Marian Cox

Cambridge IGCSE®
First
Language
English
Teacher’s Resource Handouts
Fourth edition
Cambridge IGCSE First Language English Teacher’s Resource Handouts

Argument writing structure

1 Introduction
State the issue and explain its importance and relevance.

2 Alternative view
Show that you are aware that there is an alternative viewpoint and give its main arguments.

3 Criticism of alternative view

Demolish the alternative viewpoint by exposing its weaknesses.

4 Your view
Give all the reasons you can think of why your position is the sensible one, supporting each point with
evidence in the form of credible statistics, example(s), analogy, details, quotations or personal experience.

5 Conclusion
Conclude with a summary of your position on the issue and/or what you think future developments
might be.

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Aspects of narrative

a Viewpoint
Occasionally writers use the second person (‘you’) when writing narrative, but it is not advisable
when preparing for assessment as it is hard to manage successfully and does not usually work with
composition titles. If you are given a choice of narrator, use first or third person. Both have advantages
and disadvantages.
• First-person narrators can only tell what they know themselves, and cannot say what other characters
are thinking and feeling. Clearly they cannot end the story with their death, and it is a cliché to end
a story with the narrator becoming unconscious. On the other hand, they convey an authority and
sense of credibility.
• Third-person narration has the advantage of being ‘all-knowing’: the reader can be told what is going
on in the heads of any of the characters (though it is still better to stick to one viewpoint). However, it
loses the sense of directness that can be conveyed by the use of the first person.
The most important thing is that you should make a decision between first and third and stick to it, and
not switch between the two.

b Voice
Whether the narrator is first or third person, the voice can be that of a character or a witness to an event
or sequence of events. You can have the persona or narrator use a style that is different from your own.
However, you must be careful not to adopt a style that includes slang or swearing, or that uses overly
simple language and sentence structures, even if they are realistic, because your work will be judged partly
on the complexity of the style and the maturity of the vocabulary you use.

c Characters
It is advisable to have either two or three characters in a story you are writing for summative assessment.
More than three will make it hard for you to characterise them adequately, and for the reader to be able to
distinguish between them. You need to explain the relationship between the characters. It is usual to give
their name, age (roughly), their personality, some clue about their physical appearance and their job – if they
have one and if it is relevant. These details allow the reader to picture the characters and engage with them.

d Storyline
It is not really possible to think of a totally original story. All writers recycle a basic set of plots, with
differences of setting and characters. It is acceptable to use an idea from a book or film, or to pretend that
something that happened to someone else happened to you or your character, provided that the detail is
your own and you are not just ‘lifting’ without adaptation or elaboration. Real historical events can also be
turned into fiction-type narratives. Do not attempt a story that is too long or complex to be delivered in
the time available. One event or a short series of events is all that can be managed effectively. Do not link
a sequence of events with ‘And then’ or treat them as equally important. Events should be connected by a
chain of cause and effect. Less important occurrences can be skipped over so that the focus is on the major
event: the one that is causing the crisis.

e Tense
Although it is possible to write an effective narrative in the present tense, it is not advisable for summative
assessment. You may forget that you began in the present and switch to the past, or keep switching
between the two. We usually write about events that are supposed to have already happened in the past
tense, so writing about them in the present tense is difficult to remember and sustain. It also limits the
narrative viewpoint, and tends to make the language and syntax too simple.

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Aspects of narrative (cont.)

f Structure
The ordering of events is normally, and more safely, chronological (i.e. this happened, then that, finally this.).
However, you could consider using devices such as time lapses, flashbacks, and starting at the end. Some
stories end at the climactic point (the point of greatest tension), without providing a clear resolution. If you
do this with your story, you must make it clear that it is deliberate. You must avoid giving the impression that
you have run out of time or cannot think of a resolution to your story. Some writers start with the climax,
and then fill in the back story leading to that point, so the story has a circular structure.
Another narrative device is to frame the story within another story, which is used for the opening and the
ending. For instance, finding a diary many years later, and putting it back in its secret place at the end of
the narrative, could frame the reading of it and the story it contains.
In any case, characters have to be introduced before their problem can be explained. This needs to happen
before the climax, which is then followed by the resolution. The climax should come about three quarters
of the way through the narrative. Too soon and insufficient tension will have been created; too late and the
ending will seem rushed and unprepared for.

g Openings
First sentences have to grip the reader and engage their curiosity from the beginning. If readers cannot
place themselves in a setting they will feel unable to visualise the scene and relate to what is happening.
Although the rest of the narrative is likely to have a logical and/or chronological structure, there is a
choice of types of narrative opening:
• the conventional one gives location, surroundings, time, place, weather, season
• one or two main characters can be described as an introduction to an event or action involving them
• a shocking or intriguing opening statement provokes immediate interest
• starting in the middle of an event engages the reader’s attention
• starting in the middle of a conversation makes the reader curious about the speakers and the topic.

