Mechatronics

Semester - VIII

MECHATRONICS SYSTEM DESIGN

By

Dr. Abhijeet Ganguly

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Chhatrapati Shivaji Institute of Technology - Durg
UNIT NUMBER- 1
 LECTURE : 1
Contents
What is Mechatronics?
Mechatronics Key Elements.
Applications in Mechatronics.
Integrated Design Issues in Mechatronics.
The Mechatronics Design Process.
What is Mechatronics?
Graphical representation of Mechatronics
Elements of Mechatronics Systems
Actuators and Sensors

Signals and conditioning

Digital Logic System

Software and Data

Acquisition System

Computers and
Display Devices
Elements of Mechatronics Systems
Elements of Mechatronics Systems
Block Diagram of Mechatronics Systems
 Related Questions

❖ Define Mechatronics.
❖ Sketch the graphical representation of mechatronics
systems.
❖ What are the typical elements of mechatronics
system.
❖ Explain Various elements of mechatronics system.
❖ Draw the block diagram of mechatronics system.
 Various stages of Mechatronics
• Primary Level Mechatronics: Integrates electrical signaling
with mechanical action at the basic control level for e.g. fluid
valves and relay switches
• Secondary Level Mechatronics: Integrates microelectronics
into electrically controlled devices for e.g. cassette tape player.
• Tertiary Level Mechatronics: Incorporates advanced control
strategy using microelectronics, microprocessors and other
application specific integrated circuits for e.g. microprocessor
based electrical motor used for actuation purpose in robots.
• Quaternary Level Mechatronics: This level attempts to
improve smartness a step ahead by introducing intelligence
(artificial neutral network and fuzzy logic ) and fault detection
and isolation ( F.D.I.) capability into the system.
 Application of Mechatronics Systems
▪ Smart consumer products: home security, camera,
microwave oven, toaster, dish washer, laundry washer-
dryer, climate control units, Automatic Digital Camera etc.
▪ Computer disk VCR/DVD drives, ATM, etc
▪ Medical: implant-devices, assisted surgery, haptic, etc.
▪ Defense: unmanned air, ground, and underwater vehicles,
smart weapons, jet engines, etc.
▪ Manufacturing: NC & CNC machine tools, Rapid
Prototyping, robotics, etc.
▪ Automotive: climate control, antilock brake, active
suspension, cruise control, air bags, engine management,
safety, etc.
▪ Network-centric, distributed systems: distributed
robotics, telerobotic, intelligent highways, etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronics Systems

Advantages of Mechatronics
• Cost effective and good quality products
• High degree of flexibility to modify or redesign
• Very good performance characteristics
• Wide are of application
• Greater productivity in case of manufacturing organization
• Greater extend of machine utilization

Disadvantages of Mechatronics
• High Initial cost
• Multi-disciplinary engineering background required to design
and implementation
• Need of highly trained workers
• Complexity in identification an correction of problems in the
system
Conventional and Mechatronics Design Approach
Conventional and Mechatronics Design Comparison
Review of Previous Class
Design of Mechatronics Systems
Traditional Design Approach
Traditional Electro-Mechanical System Design Process
Integrated Method of Mechatronics System Design
Integrated Method of Mechatronics System Design
 Mechatronic Design Process

Modelling and simulation: Guide

Prototyping: Validation
Deployment: Manufacture
Mechatronic Design Process
Mechatronic Design Process
Mechatronic Design Process
1st Stage of Mechatronics Design
2nd Stage of Mechatronics Design
3rd Stage of Mechatronics Design
 Recognition of need

Engineering Specification

Mechanical Electrical Electronic Control Information Operating

System System System System System System

Process Design Electronic Design Software and IT Process Design Interface Design

Hardware Integration Software Integration

Hardware and Software Integration

System Testing

Manufacturing

Mechatronics System
System
Measurement System
Mechatronics System

Feedback
 Measurement of displacement
Displacement
• Linear Displacement: from few microns to few centimeters
• Angular Displacement: from few seconds to 360 degrees

Displacement transducer:
• Converts physical quantity to electrical quantity
• Sensing element (Primary Transducer)
• Transduction element (Secondary Transducer)
 Types of displacement transducer
Contact Type
• Variable Resistance
• Potentiometer
• Variable Inductance
• LVDT
• RVDT
• Variable Capacitance

Non-contact Type
• Ultrasonic
• IR Sensor
 Resistive Transducer for Linear Displacement
A potentiometer is a transducer in
which a rotation or displacement is
converted into a potential difference.

