabias, and four respective towns, the interviewed women, those who took part in the group
discussions and those of the case studies indicated that the association is playing a lot of essential
roles in organizing and emancipating women from discrimination in different aspects. The struggles
carried out by the association at different times and levels to liberate/emancipate women and ensure
that their human rights are appreciated by most members of the association.
The perceptions of most members of the association that have been collected from the open-ended
questionnaires are organized in the following manner:
• WAT makes available credit to its members
• WAT provides supports during critical times;
• WAT creates opportunities to discuss problems;
• WAT provides opportunities for skill training;
• WAT helps its members become involved in income-generating activities;
• WAT makes women’s rights respected;
• WAT is an organization that belongs to women;
• WAT educates better than any other organization in the area;
• WAT gives women the opportunity for education;
• WAT gives an opportunity to serve the local community;
• WAT makes its members become involved in FFW;
• Organization is good for better information;
• Organization is power;
• WAT enables its members to understand women’s rights;
• Being organized has by itself an advantage.

Although most members of the association have the above perceptions, there are also different
responses given by very few respondents such as the following:
• The advantage is for those who know each other;
• The advantage is for those who have a leadership position;
• There are certain areas where members can benefit; and
• I do not know what the advantages are of being a member of WAT; etc.

7.4 IMPACTS ACHIEVED AS THE RESULT OF WAT’S EFFORTS

• During the field assessment, one pertinent question was asked in the interview: Is being a
member of WAT advantageous or not? The response of the majority of the interviewees was
“yes” although there are some who said “no”. The justifications given by the positive
respondents varied and are the following: the association:
• Has been instrumental in creating awareness on women’s rights at the grassroots level and
encouraging women’s participation in the decision-making processes.
• Plays a decisive role to amend and implement the family law of the region. As a result, a lot
of problems in relation to women’s rights have been solved in an easier way and earlier. For
instance equal rights have been achieved in cases of marriage and divorce in the different
parts of the region.
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• Collects interests from credits provided which is then given to different members who have
serious health or other social problems;
• Conducts several awareness raising and training workshops for its members on seasonal and
important issues such as the prevalence of HIV/AIDS, the reduction and ultimately
eradication of early marriages, harmful traditional practices and other gender related
exercises;
• Changes the status and the social position of the members so that it is better than before
when women lacked the social, economic or political power to take active participation in
ongoing activities that focused on development. In the past, the place of women was
perceived to be only in the house carrying out domestic activities as their main
responsibilities and did not participate in decision making. Currently, however, WAT is
giving wide coverage to awareness raising activities by educating women about their rights
and through the provision of formal education to the female section of the society.
• Made some members improve their leadership skills and efficiency thanks to the various
skill and other types of training programs arranged and carried out for sustainable human
resources development.

7.5 CURRENT DRAWBACKS AND THREATS TO THE ASSOCIATION

Despite all the above, the association has a lot of problems such as financial, material and technical
skill constraints to plan, implement and manage different development programs. Its development
programs and projects are absolutely dependent upon external financial and material resources.
WAT also lacks good systems and strategic approaches that could attract a better resource base
from different donors, partner organizations and international non-governmental organizations.
WAT at the same time lacks senior technical staff members who can formulate sound project
proposals, prepare better plans and provide general advice on the future trends and development
directions of the organization, etc.

Apart from the above problems, the association faces certain threats that influence its future. Some
of the major ones are that the demands of most members are sometimes beyond the real capacity of
the association, which of course results in certain dissatisfactions. There is a high degree of
illiteracy among most of the present members of the association and a lack of adequate knowledge
on what is currently happening with the organization. The other potential threat of the association is
its broad interest to be involved in various development activities. This could be beyond the present
implementation capacity of the organization and might impede its efficiency. Nevertheless, this
problem can be solved through upgrading the capacity of the association in all aspects as long as an
adequate flow of resources is ensured for the various multi-faceted development interventions.

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8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 CONCLUSIONS

Poverty is widespread in the Tigray region. Population subsisting under the poverty line reaches
approximately up to 75 % of the total. According to different studies carried out in the region,
women in general and FHHs in particular constitute the majority of the people within the lowest
income group. FHHs represent on average about 30 % of the total households in Tigray. Some
studies have come up with estimates that reach up to 40 %. The findings of the study at hand are
also consistent with the existing knowledge as the data gathered shows that the proportion of FHHs
in the study weredas was about 32 %.

The government has developed different national policies and development strategies with the
intention of addressing the poverty situation of the whole country. Women are supposed to benefit
from the various endeavors under implementation. Nevertheless, most of the policies lack the
appropriate tactics for gender mainstreaming. Other than the general statements to make women
benefit from these endeavors, no clear indicators are developed by which the achievements could in
fact be measured at the end of the day. With the main objective to examine how FHHs perceived
the FSP program and the changes brought about in their livelihoods as the result of this program,
the current study has tried to look into livelihood options open to FHHs by examining their
livelihood assets and outcomes. The trends in the adoption of the FSP program at household level
and implications were also examined. Wherever possible, comparative approaches were followed.

General characteristics of the different households

At first glance, with respect to the ownership of decisive livelihood assets such as large sized lands,
houses, expenditure, etc, MHHs appear to have a better status compared to FHHs. But since
households headed by men sheltered a larger family, in per capita terms, FHHs were found to have
either a better or comparable status as MHHs. However, it should not be mistakably thought that the
family size of FHHs is static. In fact, as was seen during the field study, despite the deepening
degree of poverty in the rural and even urban areas, FHHs continue to have more children without
adequate assistance from the fathers of the children. Unless a mechanism is devised to convince the
community members about the advantages of using family planning measures and the harm that
comes from having multiple partners, the efforts being made to control over-population and reduce
poverty will not be practical. FHHs also have a higher tendency to send their children to school than
MHHs. By its own merit, the interest of FHHs in educating their children should be appreciated.
Nevertheless, the underlying reason for this tendency was not always the belief held by FHHs that
educating children is beneficial but was due to the fact that these households did not possess assets
such as cattle that required for the children to remain home in order to look after it as was the case
in MHHs. From this perspective, it may illustrate the poorness of the FHHs while in the long-run it
would be assumed to be remunerative.

FHHs were found to be better-off than women in MHHs in terms of economic empowerment,
decision making power, exposure to information, and awareness of rights. Women in FHHs were
also seen to be good managers of the credit they had taken from the FSP program. These women
were said to be responsible and hard workers who used the loan for the accurate purpose. But with
regard to the final benefits MHHs were in a superior position since they had the advantage of their
own labor which had helped them to this end. Most of the interviewed households in both rural and
urban areas were food insecure at a certain time within a year. Basic reasons mentioned included,
the drought situation, small sized lands, lack of draft animals, shortage of active labor, etc. The
basic coping strategies of the different households in periods with consumption gaps were FFW and
CFW activities. Otherwise, every available asset would be sold especially during drought periods.
FFW and CFW opportunities were found to not only to be important in filling the food gaps but
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also as a guarantee to maintain the household assets. Therefore, linking FFW/CFW activities with
the rural development programs that eventually not only build household assets but also diversify
sources of income is crucial.

Effectiveness of the FSP program

As highlighted above, the theme of the different policies centers on addressing the poverty problem.
The FSP program as a households oriented extension program has a similar objective. The FSP
program is better than most other strategies because it sets measurable indicators and also clearly
reserves a level for the minimum involvement of FHHs. The attention at the grassroots level to
involve FHHs was also encouraging though there were some pit-falls that needed some
modification.

The information collected from the various sources underscored the contributions of the FSP
program in the livelihood improvement of the different households. Improved levels of ownership
of livestock and access to their produce plus access to draft power were observable. Additional
income was earned through the cultivation of vegetables from water harvesting structures such as
ponds. Improvements in the work culture of the society have also been noticed by the different
people that participated in the group discussions. The positive aspects of the FSP program were in
fact not only felt by the people that were involved in the program. The households that did not take
part also asserted the positive aspects of the program. The reason for these households not to be
involved was mainly due to the fear of indebtedness.

With regard to the weaknesses of the program, people indicated that the program created some
major frustrations among the local community members. These frustrations were more serious in
the southern zone in particular due to the frequently occurring drought situation in the area. There
were also other problems pointed out by the members of the community such as the lack of
participation of beneficiaries while the program was in the designing phase. Technical experts were
assigned to carry out the assessments, arrange the components, and compute different income levels
that should be earned by enrolled households. The concerned higher officials of the local
government then carried out the formal approvals and finally the members of the community were
asked to accept and implement the program without being properly consulted.

Moreover, in the implementation phase, quotas for the people that should be involved from each
tabia were given to DAs and the ability of the DA to meet this quota was taken as the indicator with
which the performance of the DA was assessed. These quotas came with deadlines and were applied
in a rush without making detailed clarifications to the beneficiaries. To fulfill this quota tabia
officials had to use different mechanisms including coercive means as was the case in one of the
study sites. There were also differences in the implementation process of the program from wereda
to wereda. In Atsibi-Womberta wereda, for instance, the follow-up from wereda level government
officials was relatively stronger. Because of this, people were using the resources of the package for
the right purpose. This was different in Raya-Azebo wereda where the DAs in the rural tabia
indicated that they do not receive adequate assistance and supervisions from the wereda. This in
turn made the DAs to be somehow negligent in following up the appropriate procedures and
guiding the program beneficiaries accordingly. Package holders were able, therefore, to divert the
usage of the resources for other purposes of their own choice including for immediate unproductive
household consumptions.

According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the objective of the PSNP was to
‘provide transfer to the food insecure population in chronically food insecure weredas in a way that
prevents asset depletion at household level and creates asset at the community level…’ (BoARD,
2003). Nevertheless, in some of the study areas, people who did not take the FSP credit could not
participate in the safety net program. This strategy was followed and implemented in Genfel tabia

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of Kilte-Awlaelo wereda in the Eastern Zone. As far as the understanding of the team is concerned,
FHHs in this tabia were forced to take the FSP credit not because they were convinced of the
advantages that could be drawn from the program but because they wanted to be involved in the
crucial opportunities that secured year-round food availability such as FFW and safety net activities.
In the same wereda, honey production was taken as the central activity of the FSP program and
beehives were given to the beneficiaries on an obligatory basis. Besides going against the interest of
the community to adopt the program forcefully, some of their practical complaints were not heard.
For example, the material from which modern beehives were made were claimed to not be suitable
and led to the loss of bee colonies adding debt to many households. Although this problem was
known to both tabia and wereda level government officials, no practical action was taken to correct
it. The forceful mechanism being used in this tabia appeared to be the major reason for the higher
involvement of FHHs as compared to that of MHHs.

