CH04 - Histology

CONFIRMING PAGES
ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY
EIGHTH EDITION
ROD R. SEELEY
IDAHO STATE UNIVERSITY
TRENT D. STEPHENS
IDAHO STATE UNIVERSITY
PHILIP TATE
PHOENIX COLLEGE
CONTRIBUTIONS BY:
Shylaja R. Akkaraju
Bronx Community College
Christine M. Eckel
Salt Lake Community College
Jennifer L. Regan
University of Southern Mississippi
Andrew F. Russo
University of Iowa
Cinnamon L. VanPutte
Southwestern Illinois College
Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA New York San Francisco St. Louis
Bangkok Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
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Histology
The Study of Tissues 4
I
n some ways, the human body is like a complex machine, such as a car. Both consist of many parts,
which are made of materials consistent with their specialized functions. For example, car tires are
made of synthetic rubber reinforced with a variety of fibers, the engine is made of a variety of metal
parts, and the windows are made of transparent glass. All parts of a car cannot be made of a single type
of material. Metal capable of withstanding the heat of the engine cannot be used for windows or tires.
Similarly, the many parts of the human body are made of collections of specialized cells and the materials surrounding
them. Muscle cells, which contract to produce body movements, are structurally different from and have different
functions than those of epithelial cells, which protect, secrete, or absorb. Also, cells in the retina of the eye, specialized to
detect light and allow us to see, do not contract as muscle cells do or exhibit the functions of epithelial cells.
The structure and function of tissues are so closely related that you should be able to predict the function
of a tissue when given its structure, and vice versa. Knowledge of tissue structure and function is important in
understanding the structure and function of organs, organ systems, and the complete organism. This chapter
begins with brief discussions of tissues and histology
(p. 110) and the development of embryonic tissue
(p. 110) and then describes the structural and
functional characteristics of the major tissue types:
epithelial tissue (p. 110), connective tissue (p. 120),
muscle tissue (p. 134), and nervous tissue (p. 136).
In addition, the chapter provides an explanation of
membranes (p. 137), inflammation (p. 138), tissue
repair (p. 140), and tissues and aging (p. 142).
Colored SEM of simple columnar epithelial cells, with cilia, of

the uterine tube.
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110 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body
TISSUES AND HISTOLOGY 1 Name the four primary tissue types, and list three charac-
teristics used to classify them. How does the classification
Tissues (tish⬘ūz) are collections of similar cells and the substances
of epithelial and connective tissue differ from the classifica-
surrounding them. Specialized cells and the extracellular matrix
tion of muscle and nervous tissue?
surrounding them form all the tissue types found at the tissue 2 Define histology. Explain how microscopic examination of
level of organization. The classification of tissue types is based on
tissues taken by biopsy or autopsy can be used to diagnose
the structure of the cells; the composition of the noncellular sub-
some diseases.
stances surrounding cells, called the extracellular matrix; and the
functions of the cells. The four primary tissue types, which include
all tissues, and from which all organs of the body are formed, are EMBRYONIC TISSUE
Approximately 13 or 14 days after fertilization, the cells that give
1. epithelial tissue
rise to a new individual, called embryonic stem cells, form a slightly
2. connective tissue
elongated disk consisting of two layers called the ectoderm and the
3. muscle tissue
endoderm. Cells of the ectoderm then migrate between the two
4. nervous tissue
layers to form a third layer called the mesoderm. The ectoderm,
Epithelial and connective tissues are the most diverse in form. mesoderm, and endoderm are called germ layers because the
The different types of epithelial and connective tissues are classi- beginning of all adult structures can be traced back to one of them
fied by structure, including cell shapes, relationships of cells to one and they give rise to all the tissues of the body (see chapter 29).
another, and the materials making up the extracellular matrix. In The endoderm (en⬘dō-derm), the inner layer, forms the
contrast, muscle and nervous tissues are classified by functional lining of the digestive tract and its derivatives. The mesoderm
and structural characteristics. (mez⬘ō-derm), the middle layer, forms tissues such as muscle,
The tissues of the body are interdependent. For example, muscle bone, and blood vessels. The ectoderm (ek⬘tō-derm), the outer
tissue cannot produce movement unless it receives oxygen carried layer, forms the skin, and a portion of the ectoderm, called
by red blood cells, and new bone tissue cannot be formed unless neuroectoderm (noor-ō-ek⬘tō-derm), becomes the nervous system
epithelial tissue absorbs calcium and other nutrients from the diges- (see chapter 29). Groups of cells that break away from the
tive tract. Also, all tissues in the body die if cancer or another disease neuroectoderm during development, called neural crest cells, give
destroys the tissues of vital organs, such as the liver or kidneys. rise to parts of the peripheral nerves (see chapter 29), skin pigment
Histology (his-tol⬘ō-jē) is the microscopic study of tissues. (see chapter 5), the medulla of the adrenal gland (see chapter 18),
Much information about a person’s health can be gained by and many tissues of the face.
examining tissues. A biopsy (bı̄⬘op-sē) is the process of removing
3 Name the three embryonic germ layers.
tissue samples from patients surgically or with a needle for
4 What adult structures are derived from the endoderm, meso-
diagnostic purposes. Examining tissue samples from individuals
with various disorders can distinguish the specific disease. For derm, ectoderm, and neuroectoderm and neural crest cells?
example, some red blood cells have an abnormal shape in people
suffering from sickle-cell disease, and red blood cells are smaller EPITHELIAL TISSUE
than normal in people with iron-deficiency anemia. Cancer is
Epithelium (ep-i-thē ⬘lē-ŭm; pl. epithelia, ep-i-thē ⬘ lē -ă), or
identified and classified based on characteristic changes that occur
epithelial tissue, can be thought of as a protective covering of sur-
in tissues. Changes in the structure of epithelial cells are used to
faces, both outside and inside the body. Characteristics common
identify cancer of the uterine cervix, and changes in white blood
to most types of epithelium are (figure 4.1)
cells are used to identify people who have leukemia. Also, the
number of white blood cells can be greatly increased in people 1. Epithelium consists almost entirely of cells, with very little
who have infections. Epithelial cells from respiratory passages have extracellular matrix between them.
an abnormal structure in people with chronic bronchitis and in 2. Epithelium covers surfaces of the body and forms glands that
people with lung cancer. are derived developmentally from body surfaces. The body
Tissue samples can be sent to a laboratory and are prepared surfaces include the outside surface of the body, the lining
for examination. Results are obtained from the examination of of the digestive and respiratory tracts, the heart and blood
the prepared tissues. In some cases, tissues are removed surgically, vessels, and the linings of many body cavities.
they are prepared quickly, and the results are reported while the 3. Most epithelial tissues have one free, or apical (ap⬘i-kăl),
patient is still anesthetized. The appropriate therapy is based to surface not attached to other cells; a lateral surface attached
a large degree on the results. For example, the amount of tissue to other epithelial cells; and a basal surface. The free surface
removed as part of breast or other types of cancer treatment can often lines the lumen of ducts, vessels, or cavities. The basal
be determined by the results. surface of most epithelial tissues is attached to a basement
An autopsy (aw⬘top-sē) is an examination of the organs of a membrane. The basement membrane is a specialized type
dead body to determine the cause of death or to study the changes of extracellular material secreted by the epithelial cells and
caused by a disease. Microscopic examination of tissue is often by connective tissue cells. It is like the adhesive on ScotchTM
part of an autopsy. tape. It helps attach the epithelial cells to the underlying
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CHAPTER 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 111
Free surface
Lung
Pleura
Epithelial cells with
little extracellular
matrix
LM 640x
Nucleus Surface view
Basement
membrane
Connective
tissue
Capillary
LM 640x
Cross-sectional view
FIGURE 4.1 Characteristics of Epithelium

Surface and cross-sectional views of epithelium illustrate the following characteristics: little extracellular material between cells, a free surface, and a basement
membrane attaching epithelial cells to underlying tissues. Capillaries in connective tissue do not penetrate the basement membrane. Nutrients, oxygen, and waste
products must diffuse across the basement membrane between the capillaries and the epithelial cells.
tissues, and it plays an important role in supporting and 5 List six characteristics common to most types of epithelium.
guiding cell migration during tissue repair. A few epithelial Define free (apical), lateral, and basal surfaces of epithelial
tissues, such as in lymphatic capillaries and liver sinusoids, cells.
do not have basement membranes, and some epithelial 6 What is the basement membrane and what are its functions?
tissues, such as in some endocrine glands, do not have a free Why must metabolically active epithelial cells be close to
surface or a basal surface with a basement membrane. the basement membrane?
4. Specialized cell contacts bind adjacent epithelial cells together.
5. Blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue do not pen- Functions of Epithelial Tissue
etrate the basement membrane to reach the epithelium; thus,
Major functions of epithelial tissue include
all gases and nutrients carried in the blood must reach the
epithelium by diffusing from blood vessels across the base- 1. Protecting underlying structures. Examples are the outer layer
ment membrane. In epithelial tissues with many layers of of the skin and the epithelium of the oral cavity, which pro-
cells, the most metabolically active cells are close to the tect the underlying structures from abrasion.
basement membrane. 2. Acting as barriers. Epithelium prevents the movement of
6. Epithelial cells retain the ability to undergo mitosis and many substances through the epithelial layer. For example,
therefore are able to replace damaged cells with new epi- the skin acts as a barrier to water and reduces water loss from
thelial cells. Undifferentiated cells (stem cells) continuously the body. The skin is also a barrier that prevents the entry of
divide and produce new cells. In some types of epithelial many toxic molecules and microorganisms into the body.
tissues, such as in the skin and in the digestive tract, cells that 3. Permitting the passage of substances. Epithelium allows the
are lost or die are continuously replaced by new cells. movement of many substances through the epithelial layer. For
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CLINICAL FOCUS
Microscopic Imaging
W
e see objects because light either passes diagnostic examination. For example, also provide specific information about the
through them or is reflected off them changes in tissue structure allow patholo- tissue, because special stains color only certain
and enters our eyes (see chapter 15). gists to identify tumors and to distinguish structures.
We are limited, however, in what we can see between noncancerous (benign) and cancer- To see objects much smaller than a cell,
with the unaided eye. Without the aid of mag- ous (malignant) tumors. Light microscopy such as cell organelles, an electron micro-
nifying lenses, the smallest objects we can is used on a regular basis to examine biopsy scope, which has a limit of resolution of
resolve, or identify as separate objects, are specimens. Light microscopy is used instead approximately 0.1 nm, must be used; 0.1 nm
approximately 100 µm, or 0.1 mm, in diam- of electron microscopy because less time is about the size of some molecules. In objects
eter, which is approximately the size of a fine and effort are required to prepare materi- viewed through an electron microscope, a
pencil dot. The details of cells and tissues, als for examination, and the resolution is beam of electrons either is passed through
which are much smaller than 100 µm, cannot adequate to diagnose most conditions that objects using a transmission electron micro-
be examined without the aid of a microscope. cause changes in tissue structure. scope (TEM) or is reflected off the surface of
Two basic types of microscopes have Because images are usually produced objects using a scanning electron microscope
been developed: light microscopes and elec- using transmitted light, tissues to be examined (SEM). The electron beam is focused with
tron microscopes. As their names imply, light must be cut very thinly to allow the light to electromagnets. For both processes, the speci-
microscopes use light to produce an image, pass through them. Sections are routinely cut men must be fixed, and for TEM the speci-
and electron microscopes use beams of elec- between 1 and 20 µm thick to make them thin men must be embedded in plastic and thinly
trons. Light microscopes usually use trans- enough for light microscopy. To cut such thin sectioned (0.01–0.15 µm thick). Care must be
mitted light, which is light that passes through sections, the tissue must be fixed, or frozen, taken when examining specimens in an elec-
the object being examined, but some light which is a process that preserves the tissue tron microscope because a focused electron
microscopes are equipped to use reflected and makes it more rigid. Fixed tissues are then beam can cause most tissues to disintegrate
light. Glass lenses are used in light micro- embedded in a material, such as wax or plastic, quickly. Furthermore, the electron beam is
scopes to magnify images. The images can be that makes the tissue rigid enough for cutting not visible to the human eye; thus, it must be
observed directly by looking into the micro- into sections. Frozen sections, which can be directed onto a fluorescent or photographic
scope, or the light from the images can be prepared rapidly, are rigid enough for section- plate on which the electron beam is converted
used to expose photographic film to make ing, but tissue embedded in wax or plastic can into a visible image. Because the electron beam
a photomicrograph of the images. Video or be cut much thinner, which makes the image does not transmit color information, electron
digital cameras are also used to record images, seen through the microscope clearer. Because micrographs are black and white unless color
which can be stored or analyzed and enhanced most tissues are colorless and transparent enhancement has been added using computer
electronically. The resolution of light micro- when thinly sectioned, the tissue must be col- technology.
scopes is limited by the wavelength of light, ored with a stain or dye so that the structural The magnification ability of SEM is not
the lower limit of which is approximately details can be seen. As a result, the colors seen as great as that of TEM; however, depth of
0.1 µm—about the size of a small bacterium. in color photomicrographs are not the true focus of SEM is much greater and allows for
Recall that a biopsy is the process of colors of the tissue but instead are the colors the production of a clearer three-dimensional
removing tissue from living patients for of the stains used. The color of the stain can image of tissue structure.
example, oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between Classification of Epithelium
the air and blood by diffusion through the epithelium in the
Epithelium is classified primarily according to the number of cell
lungs. Epithelium acts as a filter in the kidney, allowing many
layers and the shape of the superficial cells. There are three major
substances to pass from the blood into the urine but retaining
types of epithelium based on the number of cell layers in each type.
other substances, such as blood cells and proteins, in the blood.
4. Secreting substances. Mucous glands, sweat glands, and the 1. Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, with
enzyme-secreting portions of the pancreas secrete their each cell extending from the basement membrane to the free
products onto epithelial surfaces or into ducts that carry surface.
them to other areas of the body. 2. Stratified epithelium consists of more than one layer of
5. Absorbing substances. The plasma membranes of certain cells, but only the basal layer of cells attaches the deepest
epithelial tissues contain carrier proteins (see chapter 3), layer to the basement membrane.
which regulate the absorption of materials. 3. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a special type
of simple epithelium. The prefix pseudo- means false, so
7 List the major functions of epithelial tissue. this type of epithelium appears to be stratified but is not.
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It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells attached to