As shown in Figure, the

displacement of the wiper of a
potentiometer causes the output
potential difference obtained
between one end of the resistance
and the slider. This device converts
linear or angular motion into
changing resistance, which may be
converted directly to a voltage or
current signal. The position of the
slider along the resistance element
determines the magnitude of the
electrical potential.
The voltage across the wiper of linear potentiometer is measured in
terms of the displacement, d, and given by the relationship.

Here E is the voltage across the potentiometer, and L is the full-scale

displacement of the potentiometer.
 Resistive Transducer for Angular Displacement

If the movement of the slider is in a

circular path along a resistance
element, then rotational information
is converted into information in the
form of a potential difference. The
output of the rotary

Disadvantage:
The disadvantage of the
potentiometric transducer is its slow
dynamic performance, low
resolution, and susceptibility to
vibration and noise. However,
displacement transducers with a
relatively small traverse length have
been designed using strain-gauge-
type resistance transducers.
 Inductance Transducer
• Inductive transducers are used for proximity sensing and
also for motion position detection, motion control, and
process control applications.

• Inductive transducers are based on the Faraday’s law of

induction in a coil. Faraday’s law of induction specifies that
the induced voltage, or electromotive force (EMF), is equal
to the rate at which the magnetic flux through the circuit
changes.

• If varying magnetic flux is applied to a coil, then

electromotive force appears at every turn of the coil. If the
coil is wound in such a manner that each turn has the same
area of cross section, the flux through each turn will be the
same.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
LVDT range is from 2 to 400 mm
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Capacitive Transducer
The variation in capacitance between two separated members (electrodes) is used for the
measurement of many physical phenomenon. Capacitance is a function of the effective
area of the conductors, the separation between the conductors, and the dielectric
strength of the material. A change in capacitance can be brought about by varying any one
of the three parameters. These variations are summarized here.
• Changing the distance between the two parallel electrodes.
• Changing the dielectric constant, permittivity, of dielectric medium .
• Changing the area of the electrodes, A.
The ratio of the amount of charge stored on one of the plates to the amount of
voltage across the capacitor is the capacitance. The capacitance is directly
proportional to the area of plates and inversely proportional to the distance
between them.

The constant of proportionality, known as the permittivity, is a function of the

type of material separating the plates. For a capacitance transducer with
insulating material, the capacitance between the plates is defined as
Capacitive Transducer
 OPTICAL ENCODERS
It is used to measure position, velocity,
acceleration and direction of movement of
rotors.

It is classified in two types:

1. Incremental Encoders
2. Absolute Encoders
 INCREMENTAL ENCODERS
PRINCIPLE:
• When a beam of light passes through slots in a disc, it is sensed
by the light sensor opposite to the light source
• When the disk is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by sensor
with number of pulses being proportional to the position of the
disc and number of pulses per second determines the velocity of
the disk
 INCREMENTAL ENCODERS

CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

• It consists three components light source, coded disk and photo

detector
• The disk is made up of plastic or glass.
• The disk consists of opaque and transparent segment
alternatively.
• The wheel is between light and photo detector.
• The photo detector receives the light signal alternatively which
is converted into electrical signal.
 ABSOLUTE ENCODERS
PRINCIPLE:
• The principle of operation is that they provide a unique output
corresponds to each rotational position of the shaft.
• The output is in the form of binary numbers representing the
angular position.
 ABSOLUTE ENCODERS
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