According to the surveyed portions of the local community members in Hintalo-Wejerat wereda,
the plastic used to prevent water percolation in ponds was said to have warmed-up the harvested
water making it unsuitable for plants. And those that had used the warm water claimed that it had
damaged their plants. Though this argument may not be taken as convincing, it is worthwhile to
examine the plastic used for ponds with regard to its chemical composition since that might have
caused the problems mentioned by the beneficiaries.

In Raya-Azebo wereda, people at the beginning of the FSP program had the illusion that the loan
being given might not be repaid to the government. Because of that, some people who took the loan
used the money for various unproductive commodities. There was also a problem of inaccurate
market assessment from the local government’s side when launching the FSP program. The price of
animals at the beginning and at later stages was thought to remain the same. Hence, the same
amount of loan continued to be disbursed in consecutive years. This assumption was criticized by
most package program beneficiaries and might have contributed to the misuse of the resources
received in the form of loans. Given the fact that the problems identified were different form
wereda to wereda, these differences deserve further investigation.

It is understandable that the government is currently committed to reducing the poverty situation of
the country through the implementation of strategies such as the FSP. However, the efforts being
made to monitor and evaluate the trends and achievements of the program so far were almost
inexistent. The responsibility to closely supervise these critical aspects was also not given to any
government body in particular which makes it difficult to implement development activities to
realize the required objectives or sustain the already achieved results. There were no scheduled
forums for clarifying or learning from past achievements and failures in order to decide on whether
to go ahead with existing strategies or if amendments are necessary.

The old people who could not work and the extremely poor segment of the community were not
made to benefit from the FSP program. The reason given was obviously that they could not repay
the loan. The problem however was that there was no other option made available to them. In their
own words, ‘hunger does not identify the old from the young, the weak from the strong and the sick
from the healthy. What is the government doing for the old and the extremely poor? Is it not letting
them die in the empty houses they lived in for years?’

There were also problems related to time dimensions in dispersing the required resources, inputs
and technical assistance from the concerned government bodies. Local people complained that the
expected resources and inputs were not made available at the right time. Apart from that, local
community members were not confident that they would be able to obtain good results from the
credit facility they take since all the package components highly depend upon the availability of
moisture.

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The markets issue was also raised by the community members that agricultural productions of all
sorts did not receive encouraging prices, the weak rural urban linkages such as the poor
infrastructure development particularly in the rural areas of the region, the poor transport facilities
and the weak institutional capacity of agricultural cooperatives could be taken as some of the
important factors that aggravated the problem under consideration.

The PSNP was in the process of implementation as a supporting strategy for the success of the FSP
program over five years. Nevertheless, a period of five years is very short from a development
perspective. Moreover, considering the complexity of the problem of rural households, it is very
difficult to assume that most of the beneficiaries would reach self-sufficiency in different aspects
mainly food availability within theses years. Hence, if success is not achieved over these years,
households may be forced to go back to selling the assets they have accumulated for their survival.
To prevent this, adequate preparations should be made ahead of time before the period the PSNP is
completed. It is even recommendable to think about extending the program beyond the
predetermined period.

As seen in the study sites, the practice of having multiple partners was one of the serious economic
and social problems in the community. Even though, community members are taught about the
importance of family planning for livelihood improvements people are still having many children.
FHHs also continued to rear many children without getting adequate assistance from their ex-mates.
This tendency will continue to contribute to the aggravation of the poverty situation unless a
mechanism is created to arrest the progress.

WAT
WAT is seen as a powerful organization that plays a critical role in making a difference in the
livelihoods of women in the region. The organization has development activities that it directly
implemented such as capacity building training programs and credit provision. It also lobbied for
the implementation of development interventions by other agencies in order to benefit the women of
the region. As a result, more than 90 % of the women from both MHHs and FHHs were members of
the organization (table 27). Regarding the contribution of WAT to the livelihoods of women in
Tigray, positive perceptions were dominant among the respondents. These women indicated that
WAT created platforms for them to discuss and resolve their issues together; to be aware of their
rights and obligations; and to be enrolled in the different development activities that that take place
in the region. There were, however, few respondents that felt that the activities of WAT showed
favoritism among the members.
The major drawback observed during the fieldwork stems from the high illiteracy level among the
members of the organization which has hindered them from being assertive in getting accurate
information and making the best use of available opportunities in order to change their living
situation. The other drawback being an obstacle for the progress of the organization was the
shortage of financial resources which has made the activities of WAT such as the types of trainings
offered to the local community to be with lesser diversity and lower financial return at the end of
the day.

Further drawbacks include the weak available networks in between WAT and other institutions
such as the bureau of Women’s Affair which may lead to the duplication of efforts and activities.
As WAT is a pioneer organization that has worked to improve the livelihood situation of women for
almost three decades now, the organization has valuable information regarding the previous and
present situation and the trend in the status of women in Tigray. However, it was the observation of
the study team that database where such important information can be stored in was missing. As a
result, only fragmented information was found regarding the situation of the members, the changes
in the livelihoods, and the activities of the organization at the different sites.

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8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

With regard to the solutions to the already identified problems in the study area, the study team
would like to forward the following recommendations:

The FSP and other development interventions

• The FSP program should be re-designed with an improved flexibility to possibly entertain
the interests and the capacities of the community members. The program should be
restructured with the consultation and genuine participation of the beneficiaries themselves
in order to suit their interests and capacities. It also appears recommendable to design
package programs that specifically target FHHs.

• The people (both men and women) found at the grassroots level have to be properly
oriented, taught, trained and provided with the correct information about the FSP program
and other development interventions to be planned and implemented in their surroundings
that directly or indirectly affect their livelihoods. The training programs that are being
arranged and carried out have to be more practical rather than inapplicable theories.

• The quota approach of the FSP program should be developed after making the required
assessment of not only the agro-ecological situation, but also of the work culture, attitude,
and psychological readiness of the people in targeted communities. Such studies are decisive
not only for the success of the FSP program but also for any other development intervention.

• Strong follow-up, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms have to be developed and applied
with the authentic participation of the beneficiary community members so that issues of
sustainability of the implemented program would not be compromised. In doing so, accurate
information regarding the processes, adoptions, components included, expected outcomes
and stages of development should be disseminated to the package program implementers
and the beneficiaries.

• There has to be proper coordination between the macro and micro level administrative
structures of the region. Region, wereda and tabia level government officials should work
closely together. There have to be frequent meetings and platforms for discussing and
resolving issues and development efforts. There should also be a better mechanism for up-
to-date information flow between these levels. In the same manner, there is a need to have
proper integration, coordination and harmony among the regional government, DECSI and
the Food Security Coordination Office. There is also a need to have a strong responsible
body that can undertake monitoring and evaluation activities on the on going processes and
programs.

• FHHs were seen to benefit less from the development activities that they have equally
enrolled in as MHHs for the mere reason that they were labor-poor. As has been indicated
during group discussions, the final outcome of the FSP program in a MHH and FHH
differed even if the amount of loan taken and efforts made by both types of households were
comparable. Some of the activities related to the FSP were labor demanding, but FHHs
lacked this labor. Giving an equal opportunity for the involvement of both men and women
in the FSP program, it itself cannot show advocacy for gender equality. Rather the contents
of such programs should be sensitive to the capital and capabilities of both gender groups.
Livelihood improvement strategies forwarded to the local communities should, therefore,
take into consideration the capabilities of the different types of households that they are
designed to serve.

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• The provision of credit should be demand driven as much as possible. As far as the credit
facility is taken voluntarily, households will exert maximum efforts to make it fruitful. It is
important to open up opportunities for the provision of credit to the poor households that
corresponds to their interests and capacities. It is also quite important to disperse the
required resources, inputs and technical assistance at the right time of the year. If the
expected inputs cannot be made available at the right time, program beneficiaries have to be
informed ahead of time so that they can make alternative preparations.

• It is crucial to make available important inputs that are fundamental for the success of
development efforts. Poultry production, for instance, is an enterprise that is easily affected
by diseases incurring total loss. There are also numerous diseases that affect small ruminants
and cattle production. Therefore, important inputs such as appropriate medical care and
medication should be in place before resources are disbursed.

• It is also crucial that up-to-date information be circulated and shared in the region, between
weredas and tabias. Exchange of up-to-date information helps to facilitate the process of
planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the activities and to avoid overlaps
and the duplication of efforts and development interventions.

• Local community members were not confident that they would obtain good results from the
credit facilities they take because of the moisture stress in the region. It therefore appears
important that more efforts should be made to develop better water harvesting techniques.

• The PSNP that is launched as part of the support for the success of the FSP program should
be designed to continue beyond five years to ensure that the beneficiaries of the program
have reached self-sufficiency in different aspects mainly food availability. Together with
this, it is essential to diversify the means of income of the local community members. In
doing so, special support mechanisms have to be designed for the old, disabled and the weak
segment of the society. Most of the development activities currently taking place tend to
over-look this issue. This too, however, plays a significance role towards the envisioned
poverty reduction goal in the region.

• Although all forms of development interventions are created and designed at higher levels of
administrative structures, they are directly forwarded to the officials working at tabia levels
for the implementation process. Thus, appropriate incentives have to be offered to these
employees. The responsibility given to and the outputs expected from these groups are
extremely huge. The hard task that these officials are shouldering should be compensated
with equivalent incentive mechanisms. Without the committed services of these important
practitioners, the large amount of investments being made to create improved livelihoods
would otherwise be futile.