the basement membrane. There is an appearance of two or TABLE 4.1 Classification of Epithelium
more layers of cells because some of the cells are tall and Number of Layers
extend to the free surface, whereas others are shorter and do or Category Shape of Cells
not extend to the free surface.
Simple (single layer of cells) Squamous
There are three types of epithelium based on the shape of the Cuboidal
epithelial cells. Columnar
1. Squamous (skwā⬘mu¯s; flat) cells are flat or scalelike. Stratified (more than one Squamous
2. Cuboidal (cubelike) cells are cube-shaped; they are about as layer of cells) Nonkeratinized (moist)
wide as they are tall. Keratinized
3. Columnar (tall and thin, similar to a column) cells are taller
Cuboidal (very rare)
than they are wide.
Columnar (very rare)
In most cases, an epithelium is given two names, such as Pseudostratified Columnar
simple squamous, stratified squamous, simple columnar, or pseu- (modification of simple
dostratified columnar. The first name indicates the number of epithelium)
layers, and the second indicates the shape of the cells (table 4.1) at Transitional (modification of Roughly cuboidal to columnar
the free surface. Tables 4.2–4.4 provide an overview of the major stratified epithelium) when not stretched and
types of epithelial tissues and their distributions. squamouslike when stretched
Simple squamous epithelium consists of one layer of flat, or
scalelike, cells that rest on a basement membrane (see table 4.2a).
Stratified squamous epithelium consists of several layers of cells. consist of more than one layer, all of the cells rest on the basement
Near the basement membrane, the cells are more cuboidal, but membrane (see table 4.4a).
at the free surface the cells are flat or scalelike (see table 4.3a). Stratified squamous epithelium can be classified further
Pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells are columnar in shape in as either nonkeratinized (moist) or keratinized, according to
that they are taller than they are wide and, although they appear to the condition of the outermost layer of cells. Nonkeratinized
TABLE 4.2 Simple Epithelium

(a) Simple Squamous Epithelium
Structure: Single layer of flat, often Function: Diffusion, filtration, some Location: Lining of blood vessels and
hexagonal cells; the nuclei appear as secretion and some protection the heart, lymphatic vessels Kidney
bumps when viewed as a cross section against friction (endothelium) and small ducts,
because the cells are so flat alveoli of the lungs, portions of the
kidney tubules, lining of serous
membranes (mesothelium) of body
cavities (pleural, pericardial,
peritoneal), and inner surface of
the eardrums
Free surface
Nucleus
Basement
membrane
Simple
squamous
epithelial
cell
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TABLE 4.2 Simple Epithelium—Continued

(b) Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Structure: Single layer of cube- Function: Active transport and Location: Kidney tubules, glands
shaped cells; some cells have facilitated diffusion result in and their ducts, choroid plexuses Kidney
microvilli (kidney tubules) or cilia secretion and absorption by cells of the brain, lining of terminal
(terminal bronchioles of the lungs) of the kidney tubules; secretion bronchioles of the lungs, surfaces
by cells of glands and choroid of the ovaries
plexuses; movement of particles
embedded in mucus out of the
terminal bronchioles by ciliated
cells
Free surface
Nucleus
Simple
cuboidal
epithelial
cell
Basement
membrane
(c) Simple Columnar Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of tall, narrow Function: Movement of particles out Location: Glands and some ducts,
cells; some cells have cilia (bronchioles of the bronchioles of the lungs by bronchioles of lungs, auditory Lining of
stomach and
of lungs, auditory tubes, uterine tubes, ciliated cells; partially responsible tubes, uterus, uterine tubes,
intestines
and uterus) or microvilli (intestines) for the movement of oocytes stomach, intestines, gallbladder,
through the uterine tubes by bile ducts, ventricles of the brain
ciliated cells; secretion by cells of
the glands, the stomach, and the
intestines; absorption by cells of
the intestine
Free surface
Goblet cell
containing mucus
Nucleus
Simple
columnar
epithelial
cell
Basement
membrane
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TABLE 4.3 Stratified Epithelium

(a) Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Structure: Multiple layers of cells that Function: Protection against Location: Keratinized—skin; Skin
are cuboidal in the basal layer and abrasion, barrier against infection, nonkeratinized (moist)—mouth,
progressively flattened toward the reduction of water loss from the throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, Cornea
surface; the epithelium can be body vagina, inferior urethra, cornea
nonkeratinized (moist) or keratinized; Mouth
in nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium, the surface cells retain a
nucleus and cytoplasm, in keratinized Esophagus
stratified epithelium; the cytoplasm of
cells at the surface is replaced by a
protein called keratin, and the cells
are dead
Free surface
Nonkeratinized
stratified
squamous
epithelial cell
Nuclei
Basement
membrane
(b) Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure: Multiple layers of Function: Secretion, absorption, Location: Sweat gland ducts, ovarian
somewhat cube-shaped cells protection against infection follicular cells, salivary gland ducts
Parotid gland
duct
Sublingual
gland duct
Submandibular
gland duct
Free surface
Nucleus
Basement
membrane
Stratified
cuboidal
epithelial
cell
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TABLE 4.3 Stratified Epithelium—Continued

(c) Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Structure: Multiple layers of cells Function: Protection and secretion Location: Mammary gland ducts,
with tall, thin cells resting on layers larynx, a portion of the male
of more cuboidal cells; the cells are urethra Larynx
ciliated in the larynx
Free surface
Nucleus
Basement
membrane
Stratified
columnar
epithelial
cell
(moist) stratified squamous epithelium (see table 4.3a), found 8 Describe simple, stratified, and pseudostratified epithelial
in areas such as the mouth, esophagus, rectum, and vagina, con- tissues. Distinguish among squamous, cuboidal, and colum-
sists of living cells in the deepest and outermost layers. A layer nar epithelial cells.
of fluid covers the outermost layers of cells, which makes them 9 How do nonkeratinized (moist) stratified squamous epithe-
moist. In contrast, keratinized (ker⬘ă-ti-nizd) stratified squa- lium and keratinized stratified squamous epithelium differ?
mous epithelium, found in the skin (see chapter 5), consists of Where is each type found?
living cells in the deepest layers, and the outer layers are com- 10 Describe the changes in cell shape and number of cell layers
posed of dead cells containing the protein keratin. The dead, in transitional epithelium as it is stretched. Where is transi-
keratinized cells give the tissue a durable, moisture-resistant, dry tional epithelium found?
character.
A unique type of stratified epithelium called transitional
epithelium (see table 4.4b) lines the urinary bladder; ureters; Functional Characteristics
pelvis of the kidney, including the major and minor calyces Epithelial tissues have many functions (table 4.5), including
(kal⬘-i-sēz); and superior part of the urethra (see chapter 26). forming a barrier between a free surface and the underlying
These are structures where considerable expansion can occur. tissues and secreting, transporting, and absorbing selected mol-
The shape of the cells and the number of cell layers vary, depend- ecules. The type and arrangement of organelles within each cell
ing on the degree to which transitional epithelium is stretched. (see chapter 3), the shape of cells, and the organization of cells
The surface cells and the underlying cells are roughly cuboidal or within each epithelial type reflect these functions. Accordingly,
columnar when the epithelium is not stretched, and they become structural specializations of epithelial cells are consistent with the
more flattened or squamouslike as the epithelium is stretched. functions they perform.
Also, the number of layers of epithelial cells decreases in response
to stretch. As the epithelium is stretched, the epithelial cells can Cell Layers and Cell Shapes
shift on one another so that the number of layers decreases from Simple epithelium, with its single layer of cells, covers surfaces and
five or six to two or three. allows diffusion of gases (lungs), filters blood (kidneys), secretes
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TABLE 4.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium and Transitional Epithelium

(a) Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Structure: Single layer of cells; some Function: Synthesize and secrete Location: Lining of nasal cavity,
cells are tall and thin and reach the mucus onto the free surface and nasal sinuses, auditory tubes,
free surface, and others do not; the move mucus (or fluid) that contains pharynx, trachea, bronchi
Trachea
nuclei of these cells are at different foreign particles over the surface of of lungs
levels and appear stratified; the the free surface and from passages Bronchus
cells are almost always ciliated and
are associated with goblet cells that
secrete mucus onto the free surface
Cilia
Free surface
Goblet cell
containing mucus
Pseudostratified
columnar
epithelial cell
Nucleus
Basement
membrane
(b) Transitional Epithelium

Structure: Stratified cells that appear Function: Accommodates Location: Lining of urinary bladder,
cuboidal when the organ or tube is fluctuations in the volume of fluid ureters, superior urethra
not stretched and squamous when in organs or tubes; protects
the organ or tube is stretched by against the caustic effects of urine
fluid
Ureter
Free surface
Transitional Urinary bladder

epithelial cell Urethra
Nucleus
Basement
membrane
Free surface
Tissue not stretched Transitional

epithelial
cell
Nucleus
Basement
membrane
Tissue stretched
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TABLE 4.5 Function and Location of Epithelial Tissue