• The disc has four concentric slots and four photo detectors
to detect the light pulse.
• The slots are arranged in such way that they give a binary
number.
• It consist opaque and transparent segments. This pattern is
called as track.
• The encoders have 8 to 14 slots.
• The number of the track determines the resolution of the
encoder.
• The number of bits in binary number will be equal to the
number of tracks.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
• When a current carrying semiconductor
plate is placed in a transverse magnetic
field, it experiences a force (Lorentz force).
Due to this action a beam of charged
particles are forced to get displaced from its
straight path. This is known as Hall Effect.
• A current flowing in a semiconductor plate
is like a beam of moving charged particles
and thus can be deflected by a magnetic
field. The side towards which the moving
electron deflected becomes negatively
charged and the other side of the plate
becomes positively charged or the electrons
moving away from it.
• This charge separation produces an
electrical voltage which continues until the
Lorentz force on the charged particles from
the electric field balances the forces
produced by the magnetic field. The result is
a traverse potential difference known as Hall
voltage.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Construction & Working:
• Current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the semiconductor plate and the
output leads are connected to the element faces 3 and 4.
• These output faces are at same potential when there is no transverse
magnetic field passing through the element and voltage known as Hall
voltage appears when a transverse magnetic field is passing through the
element.
• This voltage is proportional to the current and the magnetic field.
• The direction of deflection depends on the direction of applied current and
the direction of magnetic field

2
3
4
1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mFt4qKdRvD8
 APPLICATION OF HALL EFFECT SENSOR
The following are the application of the Hall effect
Transducers.

1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer

2. Measurement of Displacement
3. Measurement of Current
4. Measurement of Power
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
Definition: “The Piezoelectric sensor/transducer is an
electroacoustic transducer use for conversion of pressure or
mechanical stress into an alternating electrical force”.

It is used for measuring the physical quantity like force, pressure,

stress, etc., which is directly not possible to measure.

The piezo transducer converts the physical quantity into an

electrical voltage which is easily measured by analogue and
digital meter.

The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material

which has a special property, i.e. the material induces voltage
when the pressure or stress applied to it. The material which
shows such property is known as the electro-resistive element.
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
The word piezoelectric means the electricity produces by the pressure. The
Quartz is the examples of the natural piezoelectric crystals, whereas the
Rochelle salts, ammonium dehydration, phosphate, lithium sulphate,
dipotassium tartrate are the examples of the man made crystals. The ceramic
material is also used for piezoelectric transducer.

The ceramic material does not have the piezoelectric property. The property is
developed on it by special polarizing treatment. The ceramic material has
several advantages. It is available in different shapes and sizes. The material
has the capability of working at low voltages, and also it can operate at the
temperature more than 3000ºC
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
Properties of Piezo Electric-Crystal
The following are the properties of the Piezoelectric Crystals.
1.The piezoelectric material has high stability.
2.It is available in various shapes and sizes.
3.The piezoelectric material has output insensitive to temperature and
humidity.