• Strengthening the agricultural cooperatives of the region and establishing different

processing plants would enable the rural community to have negotiation power and exploit
the opportunities of markets. In addition to that, the non-farm sector should be developed in
order to be able to offer a range of employment opportunities especially to rural and urban
FHHs that do not benefit from the farming enterprises on an equal level with MHHs.

• Cases of divorces and separation seem to be increasing overtime due to perhaps economic
and social problems. Since such separations are creating further problems especially in the
livelihoods of women, the situation calls for another independent study on the root-causes
and basic solutions.

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• Education is being conducted in almost all corners of the region on the prevalence of
HIV/AIDS. Nevertheless, as has been seen in the study, there are still widespread multiple
partners and harmful traditional practices. Further education on the seriousness of the
disease is crucial in ways that could easily be comprehended by the local community
members. In relation to this, adequate attention has to be given to family planning measures
in the different parts of the region.

WAT
• Improved data management should be established in the head office of WAT and the zonal
level offices. Training programs should be arranged and carried out based on the interests of
participants. The content of training programs should be revised so as to make them new,
attractive and marketable.

• It is quite essential for WAT to create wider and stronger networks with different institutions
and stakeholders found at national and international levels. It would also be essential to
exchange experiences gained so far in planning, implementation and management of
development interventions with other similar associations established in the different parts
of the country. This in fact would give the association an opportunity to assess its actual
capacity and level of development.

• In all the development interventions planned and implemented in the region, it is quite
essential to mainstream gender aspects so that the women in general may be able to be direct
beneficiaries on an equal level with men.

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9. REFERENCES

Aliso M. and Gord C. 2002 from Clients to Citizens Asset-Based Community Development as a
Strategy for Community-Driven Development: Occasional Paper Series, No 4, St. Francis Xavour
University, Canada

Arne O. Gemremedhin. G. 1996 Rural Explanatory Studies in Central Zone of Tigray, Northern
Ethiopia, Proceeding of a Workshop, Noragric, Addis Ababa.

Barry K. 2005 An Analysis of Smallholder Marketing Opportunities in Selected Drought Prone

Weredas of Ethiopia: a Report Prepared for the Market-led Livelihoods for Vulnerable
Populations.

Bashaw, Z. N. 2002. Trajectories of Women, Environmental Degradation and Scarcity: Examining

Access to and Control over Resources in Ethiopia. African Gender in the New Millennium, Cairo.

BoARD 2003. Household Centered Agricultural and Natural Resource Based Packages. Mekelle:
205.

Davidson, L. 2005. Towards a Development Strategy with Ethiopia: A Collection of Analytical

Sector/ thematic Papers. Addis Ababa, Development Cooperation Ethiopia.

Desta, M. and G. Haddis 2005. Evaluation Report of KUW- Funded Skill Training Program
Implemented by WAT in Western Zone of Tigray Region. Mekelle, Women Association of Tigray:
66.

Desta, M., G. Haddis, et al. 2003. Five Year (2004 - 2008) Strategic Plan of the Women'
s
Association of Tigray. Mekelle, Women Association of Tigray: 110.

Devereux, S. 2002. Poverty, Livelihoods and Famine. Ending Famine in the 21st Century
Conference, Sussex, Institute of Development Studies.

DFID 2001. Sustainable livelihoods Guidance Sheets. London, DFID.

Ellis, F. and H. A. Freeman 2004. "Rural Livelihoods and Poverty reduction Strategies in Four
African Countries." The Journal of Development Studies 40(4): 1-30.

FAO 2000 An Analysis of Constraints and Opportunities to Nutrition Security in Four Weredas in
North Showa and Southern Tigray, Addis Ababa.

FDRE 1993. National Policy on Ethiopian Women. Addis Ababa, Transitional Government of
Ethiopia: 44.

FDRE 2002. Food Security Strategy. Addis Ababa.

FDRE 2002. Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program. Addis Ababa.

FDRE 2003. Capacity Building Strategy and Program. Addis Ababa: 295.

FDRE and MOFED 2002. Ethiopia: Sustainable Development and Poverty reduction Program.
Addis Ababa: 1-223.

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FDRE and World Bank (1998). Implementing the Ethiopian National Policy for Women:
Institutional and Regulatory Issue. Washington, D.C., The World Bank and The Women's Affairs
Office: 1-82.

Hagos, F., A. Mulugeta, et al. 2005. Women in Tigray: Situation analysis of constraints,
opportunities, and livelihood conditions. Mekelle, Mekelle University: 272.

Meehan, F. 2004. Female Headed Households in Tigray, Ethiopia. A Study Review. As, Drylands
Coordination Group: 35.

Melaku G. 2003 Assessment of Mothers/Women, Children Elders Situation in Tigray: the case of
Atsibi Womberta and Raya Azebo, Sponsored by the Women's association of Tigray, Mekelle,
Ethiopia.

MSE 2003. Micro and Small Enterprise Development Agency, Census Carried out in 23 Towns of
Tigray. Mekelle.

Mulat D. and Tegegne G. 2002 Economic and Sustainable Diversification: the case of Tanqua
Abergelle and Saesie Tsaeda Emba, Tigray Sponsored by Relief Society of Tigray, Mekelle.

Scoones, I. 1998. Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis. IDS Working Paper.
Bringhton, Institute for Development Studies: 1-18.

Tove Linnea A. and Camilla M. 2002 Fighting for a Food Security Future, three Activities on food
- for work programs in Tigray, Ethiopia Department of Economic and Social Sciences the
Agricultural University of Norway.

WAT 1998. Special Issue No. 4 of the Women's Association of Tigray. Mekelle

Wilberg, J. 2004. Factors Constraining Girls and Women from Enrolling and Continuing their
Secondary and Tertiary Educations in Tigray, Ethiopia. NORAGRIC - Center for International
Environment and Development Studies. Aas, Agricultural University of Norway: 156.

World Bank 2001 Engineering Development through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources and
Voices: World Bank Policy Research Report Oxford University Press, Inc. New York

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10. ANNEXES

ANNEX 1: CASE STUDIES

Case Study: 3
Name: Tsehaynesh Haddush
Age: 34
Marital status: Widowed
Family size: 5
Number of children: 4
Woreda: Kilte Awlaelo
Tabia: Genfel

Tsehaynesh is not actually involved in FSP though she was interested. Tsehaynesh states
that a wrong record that indicates that she had an unpaid loan of Birr 40.00 was found and as
a consequence she was rejected from the package program since indebtedness was an
important selection criterion. Although the information was proven to be wrong later on she
did not get the opportunity to join since the screening time was over.

Except for the problem of beehives, Tsehynesh still recognizes the importance of being
involved in FSP stating that she could have owned livestock and their products had she been
involved in the program. She believes that this would gradually enable her to earn additional
income that would help her raise her children. Tsehaynesh further appreciates the fact that
the government has made a loan available for households to improve their livelihoods with.
She states let alone from government, loan is taken from different sources (private, parents,
friends), to express that if people dare to take loan from other sources, then they also should
take from the government because the amount given by the government is adequate to bring
about tangible changes.

In connection with the importance of FSP Tsehaynesh gave examples of households who
have obtained advantages from the program. She explained that there are families who
improved their living by buying oxen and other livestock. She states that a number of
households have wisely used the loan they took. But there are also some who misused it and
hence eventually will be in trouble. Generally, she says that as long as the loan is wisely
used the FSP is very useful which further confirms that she is ready to become involved but
is doubtful about taking the beehives.

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Case Study: 4
Name: Azmera Atsibha
Age: 45
Spouse Condition: Widowed
No. of children: 3
Woreda: Kilte-Awlaelo
Tabia: Genfel

Azmera took the loan of the package program in 1996 EC. The criteria set to qualify for
the loan was to be free from any previous debt. According to her statements, she is happy
with the criteria for the package program. The amount of loan she took was Birr 4,600.00.
The components of the package she took included the purchase of one cow, poultry,
fertilizer and improved seeds. Fortunately, the components she was expected to purchase
were similar to her interest.

The purchase of the components of the package program was carried out by her. She was
also happy with the overall arrangements of the package program. There was a training
program arranged and carried out for 5 consecutive days. While she said that the training
program conducted was good enough, she thought that the duration was quite short. A clear
division of labor is created between herself and her three children in taking care of the
animals. While she gives water, atela and cleans the pen herself, her sons cut grass and feed
the animals.

The other arrangements that make Azmera quite happy are the visits and consultation she
receives from the DAs of the local area. So far, Azmera has not started to repay her debt.
Nevertheless, she is going to make the repayment of half the debt Birr 2,300.00 in May
2005. With regard to the changes achieved in the livelihood of the household she heads,
Azmera says that she has maintained the food security of the family members. In addition
to the above, her first son graduated from one of the colleges in Mekelle. Her two other
sons are also continuing their education. Azmera:
• Sells 4 liters of milk daily and earns Birr 360.00 per month;
• Sells butter two days per week and earns Birr 48.00 per month; and
• Sells 5 eggs per day and earns Birr 80.00 per month and so on.

As a result of the above monthly incomes, she was able to buy two oxen and one donkey
and hence stopped renting out her agricultural land and sharing crops with other rich
farmers. Apart from the above, Azmera learned that there is:
• Better health management in the family;
• Good market assessment at the moment;
• Better monthly and even annual income;
• Better consumption of milk, butter and cheese; etc.

Azmera concludes, therefore, by saying that the package is everything for her. Given that,
she says that there still are certain areas that should be improved with regard to modern
beehives. Beehives should be based on the interests of the individuals. There is no need to
make it obligatory by any standard. This is one of the serious problems that should be
corrected if poverty is to be reduced in the area based on her assertions.

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Case Study: 5
Name: Abadit Gidey
Age: 47
Marital situation: Divorced
Family size: 5
No. of children: 4
Wereda: Kilte Awlaelo
Tabia: Genfel

Abadit confirms that her involvement in FSP started in 1997 EC. She states that had she not
been involved in the package program she would not have been allowed to work in FFW
activities. As she is poor, it is a great loss for her to miss FFW. Hence, tacking the package
was based on the possible benefits to be generated from FFW.