Simple Squamous Simple Cuboidal Simple Columnar
Function Epithelium Epithelium Epithelium
Diffusion Blood and lymph capillaries,
alveoli of lungs, thin segments
of loops of Henle
Filtration Bowman’s capsules of kidneys
Secretion or absorption Mesothelium (serous fluid) Choroid plexus (produces cerebrospinal Stomach, small intestine,
fluid), part of kidney tubules, large intestine, uterus,
many glands and their ducts many glands
Protection (against friction Endothelium (e.g., epithelium
and abrasion) of blood vessels)
Mesothelium (e.g., epithelium
of body cavities)
Movement of mucus Terminal bronchioles of lungs Bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes,
(ciliated) uterine tubes, uterus
Capable of great stretching
Miscellaneous Inner part of the eardrums, Surface of ovaries, inside lining of Bile duct, gallbladder, ependyma
smallest ducts of glands eyes (pigmented epithelium of (lining of brain ventricles and central
retina), ducts of glands canal of spinal cord), ducts of glands
cellular products (glands), and absorbs nutrients (intestines). The PREDICT 1

selective movement of materials through epithelium is hindered by Explain the consequences of having (a) nonkeratinized stratified
a stratified epithelium, which is found in areas where protection is a epithelium rather than simple columnar epithelium lining the digestive
major function. The multiple layers of cells in stratified epithelium are tract, (b) nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium rather than
well adapted for a protective role because, as the outer cells are dam- keratinized stratified squamous epithelium in the skin, and (c) simple
aged, they are replaced by cells from deeper layers and a continuous columnar epithelium rather than nonkeratinized stratified squamous
barrier of epithelial cells is maintained in the tissue. Stratified squa- epithelium lining the mouth.
mous epithelium is found in areas of the body where abrasion can
occur, such as the skin, mouth, throat, esophagus, anus, and vagina.
Differing functions are also reflected in cell shape. Cells that Cell Surfaces
allow substances to diffuse through them and that filter are nor- The free surfaces of epithelial tissues can be smooth, contain
mally flat and thin. For example, simple squamous epithelium microvilli, be ciliated, or be folded. Smooth surfaces reduce
forms blood and lymphatic capillaries, the alveoli (air sacs) of the friction. The lining of blood vessels is a simple squamous epi-
lungs, and parts of the kidney tubules. Cells that secrete or absorb thelium that reduces friction as blood flows through the vessels
are usually cuboidal or columnar. They have greater cytoplasmic (see chapter 21).
volume, compared with that of squamous epithelial cells; this cyto- Microvilli and cilia were described in chapter 3. Microvilli are
plasmic volume results from the presence of organelles responsible nonmotile and contain microfilaments. They greatly increase sur-
for the tissues’ functions. For example, pseudostratified columnar face area and are found in cells that absorb or secrete, such as serous
epithelium, which secretes large amounts of mucus, lines the respi- membranes or the lining of the small intestine (see chapter 24).
ratory tract (see chapter 23) and contains large goblet cells, which Stereocilia are elongated microvilli. They are found in sensory
are specialized columnar epithelial cells. The goblet cells contain structures, such as the inner ear (see chapter 15), and they play
abundant organelles responsible for the synthesis and secretion of a role in sound detection. They are found in some places where
mucus, such as ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi appara- absorption is important, such as in the epithelium of the epididy-
tuses, and secretory vesicles filled with mucus. mis. Cilia contain microtubules and they move materials across
the surface of the cell (see chapter 3). Simple ciliated cuboidal,
11 What functions would a single layer of epithelial cells be simple ciliated columnar, and pseudostratified ciliated columnar
expected to perform? A stratified layer? epithelial tissues are in the respiratory tract (see chapter 23), where
12 In locations in which diffusion or filtration is occurring, cilia move mucus that contains foreign particles, such as dust,
what shape would you expect the epithelial cells to be? out of the respiratory passages. Cilia are also found on the apical
13 Why are cuboidal or columnar cells found where secretion or surface of the simple columnar epithelial cells of the uterus and
absorption is occurring? uterine tubes. The cilia help move mucus and oocytes.
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Stratified Stratified Stratified Pseudostratified Transitional

Squamous Epithelium Cuboidal Epithelium Columnar Epithelium Columnar Epithelium Epithelium
Skin (epidermis), corneas,

mouth and throat,
epiglottis, larynx,
esophagus, anus, vagina
Larynx, nasal cavity, paranasal

sinuses, nasopharynx, auditory
tubes, trachea, bronchi of lungs
Urinary bladder,
ureter, superior
part of urethra
Lower part of urethra, Sweat gland ducts Part of male urethra, epididymides, Part of male urethra,
sebaceous gland ducts ductus deferens, mammary salivary gland ducts
gland ducts
Transitional epithelium has a rather unusual plasma membrane Free surface

specialization: More rigid sections of membrane are separated
by very flexible regions in which the plasma membrane is folded.
When transitional epithelium is stretched, the folded regions of the
plasma membrane can unfold. Transitional epithelium is special-
ized to expand. It is found in the urinary bladder, ureters, kidney Zonula
occludens
pelvis, calyces of the kidney, and superior part of the urethra. Tight
junction
14 What is the function of an epithelial free surface that Zonula
adherens
is smooth, has cilia, has microvilli, or is folded? Give an
example of epithelium in which each surface type is found. Actin
filaments
Cell Connections Desmosome

Channel
Lateral and basilar surfaces have structures that hold cells to one Gap junction
another or to the basement membrane (figure 4.2). These struc-
tures do three things: (1) mechanically bind the cells together,
(2) help form a permeability barrier, and (3) provide a mecha- Intermediate
nism for intercellular communication. Epithelial cells secrete filaments
glycoproteins that attach the cells to the basement membrane
and to one another. This relatively weak binding between cells is
reinforced by desmosomes (dez⬘mō-sōmz), disk-shaped struc-
tures with especially adhesive glycoproteins that bind cells to one Hemidesmosome
another and intermediate filaments that extend into the cytoplasm
of the cells. Many desmosomes are found in epithelial tissues that Basement membrane
are subjected to stress, such as the stratified squamous epithelium
of the skin. Hemidesmosomes, similar to one-half of a desmo-
some, attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane.
FIGURE 4.2 Cell Connections
Tight junctions hold cells together and form a permeability bar-
Desmosomes anchor cells to one another and hemidesmosomes anchor cells
rier (see figure 4.2). They consist of a zonula adherens and a zonula to the basement membrane. Tight junctions consist of a zonula occludens and
occludens, which are found in close association with each other. The zonula adherens. Gap junctions allow adjacent cells to communicate with each
zonula adherens (zō⬘nū-lă, zon⬘ū-lă ad-hēr⬘enz) is located between other. Few cells have all of these different connections.
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the plasma membranes of adjacent cells and acts as a weak glue that vessels in the connective tissue of the glands. The cellular products
holds cells together. The zonulae adherens are best developed in of endocrine glands, which are called hormones (hōr⬘mōnz), are
simple epithelial tissues; they form a girdle of adhesive glycoprotein secreted into the bloodstream and are carried throughout the body.
around the lateral surface of each cell, binding adjacent cells together. Some of the endocrine glands form from nonepithelial tissue. For
These connections are not as strong as that of desmosomes. example, the medulla of the adrenal gland is formed from neural crest
The zonula occludens (ō-klood⬘enz) forms a permeability cells, and the cortex of the adrenal gland is formed from mesoderm.
barrier. It is formed by plasma membranes of adjacent cells that join In addition, cardiac muscle cells can function as endocrine glands.
one another in a jigsaw fashion to form a tight seal (see figure 4.2). Most exocrine glands are composed of many cells and are called
Near the free surface of simple epithelial cells, the zonulae occludens multicellular glands, but some exocrine glands are composed of a
form a ring that completely surrounds each cell and binds adjacent single cell and are called unicellular glands (figure 4.3a). Goblet
cells together. The zonulae occludens prevent the passage of mate- cells (see table 4.2c) of the respiratory system are unicellular glands
rials between cells. For example, in the stomach and in the urinary that secrete mucus. Multicellular glands can be classified further
bladder, chemicals cannot pass between cells. Thus, water and according to the structure of their ducts (figure 4.3b–i). Glands
other substances must pass through the epithelial cells, which can that have ducts with few branches are called simple, and glands
actively regulate what is absorbed or secreted. Zonulae occludens with ducts that branch repeatedly are called compound. Further
are found in areas where a layer of simple epithelium forms a per- classification is based on whether the ducts end in tubules (small
meability barrier. For example, water can diffuse through epithelial tubes), in saclike structures called acini (as⬘i-nı̄; grapes, suggesting
cells, and active transport, symport, and facilitated diffusion move a cluster of grapes or small sacs), or in alveoli (al-vē⬘ō-lı̄; hollow
most nutrients through the epithelial cells of the intestine. sacs). Tubular glands can be classified as straight or coiled. Most
A gap junction is a small, specialized contact region between tubular glands are simple and straight, simple and coiled, or com-
cells containing protein channels that aid intercellular commu- pound and coiled. Acinar glands can be simple or compound.
nication by allowing ions and small molecules to pass from one Exocrine glands can also be classified according to how
cell to another (see figure 4.2). The function of gap junctions in products leave the cell. Merocrine (mer⬘ō-krin) glands, such as
epithelium is not entirely clear. Gap junctions between ciliated epi- water-producing sweat glands and the exocrine portion of the
thelial cells may coordinate the movements of cilia. Gap junctions pancreas, secrete products with no loss of actual cellular material
are important in coordinating the function of cardiac and smooth (figure 4.4a). Secretions are either actively transported or packaged
muscle tissues. Because ions can pass through the gap junctions in vesicles and then released by the process of exocytosis at the
from one cell to the next, electric signals can pass from cell to cell free surface of the cell. Apocrine (ap⬘ō-krin) glands, such as the
to coordinate the contraction of cardiac and smooth muscle cells. milk-producing mammary glands, discharge fragments of the gland
Thus, electric signals that originate in one cell of the heart can cells in the secretion (figure 4.4b). Products are retained within
spread from cell to cell and cause the entire heart to contract. The the cell, and portions of the cell are pinched off to become part of
gap junctions between cardiac muscle cells are found in specialized the secretion. Apocrine glands, however, also produce merocrine
cell-to-cell connections called intercalated disks (see chapter 20). secretions. Most of the volume secreted by apocrine glands are
merocrine in origin. Holocrine (hol⬘ō-krin) glands, such as seba-
15 Name the ways in which epithelial cells are bound to one ceous (oil) glands of the skin, shed entire cells (figure 4.4c). Products
another and to the basement membrane. accumulate in the cytoplasm of each epithelial cell, the cell ruptures
16 In addition to holding cells together, name an additional and dies, and the entire cell becomes part of the secretion.
function of tight junctions. What is the general function of Endocrine glands are so variable in their structure that they
gap junctions? are not classified easily. They are described in chapters 17 and 18.
PREDICT 2 17 Define the term gland. Explain how epithelial tissues give
If a simple epithelial type has well-developed zonula occludens, rise to exocrine and some endocrine glands, and give exam-
explain how NaCl can be moved from one side of the epithelial layer ples of endocrine glands formed by nonepithelial tissues.
to the other, what type of epithelium it is likely to be, and how the 18 Distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands. Describe
movement of NaCl causes water to move in the same direction. the classification scheme for multicellular exocrine glands on
the basis of their duct systems.
19 Describe three ways in which exocrine glands release their
Glands secretions. Give an example of each method.
Glands are secretory organs. Many glands are composed primarily
of epithelium, with a supporting network of connective tissue. These
glands develop from an infolding or outfolding of epithelium in the CONNECTIVE TISSUE
embryo. If the gland maintains an open contact with the epithelium Connective tissue is abundant, and it makes up part of every organ
from which it developed, a duct is present. Glands with ducts are in the body. The major structural characteristic that distinguishes
called exocrine (ek⬘sō-krin) glands, and their ducts are lined with connective tissue from the other three tissue types is that it con-
epithelium. Alternatively, some glands become separated from the sists of cells separated from each other by abundant extracellular
epithelium of their origin. Glands that have no ducts are called endo- matrix. Connective tissue structure is diverse, and it performs a
crine (en⬘dō-krin) glands. Endocrine glands have extensive blood variety of important functions.
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Single gland cell

in epithelium (a) Unicellular
(goblet cells in large and small
intestine and respiratory passages)
(b) Simple straight tubular (c) Simple branched tubular (d) Simple coiled tubular (e) Simple acinar (f) Simple branched acinar
(glands in stomach (glands in lower portion (lower portion of stomach (sebaceous glands (sebaceous glands of skin)
and colon) of stomach) and small intestine) of skin)
(g) Compound tubular (h) Compound acinar (i) Compound tubuloacinar