Uses of Piezoelectric Crystal

The following are the uses of the Piezoelectric transducers.
1.The piezoelectric material has high stability and hence it is used for
stabilizing the electronic oscillator.
2.The ultrasonic generators use the piezoelectric material. This
generator is used in SONAR for underwater detection and in industrials
apparatus for cleaning.
3.It is used in microphones and speakers for converting the electric
signal into sound.
4.The piezoelectric material is used in electric lighter
CHARACTERISTICS OF PIEZOELECTRIC
TRANSDUCER
 FLUID SENSORS
FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
Diaphragm Type
• In the diaphragm type sensor, when there is a difference in pressure between the
two sides then the centre of the diaphragm becomes displaced.
• Corrugations in the diaphragm result in a greater sensitivity.
• This movement can be monitored by some form of displacement sensor, e.g: a
strain gauge.
• A specially designed strain gauge is often used, consisting of four strain gauges with
two measuring the strain in a circumferential direction while two measure strains
in a radial direction
• The four strain gauges are then connected to form the arm of a Wheatstone bridge.
• While strain gauges can be stuck on a diaphragm, an alternative is to create a
silicon diaphragm with the strain gauges as specially doped areas of the diaphragm.
 FLUID SENSORS
FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
Capsule and Bellow Types
• Capsules are two corrugated diaphragms combined to give
greater accuracy
• Capsules and bellows are made up of stainless steel, phosphor
bronze, and nickel with rubber and nylon
• Pressure range 103 to 108 Pa
 FLUID SENSORS
FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
Tube Pressure Sensor
• A different form of deformation is obtained using a tube with an elliptical cross
section
• Increase in pressure in tube causes it tend to circular cross – section
• C-Shaped tube is generally known as a Bourdon tube.
• C-Shaped tube opens when pressure in the tube increases
• A helical form gives more sensitivity
• Tubes are made up of stainless steel, phosphor bronze, and nickel with rubber and
nylon
• Pressure range 103 to 108 Pa
 FLUID SENSORS
FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
Piezoelectric Sensors
Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate
electric charges with one face of the managerial becoming
positively charged and the opposite face negatively charged.
 FLUID SENSORS
FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
Tactile Sensor
• It is used on fingertips of robot hands and for touch display screen
• It uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film
• Two layers are separated by sift film
• The lower PVDF film has an alternating voltage applied to it results
in mechanical oscillations
• Intermediate film transmits the vibration to upper film
• Example touch screen monitor as in ATM, Railway PNR status
enquiry
 FLUID SENSORS
FLUID FLOW SENSORS
Turbine Flow Meter
• The turbine flow meter and it consists of a multi-bladed rotor which
is supported in the pipe along with the flow occurs.
• The rotor rotation depends upon the fluid flow and the angular
velocity is proportional to the flow rate.
• The rotor rotation is determines the magnetic pick-up, which is
connected to the coil.
• The revolution of the rotor is determined by counting the number of
pulses produced in the magnetic pick up. The accuracy of this
instrument is ± 3%.
 FLUID SENSORS
FLUID FLOW SENSORS
Orifice Plate
• It is a simple disc with a central hole and it is placed in the tube
through which the fluid flows.
• The pressure difference measured between a point equal to the
diameter of the tube upstream and half the diameter of
downstream.
• The accuracy of this instrument is ±1.5%.
 FLUID SENSORS
LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Differential Pressure Sensor
• In this the differential pressure cell determines the pressure
difference between base of the liquid and atmospheric
pressure.
• The differential pressure sensor can be used in either form of
open or closed vessel system.
 FLUID SENSORS
LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Float System
• In this method the level of liquid is measured by movement of
a float.
• The movement of float rotates the arm and slider will move
across a potentiometer.
• The output result is related to the height of the liquid.
 STRAIN GAUGES
• Strain gauges are passive type resistance sensor whose
electrical resistance change when it is stretched or
compressed (mechanically strained) under the application of
force.

• The electrical resistance is changed due to the change in

length (increases) and cross sectional area (decreases) of the
strain gauge.

• This change in resistance is then usually converted into

voltage by connecting one, two or four similar gauges as an
arm of a Wheatstone bridge (known as Strain Gauge Bridge)
and applying excitation to the bridge.

• The bridge output voltage is then a measure of strain, sensed

by each strain gauge.
 STRAIN GAUGES
Principle:
If a specimen is subjected to tension, causing an increase in
length, its longitudinal dimension will increase, and its lateral
dimension will decrease. If a resistance gauge made of this
conducting material is subjected to a positive strain, its length
increases while its cross-sectional area decreases.

Since the resistance of the conductor is dependent on its length,

cross-sectional area, and specific resistivity, the change in strain
is due to the change in dimension or specific resistivity.

For a circular wire of length, L; cross-sectional area, A; and

diameter, D, the resistance of the wire before straining is

R=ρL/A
 STRAIN GAUGES

The major types of strain

gauges are:
1. Metal wire strain
gauges
2. Metal foil strain gauges
3. Semiconductors strain
gauges.
 STRAIN GAUGES
• In Metal Wire Strain Gauges a wire stretched between two points in an
insulating medium such as air.
• The wires may be made of various copper nickel, chrome nickel or nickel
iron alloys. They are about 0.003 mm in diameter and gauge factor of 2. The
length of wire is 25 mm or less.