Abadit believes that it is appropriate to have credit indebtedness as one of the criteria to
select FSP beneficiaries. Abadit took a loan for two beehives highlighting that this was her
choice. But she has not yet bought stating price of beehive has risen beyond the loan
estimated for. Although looking for the bee colony in the market to buy, she expresses
unavailability on top of rising in price.

According to Abadit training was given for two days while the loan management is for four
year. Based on her understanding repayment of the loan is expected to start after one year
but she has nothing to say about the benefits of FSP and as a result her household livelihood
improvements since she has not purchased the item as planned. But she remarks that many
households who became involved in FSP have created assets and that there are people
running petty trade which enables them to earn additional income. Finally, Abadit
recommends that the program continues.

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Case Study: 6
Name: Belayneh Haftu
Age: 27
Marital Status: Divorced
No. of children: 3
Woreda: Raya Azebo
Tabia: Tsigea Wargiba

Belaynesh is one of the households that is not involved in the package program in Tsigea
Wargiba tabia. The main reason for her not being involved in the package program is fear
of indebtedness. She says that since I am alone with only 3 so young children in the house,
everything could go beyond my ability and capacity.

However, since she now owns two oxen and one cow and earns Birr 450.00 per month from
the sale of milk that she gets from the existing cow, she was able to buy 37 corrugated iron
sheets for the new house she recently constructed. Because of the good lessons learned
from her past experiences and the experiences of other package program holders in the
tabia, Belaynesh is planning to become involved in the program to be able to take a loan
and buy another dairy cow.

By doing so, Belaynesh is then thinking of buying food grains when the market becomes
relatively cheaper, storing and then selling it when and where the market gives a better
price so that she would be able to a make profit. Following that, Belaynesh is planning
again to expand the house she owns by constructing one additional room and solve the
housing problem once and for all.

The overall purpose of Belaynesh is to improve the living condition of the family by
securing the food requirements and ultimately send her children to nearby schools and even
beyond that for education.

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Case Study: 7
Name: Zenebu Atsibha
Age: 35
Marital Status: Divorced
Family Size: 6
No. Children: 5
Woreda: Raya Azebo
Tabia: Tsigea Wargiba

The involvement of Zenebu in FSP dates back to 1996 EC stating that the selection criteria
to become a beneficiary of FSP were the construction of a pond and not being indebted. She
believes that the criteria used are appropriate particularly the latter one. Zenebu indicates to
have chosen cow, poultry and seed as a package voluntarily highlighting that she did the
purchase herself and is happy with the arrangement. She states that the training program that
was given was adequate. To her understanding, repayment is supposed to start two years
after having taken the loan, which is expected for her to be the last quarter of 1998 EC.

With respect to the changes Zenebu has brought about in the livelihood of the household as a
result of the introduction of FSP, she mentions the following as important points.
• Production of milk for consumption linking it with nutritional values for the
household. She states that one who drinks milk and one who uses sauce of chickpea
will not have equal nutritional advantage.
• Selling butter the income of which covers miscellaneous expenses such as
educational expenses, clothes, shoes, etc. In line with this Zenebu confirms to have
earned about 30.00 per week for about three months in a year.
• Knowledge she has gained through training in terms of how to use and manage
money should not be underestimated.
• She believes that her acceptability by the community has been upgraded since she is
now having possessions while before she had none. She says that it is quite clear that
as one is wealthier, one gets more respect and acceptability by the society.

Finally highlighting that she is looking forward to taking a loan for another round, Zenebu
underlines that the challenge of ensuring feed especially during the drought season is high.
She explains that immediately when she bought the cows she was forced to buy straw for
Birr 16.00 an amount that does not cover minimum requirements of two cows for a day.

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Case Study: 8
Name: Asefu Tafere
Age: 36
Marital status: not married
Family size: 5
No. children : 4
Wereda: Hintalo Wejerat
Tabia: Bahri Tseba

Asefu states that being hard working and issues of indebtedness were the selection criteria
and believes that they are appropriate. The package she took was composed of 10 goats, 5
chickens and 1 cow highlighting that this choice was based on her own capacity. Asefu has
purchased the goats and the chickens but not yet the cow. She is waiting for a reduction in
the market price to buy the cow. Although Asefu has purchased the animals herself, she
believes that it is important to purchase them in collaboration with technical personnel.

Asefu did not take the training since she was not around during the training period but says
that DAs visit her periodically. She has not started repaying the loan since it is also from
1997 EC, and in fact she does not know when the start period of the repayment is. The loan
she took is within the second half of 1997 EC. Therefore, Asefu has not much to say
regarding the improvements made to her livelihood. But from her observations of others
and based on her expectations she says that if the loan is managed wisely it enables to solve
the shortage of seeds which is the problem of quite a number of households.

In relation to this she is in fact happy that she has already sown her land with the seed loan
since she used to borrow seed from a private person before. Owning livestock is another
evidence for Asefu of the advantages of FSP pointing out that three of her sheep have
already conceived. The opportunity for her children to herd their own livestock is
recognized by Asefu as one important aspect by itself. Asefu concludes by saying that even
though it is too early to talk about the changes she has achieved in her livelihood that can be
attributed to FSP, the general direction of the whole effort is appreciable.

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Case Study: 9
Name: Kebebu Araya
Age: 65
Marital status: Widowed
Family size: 6
No. children: 5
Woreda: Hintalo Wejerat
Tabia: Bahri –Tseba

Kebebu has not become involved in the FSP package program for fear of indebtedness. She
says that she has nothing in her hands neither livestock nor any other means by which to
repay the loan if she fails to achieve results or for some reasons loses the items. Kebebu at
the same time mentions that not having a husband by itself is another problem that rather
makes you refrain from taking the loan. In the absence of a husband or children herding
animals alone is not an easy task according to her.

Asked if she has knowledge of the program and what her opinion is on the advantages that
can be derived, Kebebu indicated that she is aware of it. She further says that households
own livestock as a result of the program. Additional income can also be gained through petty
trade. In connection with the use of the resources Kebebu highlights that women use the
loan wisely and better than their male counterparts and are hard working. Finally, she
recommends that the package be modified in a way that individuals can be involved
according to their limited capacity.

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Case Study: 10
Name: Tibletse Abraha
Age: 36
Marital status: Divorced
Family size: 4
No. children: 2 and 1 relative
Woreda: Hintalo Wejerat
Tabia: Bahri Tseba

Tibletse joined the package program in 1996 EC. She recalls the criteria for her selection
were to be hard working, the ability to return the loan and loan indebtedness highlighting at
the same time their appropriateness. The package components she took include ruminants
and fertilizer but she bought only 7 goats and an amount of fertilizer. While stating that her
parents conducted the purchase of goats for her she remarked that it would have been better
if the purchasing process was handled by the government in association with the beneficiary
in order to avoid a misuse of the resource. Contrary to what was supposed to be purchased,
some people buy fewer animals and others try to save some of the loan they were given by
looking for cheaper animals.

Tibletse remembers that training was given but was not supported by more technical and
practical experiences. Visits of development agents were not frequent particularly during
the last year. As to the changes she has seen, Tibletse states that she has derived satisfactory
advantages from the food security package program by pointing out the following concrete
achievements:

• Although one of her goats died immediately after she purchased them and hence
there remained six, after a year they reproduced themselves and became 14, for two
of them delivered twins. Up to now, Tibletse says that she has sold five goats for
Birr 2,395.00 and slaughtered 4. But 3 of them have died for various reasons while
the other 3 were eaten by a fox.

Nevertheless, she still owns 13 goats. Tibletse states that she takes care of her ruminants
and has so far spent birr 99 for medicine. Being encouraged by the activity she explains that
she has diversified her means of income through the establishment of a tea shop. As a
result, she has started to save money with two equib groups, where she saves birr 30 weekly
with the first group and birr 100.00 per month with the second one making her annual total
saving birr 2,760.00.

Tibletse made comments at the end on the following issues:

• Model female headed households should be created and further training should be
given to those who performed and achieved better;
• Credit should be allowed for petty trade;
• Beneficiaries are complaining about the interest rate and hence it has to be reduced.

The purchase of package components should not be done by beneficiaries alone but with
technical and administrative support from the government to ensure the proper use of the
loan.

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Drylands Coordination Group

Case Study: 11
Name: Asqual Gidey
Age: 35
Marital Status: Divorced
Family Size: 8
Number of children: 6
Wereda: Kilte-Awlaelo
Tabia: Genfel

Asqual became involved in the FSP program starting in 1996 EC. She was given Birr 2000.00 in
cash and two beehives. When the time comes, she said that she will have to pay an additional Birr
1400.00 for the two beehives that she had been given. She was supposed to buy a cow for Birr
1200.00 and bee colonies for Birr 800.00. Instead, she bought a cow for Birr 1000.00 bees for 600
and 6 exotic chickens for Birr 70.00. The criteria that had to be met to be considered for the FSP
credit, according to Asqual, were freeness from any other debt and timely repayment of previous
debts. She feels that both criteria are appropriate as more debt for the already indebted would make
them grow poorer and also delayed debt repayment showed carelessness on the side of the loan
taker since credit giving organizations like DECSI gave adequate time for debt clearance.

After her enrollment in the FSP program, Asqual said to have received three days training that
focused on bee and dairy cow management. Asqual made the purchase of these components herself
and had to go on a four day round journey to the adjacent Atsbi-Womberta district in order to buy
bee colonies. On her way back from Atsbi-Womberta without her knowing it, the queen in the
colony died. Oblivious to this situation, Asqual put the colony in their hive when she reached her
home. But within a week, some of the bees had flown away and the remaining died. She believes
that the queen died from the heat it was exposed to on her journey back from Atsbi-Wombert. Now,
says Asqual, I have two empty bee hives in my hands. If I was given the choice, I would have
bought sheep with the money I used to buy the bee colonies. I was told that the bees were the pillar
of the FSP program despite my resistance to accept the responsibility of beekeeping being a FHH.

As part of the FSP program components that she had bought, she included chickens on her own
will. She said that she was getting 6 eggs per day and selling 2 eggs for one Birr. However, the
chickens got sick at one point and all of them died. Asqual feels that there is not adequate medical
treatment for the disease of chickens in the country as she had failed to get help from the
responsible people despite her attempt.