(mucous glands of duodenum) (mammary glands) (pancreas)
FIGURE 4.3 Structure of Exocrine Glands

The names of exocrine glands are based on the shapes of their secretory units and their ducts.
Functions of Connective Tissue muscles to bone, and ligaments are connective tissue bands
that hold bones together.
Connective tissues perform the following major categories of
3. Supporting and moving. Bones of the skeletal system pro-
functions:
vide rigid support for the body, and the semirigid cartilage
1. Enclosing and separating. Sheets of connective tissues supports structures such as the nose, ears, and surfaces of
form capsules around organs, such as the liver and joints. Joints between bones allow one part of the body to
kidneys. Connective tissue also forms layers that separate move relative to other parts.
tissues and organs. For example, connective tissues 4. Storing. Adipose tissue (fat) stores high-energy molecules,
separate muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves from one and bones store minerals, such as calcium and phosphate.
another. 5. Cushioning and insulating. Adipose tissue cushions and pro-
2. Connecting tissues to one another. For example, tendons tects the tissue it surrounds and provides an insulating layer
are strong cables, or bands, of connective tissue that attach beneath the skin that helps conserve heat.
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Pinched-off portion Dying cell releases

Secretion in duct of cell in the secretion secretory products
Vesicle releasing
contents into duct
Replacement
cell
Vesicle containing
secretory products
Secretory products Cell shed into

stored in the cell the duct
(a) Merocrine gland (b) Apocrine gland (c) Holocrine gland

Cells of the gland produce secretions by Secretory products are stored in the cell near Secretory products are stored in the
active transport or produce vesicles that the lumen of the duct. A portion of the cell cells of the gland. Entire cells are shed
contain secretory products, and the vesicles near the lumen containing secretory products by the gland and become part of the
empty their contents into the duct through is pinched off the cell and joins secretions secretion. The lost cells are replaced
exocytosis. produced by a merocine process. by other cells deeper in the gland.
FIGURE 4.4 Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types

Exocrine glands are classified according to the type of secretion.
6. Transporting. Blood transports substances throughout the Mast cells are commonly found beneath membranes in
body, such as gases, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, and cells loose connective tissue and along small blood vessels of organs.
of the immune system. They contain chemicals such as heparin, histamine, and pro-
7. Protecting. Cells of the immune system and blood provide pro- teolytic enzymes. These substances are released in response to
tection against toxins and tissue injury, as well as from micro- injury, such as trauma and infection, and play important roles in
organisms. Bones protect underlying structures from injury. inflammation.
White blood cells, or leukocytes (see chapter 18) continu-
20 What is the major characteristic that distinguishes connec-
ously move from blood vessels into connective tissues. The rate of
tive tissue from other tissues? movement increases dramatically in response to injury or infec-
21 List the major functions of connective tissues, and give an
tion. In addition, accumulations of lymphocytes, a type of white
example of a connective tissue that performs each function. blood cell, are common in some connective tissues, such as in the
connective tissue beneath the epithelial lining of certain parts of
Cells of Connective Tissue the digestive system.
The specialized cells of the various connective tissues produce the Macrophages are found in some connective tissue types. They
extracellular matrix. The names of the cells end with suffixes that are derived from monocytes, a white blood cell type. Macrophages
identify the cell functions as blasts, cytes, or clasts. Blasts create the are either fixed and do not move through the connective tissue in
matrix, cytes maintain it, and clasts break it down for remodeling. which they are found or are wandering macrophages and move by
For example, fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous connective ameboid movement through the connective tissue. Macrophages
tissue and fibrocytes maintain it. Chondroblasts form cartilage phagocytize foreign and injured cells, and they play a major role in
(chondro- refers to cartilage) and chondrocytes maintain it. providing protection against infections.
Osteoblasts form bone (osteo- means bone), osteocytes maintain Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells, sometimes called stem
it, and osteoclasts break it down (see chapter 6). cells, are embryonic cells that persist in adult connective tissue.
Adipose (ad⬘i-pōs; fat), or fat, cells, also called adipocytes They have the potential to differentiate to form adult cell types,
(ad⬘i-pō-sı̄tz), contain large amounts of lipid. The lipid pushes the such as fibroblasts or smooth muscle cells, in response to injury.
rest of the cell contents to the periphery so that each cell appears
to contain a large, centrally located lipid droplet with a thin layer 22 Explain the difference among connective tissue cells that are
of cytoplasm around it. Adipose cells are rare in some connective termed blast, cyte, or clast cells.
tissue types, such as cartilage; are abundant in others, such as loose 23 Describe and give the functions of the cells of connective
connective tissue; or are predominant, such as in adipose tissue. tissue.
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Tropocollagen
Extracellular Matrix (3 collagen
The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has three major ␣-chains)
components: (1) protein fibers, (2) ground substance consisting
of nonfibrous protein and other molecules, and (3) fluid. The
structure of the matrix gives connective tissue types most of their Tropocollagen molecules
functional characteristics, such as the ability of bones and carti- linked together
lage to bear weight, of tendons and ligaments to withstand ten-
sion, and of the skin’s dermis to withstand punctures, abrasions, Collagen
and other abuses. fibril
Protein Fibers of the Matrix

Three types of protein fibers—collagen, reticular, and elastic
fibers—help form connective tissue. Collagen fibril
Collagen (kol⬘ a-jen) fibers consist of collagen, which accounts
Collagen
for one-fourth to one-third of total body protein, or 6% of total fiber
body weight. Within fibroblasts, chains of amino acids called
collagen ␣-chains are synthesized, and three collagen ␣-chains
wind around each other to form a microscopic, ropelike helix
(a) Collagen fibers. Collagen molecules are secreted by fibroblasts and
called a collagen molecule. After collagen molecules are secreted, enzymes cleave off amino acids and the 3 collegen ␣-chains form
they are modified. Some amino acids are cleaved off of the collagen tropocollagen. Each tropocollagen molecule consists of 3 collagen
molecules to produce tropocollagen (trō-pō-kol⬘a-jen) molecules. ␣-chains coiled together. Tropocollagen molecules are then linked to
form collagen fibrils. The collagen fibrils are joined together to form
The tropocollagen molecules are then linked together to make collagen fibers.
long collagen fibrils. The collagen fibrils are then joined together
Polypeptide chains
in bundles to form collagen fibers (figure 4.5a). Approximately
25 types of collagen ␣-chains, each encoded by a separate gene, are Linked
known, and they combine to form approximately 20 types of colla-
gen. Collagen fibers are very strong and flexible but quite inelastic.
Stretched
There are at least 20 types of collagen fibers, many of which are
specific to certain tissues. Collagen fibers differ in the types of
Relaxed
amino acids that make up the polypeptide chains. Of the 20 types
of collagen fibers, 6 types are most common. Tendons, ligaments,
skin, and bone contain mainly type I collagen, cartilage is mainly
Recoiled elastin Stretched elastin
type II collagen, and reticular fibers are mainly type III collagen. molecules linked molecules linked
Reticular (re-tik⬘ū-lār; netlike) fibers are very fine collagen to form a network to form a network
fibers and therefore are not a chemically distinct category of fibers.
(b) Elastic fibers. Fibroblasts secrete polypeptide chains, which are
They are very short, thin fibers that branch to form a network then linked together to form a network of polypeptide chains. The
and appear different microscopically from other collagen fibers. network stretches in response to a force. When the force is removed,
Reticular fibers are not as strong as most collagen fibers, but net- the network recoils.
works of reticular fibers fill spaces between tissues and organs.
Elastic fibers consist of proteins called elastin (e-las⬘tin).
As the name suggests, this protein has the ability to return to its Hyaluronic
acid
original shape after being stretched or compressed. Elastin gives
the tissue in which it is found an elastic quality. Fibroblasts secrete Link protein
polypeptide chains, which are then linked together to form a Protein core
network. The polypeptide chains recoil when they are stretched Chondroitin
(figure 4.5b). sulfate
Water
Other Matrix Molecules
Two types of large, nonfibrous molecules, called hyaluronic acid (c) Proteoglycan aggregates. Proteoglycan monomers are formed from
and proteoglycans, are part of the extracellular matrix. These 80 to 100 glycosaminoglycans, such as chondroitin sulfate, attached
molecules constitute most of the ground substance of the matrix, by one end to a protein core. The protein cores of many proteoglycan
monomers can attach through link proteins to a long molecule
the “shapeless” background against which the collagen fibers are seen of hyaluronic acid. Water molecules are trapped by the
through the microscope. The molecules themselves, however, are not glycosaminoglycans.
shapeless but are highly structured. Hyaluronic (hı̄⬘ă-loo-ron⬘ik;
glassy appearance) acid is a long, unbranched polysaccharide chain FIGURE 4.5 Molecules of Connective Tissue Matrix
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composed of repeating disaccharide units. It gives a very slippery

quality to the fluids that contain it; for that reason, it is a good lubri- TABLE 4.6 Classification of Connective
cant for joint cavities (see chapter 8). Hyaluronic acid is also found Tissue
in large quantities in connective tissue and is the major component A. Embryonic connective tissue
of the vitreous humor of the eye (see chapter 15). 1. Mesenchyme
A proteoglycan (prō⬘tē-ō-glı̄ ⬘kan; formed from proteins and
2. Mucous
polysaccharides) monomer is a large molecule that consists of 80 to
100 polysaccharides, called glycosaminoglycans (glı̄kōs-am-i-nō- B. Adult connective tissue
glı̄⬘kanz), such as chondroitin (kon-drō⬘i-tin) sulfate, each attached 1. Loose (areolar)
by one end to a protein core. The protein cores of many proteogly- 2. Dense
can monomers can attach through link proteins to a long molecule a. Dense, regular collagenous
of hyaluronic acid to form a proteoglycan aggregate (figure 4.5c). b. Dense, regular elastic
Proteoglycan aggregates trap large quantities of water, which allows
c. Dense, irregular collagenous
them to return to their original shape when compressed or deformed.
There are several types of glycosaminoglycans, and their abundance d. Dense, irregular elastic
varies with each connective tissue type. 3. Special properties
Several adhesive molecules are found in ground substance. a. Adipose
These adhesive molecules hold the proteoglycan aggregates together b. Reticular
and to structures such as the plasma membranes. A specific adhesive 4. Cartilage
molecule type predominates in certain types of ground substance.
a. Hyaline
For example, chondronectin is in the ground substance of cartilage,
osteonectin is in the ground substance of bone, and fibronectin is b. Fibrocartilage
in the ground substance of fibrous connective tissues. c. Elastic
5. Bone
24 What three components are found in the extracellular matrix
a. Cancellous
of connective tissue?
b. Compact
25 Contrast the structure and characteristics of collagen fibers,
6. Blood and hemopoietic tissue
reticular fibers, and elastin fibers.
26 Describe the structure and function of hyaluronic acid and
proteoglycan aggregates. What is the function of adhesive
molecules? the umbilical cord, where it is called mucous connective tissue, or
Wharton’s jelly (table 4.7b). The structure of mucous connective
Classification of Connective Tissue tissue is similar to that of mesenchyme.
Connective tissue types blend into one another, and the transition
points cannot be defined precisely. As a result, the classification
Adult Connective Tissue
scheme for connective tissues is somewhat arbitrary. Classification Adult connective tissue consists of six types: loose, dense, connec-
schemes for connective tissue are influenced by (1) protein fibers tive tissue with special properties, cartilage, bone, and blood and
and the arrangement of protein fibers in the extracellular matrix, hemopoietic tissue.
(2) protein fibers and ground substance in the extracellular matrix, Loose Connective Tissue
and (3) a fluid extracellular matrix. The classification of connec-
Loose connective tissue (table 4.8), which is sometimes referred
tive tissues used in this book is presented in table 4.6.
to as areolar (ă-rē⬘ō-lăr; area) tissue, consists of protein fibers
The two major categories of connective tissue are embryonic
that form a lacy network, with numerous fluid-filled spaces.
and adult connective tissue.
Areolar tissue is the “loose packing” material of most organs and
other tissues; it attaches the skin to underlying tissues. It contains
Embryonic Connective Tissue collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers and a variety of cells. For
Embryonic connective tissue is called mesenchyme (mez⬘en-kı̄m). It example, fibroblasts produce the fibrous matrix; macrophages
is made up of irregularly shaped fibroblasts surrounded by abundant, move through the tissue, engulfing bacteria and cell debris; mast
semifluid extracellular matrix in which delicate collagen fibers are cells contain chemicals that help mediate inflammation; and lym-
distributed (table 4.7a). It forms in the embryo during the third and phocytes are involved in immunity. The loose packing of areolar
fourth weeks of development from mesoderm and neural crest cells tissue is often associated with other connective tissue types, such
(see chapter 29), and all adult connective tissue types develop from as reticular tissue and fat (adipose tissue).
it. By 8 weeks of development, most of the mesenchyme has become
specialized to form the types of connective tissue seen in adults, as Dense Connective Tissue
well as muscle, blood vessels, and other tissues. The major source of Protein fibers of dense connective tissue form thick bundles and fill
remaining embryonic connective tissue in the newborn is found in nearly all of the extracellular space. Most of the cells of developing
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TABLE 4.7 Embryonic Connective Tissue