h Description
Narratives need some description as well. Unless the reader can visualise the setting and the characters they
will become disengaged. However, too much description slows down the pace and reduces the tension. Give
details where necessary to create a sense of place and atmosphere, and to convey originality and credibility.
For example it is better to say exactly what someone is eating or listening to, rather than just that they are
eating or listening to music.

i Dialogue
Dialogue should be used sparingly, for dramatic effect, and only for significant exchanges between
characters. It is safer for dialogues to be between only two characters at a time, and probably only two of
the characters in a short story need to speak directly to each other. It is difficult to manage more than that,
or to create distinctive voices for them. When you use direct speech, you must punctuate and set it out
correctly, with a new line for every change of speaker, or it becomes impossible for the reader to follow.

j Endings
Endings have to satisfy the reader by being both slightly unpredictable and yet credible in the way they
have been set up. Sometimes a twist can be used to catch the reader off guard and provide humour,
irony or surprise. However, a twist must be believable in the context, not a sudden turn of events that is
inconsistent with the characterisation or situation the reader has already been shown.

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Descriptive writing structure

1 Setting
If you are describing a place, it is appropriate to set the general scene, including location, surroundings,
atmosphere, time of day, week, month, season, weather and/or temperature. Either time or distance can
be used as the structure for a descriptive composition. Descriptive compositions must have some kind of
framework to give them a shape and a logical progression that involves the reader.

2 Positioning
The observer takes up a position with regard to the object or place being described (e.g. they are standing
outside a room). This should be at a distance so that the reader is interested in what will be revealed on
closer inspection (e.g. when the person seen in the distance is near enough to be identified; the chest in
the attic is opened). The senses of sight and sound should be explored in this section and used to draw
the reader in. If time is the framework, then it should be established at this point (e.g at dusk, daylight is
beginning to fade).

3 Approaching
The observer moves towards the object or place being described. New details can be revealed because of
the closer proximity (e.g. as the view of the beach becomes clearer). At this stage the sense of smell can
be added to sight and sound. Alternatively, time has moved on (e.g. darkness is creeping into the sky and
appearances are changing).

4 Arriving
The observer is now part of the scene (e.g. in the heart of the street market), or in contact with the objects
(e.g. going through the items in a chest). Minute details of vision and noise can be used here, and also the
senses of touch and taste implied (e.g. people in the scene are eating; the sea is salty). Alternatively, the key
time has arrived (e.g. it is night and the sky and atmosphere can be described).

5 Leaving
The observer leaves the scene, with or without a backward glance. They may have replaced anything they
disturbed in a room and close the door so that things are again as they were at the beginning. It may be
time to go home for the people on the beach or at the market, so that the scene empties and becomes the
opposite of how it was at the beginning. Reference to time or distance can be used as closure.

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Formal letter structure

1 Opening
Address your letter to ‘Dear’ plus the name (if you have it) and the form of address you have been asked
to write to (e.g. Dear Dr Badawi; Dear Sir/Madam), then start a new line for the opening paragraph.
(Note: in examinations you are not required to put an address and date on a formal letter but it is good to
practise this for real-life situations.)

2 Paragraph 1: Introduction
Why are you writing? Give the general aim and minimum information only (e.g. to complain, apply,
request, disagree) and an indication of what you are writing about (e.g. to complain about a recent holiday,
or to apply for a job).

3 Paragraph 2: Details of situation

Give previous history of the event, your background or your experience. If you are making a complaint,
say what happened exactly, or focus directly on the text with which you disagree. This section should
include specific data such as names, dates, facts and details.

4 Paragraph 3: Further development

Give further support to your claim or request, including evaluative comments. Summarise the current
situation and give reasons why your letter should be given consideration (e.g. other problems which
occurred with your holiday accommodation, how well you fulfil the job requirements).

5 Final paragraph: Future action

Say what you wish to happen next (e.g. you expect to receive some compensation as soon as possible; you
look forward to being called for interview). If you are complaining, suggest firmly but politely what you
plan to do next if you do not receive a response to your complaint.

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Formal report structure

1 Context
In the introduction, indicate what you are reporting on, who you are reporting to and the purpose of the
report. The person(s) receiving the report is someone in authority in an official position, and the formal
style reflects this.

2 First stage
If bullet points are provided to help you structure a formal report, you should aim to address them evenly,
using paragraphs carefully. Your paragraphs should refer to and support the relevant ideas from the
passage.