When expressing her opinion on the FSP program, Asqual indicated that to include the bees in the
FSP program was wrong. She however admits that she had received benefits from the other
components. Originally, she was given a loan for the purchase of a cow. Instead, Asqual managed
to buy a cow and a calf with the same amount of money. After a year, she sold the mother cow for
950 birr and kept the calf. Again giving Birr 800.00, she bought another cow with her calf. She said
she used the Birr 150.00 she saved as a difference from her purchase for clothes and to feed her
children. She expresses regret in her inability to use the money invested in the bees for the purchase
of other forms of livestock, which would have helped her improve her livelihood. In her own words
she says: now if I am asked, I will have to sell my 2 calves and cow to be able to repay my debt.
How can I call this a sustainable improvement?

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Case Study: 12
Name: Harifeya Hadush
Age: 38
Marital Status: Widowed
Family Size: 2
Number of children: 2
Wereda: Raya-Azebo
Tabia: Tsigea-Wargba

Harifeya joined the FSP program starting in 1996 EC. She believes that the pond that was
constructed on her land enabled her to access the FSP loan. She said that she was a model farmer
and that the concerned authorities sponsored the pond construction on her farm by paying 100
kilogram of wheat per person to the people involved in the pond construction. She indicated that the
pond dug for her was 10 m x 10 m and difficult for a FHH to construct by herself. However,
Harifeya said that even if the authorities had not mobilized the people in the community to build a
pond for her, that she would nevertheless have constructed a smaller pond by herself.

Harifeya took Birr 1022.00 of FSP credit out of which she used Birr 900.00 to buy 8 sheep and Birr
72.00 to buy 5 chickens. Prior to the pond construction, Harifeya said that she had eucalyptus,
papaya, and green pepper plantations. After the pond was constructed, she was able to make more
money by cultivating spinach, lettuce, tomato, onion, beetroot, cauliflower, etc thanks to the
harvested water and was able to repay Birr 586.00 within a year after taking the FSP credit.

Harifeya indicated that if it was not for the additional income she was making from cultivating the
vegetables, she would not have been able to repay her debt because six out of the eight sheep she
had bought died. But she felt that it was only a bad coincidence that her sheep died and that the
intentions of the FSP program are good and that it should continue.

79
Drylands Coordination Group

ANNEX 2: LIST OF FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANTS

Wereda Tabia Group - One Group - Two

FHHs Involved in FSP FHHS and MHHs Involved in
FSP
Atsibi- Barka Adi No Name Sex No Name Sex
Womberta Subuha
1 Kahasa G/her F 1 G/hiwot Haftu M
2 Asefu Aregawi F 2 G/selasie Kahsay M
3 Mihiret Kiros F 3 Tsegay Tela M
4 Mulu Abraha F 4 Silas Girmay F
5 Mebrat Faya F 5 Hagosa Demewez F
6 Giday Kindeya F 6 Tsiryti Mehari F
7 Abadit Halefom F 7 Kahsa Lema F
8 Alemtsehay Tesfay F 8 Mihret Hagos F
9 Semret Mamo F
Kilte – Genfel 1 Tiblets Hadgu F 1 Moges Desta M
Awlaelo 2 Mebrat G/tekle F 2 Tekle Asmerom M
3 Tsehaynesh Hadush F 3 Mebrat Kahsay M
4 Kidan Kassa F 4 Kebede Kahsay M
5 Asqual Giday F 5 Kahsu Tadel M
6 Berhan Etay F 6 Alemat Kiros F
7 Tsehaynesh Fikadu F
8 Alemtsehay G/hiwot F
9 Berhan Araya F
Raya – Tsigea 1 Akeza Berhe F 1 Afera Ashebir F
Azebo Wargba 2 Goitetem Hagos F 2 Amakelesh Desta F
3 Senbetu Nigus F 3 Manayesh Gebre F
4 Mebrahte Kebede F 4 Aregash Woldu F
5 Asefu Girmay F 5 Mebrahte Meselle F
6 Sefena Bereka F 6 Haftu Abadi M
7 Lemlem Reso F 7 Hiluf haile M
8 Lemlem Zebelo F 8 Michael Abadi M
9 Nigisti Haile F 9 Tesfay Nigusse M
10 Kiros Zebreabruk F 10 Godify Tsadik M
Hintalo – Bahri - 1 Lemlem Tesfay F 1 Hilfi Giday F
Wejerat Tseba 2 Harife Kahsu F 2 Tekien G/yohannes F
3 Lemlem W/Michael F 3 Afera W/giorgis F
4 Akeza Abebe F 4 Nigisti Haile F
5 Lete Yohannes F 5 Mihret G/hana F
6 Liemet Abhadu F 6 G/selasie Dargus M
7 Jemberu Berhe F 7 G/hiwot Haile M
8 Mihret G/yohannes F 8 Ashebir Negash M
9 Kindihafti G/tekle F 9 Hagos G/hiwot M
10 Silas Alemu F 10 Adhana Mehari M

80
 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

ANNEX 3: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS IN DISCUSSIONS WITH KEY INFORMANTS

Wereda Level No Name Sex Position

Atsibi - Tabia 1 Kasanun Meresa M Tabia rural development head
Womberta 2 Hansa Gebre F Tabia women’s association head
3 Haftom Getachew M Tabia development agents head
Wereda 1 Mehari G/medhin M Wereda rural development head
2 Lelti Abraha F Wereda women’s association head
Kilte - Tabia 1 H/mariam G/her M Tabia rural development head
Awlaelo 2 Alganesh Tegegu F Tabia level home agents head
3 Woldelul Hagos F Tabia women’s association head
Wereda 1 T/mariam asefa M Wereda rural development head
2 Hirut F Wereda level home agents head
3 F Wereda women’s association head
Raya – Tabia 1 Hayelom Shumye M Tabia rural development head
Azebo 2 Negus Tadesse M Tabia development agents head
3 Meselu Tsegay F Tabia women’s association head
Wereda 1 Haile Asefa M Wereda rural development head
2 Meselu Berhan F Wereda women’s association head
3 Meriem Yasin F Expert in women’s association
4 Wezam Biru F Wereda home agents head
Hintalo – Tabia 1 Berhe Alemu M Tabia rural development head
Wejerat 2 Girmay Tesfay M Tabia development agents head
3 L/mariam Giratsion F Tabia leve home agents head
4 Tiblets F Tabia women’s association head
Wereda 1 Seifu Kidane M Wereda rural development head
2 Liya Mehar F Wereda women’s affairs head
3 Tiemti Atey F Wereda home agents head
4 Tiemti Adisu M Wereda MSE office head
5 Kidane Solomon F Wereda women’s association head

81
 Drylands Coordination Group
ANNEX 5: SUMMARIES OF DISCUSSSIONS
Issue of Discussion
1. Criteria applied to select
beneficiaries for the food
security package program
2. Appropriateness of
criteria
3. Components of FSP
4. Involvement of
beneficiaries in selection of
components
Summary Points of Focus Group Discussions at Tabia Level
Responses Given
Group – 1 (FHH with MHHs)
• Pond construction (in earlier periods)
• Free of loan indebtedness
• Commitment and acceptance of the program
• Fulfillment of requirements such as house construction for
poultry
• There was a tendency by the tabia officials to exclude
those people who did not become involved in the package
program from food for work activities. As a result many
who were not interested in becoming involved in the
package were indirectly forced to join (tabia Genfel).
• Poor people who have no cow or oxen are given priority.
• Yes, since it is difficult for households to have a loan at
the same time from different sources; households also have
to be committed to use the resource wisely otherwise they
will be in trouble.
• Livestock (ox, cow, goat, sheep)
• Poultry
• Seed and fertilizer
• Vegetable production
• Beehives
• Taking oxen is found to be difficult where there are
repeated drought problems (tabia Tsiga-Wargiba)
• Combinations of the items to be included as the FSP
components are developed by professionals without the
involvement of local people.
• Individuals choose from among the developed package
components.
82
Group - 2 (FHHS)
• Outstanding credit
• Acceptance to construct a pond
• Some people became involved in the package
program because if not they were going to be rejected
from food for work activities.
• Credit indebtedness
• Many involved in the package feared of being
excluded from food for work.
• Yes, because households do not have the capacity to
afford debt from different sources.
• Cow, poultry
• Seed and fertilizer
• Beehives
• Items with in a given package are developed by the
center and households choose a package that
corresponds to their respective capacity.
• Components are formed into a package menu from
which households have to select