(a) Mesenchyme
Structure: The mesenchymal cells are Location: Mesenchyme is the embryonic
irregularly shaped; the extracellular matrix is tissue from which connective tissues, as
abundant and contains scattered reticular well as other tissues, arise
fibers
Intercellular
matrix
Nuclei of
mesenchyme
cells
(b) Mucous Connective Tissue

Structure: Mucous tissue is mesenchymal Location: Umbilical cord of newborn
tissue that remains unspecialized; the cells
are irregularly shaped; the extracellular
matrix is abundant and contains scattered
reticular fibers Umbilical
cord
Intercellular
matrix
Nuclei of
mucous
connective
tissue cells
dense connective tissue are spindle-shaped fibroblasts. Once the tion. Dense regular collagenous connective tissue (table 4.9a)
fibroblasts become completely surrounded by matrix, they are has abundant collagen fibers. The collagen fibers give this tissue
fibrocytes. Dense connective tissue can be subdivided into two a white appearance. Dense regular collagenous connective tis-
major groups: regular and irregular. sue forms structures such as tendons, which connect muscles to
Dense regular connective tissue has protein fibers in the bones (see chapter 11), and most ligaments, which connect bones
extracellular matrix that are oriented predominantly in one direc- to bones (see chapter 8). The collagen fibers of dense connective
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TABLE 4.8 Loose Connective Tissue

Structure: Cells (e.g., fibroblasts, Function: Loose packing, support, and Location: Widely distributed throughout the
macrophages, and lymphocytes) nourishment for the structures with body; substance on which epithelial
within a fine network of mostly which it is associated basement membranes rest; packing
collagen fibers; often merges with between glands, muscles, and nerves;
denser connective tissue attaches the skin to underlying tissues
Nucleus Epidermis
Elastic
fiber Skin
Dermis
Collagen
fiber Loose connective
tissue
Muscle
Fat
tissue resist stretching and give the tissue considerable strength in fibers of adjacent layers are oriented at nearly right angles to
the direction of the fiber orientation. Tendons and most ligaments that layer. Dense irregular connective tissue forms sheets of
consist almost entirely of thick bundles of densely packed parallel connective tissue that have strength in many directions, but less
collagen fibers with the orientation of the collagen fibers in one strength in any single direction than does regular connective
direction, which makes the tendons and ligaments very strong, tissue.
cablelike structures.
The general structures of tendons and ligaments are simi- PREDICT 4
lar, but there are major differences between them, such as the Scars consist of dense irregular connective tissue made of collagen
following: (1) collagen fibers of ligaments are often less compact, fibers. Vitamin C is required for collagen synthesis. Predict the effect
(2) some fibers of many ligaments are not parallel, and (3) liga- of scurvy, which is a nutritional disease caused by vitamin C deficiency,
ments usually are more flattened than tendons and form sheets or on wound healing.
bands of tissues.
Dense regular elastic connective tissue (table 4.9b) consists
of parallel bundles of collagen fibers and abundant elastic fibers. Dense irregular collagenous connective tissue (table 4.9c)
The elastin in elastic ligaments gives them a slightly yellow color. forms most of the dermis of the skin, which is the tough, inner
Dense regular elastic connective tissue forms some elastic liga- portion of the skin (see chapter 5) and of the connective tissue
ments, such as those in the vocal folds and the nuchal (noo⬘kăl; capsules that surround organs such as the kidney and spleen.
back of the neck) ligament, which lies along the posterior of the Dense irregular elastic connective tissue (table 4.9d) is found
neck, helping hold the head upright. When elastic ligaments are in the wall of elastic arteries. In addition to collagen fibers, oriented
stretched, they tend to shorten to their original length, much as an in many directions, there are abundant elastic fibers in the layers of
elastic band does. this tissue.
27 List the two types of embryonic connective tissue. To what
PREDICT 3 does mesenchyme give rise in the adult?
Explain the advantages of having elastic ligaments that extend from ver- 28 Describe the fiber arrangement in loose (areolar) connective
tebra to vertebra in the vertebral column and why it would be a disadvan- tissue. What are the functions of this tissue type?
tage if tendons, which connect skeletal muscles to bone, were elastic. 29 Structurally and functionally, what is the difference between
dense regular connective tissue and dense irregular connec-
Dense irregular connective tissue contains protein tive tissue?
fibers arranged as a meshwork of randomly oriented fibers. 30 Name the two kinds of dense regular connective tissue, and
Alternatively, the fibers within a given layer of dense irregular give an example of each. Do the same for dense irregular
connective tissue can be oriented in one direction, whereas the connective tissue.
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TABLE 4.9 Dense Connective Tissue

(a) Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue
Structure: Matrix composed of Function: Ability to withstand great Location: Tendons (attach muscle
collagen fibers running in somewhat pulling forces exerted in the direction to bone) and ligaments (attach
the same direction of fiber orientation, great tensile bones to each other)
strength and stretch resistance
Ligament
Nucleus of
fibroblast T
Tendon
Collagen
fibers
(b) Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue

Structure: Matrix composed of regularly Function: Capable of stretching and Location: Ligaments between the
arranged collagen fibers and elastin recoiling like a rubber band, with vertebrae and along the dorsal
fibers strength in the direction of fiber aspect of the neck (nucha) and
orientation in the vocal cords
Base of tongue
Elastin Vocal folds
fibers (true vocal cords)
Nucleus of Vestibular fold

fibroblast (false vocal cord)
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TABLE 4.9 Dense Connective Tissue—Continued

(c) Dense Irregular Collagenous Connective Tissue
Structure: Matrix composed of collagen Function: Tensile strength capable of Location: Sheaths; most of the
fibers that run in all directions or in withstanding stretching in all dermis of the skin; organ capsules and
alternating planes of fibers oriented in directions septa; outer covering of body tubes
a somewhat single direction
Epidermis
Epidermis Skin
Dermis
Dense
irregular Loose connective
collagenous tissue
connective
tissue of Muscle
dermis
Fat
(d) Dense Irregular Elastic Connective Tissue

Structure: Matrix composed of bundles Function: Capable of strength with Location: Elastic arteries
and sheets of collagenous and elastin stretching and recoil in several
fibers oriented in multiple directions directions
Dense irregular
elastic connective
tissue
Aorta
Connective Tissue with Special Properties Adipose tissue exists in both yellow (white) and brown forms.
Adipose tissue and reticular tissue are connective tissues with Yellow adipose tissue is by far the most abundant. Yellow adipose
special properties. Adipose tissue (table 4.10a) consists of tissue appears white at birth, but it turns yellow with age because
adipocytes, or fat cells, which contain large amounts of lipid. of the accumulation of pigments, such as carotene, a plant pigment
Unlike other connective tissue types, adipose tissue is composed that humans can metabolize as a source of vitamin A. Storage,
of large cells and a small amount of extracellular matrix, which insulation, and protection are the functions of yellow adipose
consists of loosely arranged collagen and reticular fibers with tissue. Brown adipose tissue is found only in specific areas of the
some scattered elastic fibers. Blood vessels form a network in body, such as the axillae (armpits), the neck, and near the kidneys.
the extracellular matrix. The fat cells are usually arranged in The brown color results from the cytochrome pigments in its
clusters or lobules separated from one another by loose connec- numerous mitochondria and its abundant blood supply. Although
tive tissue. Adipose tissue functions as an insulator, a protective brown fat is much more prevalent in babies than in adults, it is
tissue, and a site of energy storage. Lipids take up less space per difficult to distinguish brown fat from yellow fat in babies because
calorie than either carbohydrates or proteins and therefore are the color difference between them is not great. Brown fat is special-
well adapted for energy storage. ized to generate heat as a result of oxidative metabolism of lipid
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TABLE 4.10 Connective Tissue with Special Properties

(a) Adipose Tissue
Structure: Little extracellular matrix Function: Packing material, thermal Location: Predominantly in subcutaneous areas,
surrounding cells; the adipocytes, or insulator, energy storage, and in mesenteries, in renal pelvis, around
fat cells, are so full of lipid that the protection of organs against injury kidneys, attached to the surface of the colon,
cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery from being bumped or jarred in mammary glands, in loose connective tissue
of the cell that penetrates into spaces and crevices
Adipose
tissue
Nucleus Mammary
gland
Adipocytes
or fat cells
(b) Reticular Tissue

Structure: Fine network of reticular Function: Provides a superstructure for Location: Within the lymph nodes, spleen,
fibers irregularly arranged the lymphatic and hemopoietic and bone marrow
Lymph
L
node
Nucleus of
lymphocyte
Reticular
fibers
Spleen
molecules in mitochondria and can play a significant role in body cells but are cells of the immune system, macrophages, and blood
temperature regulation in newborn babies. cells (see chapter 22).
Reticular tissue forms the framework of lymphatic tissue
(table 4.10b), such as in the spleen and lymph nodes, as well as 31 What feature of the extracellular matrix distinguishes
in bone marrow and the liver. It is characterized by a network adipose tissue from other connective tissue types? What is
of reticular fibers and reticular cells. Reticular cells produce the an adipocyte?
reticular fibers and remain closely attached to them. The spaces 32 List the functions of adipose tissue. Name the two types of
between the reticular fibers can contain a wide variety of other adipose tissue. Which one is important in generating heat?
cells, such as dendritic cells, which look very much like reticular 33 What is the function of reticular tissue? Where is it found?
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Cartilage and in joints hyaline cartilage has a very smooth surface.