• In Metal foil strain gauge the foil is usually made up of constantan, and it is
attached in a grid pattern onto a thin plastic backing material, usually
polyimide. The foil is terminated at both ends with large metallic pads.
• The size of the entire gauge is very small and has a length of 5 mm to 15 mm
length.

• In Semiconductor strain gauges the p type and n type silicon

semiconductors are used.
• The semiconductor strain gauges have the gauge factors of about +100 or -
100. In p-type gauges resistance increases with tensile strain. While in n-
type, resistance decreases. Typical thickness is about 0.25 mm and effective
length range from 1.25 to 12 mm.
 STRAIN GAUGES
• The strain gauge is always
attached to flexible elements
in the form of cantilevers,
rings, U shapes.
• When the flexible element is
bent, as a result of this the
electrical resistance will
change due to force applied
by a contact point.
• The change in resistance is
the measure of
displacement.
 STRAIN GAUGES
Unit Change in resistance = ΔR/R
Unit Change in length = ΔL/L = Strain (ε)
The strain gauge consists of metal wire, metal foil strip. When
subject to strain, the resistance ‘ R’ changes, and the unit change
in resistance is proportional to unit change in length i.e., strain
(ε).

ΔR/R = Gf *ΔL/L = Gf * ε
where Gf = Gauge factor or proportionality constant

Thus,
Gf = (ΔR/R) /(ΔL/L) =(ΔR/R) /ε
 STRAIN GAUGE – Numerical 1
A resistance wire strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is bonded
to a steel structure member subjected to a stress of 100 MN/m2.
The modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GN/ m2. Calculate the
percentage change in value of the gauge resistance due to the
applied stress.
STRAIN GAUGE – Numerical 2
 STRAIN GAUGE – Numerical 3
What will be the change in resistance of a strain gauge, with a
gauge factor of 4 and resistance of 50 ohm if the gauge is
subjected to a strain of 0.002?
Solution:
Data given: Gf = 4, R = 50 ohm ε = 0.002

ΔR/R = Gf *ΔL/L = Gf * ε

ΔR/R = Gf * ε

ΔR=Gf * ε*R

ΔR/50 = 4* 0.002

ΔR=4*0.002*50

ΔR = 0.4 ohm
 STRAIN GAUGE ACCELEROMETER
Q. How you will measure acceleration/Vibration with the help
of strain gauge?
Principle of Strain Gauge Accelerometer
When a cantilever beam attached with a mass at its free end is
subjected to vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass takes
place. Depending on the displacement of the mass, the beam
deflects and hence the beam is strained. The resulting strain is
proportional to the vibration displacement of the mass and hence
the vibration/acceleration being measured when calibrated.
 STRAIN GAUGE ACCELEROMETER
The Main Parts Of A Strain Gauge Accelerometer Are As Follows:
• A cantilever beam fixed to the housing of the instrument.
• A mass is fixed to the free end of the cantilever beam.
• Two bounded strain gauges are mounted on the cantilever beam as shown in
diagram.
• Damping is provided by a viscous fluid filled inside the housing.
Operation of Strain Gauge Accelerometer
• The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose acceleration is to be
measured.
• Due to the vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass occurs, causing the
cantilever beam to be strained.
• Hence the strain gauges mounted on the cantilever beam are also strained
and due to this their resistance change.
• Hence a measure of this change in resistance of the strain gauge becomes a
measure of the extent to which the cantilever beam is strained.
• But the resulting strain of the cantilever beam is proportional to the
vibration/acceleration and hence a measure of the change in resistance of the
strain gauges becomes a measure of vibration/acceleration.
• The leads of the strain gauges are connected to a wheat stone bridge whose
output is calibrated in terms of vibration/acceleration.
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SENSOR