5. If training is given to
involve people in the food
security package program
and who is the participant
6. Contribution of the food
security package in
improving livelihoods and
opinions on the continuity
of the program.
• No involvement in the package development
• Items included in the package were not choices of
individuals. It was, for example, obligatory to take
beehives since all package categories include at least a
beehive (beehives)
• Seed and fertilizer, as well as beehives for landless people
were compulsory.
• Training was given on how to use the loan but not
technical details were given
• Some of the participants were only husbands but some of
the trainees were both (husband and wife).
• Training was given
• From MHHs only husbands took the training
• The training was good since it was related to our
experiences.
• There is an important change in terms of
• Livestock ownership
• Livestock products for consumption and sale
• Income earning through production of vegetables
• As a result households are in a position to cover expenses
for:
- Education
- Clothes
• Increase in production through farming of own plot that
used to be rented out.
• Except the problem of beehives, the remaining package
components are important.
• Thus, the package program should continue while
modifying the components and entertaining individuals’
interests
• Households have improved their livelihood; some are in a
position to farm their land that used to be rented out
• There is an important change in the work attitude;
83
Female-headed households and livelihood intervention
• Taking beehives is compulsory from among the
package components.
• No training was given (tabia Adi Subuha)
• Women themselves were trained (in other tabias)
• Training was given on how to purchase the items,
how to manage the resource, how to construct houses
for livestock components
• Advantages are gained from FSP
• Households are owning livestock as a result of the
program
• Households are earning income through the sale of
livestock products
• Milk consumption that has nutrition value
• Some consideration is needed when drought is
encountered
• Because some parts of the tabia are not appropriate
places for beehive production many have already lost
their bees, some have not bought beehives after
hearing about the escape of bees (tabia Genfel)
• When beehives are lost, the concerned household
would be forced to sell or give up the advantages
gained from other components of the FSP in order to
repay the debt of the already lost beehives.
 Drylands Coordination Group
7. Participation of women
as compared to that of
men.
8. Decision on resources
and benefits gained by
women with husbands and
without
9. Any thing that
everybody is working hard since the FSP program is
linked with a loan.
• The need to continue the program is unquestionable but it
is better to prolong the repayment period. The interest rate
is high; hence, it should be reduced.
• Equal opportunities are given to both women and men. • There is equal opportunity for both sexes
• Women are better in using the loan • No big differences in results; they are comparable.
• Women, particularly FHHs, show better endeavor in the • MHHs can diversify more than that of FHHs through
implementation of FSP. the expansion of irrigation which sometimes requires
• In terms of results that of MHH are assumed to be higher working during the night too which is difficult for
since FHHs lack labor. FHHs.
• In irrigation development men are better than women for it • FHHs are more serious during the implementation
demands labor. stage of the FSP at the household level.
• Women heading households are stronger than those with • If the beehive component is avoided everybody
husbands. The latter seem to be careless. would be happy that the program continues (tabia
• Benefiting women with husbands depend on the attitude Genfel).
and consciousness of their respective mates.
• In fact many components of the package are more
important for FHHs.
• Most of the households feel responsible and hence major • Everything is owned and controlled by women in
decisions are taken through discussions between the FHHs
husband and wife in MHHs. • Whereas income of MHHs is shared by both husband
• Difficult to generalize as there are husbands who dictate and wife.
their wives. • Not all husbands are the same but there a number of
• Young husbands tend to be more of the type to decide by them who dominate their wives.
their own without consulting their wives
• Older husbands seem to be more considerate as opposed to
the young ones.
• In FHHs all responsibility is in the hands of women.
• Most of the FSP results are managed by women
• There are of course some husbands that strictly control the
results of the package.
• No constraint to participate • No problem to continue with the package program
84

constrains households from • As long as the food security package is based on the
participating in the food interests of the beneficiaries there is no problem that
security package program constrains its implementation
• Recurrence of drought that affects all activities and then
complicates the problem since there are no other means of
repaying the loan.
• Shortage of feed particularly for FHH who rent out their
land.
10. Access to markets and • There is no difference in market accessibility between
price differences, if any FHHs and MHHs
• Similarly there is no price differentiation for the
marketable products of the two categories of households.
• Market prices for products are relatively high these days
compared to past periods.
11. Advantages of being a • Credit provision to its members
member of WAT • Struggles to ensure women’s rights
• Provision of training to members
• Increased knowledge since education is given in the
association’s meetings
• Develops awareness on how to keep own rights and
respect rights of husbands too.
12. CFW versus FFW • Payment in kind is preferred
payment • Had payment been made in cash, market price would be
inflated and hence cash earned from cash for work would
not be enough to purchase the basic commodities required
by households.
13. Opinions on the • Very important to earn additional income
importance of pond and • Techniques to be applied should differ corresponding to
well construction the specificities of respective areas.
• Plastic is found very important but many of them are
already torn and hence leak water.
• The plastic used in the pond construction does not seem
appropriate for it becomes warm and makes the water
85
Female-headed households and livelihood intervention
• There are problems when a drought takes place since
the loan has to be paid from selling harvests
particularly loan taken for oxen.
• Feed shortage is critical during drought periods where
households can be forced to buy feed for a price that
might be beyond what they can afford.
• There is no price difference for products produced by
FHHs and MHHs.
• The market price is found to be good for products.
• Credit supply to members
• Provides support to members when facing critical
problems.
• Organizes members to help each other in labor
demanding activities like weeding.
• Struggles for women’s rights
• Provides training
• Payment in cash is preferable (in Raya Azebo woreda)
• Increases production
• Enables to earn additional income through expanding
vegetable production
• But the plastic used in ponds is easily torn.
• Very advantageous.
 Drylands Coordination Group
14. Perception on
participation of women
warm for irrigation use.
• Participate equally with men in development activities
• Participation of women in the different hierarchies would
contribute the improvement of livelihoods of the
community
• Low / no participation in decision making hierarchies like
baitos (i.e. councils)
• These days cultural practices are less impediments to
women’s participation
• Participation of women in all the hierarchies including at
the upper political positions is marginalized
• Ensuring their participation should also be seen as part and
parcel of the development process.
86
• Participation of women in development activities is
high
• Almost no participation in baitos
• Participation of women in the baitos would contribute
towards livelihood improvements of women.
• Involvement of women is very important to bring
problems of women in front of decision makers.
• It is also their right to participate in all aspects
• There are of course certain skill differences in some
aspects
• Women lack exposures and experiences
• Selection process is discussed and decided only at the
top. So participation of all the members is limited and
women involved in the different hierarchies are very
scarce.

Issues of discussion Key informants at tabia level
1. Start period of FSP in
the area
2. Components of full
FSP package
3. Criteria adopted to
select beneficiaries and
appropriateness of the
criteria
4. Are women
particularly FHHs
benefiting from the
package equally to men?
And as compared to
women with husbands
Summary on Responses of Key Informants on Discussion Points
Key informants at Woreda level
• The program started in 1995 E.C.
• The components of the package include cow, seed
and fertilizer, poultry, beehives
• Beehives were obligatory to take for all households
in tabia Genfel.
• The first assessments are made on the households’
possessions and then gaps are identified to form the
package components.
• Capability of households to implement the package
in terms of interest, sense of responsibility to wisely
use the resources, place availability to implement the
package components.
• Place availability to implement the package
components
• Being a resident of the area
• Capacity to repay
• Free of outstanding debt
• The criteria are appropriate to screen the
beneficiaries who at the same time are hard working
to the effect of the food security package program.
• Able to work considering health and old age
• Opportunity is equally given to both. In fact 30-35%
of households are expected to be FHHs.
• FHHs are found to be more effective in their
achievements.
• WAT is found to be strong and organized in
encouraging and supervising its members
• While FHHs are strong in implementing the package
programs and managing the resources, women with
husbands are not strong and actually do not have
87
Female-headed households and livelihood intervention
• The FSP was fully operational in 1995 E.C
• Components of the package are: cow, sheep and goat, seed,
poultry beehive
• The recommendation of the components was based on agro-
ecology
• Interest of households to involve and implement the package
• Economic status: the poor is given priority
• Free of indebtedness
• Labor availability, but not strictly applied to FHHs.
• The poorest of the poor. In fact it is difficult to assume that
the beneficiaries were the poorest of the poor for this group
of people always fears to take credit for the risk of loosing
all or part of the possessions.
• As a policy 30% of FSP beneficiaries are assumed to be
FHHs.
• Although they are committed in terms of implementation and
resource management it is reasonable to assume cumulative
results to be more in MHHs as FHHs lack labor
• The bases FHHs have do not enable them to benefit equally
as men
• Some FHHs do not have an ox and lack labor which forces
them to rent out their land.
 Drylands Coordination Group
5. Who takes the
training?
6. Benefits obtained from
FSP and opinions on the
program
clear knowledge of the program.
• Definitely women with husbands will be better off
compared to FHHs for the latter:
- Lack labor
- Can not carry out activities during the night
and it is difficult for them to run here and
there to facilitate all activities while they at
the same time have engagements at home.
- Beehives are traditionally managed by men.
• Though FHHs are given priority in policies, from a
practical point of view they are in a disadvantaged
position.
• Women are afraid of taking the whole package.
• FHHs take the training themselves
• There are cases in which training is given to both
wife and husband, but in most cases husbands take
the advantage
• But the issue of training both mates should be given
due attention
• HHS are able to own livestock that are multi-purpose
• As a result HHs are in a position to cover educational
expenses
• There are a number of households who
fundamentally improved their livelihood
• The different components of FSP are means of
diversifying sources of income of HHs.
• Important attitudinal changes are observed in the
community in general in reducing the dependency
syndrome on food aid.
• Off course a breakthrough in the poverty situation is
a long term effect since the areas are also drought
prone.
88
• Many FHHS retreat from taking the package for fear of
being indebted.
• FHHs are generally hard working as compared to women
with husbands.
• FHHS manage resources and hence are relatively
economically empowered while in MHHS the decision
power is largely in the hands of the husbands.
• Since FHHS involve themselves in various activities they
differ in getting information from women with husbands
• Of course, there are also hard working women with husbands
• Women will benefit less from beehives since they lack space
and capacity to manage it.
• Training is given generally to husbands in MHHs
• FHHs participate themselves
• In fact there are tabias, although they may not be that many
which gave training to both husband and wife.
• Providing training to both is quite important and there are
experiences where it is found to be more advantageous.
• HHs that have practiced the package according to what was
envisaged have shown improvements, and those who
misused the resource will be in trouble.
• There are already households who have attained the
benchmark that was pre-set, while there are a number of
them whose performance is below expectations.
• It is however reasonable to recognize that the achievements
cannot be attributed solely to FSP
• Changes in the consumption pattern are created which has
nutritional consequences.
• Changes are recorded in natural resource development.
• Package programs seem to have overburdened FHHs
because everybody is involved in natural resource