3 Second stage
This will be another aspect of the event or situation under consideration, or data that contrasts with that
presented in the first stage. It is likely to support an alternative argument.

4 Third stage
This will take a stand on one side or the other of the issue, reaching a conclusion by weighing up which
position is the most tenable, giving reasons. There may be more credible or extensive evidence for one
interpretation compared to the other.

5 Recommendation
The final sentence of a report will give a recommendation to the recipient of the report. This usually
involves offering suggestions for what further action should be taken.

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Magazine article structure

1 Topic
Introduce the topic. Topics may include: an issue that is currently in the news, recently published research,
a proposal that has been put forward by a government or other agency, the activities of a noteworthy
person. Unlike a news report, which is informative, and a speech, which is argumentative, a magazine
article is mainly a form of discursive writing.

2 Background
The article is likely to outline the relevant history of the event or person the article is about. Readers need
to be aware of the necessary facts, the reason why the article has been written and what has led to the
current situation.

3 Discussion
Return to the current situation at this point, discussing and giving different viewpoints about the event
or person, with examples and quotations, and making comparisons with the past or with similar topics.
The writer’s own viewpoint is likely to be expressed or inferred. However, alternative views must be given
equal weight.

4 Prediction
At this point the article may deal with possible future developments or the predicted outcome of the
current situation (e.g. that a current predicament will become worse if nothing is done about it, a person
will go on to become even more famous and successful, or which side will win the political debate).

5 Conclusion
The article needs a neat conclusion. This may be an ironic reference or a humorous comment, an
evaluation of the different viewpoints, a reference back to the beginning of the article, or a quotation.

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Narrative writing structure

1 Setting
Outline the location, surroundings, atmosphere, time of day, week, month, season, weather.

2 Characters
Introduce up to three characters by describing their appearance, behaviour and perhaps using direct
speech. Make their relationship to one another clear.

3 Problem
Create a situation requiring decision or discussion. Build up conflict, perhaps using dialogue.

4 Climax
Narrate a series of actions/events, leading to a crisis. Time pressure may be a factor.

5 Resolution
Describe the outcome, which may involve an ironic twist.

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News report structure

1 Headline about news event

What? When? Where? Who?

2 Background
Why? Previous history, lead-up to this event, causes.

3 Report of actual news event

How? Detailed account of what happened, and what is still happening.

4 Quotations
From participants, witnesses, police, hospital, etc.

5 Future
Consequences, investigations, next stage.

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Review writing structure

1 Description
Title, author/director, genre, target audience, aim, relation to other works.

2 Outline
Setting, main storyline, main characters.

3 Weaknesses
Elements of the book/film that you found disappointing, e.g. characterisation, pace, plot, dialogue, with
reasons and examples.

4 Strengths
Elements of the book/film that you found enjoyable, e.g. characterisation, pace, plot, dialogue, with
reasons and examples.

5 Evaluation
Memorable/unusual aspects, success of work in relation to its aim, recommendation or not.

Note: If you disliked the work and are not recommending it, reverse sections 3 and 4.

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Rhetorical devices

A rhetorical device is a technique of using language in a way that increases the persuasiveness of a piece of
text by evoking an emotional or intellectual response in the reader or audience.

The devices below are often found in argumentative writing. The reader should be aware when such
devices are being used, as they manipulate the reader into agreeing with the writer or speaker and distract
attention from the quality of the actual arguments being used.

addressing reader as ‘you’ – for intimacy and presupposition that the reader will agree
antithesis – to make it seem a simple two-sided issue
aposiopesis (…) – to make the reader imagine the rest, that which has not been said
colloquialisms – to create a conversational effect to invite the reader’s trust
exclamations – to create the impression that the writer feels passionate or shocked about the isssue
hyperbole – to increase the apparent power of the argument or evidence
imperatives – to sound authoritative and superior
insulting vocabulary – to ridicule opponents
irony – to create humour and appreciation
juxtaposition – to make a stark contrast which forces a comparison to be made
lists – to give the impression that a lot of data exists to support the writer’s view
modern idiom and trendy phrases – to show that the writer is up to date
non-sentences – to make the content stand out and sound decisive
repetition – for emphasis and memorability
rhetorical questions – to engage and involve the reader
sarcasm – to mock opponents in the hope that the reader will not wish to identify with them
short, categorical sentences – to give the impression that there can be no argument
triple structures – to make the statement memorable and effective

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Success criteria

Tick that you have fulfilled the criteria below after completing a piece of work. You need to be familiar
with this checklist before you plan and/or draft a response. If there is something here that you didn’t do
and can’t tick, try to put it right before submitting your work for assessment. It is possible to improve
responses even after writing the final version, by crossing out and replacing words and by using asterisks
and caret marks to add material.