Cartilage (kar⬘ti-lij) is composed of cartilage cells, or chondro- Specimens appear to have a glassy, translucent matrix when
cytes (kon⬘drō-sı̄tz), located in spaces called lacunae (lă-koo⬘nē) viewed through a microscope. Hyaline cartilage is found in
within an extensive and relatively rigid matrix. Next to bone, areas in which strong support and some flexibility are needed,
cartilage is the firmest structure in the body. The matrix contains such as in the rib cage and the cartilage within the trachea
protein fibers, ground substance, and fluid. The protein fibers and bronchi (see chapter 23). It also covers the surfaces
are collagen fibers or collagen and elastic fibers. The ground of bones that move smoothly against each other in joints.
substance consists of proteoglycans and other organic mol- Hyaline cartilage forms most of the skeleton before it is
ecules. Most of the proteoglycans in the matrix form aggregates replaced by bone in the embryo, and it is involved in growth
with hyaluronic acid. Within the cartilage matrix, proteoglycan that increases the length of bones (see chapter 6).
aggregates function as minute sponges capable of trapping large 2. Fibrocartilage has more collagen fibers than proteoglycans
quantities of water. This trapped water allows cartilage to spring (table 4.11b). Compared with hyaline cartilage, fibrocarti-
back after being compressed. The collagen fibers give cartilage lage has much thicker bundles of collagen fibers dispersed
considerable strength. through its matrix. Fibrocartilage is slightly compressible
The surface of nearly all cartilage is surrounded by a layer and very tough. It is found in areas of the body where a great
of dense irregular connective tissue called the perichondrium deal of pressure is applied to joints, such as in the knee, in
(per-i-kon⬘drē-ŭm). The structure of the perichondrium is des- the jaw, and between vertebrae.
cribed in more detail in chapter 6. Cartilage cells arise from the 3. Elastic cartilage has elastic fibers in addition to collagen
perichondrium and secrete cartilage matrix. Once completely sur- and proteoglycans (table 4.11c). The numerous elastic fibers
rounded by matrix, the cartilage cells are called chondrocytes and the are dispersed throughout the matrix of elastic cartilage. It is
spaces in which they are located are called lacunae. Cartilage has no found in areas, such as the external ears, that have rigid but
blood vessels or nerves, except those of the perichondrium; it there- elastic properties.
fore heals very slowly after an injury because the cells and nutrients
PREDICT 5
necessary for tissue repair cannot reach the damaged area easily.
There are three types of cartilage. One of several changes caused by rheumatoid arthritis in joints is the
replacement of hyaline cartilage with dense irregular collagenous con-
1. Hyaline (hı̄⬘ã-lin) cartilage has large amounts of both
nective tissue. Predict the effect of replacing hyaline cartilage with
collagen fibers and proteoglycans (table 4.11a). Collagen fibrous connective tissue.
fibers are evenly dispersed throughout the ground substance,
TABLE 4.11 Connective Tissue: Cartilage

(a) Hyaline Cartilage
Structure: Collagen fibers are small Function: Allows growth of long bones; Location: Growing long bones, cartiage rings
and evenly dispersed in the matrix, provides rigidity with some flexibility in of the respiratory system, costal cartilage of
making the matrix appear transparent; the trachea, bronchi, ribs, and nose; ribs, nasal cartilages, articulating surface of
the cartilage cells, or chondrocytes, forms rugged, smooth, yet somewhat bones, embryonic skeleton
are found in spaces, or lacunae, flexible articulating surfaces; forms the
within the firm but flexible matrix embryonic skeleton
Bone
Hyaline
cartilage
Chondrocyte
in a lacuna
Nucleus
Matrix
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TABLE 4.11 Connective Tissue: Cartilage—Continued

(b) Fibrocartilage
Structure: Collagenous fibers similar to Function: Somewhat flexible and capable of Location: Intervertebral disks, symphysis
those in hyaline cartilage; the fibers are withstanding considerable pressure; connects pubis, articular disks (e.g., knee and
more numerous than in other cartilages structures subjected to great pressure temporomandibular [ jaw] joints)
and are arranged in thick bundles
Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Nucleus
Intervertebral
disk
Collagen fibers
in matrix
(c) Elastic Cartilage

Structure: Similar to hyaline cartilage, Function: Provides rigidity with even Location: External ears, epiglottis, auditory
but matrix also contains elastin fibers more flexibility than hyaline cartilage tubes
because elastic fibers return to their
original shape after being stretched
Elastic fibers
in matrix
Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Nucleus
Bone
which are called lacunae and are similar to the lacunae of
Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and
cartilage.
mineralized matrix. Bone matrix has an organic and an inorganic
Two types of bone exist.
portion. The organic portion consists of protein fibers, primarily
collagen, and other organic molecules. The mineral, or inorganic, 1. Cancellous (kan⬘sē-lŭs), or spongy, bone has spaces between
portion consists of specialized crystals called hydroxyapatite trabeculae (tră-bek⬘ū-lē; beams), or plates, of bone and
(hı̄-drok⬘sē-ap-ă-tı̄t), which contain calcium and phosphate. The therefore resembles a sponge (table 4.12a).
strength and rigidity of the mineralized matrix allow bones to 2. Compact bone is more solid with almost no space between
support and protect other tissues and organs. Bone cells, or many thin layers, or lamellae (lă-mel⬘ē sing. lă-mel⬘ă) of
osteocytes (os⬘tē-ō-sı̄tz), are located within holes in the matrix, bone (table 4.12b).
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TABLE 4.12 Connective Tissue: Bones

(a) Cancellous Bone
Structure: Latticelike network of scaffolding Function: Acts as a scaffolding to Location: In the interior of the bones of the
characterized by trabeculae with large spaces provide strength and support without the skull, vertebrae, sternum, and pelvis, and in
between them filled with hemopoietic greater weight of compact bone the ends of the long bones
tissue; the osteocytes, or bone cells, are
located within lacunae in the trabeculae
Osteoblast
nuclei Cancellous bone
Bone
trabecula
Bone marrow
Osteocyte
nucleus
Matrix
(b) Compact Bone

Structure: Hard, bony matrix predominates; Function: Provides great strength and Location: Outer portions of all bones, the
many osteocytes (not seen in this bone prepa- support; forms a solid outer shell on bones shafts of long bones
ration) are located within lacunae that are that keeps them from being easily broken or
distributed in a circular fashion around the punctured
central canals; small passageways
connect adjacent lacunae
Lacuna
Central
canal
Compact bone
Matrix
organized
into lamellae
Bone, unlike cartilage, has a rich blood supply. For this reason, other connective tissues are more or less stationary within a
bone can repair itself much more readily than can cartilage. Bone relatively rigid matrix, but blood cells are free to move within a
is described more fully in chapter 6. fluid matrix. Some blood cells leave the bloodstream and wander
through other tissues. The liquid matrix of blood allows it to flow
Blood and Hemopoietic Tissue rapidly through the body, carrying food, oxygen, waste products,
Blood is unusual among the connective tissues because the matrix and other materials. The matrix of blood is also unusual in that
between the cells is liquid (table 4.13a). Like many other connective most of it is produced by cells contained in other tissues, rather
tissues, blood has abundant extracellular matrix. The cells of most than by blood cells. Blood is discussed more fully in chapter 19.
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TABLE 4.13 Connective Tissue: Blood and Hemopoietic Tissue

(a) Blood
Structure: Blood cells and a fluid Function: Transports oxygen, carbon Location: Within the blood vessels; produced
matrix dioxide, hormones, nutrients, waste by the hemopoietic tissues; white blood
products, and other substances; protects cells frequently leave the blood vessels and
the body from infections and is involved enter the interstitial spaces
in temperature regulation
Red blood cell

White White blood
blood cell
cells
Red
blood
cells
(b) Bone Marrow

Structure: Reticular framework with Function: Production of new blood cells (red Location: Within marrow cavities of bone; two
numerous blood-forming cells (red marrow) marrow); lipid storage (yellow marrow) types: red marrow (hemopoietic, or blood-
forming, tissue) in the ends of long bones
and in short, flat, and irregularly shaped
bones; yellow marrow is mostly adipose
tissue and is found in the shafts of long bones
Cells destined
to become red
blood cells Cancellous bone
(with red marrow)
Marrow cavity
(with yellow marrow)
Fat
Nuclei
Hemopoietic (hē⬘mō-poy-et⬘ik) tissue forms blood cells. In produce blood cells. As children grow, yellow marrow replaces
adults, hemopoietic tissue is found in bone marrow (mar⬘ō; much of the red marrow in bones (see chapter 6).
table 4.13b), which is the soft connective tissue in the cavities of
34 Describe the cells and matrix of cartilage. What are lacunae?
bones. There are two types of bone marrow: red marrow and
yellow marrow (see chapter 6). Red marrow is hemopoietic tis- What is the perichondrium? Why does cartilage heal slowly?
sue surrounded by a framework of reticular fibers. Hemopoietic 35 How do hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage
tissue produces red and white blood cells; it is described in detail differ in structure and function? Give an example of each.
in chapter 19. In children, the marrow of most bones is red mar- 36 Describe the cells and matrix of bone. Differentiate between
row. Yellow marrow consists of yellow adipose tissue and does not cancellous bone and compact bone.
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37 What characteristic separates blood from the other MUSCLE TISSUE

connective tissues?
The main characteristic of muscle tissue is that it contracts, or
38 Describe the function of hemopoietic tissue. Explain the
shortens, with a force and therefore is responsible for move-
difference between red marrow and yellow marrow. ment. Muscle contraction is accomplished by the interaction of
contractile proteins, which are described in chapter 9. Muscles
contract to move the entire body, to pump blood through the heart
Marfan Syndrome and blood vessels, and to decrease the size of hollow organs, such
Marfan syndrome is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder as the stomach and urinary bladder. The three types of muscle
that affects approximately 1 in 5000 people. The gene for Marfan tissue—skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle—are grouped
syndrome, called the fibrillin gene, is located on chromosome 15.
according to both structure and function (table 4.14).
It codes for a protein called fibrillin-1, which is necessary for the
Skeletal muscle is what normally is thought of as “muscle”
normal structure of the elastic fibers of connective tissue, including
the fibers holding the lens of the eye in place. Children of a person (table 4.15a). It is the meat of animals and constitutes about 40%
with Marfan syndrome have a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder of a person’s body weight. As the name implies, skeletal muscle
because it is an autosomal dominant trait (see chapter 3). About attaches to the skeleton and enables body movement. Skeletal
25% of the cases of Marfan syndrome, however, occur in children muscle is described as being under voluntary (conscious) control
whose parents do not have the disorder. In these cases, a mutation because one can purposefully cause skeletal muscle contrac-
of the gene occurs during the formation of sperm cells or oocytes. tion to achieve specific body movements. However, the nervous
Many different mutations are possible because changes can occur system can cause skeletal muscles to contract without conscious
anywhere in the nucleotide sequence of the fibrillin gene. Several involvement, such as during reflex movements and maintenance
hundred different alleles (variants) of the fibrillin gene are known. of muscle tone. Skeletal muscle cells are long, cylindrical cells with
Many people with Marfan syndrome have limbs, fingers, and
several nuclei per cell. The nuclei are located near the periphery of
toes that are disproportionately long in relation to the rest of the
the cells. Some skeletal muscle cells extend the length of an entire
body. Connective tissues are weakened. As a consequence, the
heart valves, which are comprised largely of connective tissue, do muscle. Skeletal muscle cells are striated (strı̄⬘āt-ed), or banded,
not function normally, resulting in heart murmurs (abnormal heart because of the arrangement of contractile proteins within the cells
sounds). Poor vision is common because the lenses of the eyes are (see chapter 9).
positioned abnormally. The lungs are prone to collapse, and dilation Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it is responsible for
of large arteries, such as the aorta, can occur. A common cause of pumping blood (table 4.15b). It is under involuntary (unconscious)
death in people with Marfan syndrome is rupture of the aorta. There control, although one can learn to influence the heart rate by using
is no cure for the condition, but treatments can reduce the danger of techniques such as mediation and biofeedback. Cardiac muscle cells
having Marfan syndrome. For example, drugs that lower blood pres- are cylindrical but much shorter than skeletal muscle cells. Cardiac
sure reduce the effects of Marfan syndrome on the aorta. muscle cells are striated and usually have one nucleus per cell. They
TABLE 4.14 Comparison of Muscle Types

Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle
Location Attached to bones Heart Walls of hollow organs, blood
vessels, eyes, glands, skin
Cell Shape Very long, cylindrical cells (1–4 cm and Cylindrical cells that branch Spindle-shaped cells (15–200 µm
may extend the entire length of the (100–500 µm in length; in length; 5–8 µm in diameter)
muscle; 10–100 µm in diameter) 12–20 µm in diameter)
Nucleus Multinucleated, peripherally located Single, centrally located Single, centrally located
Striations Yes Yes No
Control Voluntary (conscious) Involuntary (unconscious) Involuntary (unconscious)
Ability to Contract No Yes Yes
Spontaneously
Function Body movement Contraction provides the Movement of food through the digestive
major force for moving blood tract, emptying of the urinary bladder,
through the blood vessels. regulation of blood vessel diameter,
change in pupil size, contraction of
many gland ducts, movement of hair,
and many more functions
Special Features Branching fibers, intercalated disks Gap junctions
containing gap junctions joining
the cells to each other
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TABLE 4.15 Muscle Tissue

(a) Skeletal Muscle
Structure: Skeletal muscle cells or Function: Movement of the body; Location: Attaches to bone or
fibers appear striated (banded); under voluntary (conscious) control other connective tissue
cells are large, long, and
cylindrical, with many nuclei
Muscle
located at the periphery
Nucleus (near periphery

of cell)
Skeletal
muscle
fiber
Striations
(b) Cardiac Muscle

Structure: Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical and Function: Pumps the blood; under Location: In the heart
striated and have a single, centrally located involuntary (unconscious) control
nucleus; they are branched and connected to one
another by intercalated disks, which contain gap
junctions
Nucleus (central)
Cardiac
muscle cell
Intercalated disks
(special junctions
between cells)
Striations
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TABLE 4.15 Muscle Tissue—Continued

(c) Smooth Muscle
Structure: Smooth muscle cells are Function: Regulates the size of organs, Location: In hollow organs, such
tapered at each end, are not forces fluid through tubes, controls the as the stomach and intestine
striated, and have a single nucleus amount of light entering the eye, and
produces “goose flesh” in the skin; Wall of stomach
under involuntary (unconscious) control Wall of colon
Wall of small
intestine
Nucleus
Smooth
muscle cell
often are branched and connected to one another by intercalated Neurons, or nerve cells (table 4.16), are the conducting cells
(in-ter⬘kă-lā-ted, inserted between) disks. The intercalated disks, of nervous tissue. Just as an electrical wiring system transports
which contain specialized gap junctions, are important in coordi- electricity throughout a house, neurons transport electric signals
nating the contractions of the cardiac muscle cells (see chapter 20). throughout the body. They are composed of three major parts:
Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow organs (except cell body, dendrites, and axon. The cell body contains the nucleus
the heart); it is found in the skin and the eyes (table 4.15c). It is and is the site of general cell functions. Dendrites and axons are
responsible for a number of functions, such as movement of food two types of nerve cell processes, both consisting of projections of
through the digestive tract and emptying of the urinary bladder. cytoplasm surrounded by membrane. Dendrites (den⬘drı̄tz) usu-
Like cardiac muscle, smooth muscle is controlled involuntarily. ally receive action potentials. They are much shorter than axons
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, have a single nucleus, and usually taper to a fine tip. Axons (ak⬘sonz) usually conduct
and are not striated. action potentials away from the cell body. They can be much lon-
ger than dendrites, and they have a constant diameter along their
39 Functionally, what is unique about muscle tissue? entire length.
40 Compare the structure of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth Neurons that possess several dendrites and one axon are
muscle cells. called multipolar neurons (table 4.16a). Neurons that possess
41 Which of the muscle types is under voluntary control? a single dendrite and an axon are called bipolar neurons. Some
42 What tasks does each muscle type perform? very specialized neurons, called unipolar neurons (table 4.16b),
have only one axon and no dendrites. Within each subgroup are
many shapes and sizes of neurons, especially in the brain and the
spinal cord.
NERVOUS TISSUE Neuroglia (noo-rog⬘lē-ă; nerve glue) are the support cells of the
The fourth, and final, class of tissue is nervous tissue. It is found in brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves (figure 4.6). The term neuro-
the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and is characterized by the abil- glia originally referred only to the support cells of the central nervous
ity to conduct electric signals called action potentials. It consists system, but it is now applied to cells in the peripheral nervous system
of neurons, which are responsible for this conductive ability, and as well. Neuroglia nourish, protect, and insulate neurons. Neurons
support cells called neuroglia. and neuroglial cells are described in greater detail in chapter 11.
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TABLE 4.16 Types of Neurons

(a) Multipolar Neuron
Structure: The neuron consists of Function: Neurons transmit information Location: In the brain,
dendrites, a cell body, and a long in the form of action potentials, store spinal cord, ganglia Brain
axon; neuroglia, or support cells, “information,” and integrate and
surround the neurons evaluate data; neuroglia support, Spinal
protect, and form specialized sheaths cord
around axons Spinal
nerves
Dendrite
Cell body
of neuron
Nucleus
of neuron
Nuclei of
neuroglia cells
Neuroglia cells
Axon
(b) Unipolar Neuron

Structure: The neuron consists of a cell body with Function: Conducts action potentials from the Location: In ganglia outside of the brain
one axon periphery to the brain or spinal cord and spinal cord
Nuclei of
neuroglia
Cell body
of neuron
Nucleus
of neuron
Branches of axon
(not visible in
photomicrograph)
43 Functionally, what is unique about nervous tissue? MEMBRANES

44 Define and list the functions of the cell body, dendrites, and
A membrane is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure
axons of a neuron. or lines a cavity. Most membranes are formed from epithelium
45 Differentiate among multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons.
and the connective tissue on which it rests. The skin, or cutaneous,
46 What is the general function of neuroglia? membrane (see chapter 5) is the external membrane. The three
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Nucleus (a) Mucous membranes

Respiratory
Digestive
Neuron
cell bodies
Nuclei of
neuroglia (b) Serous membranes
Pleural
Peritoneal
LM 240x
FIGURE 4.6 Neuroglia
major categories of internal membranes are mucous membranes,

serous membranes, and synovial membranes.
A mucous (mū⬘kūs) membrane consists of epithelial cells, (c) Synovial membrane
their basement membrane, a thick layer of loose connective tis-
sue called the lamina propria (lam⬘i-nă prō⬘prē-ă), and some-
times a layer of smooth muscle cells. Mucous membranes line
cavities and canals that open to the outside of the body, such as
the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive passages
(figure 4.7a). Many, but not all, mucous membranes contain gob-
let cells or multicellular mucous glands, which secrete a viscous
substance called mucus (mū⬘kŭs). The functions of the mucous
membranes vary, depending on their location, and include pro-
tection, absorption, and secretion.
A serous (ser⬘ŭs) membrane consists of three components:
a layer of simple squamous epithelium called mesothelium
(mez-ō-thē⬘lē-ŭm), its basement membrane, and a delicate layer
of loose connective tissue. Serous membranes line cavities, such
as the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities, that do not
FIGURE 4.7 Membranes
open to the exterior (figure 4.7b). Serous membranes do not con-
(a) Mucous membranes line cavities that open to the outside and often contain
tain glands but are moistened by a small amount of fluid called mucous glands, which secrete mucus. (b) Serous membranes line cavities that
serous fluid, produced by the serous membranes. Serous fluid do not open to the exterior and do not contain glands but do secrete serous
lubricates the serous membranes, making their surfaces slippery. fluid. (c) Synovial membranes line cavities that surround synovial joints.
Serous membranes protect the internal organs from friction, help
hold them in place, and act as selectively permeable barriers to
prevent the accumulation of large amounts of fluid within the
serous cavities.
A synovial (si-nō⬘vē-ăl) membrane consists of modified
INFLAMMATION
connective tissue cells, either intermixed with part of the dense The inflammatory response occurs when tissues are damaged
connective tissue of the joint capsule or separated from the capsule (figure 4.8) or when associated with an immune response. Although
by areolar or adipose tissue. Synovial membranes line freely mov- many agents cause injury, such as microorganisms, cold, heat,
able joints (see chapter 8; figure 4.7c). They produce a fluid rich in radiant energy, chemicals, electricity, and mechanical trauma, the
hyaluronic acid, which makes the joint fluid very slippery, thereby inflammatory response to all causes is similar. The inflammatory
facilitating smooth movement within the joint. response mobilizes the body’s defenses, isolates and destroys
microorganisms and other injurious agents, and removes foreign
47 Compare mucous, serous, and synovial membranes according materials and damaged cells so that tissue repair can proceed (see
to the type of cavities they line and their secretions. chapter 22).
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Splinter
Bacteria
introduced
1. A splinter in the skin causes damage and

introduces bacteria. Mediators of inflammation
are released or activated in injured tissues and 1 Epidermis
adjacent blood vessels. Some blood vessels are
ruptured, causing bleeding.
2. Mediators of inflammation cause capillaries to

2 Dermis
dilate, causing the skin to become red.
Mediators of inflammation also increase
capillary permeability, and fluid leaves the
capillaries, producing swelling (arrows). Blood
vessel
Bacteria
proliferating
3. White blood cells (e.g., neutrophils and