• Production is increasing in some aspects but the
market issue seems to be a problem in the near
future.
• There is no question on the importance of the food
security package program and whether it should
continue; but
- The market issue should be given due
attention.
- Adequate training should be given to
beneficiaries
- Governmental employees at the tabia level,
especially DAs, have to be motivated through
appropriate mechanisms otherwise it will be
difficult to ensure sustainable improvements
- Planning should start from below to make it
realistic rather than focusing on physical
targets for the provision of effective technical
guidance and monitoring of activities.
- Hard working women that can serve as role
models should be identified and other women
should be made to learn from them
• Bigger water harvesting mechanisms should be
thought about.
• Rather than sparsely distributing resources to
construct small ponds it is better to concentrate and
invest in bigger aspects that can bring about
observable change
• Although there are changes attributed to FSP, due to
the frequency of droughts it is difficult to confidently
assume that it leads to poverty reduction. On top of
that there are other shortcomings such as;
- Low consciousness of beneficiaries
- Low follow up and control
- Less commitment from all hierarchies.
89
Female-headed households and livelihood intervention
development while package components demand heavy
efforts.
• The focus has been on physical targets and hence
modification is needed in a way to set plans in which
concentrated technical support can be provided.
• The policy direction was to prioritize the poorest of the poor
but the progress has to be evaluated in detail to see if the
actual practice has held true and for necessary amendments.
• Although the program has to accommodate new entrants
yearly the pace should be slowed down and focus should
rather be to transform those who are already involved in the
package.
• There are indications of cases were farmers are found to be
reluctant to become involved in the FSP; the operation of
FSP should therefore be based on influencing them.
• The menu of the package should be there but interests of
individuals have to be accommodated for better
achievements.
• Obligatory features should be avoided
• Choices of package components should based on individual
interest and capacity
 Drylands Coordination Group
7. Strategies used to
combat drought and the
importance of
constructing ponds and
wells
8. Participation of women
in baitos
• Involvement of the society in different development
activities such as natural resource development
which is multipurpose or has multiple effects such as
conserving assets of HHs and upgrading soil fertility
through reducing erosion and the like.
• Expanding diversified sources of income of
households such as by expanding petty trade of HHs
which subsidizes the household income
• Vegetable production
• But population growth seems to be high.
• Divorce seems to aggravate the population increase
in that husbands divorce their wives after having a
certain number of children and marry another
resulting in having more children; while the divorced
women also continue getting children from other
fathers.
• Construction of ponds is easily taking form and
hence a number of them have become functional.
Nevertheless, efforts should be made to reduce the
errors in relation to technical aspects such as during
the assessment of the suitability of a particular site
for the construction of ponds and wells.
• Participation of women in the baitos (tabia-woreda)
is low while the positions are important for decision-
making.
90
• Expansion of different water harvesting techniques
• Strengthening activities of natural resource management like
soil and water conservation activities particularly watershed
management were found to be more effective interventions.
• Develop agro-business activities that link households with
the market and hence strengthen the rural urban linkage.
• Pond and well constructions are mostly effective but many
have technical problems.
• The focus has been on expanding the activities with less
attention on the technical aspects. Therefore, a technical
evaluation has to be made
• On top of the technical problems some farmers have weak
attitude regarding the importance of pond construction for
various reasons.
• Generally there are positive indicators on the effectiveness of
pond construction. Some households are in a position to
produce twice within a year using the water harvested in
ponds.
• So far no important participation of women in the baitos is
registered.
 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

List of Publications

Reports:
1 A. Synnevåg, G., Halassy, S. 1998: “Etude des indicateurs de la sécurité alimentaire dans deux sites de
la zone d’intervention de l’AEN-Mali: Bambara Maodé et Ndaki (Gourma Malien)”, Groupe de
Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

1 B. Synnevåg, G. and Halassy, S. 1998: “Food Security Indicators in Two Sites of Norwegian Church
Aid’s Intervention Zone in Mali: Bambara Maoudé and N’Daki (Malian Gourma)”, Drylands Coordination
Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

2 A. Aune, J.B. and Doumbia, M.D. 1998: “Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM), Case studies
of two projects in Mali: CARE Macina programme and PIDEB”, Drylands Coordination Group and
Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

2 B. Aune, J.B. et Doumbia, M.D. 1998: “Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux (GINV), Etude de
Cas de deux projets au Mali: Programme de CARE Macina et PIDEB”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones
Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

3 A. Berge, G., Larsen, K., Rye, S., Dembele, S.M. and Hassan, M. 1999: “Synthesis report and Four
Case Studies on Gender Issues and Development of an Improved Focus on Women in Natural Resource
Management and Agricultural Projects”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural
University of Norway.

3 B. Berge, G., Larsen, K., Rye, S., Dembele, S.M. et Hassan, M. 1999. “Rapport de synthèse et quatre
études de cas sur Les Questions de Genre et Développement d’une Approche Améliorée concernant les
Femmes et les Projets d’Agriculture et de Gestion des Ressources Naturelles”, Groupe de Coordination des
Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

4 A. Sydness, M., Ba, B. 1999: “Processus de décentralisation, développement institutionnel et

réorganisation des ONG financées par la Norvège au Mali”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et
Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

4 B. Sydness, M. and Ba, B. 1999: “Decentralization Process, Institution Development and Phasing out of
the Norwegian Involvement in Mali”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of
Norway.

5. Waktola, A. and Michael, D.G. 1999: “Institutional Development and Phasing Out of the Norwegian
Involvement, the Case of Awash Conservation and Development Project, Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination
Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

6. Waktola, A. 1999: “Exploratory Study of Two Regions in Ethiopia: Identification of Target Areas
and partners for Intervention”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of
Norway.

7. Mossige, A. 2000: “Workshop on Gender and Rural Development – Training Manual”, Drylands
Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

8. Synnevåg, G. et Halassy, S. 2000: ”Sécurité Semencière: Etude de la gestion et de

l’approvisionnement en semences dans deux villages du cercle de Ké-Macina au Mali: Kélle et Tangana”,
Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

91
Drylands Coordination Group

9. Abesha, D., Waktola, A, Aune, J.B. 2000: ”Agricutural Extension in the Drylands of Ethiopia”,
Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

10. Sydness, M., Doumbia, S. et Diakité K. 2000: ”Atelier sur la décentralisation au Mali”, Groupe de
Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

11. N’Dior, P. A. et Traoré, N. 2000: ”Etude sur les programmes d’épargne et de crédit au Mali”,
Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

12. Lode, K. and G. Kassa. 2001: ”Proceedings from a Workshop on Conflict Resolution
Organised by the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG), November 8-10, 2000 Nazareth, Ethiopia”, Drylands
Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

13. Shiferaw, B. and A. Wolday, 2001: “Revisiting the Regulatory and Supervision
Framework of the Micro-Finance Industry in Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric,
Agricultural University of Norway.

14 A. Doumbia, M. D., A. Berthé and J. B. Aune, 2001: “Integrated Plant Nutrition Management (IPNM):
Practical Testing of Technologies with Farmers Groups”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric,
Agricultural University of Norway.

14 B. Doumbia, M. D., A. Berthé and J. B. Aune, 2001: “Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux
(GINV): Tests Pratiques de Technologies avec des Groupes de Paysans”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones
Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

15. Larsen, K. and M. Hassan, 2001: “Perceptions of Knowledge and Coping Strategies in Nomadic
Communities – The case of the Hawawir in Northern Sudan”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric,
Agricultural University of Norway.

16 A. Mossige, A., Berkele, Y. & Maiga, S., 2001: “Participation of Civil Society in the national Action
Programs of the United Nation’s Convention to Combat Desertification: Synthesis of an Assessment in
Ethiopia and Mali”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

16 B. Mossige, A., Berkele, Y. & Maiga, S., 2001: “La Participation de la Société Civile aux Programme
d’Actions Nationaux de la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la Désertification”, Groupe de
Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

17. Kebebew, F., D. Tsegaye and G. Synnevåg., 2001: “Traditional Coping Strategies of the Afar and
Borana Pastoralists in Response to Drought”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural
University of Norway.

18. Shanmugaratnam, N., D. Mamer and M. R. Kenyi, 2002: “From Emergency Relief to Local
Development and Civil Society Building: Experiences from the Norwegian Peoples’ Aid’s Interventions in
Southern Sudan”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

19. Mitiku, H. and S. N. Merga, 2002. “Workshop on the Experience of Water Harvesting in the
Drylands of Ethiopia: Principles and practices”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural
University of Norway.

20. Tesfai, M., V. Dawod and K. Abreha, 2002. “Management of Salt-affected Soils in the NCEW
‘Shemshemia’ Irrigation Scheme in the Upper Gash Valley of Eritrea”, Drylands Coordination Group and
Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

21. Doumbia, M. D., A. Berthé and J. B. Aune, 2002: “Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux
(GINV): Tests Pratiques de Technologies avec des Groupes de Paysans- Rapport de la Campagne 2001”,
Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

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22. Haidara, Y., Dembele, M. et Bacha, A. “Formation sur la lutte contre la désertification atelier
organisé par groupe de coordination des zones arides (GCoZA) du 07 au 10 octobre 2002 à Gossi (Mali)”,
Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

23. Aune, J. B. 2003. “Desertification control, rural development and reduced CO2 emissions through the
Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol - an impasse or a way forward?” Drylands
Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

24. Larsen, K. and Hassan, M. 2003. “Sedentarisation of Nomadic People: The Case of
the Hawawir in Um Jawasir, Northern Sudan”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural
University of Norway.

25. Cissé, I. et Keita, M.S. 2003. “Etude d’impacts socio-économique et environnemental des plaines
aménagées pour riziculture au Mali.” Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural
University of Norway.

26. Berkele, Y. and Mossige, A. 2003. “Indicators to Promote Civil Society’s (NGOs and CBOs)
Participation in the implementation of Ethiopia’s National and Regional Action Programs of the United
Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. A guideline Document”, Drylands Coordination Group and
Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

26B. Berkele, Y. and Mossige, A. 2003. “Indicateurs visant à promouvoir la participation de la société
civile (ONG et OCB) à la mise en oeuvre en Ethiopie des Programmes d’action national et régionaux de la
Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la désertification”. Drylands Coordination Group and
Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

27. Assefa, F., Dawd, M. and Abesha, A. D. 2003. “Implementation Aspects of Integrated Pest
Management (IPM): Policy and Extension Gap in Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric,
Agricultural University of Norway.

28. Haile, A., Selassie, D.G., Zereyacob, B. and Abraham, B. 2003, “On-Farm Storage Studies in
Eritrea”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

29. Doumbia, M.D., Berthé, A., Aune, J.B. 2003, “Gestion Intégrée de Nutriments Végétaux (GINV):
Tests Pratiques et Vulgarisation de Technologies”, Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric,
Agricultural University of Norway.