Reading papers
Content
Did you ...
o skim and scan the passage before answering?
o answer the whole question?
o use different material in different answers?
o focus fully on the question?
o follow the guidelines on length?
o use the structure and content support provided?
o develop ideas where required?
o refer closely to the passage?
o give details where appropriate?
o select only relevant material from the passage?
o demonstrate understanding of implicit meaning?
o show awareness of the writer’s style?
o evaluate the effectiveness of the writer’s style?

Expression
Did you ...
o answer the question concisely?
o answer the question in full sentences?
o use your own words when required?
o write in the appropriate style for the response genre?
o check your responses for clarity?
o organise your material into a sequence?
o give overall structure to your response?

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Success criteria (cont.)

Writing papers
Content
Did you ...
o convey your understanding of the ideas in the passage?
o evaluate the ideas in the passages?
o refer closely to points in the passage?
o avoid repetition of ideas?
o stay focused on the task?
o stay within the length guidelines?
o show awareness of the audience?
o show awareness of the purpose?

Expression
Did you ...
o order response material effectively?
o link ideas within and between paragraphs?
o use a range of vocabulary?
o use a variety of sentence structures?
o use the characteristics/devices of the response genre?
o choose precise words?
o use the appropriate register of vocabulary?
o adopt a suitable tone of voice?
o sustain an appropriate viewpoint?
o avoid repetition of vocabulary?
o avoid lifting phrases from the passage?
o use clear and concise language?
o use fluent and mature expression?
o use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation?
o use paragraphs in continuous writing?
o put quotations or speech into inverted commas?
o check your work for mistakes?

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Summary writing process

1 Skim-reading
Read passage for gist of time, place, genre and topic. Identify unknown words using one of the four
methods: syllabic breakdown; similarity to another English word; similarity to a word in another
language; guessing from context.

2 Scan-reading
After reading the summary question and underlining its key words, return to the passage and highlight
the relevant material. Select only the essential word or phrase. Do not include examples, repetitions, direct
speech, figurative language or trivial details.

3 Transfer to plan
Transfer the highlighted material to make a list of 15 points, changing some of the words and phrases
into own words at the same time. Some technical words cannot be changed. You may use some individual
words from the passage, but do not repeat long phrases.

4 Structuring the plan

Group the points in the plan logically and reordered (using brackets and arrows) to enable you to combine
more than one point per sentence. This will make it possible to get all 15 points into a response of fewer
than 250 words.

5 Writing the summary

Write the summary in informative style, in complex sentences (avoiding ‘and’). Use the same tense and
person as the question (i.e. objective third person) and not that used in the passage (which is often
narrative in the first person and past tense). Check afterwards for clarity and concision, and for repetition.
The summary should be purely objective and without narrative, comment, introduction or conclusion.

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Web links

The following sites and resource banks are all useful sources of either materials or teaching ideas. Some
are free to access, others are available by subscription (but often with a free trial).
www.qaresources.co.uk/sample.eng/EIFL_sample.doc
A free sample from Q&A Resources. It is taken from a Study Guide of over 30 pages, specifically
tailored to CIE First Language English, available for purchase.
www.ldoceonline.com/
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online. It is up to date and free to use.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
An excellent free site with lots of grammar and language exercises that you can try out to test yourself!
www.englishplus.com/grammar/
The Grammar Slammer site, which explains the rules of English grammar and usage with examples.
www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree
A site with many useful examples of argumentative and discursive writing. It would also provide
possible topics for coursework assignments.
www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/english/
The BBC Bitesize website, which contains many exercises and activities. Although aimed at home-
board GCSE candidates, many parts are relevant to IGCSE First Language English tasks.

Other general English GCSE revision sites which are relevant (at least in part) are:
www.gcse.com/english/
www.englishbiz.co.uk/

Sources of texts:
www.bibliomania.com – online texts
www.thepaperboy.com – newspapers from around the world
www.themagazineboy.com – magazines from around the world
www.guardiancentury.co.uk – The Guardian newspaper articles from 1899 to 1999
www.bl.uk/learning/index.html – British library pictures, biographies, written and spoken records of
historical events
www.bbc.co.uk/videonation – video extracts

Sources of tasks and lessons:

www.teachit.co.uk
www.chalkface.com
www.english-to-go.com
www.webenglishteacher.com
www.english-teaching.co.uk
www.englishonline.co.uk
www.onestopenglish.com
www.learn.co.uk

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