• Temperature measurements are amongst the most

common and the most important measurements made
in controlling industrial processes.
• Changes that are commonly used to monitor
temperature are, the expansion or contraction of solids,
liquids or gases, the change in electrical resistance of
conductors, semiconductors and thermoelectric e.m.f.s.
The control system which are used to measure the
temperature is as follows
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SENSOR
Thermocouples
• The most common electrical method of temperature
measurement uses the thermocouples.
• The basic principle of this is, if two different metals are joined
together, a potentiometer difference occurs across the junction.
• The potential difference depends on the metals used and the
temperature of the junction.
• When both junctions are at the same temperature, there is no
net e.m.f.
• But if there is a difference in temperature between the junction
the e.m.f. will be produced.
• One junction is held at 0° C and the other junction s inserted to
the area where we want to measure the temperature.
Thermocouples
• Thermocouples are based on the See back Effect.
• The thermocouple temperature measurement is based on a creation of an
electromotive force (emf).
• "When two dissimilar metals are joined together an e.m.f will exist
between the two points A and B, which is primarily a function of the
junction temperature. The above said to be principle is See back effect”.
• The thermocouple consist of one hot junction and one cold junction
• Hot junction is inserted where temperature is measured
• Cold junction is maintained at a constant reference temperature.
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SENSOR
Bimetallic Strips:
• A Bi-metallic thermostat consists of two different metal strips
bounded together and they cannot move relative to each other.
• These metals have different coefficients of thermal expansion
and when the temperature changes the composite strips bends
into a curved strip, with the higher coefficient metal on the
outside of the curve.
• The basic principle in this is all
metals try to change their
physical dimensions at
different rates when subjected
to same change in temperature.
• This deformation may be used
as a temperature-controlled
switch, as in the simple
thermostat.
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SENSOR
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) is a passive

transducer. Thus require external power to operate.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SENSOR
In normal condition the atoms of
metal vibrate. When the material is
connected to a battery, flow of
electron takes pace. When these
flowing electron pass through the
vibrating atoms, these atoms create
resistance to flow of electrons.
When the same element is kept at
some high or elevated temperature
the molecular movement of atoms
increases. This excessive momentum
creates more resistance to flow of
electrons. Thus by increase of
temperature there will be significant
amount of increase in resistance. This
resistance will be measured through
Wheatstone bridge and current is
being measured.
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SENSOR
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
• An RTD is a length of wire whose resistance is a function of temperature.
The design consists of a wire that is wound in the shape of a coil to achieve
small size and improve thermal conductivity.
• In many cases the coil is protected from the environment by a protecting
tube which inevitably increases response time, however, this enclosure is
essential when RTDs are used in hostile environments.
• The materials used for RTDs are Nickel, Iron, Platinum, Copper, Lead,
Tungsten, Mercury, Silver, etc.
• The resistance of most metals increases over a limited temperature range
and the relationship between Resistance and Temperature is shown below.
PT100 is the most common type of RTD measurement
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SENSOR

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Platinum temp. measurement range -2600C to 6500C

Copper temp. measurement range 00C to 1800C
Nickel temp. measurement range -1800C to 3000C
Tungsten temp. measurement range -2000C to 10000C

Salient Features of RTDs:

1. High degree of accuracy.
2. Resistance thermometer is interchangeable in a process
without compensation or recalibration.
3. It is normally designed for fast response as well as accuracy
to provide close control of processes.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SENSOR
The simple series circuit for measurement of temperature using a thermistor
and the variation of resistance with temperature
Thermistors
• Thermistor is a semiconductor device that has a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance in contrast to positive
coefficient displayed by most metals.
• Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of
metal oxides, such as Iron, cobalt, chromium, Nickel, and
Manganese.
• The shape of the materials is in terms of discs, beads and rods.
• The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its
resistance changes rapidly with temperature.
• The change in resistance per degree change in temperature is
considerably larger than that which occurs with metals.
• The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its
resistance changes rapidly with temperature.
• Thermistors have many advantages when compared with other
temperature sensors.
• The main disadvantage is highly non-linear behavior.
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Type Transistor:
The resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors
decreases in a very non-linear manner with an increase
in temperature is shown in the Figure.
Types of Thermistors

• The change in resistance per degree change in

temperature is considerably larger than that which
occurs with metals.
• The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because
its resistance changes rapidly with temperature.
• Thermistors have many advantages when compared
with other temperature sensors.
• The main disadvantage is highly non-linear behavior.