30. Mossige, A. and M. Macina 2004, “Indicateurs visant à promouvoir et suivre la participation de la
Société Civile (ONG et OCB) dans la mise en œuvre des Programmes d’Action National, Régional et
Communal de la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la désertification”, Groupe de
Coordination des Zones Arides et Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

31. Tesfay, Y. and Tafere, K. 2004. “Indigenous Rangeland resources and Conflict Management by the
North Afar Pastoral Groups in Ethiopia. A Pastoral Forum Organized by the Drylands Coordination Group
(DCG) in Ethiopia, June 27-28, 2003, Mekelle, Ethiopia”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric,
Agricultural University of Norway.

32. Kebede, D. and Retta, S. 2004. “Gender, HIV/AIDS and Food Security, Linkage and Integration into
Development Interventions”, Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of
Norway.

33. Kidane, A., Araia, W., Ghebremichael, Z, and Gobezay, G. 2004. “Survey on striga and crop
husbandry practices in relation to striga management and control of sorghum (Sorghum bicholor) in the
Goluge sub zone: Lessons to be learned and creating awareness”, Drylands Coordination Group and
Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

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34. Kibreab, G., Berhane, T., and Ghezae, E. 2004. “A Study to Determine the Extent and Use of
Environmental Impact Assessment of Agricultural Development Projects – A Case Study from Eritrea”,
Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

35. Meehan, F. 2004. “Female Headed Household in Tigray, Ethiopia. A Study Review”. Drylands
Coordination Group and Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway.

36. Doumbia, M. Berthe, A., Aune, J. B. 2005. “Integrated Plant Nutrient Management in Mali.
Summary Report 1998-2004”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.

37. Kaya, B., Traoré, C. O., Aune, J.B. 2005. “Etude d’identification des prototypes d’EcoFermes au
Mali. Rapport diagnostic et plan d’action pour 2005“. Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides, Maison de
l’Environnement G9, Norvège.

38. Nedessa, B., Ali, J., Nyborg, I. 2005. ”Exploring Ecological and Socio-Economic Issues for the
Improvement of Area Enclosure Management. A Case Study from Ethiopia”. Drylands Coordination Group,
Miljøhuset G9, Norway.

39. Makenzi, P. 2005. “Natural Resource Management in the Didinga Hills. A Baseline Study from
Budy County, South Sudan”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.

40. Ogbazghi, W., Bein, E. 2006. “Assessment of Non-Wood Forest Products and their Role in the
Livelihoods of Rural Communities in the Gash-Barka Region, Eritrea”. Drylands Coordination Group,
Miljøhuset G9, Norway.

41. Kouyaté, S., Haidara, C. M. 2006. “Etude sur la Problématique des Périmètres Irrigués Villageois au
Nord du Mali”. Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides, Miljøhuset G9, Norvège.

42. Haile, A. 2006. “On-Farm Storage of Chickpea, Sorghum, and Wheat in Eritrea”. Drylands
Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.

43. Ask, V. 2006. “UNCCD and Food Security for Pastoralists within a Human Rights Context”.
Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.

44. Desta, M., Haddis, G., Ataklt, S. 2006. “Female-Headed Households and Livelihood Intervention in
Four Selected Weredas in Tigray, Ethiopia.”. Drylands Coordination Group, Miljøhuset G9, Norway.

Proceedings:
1. Drylands Coordination Group. 2000. Seminar on the Formation of DCG Ethiopia-Sudan.
Proceedings from a Seminar organised by the Drylands Coordination Group in Nazareth, Ethiopia, April 10-
12, 2000. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

2. Drylands Coordination Group. 2001. Seminar on the Formation of DCG Eritrea. Proceedings from a
Seminar Hosted by the National Confederation of Eritrean Workers (NCEW) in Asmara, Eritrea, March 26th-
28th, 2001. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

3. Amha, W. 2001. Revisiting the Regulatory and Supervision Framework of the Microfinance Industry
in Ethiopia. Proceedings from a Seminar Organised by the Relief Society of Tigray (REST), on behalf of the
Drylands Coordination Group in Ethiopia and Sudan, In Mekelle, August 25, 2001. DCG/Noragric,
Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

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 Female-headed households and livelihood intervention

4. Mossige, A. and Berkele, Y. 2001. Civil Society’s Participation in the National Action Program to
Combat Desertification and Mitigate the Effects of Drought in Ethiopia. Proceedings from a Workshop
organised by the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) in Ethiopia, Debre Zeit, September 13-14, 2001.
DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

5. Maiga, S. et Mossige, A. 2001. Participation de la Société Civile dans la Mise en Oeuvre Programme
d’action pour la Convention Sur la Désertification (CCD) au Mali. L’atelier Organise par le Groupe
Coordination sur les Zones Arides (GCOZA) Au Centre Aoua Keita, Bamako, Les 5 et 6 novembre 2001.
GCOZA/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

6. Drylands Coordination Group. 2002. Do conventions need civil society? A critical review of the role
of civil society in the implementation of international conventions. Proceeding from a Seminar Arranged by
the Drylands Coordination Group and Forum for Development and Environment (ForUM) in Oslo, January
15th, 2002. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

7. Berkele, Y. 2002. Workshop on training of trainers in UNCCD/NAP implementation in Ethiopia.

Proceedings from a workshop arranged by the Drylands Coordination Group in Ethiopia, Nazareth, June 10-
15, 2002, DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

8. Drylands Coordination Group. 2002. Sustainable livelihoods of farmers and pastoralists in Eritrea.
Proceedings from a workshop organised by DCG Eritrea in National Confederation of Eritrean Workers
Conference Hall, Asmara, November 28 –29, 2002. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University Of Norway, Ås.

9. Drylands Coordination Group. 2003. DCG networking seminar 2002, 15th-22nd November 2002,
Khartoum, Sudan. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

10. Soumana, D. 2003. Atelier d’information, d’échange et de réflexion sur l’élargissement du Groupe
de Coordination des Zones Arides (GCoZA) au Mali, Au Centre Aoua Keita, Bamako, Les 18 et 19 février
2003. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

11. Ati, H. A.and Nimir A. A. H. 2004. Training Course On The Role Of Local Institutions In
Regulating Resource Use and Conflict Management, Um Jawaseer, June 2003. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural
University of Norway, Ås.

12. Berkele, Y. and Ayalew, B. 2004. Training of Trainers in Implementation of UNCCD/NAP in

Ethiopia. Third Round, 10-14 Nov. 2003. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

13. Macina, M. 2004. Atelier National et Campagne d’Information et de Sensibilisation sur la CCD. Un
Atelier organisé par la Coordination des Associations et ONG Féminines au Mali (CAFO) en partenariat
avec le Groupe de Coordination des Zones Arides (GCoZA). Les 29-30 novembre 2004 à Bamako, Mali.
DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

14. Musnad, H.A. and Nasr N. K. 2004. Experience Sharing Tour and Workshop on Shelterbelts and
Fuel Wood Substitutes in Sudan. DCG/Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.

15. Gakou, M. 2005. Atelier d’information et de formation des ONG membres de GCoZA sur le
montage des projets/ synergie entre les conventions de la génération de Rio et de la convention de Ramsar.
Le 28 décembre 2004, à Bamako, Mali. GCoZA, Oslo.

16. Berkele, Y., Mossige, Anne. 2005. Awareness Promotion and Experience Sharing on the
Implementation of UNCCD-NAP to Enhance Pastoralist Areas Development. Workshop organized by the
Drylands Coordination Group Ethiopia for the Pastoral Affairs Standing Committee and the Natural
Resource Development and Environmental Protection Standing Committee, Members of Parliament -
Ethiopia. December 17-19, 2004 in Nazareth, Ethiopia. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.

17. Esheteu Bekele, E., Azerefegne, F., and Abate, T. 2006. Facilitating the Implementation and
Adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Ethiopia. Planning Workshop, 13-15 October 2003,

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Melkassa Agricultural Research Center, EARO. Jointly organized by the Association for Advancement of
IPM (ASAI) and the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO). DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.

18. Kodio, A. 2006. Atelier de Formation des Membres du GCoZA Mali à l’Approche Epargne Crédit
Musow ka Jigiya Ton (MJT) au Mali. Atelier organisé par CARE Mali et le GCoZA Mali du 1er au 5 août
2005 au Centre Gabriel Cissé de Ségou au Mali. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.

19. Belal, A. A. and Hussein, F. S. 2006. Awareness Raising Workshop on the Implementation of the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Workshop organized by DCG Sudan for the
Parliamentarians and other Stakeholders. December 28th and 29th 2005 in the Green Hall of Sudan’s
Parliament, Omdurman, Sudan. DCG, Miljøhuset, Oslo.

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Drylands Coordination Group Addresses in Norway:

Secretariat of the Drylands Coordination Group
Grensen 9b, 0159 Oslo, Norway
Tel: +47 23 10 94 90, Fax: + 47 23 10 94 94
E-mail: dcg@drylands-group.org

ADRA Norge
Postboks 124, 3529 Røyse, Norway
Tel.: +47 32 16 16 90, Fax: +47 32 16 16 71
E-mail: 102555.2157@compuserve.com

CARE Norge
Universitetsgt. 12, 0164 Oslo, Norway
Tel: +47 22 20 39 30, Fax: +47 22 20 39 36
E-mail: care.norge@online.no

Development Fund
Grensen 9b, 0159 Oslo, Norway
Tel: +47 23 10 96 00, Fax: +47 23 10 96 01
E-mail: u-fondet@u-fondet.no

Norwegian Church Aid

Postboks 7100, St. Olavs plass, 0130 Oslo, Norway
Tel: + 47 22 09 27 00, Fax: + 47 22 09 27 20
E-mail: nca-oslo@sn.no

Norwegian People’s Aid

P.O. Box 8844 Youngstorget, 0028 Oslo, Norway
Tel: + 47 22 03 77 00, Fax: + 47 22 17 70 82
E-mail: norsk.folkehjelp@npaid.no

Noragric, Department for International Environment and Development Studies

University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway
Tel: +47 64 94 99 50, Fax: +47 64 94 07 60
E-mail: noragric@noragric.umb.no

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