macrophages) leave the dilated blood vessels
and move to the site of bacterial infection, where 3
they begin to phagocytize bacteria and other
debris.
Macrophage
migrating
through blood Neutrophil
vessel wall phagocytizing Neutrophil
bacteria migrating through
blood vessel wall
PROCESS FIGURE 4.8 Inflammation
Inflammation has five major manifestations: redness, heat, of blood vessels is beneficial because it increases the speed with
swelling, pain, and disturbance of function. Although unpleasant, which white blood cells and other substances important for fight-
these processes usually benefit recovery, and each of the symptoms ing infections and repairing the injury arrive at the site of injury.
can be understood in terms of events that occur during the Mediators of inflammation also stimulate pain receptors
inflammatory response. and increase the permeability of blood vessels. The increased
After a person is injured, chemical substances called mediators permeability allows the movement of materials, such as clotting
of inflammation are released or activated in the tissues and the proteins and white blood cells, out of the blood vessels and into
adjacent blood vessels. The mediators include histamine, kinins, the tissue, where they can deal directly with the injury. As proteins
prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and others. Some mediators induce from the blood move into the tissue, they change the osmotic
dilation of blood vessels and produce redness and heat. Dilation relationship between the blood and the tissue. Water follows
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the proteins by osmosis, and the tissue swells, producing edema regeneration and replacement; which process dominates depends
(e-dē⬘mă). Edema increases the pressure in the tissue, which can on the tissues involved and the nature and extent of the wound.
also stimulate neurons and cause pain. Cells are classified into three groups—labile, stable, or per-
Clotting proteins found in blood diffuse into the interstitial manent cells—according to their ability to regenerate. Labile cells,
spaces and form a clot. Clotting also occurs in the more severely including cells of the skin, mucous membranes, and hemopoietic
injured blood vessels. Clotting isolates the injurious agent and sepa- and lymphatic tissues, continue to divide throughout life. Damage
rates it from the rest of the body. Foreign particles and microorgan- to these cells can be repaired completely by regeneration. Stable
isms at the site of injury are “walled off ” from tissues by the clotting cells, such as the cells of connective tissues and glands, includ-
process. Pain, limitation of movement resulting from edema, and ing the liver, pancreas, and endocrine glands, do not divide after
tissue destruction all contribute to the disturbance of function. This growth ceases, but they retain the ability to divide and are capable
disturbance can be valuable because it warns the person to protect of regeneration in response to injury. Permanent cells have very
the injured structure from further damage. Sometimes the inflam- limited ability to replicate and, if killed, are usually replaced by a
matory response lasts longer or is more intense than is desirable, different type of cell. Neurons fit into this category, although neu-
and drugs are used to suppress the symptoms. Antihistamines block rons are able to recover from damage. If the cell body of a neuron
the effects of histamine, aspirin prevents the synthesis of prosta- is not destroyed, most neurons can replace a damaged axon or
glandins, and cortisone reduces the release of several mediators of dendrite, but if the neuron cell body is destroyed, the remainder
inflammation. On the other hand, the inflammatory response by of the neuron dies. Some undifferentiated cells of the central ner-
itself may not be enough to combat the effects of injury or fight off vous system can undergo mitosis and form functional neurons,
an infection. Medical intervention, such as administering antibiot- although the degree to which mitosis occurs and its functional
ics, may be required. significance is not clear. Undifferentiated cells of skeletal and car-
diac muscle also have very limited ability to regenerate in response
48 What is the function of the inflammatory response? to injury, although individual skeletal and cardiac muscle cells can
49 Name five manifestations of the inflammatory response, and repair themselves. In contrast, smooth muscle readily regenerates
explain how each is produced. following injury.
Skin repair is a good example of tissue repair (figure 4.9). The
PREDICT 6 basic pattern of the repair is the same as for other tissues, espe-
cially ones covered by epithelium. If the edges of the wound are
In some injuries, tissues are so severely damaged that some cells are
close together, such as in a surgical incision, the wound heals by a
killed and blood vessels are destroyed. For such injuries, where do the
signs of inflammation, such as redness, heat, edema, and pain, occur?
process called primary union, or primary intention. If the edges
are not close together, or if extensive loss of tissue has occurred,
the process is called secondary union, or secondary intention.
In primary union, the wound fills with blood, and a clot
Chronic Inflammation forms (see chapter 19). The clot contains a threadlike protein,
When the agent responsible for an injury is not removed or fibrin (f ı̄⬘brin), which binds the edges of the wound together.
if interference occurs with the process of healing, the inflamma- The surface of the clot dries to form a scab, which seals the
tory response persists and is called chronic inflammation. For wound and helps prevent infection. An inflammatory response
example, a lung infection can result in a brief period of inflamma- induces vasodilation and brings more blood cells and other sub-
tion followed by repair, but a prolonged infection causes chronic stances to the area. Blood vessel permeability increases, resulting
inflammation, which results in tissue destruction and permanent
in edema. Fibrin and blood cells move into the wounded tissues
damage to the lung. Chronic inflammation of the stomach or small
intestine may result in an ulcer. Prolonged infections; prolonged
because of the increased vascular permeability. Fibrin isolates
exposure to irritants, such as silica, in the lung; or abnormal and walls off microorganisms and other foreign matter. Some
immune responses can result in chronic inflammation. White blood of the white blood cells that move into the tissue are phagocytic
cells invade areas of chronic inflammation, and ultimately healthy cells called neutrophils (noo⬘trō-filz; see figure 4.9). They ingest
tissues are destroyed and replaced by a fibrous connective tissue, bacteria, thus helping fight infection, and they ingest tissue
which is an important cause of the loss of organ function. Chronic debris and clear the area for repair. Neutrophils are killed in this
inflammation of the lungs, the liver, the kidney, or other vital process and can accumulate as a mixture of dead cells and fluid,
organs can lead to death. called pus (pŭs).
Fibroblasts from surrounding connective tissue migrate into
the clot and produce collagen and other extracellular matrix com-
TISSUE REPAIR ponents. Capillaries grow from blood vessels at the edge of the
Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells, and wound and revascularize the area, and fibrin in the clot is broken
it can occur by regeneration or replacement. In regeneration down and removed. The result is the replacement of the clot by a
(rē⬘jen-er-ā⬘shŭn), the new cells are the same type as those that were delicate connective tissue, called granulation tissue, which consists
destroyed, and normal function is usually restored. In replacement, of fibroblasts, collagen, and capillaries. A large amount of granula-
a new type of tissue develops that eventually causes scar production tion tissue is converted to a scar, which consists of dense irregular
and the loss of some tissue function. Most wounds heal through collagenous connective tissue. At first, a scar is bright red because
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Scab New epidermis

Blood growing into wound
clot
Epidermis
Blood
vessel
Dermis
Subcutaneous
fat
Macrophages
migrating to
wound site Fibroblasts migrating
to wound site
1. A fresh wound cuts through the epithelium (epidermis) 2. Approximately 1 week after the injury, a scab is present,
and underlying connective tissue (dermis), and a clot and epithelium (new epidermis) is growing into the wound.
forms.
Freshly healed
epidermis
New Scab
epidermis
Epidermis
Subcutaneous
fat
Granulation tissue Granulation tissue

(fibroblasts proliferating) being replaced
with dermis
3. Approximately 2 weeks after the injury, the epithelium 4. Approximately 1 month after the injury, the wound has
has grown completely into the wound, and granulation completely closed, the scab has been sloughed, and the
tissue has formed. granulation tissue is being replaced with dermis.
PROCESS FIGURE 4.9 Tissue Repair
of vascularization of the tissue. Later, the scar becomes white as cell debris for the phagocytes to remove, and the risk of infection is
collagen accumulates and the vascular channels are compressed. greater. Much more granulation tissue forms, and wound contrac-
Repair by secondary union proceeds in a similar fashion, but tion occurs as a result of the contraction of fibroblasts in the granu-
some differences exist. Because the wound edges are far apart, the lation tissue. Wound contraction leads to disfiguring and debilitat-
clot may not close the gap completely, and it takes the epithelial cells ing scars. Thus, it is advisable to suture a large wound so that it can
much longer to regenerate and cover the wound. With increased heal by primary rather than secondary union. Healing is faster, the
tissue damage, the degree of inflammation is greater, there is more risk of infection is lowered, and the degree of scarring is reduced.
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CLINICAL FOCUS
Cancer Tissue
C
ancer (kan⬘ser) is a malignant, spreading surrounding tissues. They secrete enzymes that Cancer therapy concentrates primarily on
tumor, as well as the illness that results cut paths through healthy tissue, so they are trying to confine and then kill the malignant
from it. A tumor (too⬘mŏr) is any swell- able to grow irregularly, sending processes in cells. This goal is accomplished currently by
ing, although modern usage has limited the all directions. Cancer cells can dislodge; enter killing the tissue with x-rays or lasers, by
term to swellings that involve neoplastic tissue. blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, or body cavi- removing the tumor surgically, or by treating
Neoplasm (nē ⬘ō-plazm) means new growth ties; and travel to distant sites, where they attach the patient with drugs that kill rapidly dividing
and refers to abnormal tissue growth, resulting and invade tissues. The process by which cancer cells or reduce the blood supply to the tumor.
in rapid cellular proliferation, which continues spreads to distant sites is called metastasis The major problem with current therapy is that
after the growth of normal tissue has stopped or (me-tas⬘ta-sis). Cancer cells secrete substances some cancers cannot be removed completely by
slowed considerably. Oncology (ong-kol⬘ō-jē) that cause blood vessels to grow into the tumor surgery or killed completely by x-rays or laser
is the study of tumors and the problems and supply oxygen and nutrients. Cancer cells therapy. These treatments can also kill normal
they cause. A neoplasm can be either benign also produce a number of substances that can tissue adjacent to the tumor. Many drugs used
(bē-nı̄n⬘; L. kind), not inclined to spread and be found on their plasma membranes or are in cancer therapy kill not only cancer tissue but
not likely to become worse, or malignant secreted. For example, prostate specific antigen also other rapidly growing tissues, such as bone
(ma-lig⬘nănt; with malice or intent to cause (PSA) is an enzyme, produced by prostate marrow, where new blood cells are produced,
harm), able to spread and become worse. gland cells, that is involved with the liquefac- and the lining of the intestinal tract. Loss of
Although benign tumors are usually less dan- tion of semen. Normal blood levels of PSA these tissues can result in anemia, caused by
gerous than malignant tumors, they can cause are low. Prostate cancer cells secrete PSA in the lack of red blood cells, and nausea, caused
problems. As a benign tumor enlarges, it increasing amounts, and these proteins are by the loss of the intestinal lining.
can compress surrounding tissues and impair released into the blood. Therefore, blood levels A newer class of drugs eliminates these
their functions. In some cases, such as in some of PSA can be monitored to determine if a unwanted side effects. These drugs prevent
benign brain tumors, the result can be death. person is likely to have prostate cancer. blood vessel development, thus depriving the
Cells of malignant neoplasms, or can- There are many types of cancer and special cancer tissue of a blood supply, rather than
cer cells, differ from cells of normal tissues terms to name them. For example, a carcinoma attacking dividing cells. Other normal tissues, in
in several ways; the greater the degree to (kar-si-nō⬘ma) is a cancer derived from epi- which cells divide rapidly, have well-established
which they differ, the more dangerous they are. thelial tissue. Basal cell and squamous cell blood vessels and are therefore not affected by
Cancer cells are more spherical because they carcinomas are types of skin cancer derived these drugs.
do not adhere tightly to surrounding normal from epithelial tissue. Adenocarcinomas Promising anticancer therapies are also
cells. They appear to be more embryonic, (ad⬘ĕ-nō-kar-si-nō⬘maz) are derived from glan- being developed in which the cells responsible
or less mature, than the normal tissue from dular epithelium. Most breast cancers are ade- for immune responses can be stimulated to
which they arise. For example, a skin cancer nocarcinomas. A sarcoma (sar-kō⬘mă) is cancer recognize tumor cells and destroy them. A
cell is more spherical and softer than the derived from connective tissue. For example, major advantage in such anticancer treatments
stratified squamous epithelial cells of the skin. an osteosarcoma (os⬘tē-ō-sar-kō⬘mă) is cancer is that the cells of the immune system can spe-
Cancer cells are also invasive. That is, they have of bone and a chondrosarcoma (kon⬘drō-sar- cifically attack the tumor cells and not other,
the ability to squeeze into spaces and enter kō⬘mă) is cancer of cartilage. healthy tissues.
50 Define tissue repair. Differentiate between tissue repair that TISSUES AND AGING
occurs by regeneration and by replacement. Age-related changes—for example, reduced visual acuity and
51 Compare labile cells, stable cells, and permanent cells. Give reduced smell, taste, and touch sensation—are well documented.
examples of each type. What is the significance of these cell A clear decline in many types of athletic performance can be
types to tissue repair? measured after approximately age 30–35. Ultimately, there is a
52 Describe the process of wound repair. Contrast healing by substantial decrease in the number of neurons and muscle cells.
primary union and healing by secondary union. The functional capacity of systems, such as the respiratory and
53 What is pus? Describe granulation tissue. How does granu- cardiovascular systems, declines. The rate of healing and scar-
lation tissue contribute to scars and wound contraction? ring are very different in the elderly than in the very young, and
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CLINICAL GENETICS
Genetic Changes in Cancer Cells
M
ost cancers are caused by mutations develop is increased if the genes controlling and undergo cell division, altered genes are
of genes within somatic cells. When DNA repair enzymes undergo mutations, passed to all of the offspring of the original
DNA is replicated prior to cell divi- resulting in defective DNA repair enzymes, so cell in which the mutation occurred. For
sion, a small number of replication errors that mutated genes persist in cells. Mutation example, a single mutation may cause a cell
occur in which the nucleotide sequence in the of genes responsible for apoptosis can also to undergo cell division at an increased rate.
replicated DNA is different from the original result in the persistence of cells with muta- This mutation is passed to the offspring
DNA. A DNA sequence, with replication tions, and these cells can continue to divide. of that cell. Another mutation may occur
errors in it, is a mutation (see chapter 3). Factors Because mutations are most likely to occur in one of these cells and it, along with the
such as radiation, certain chemicals and tox- when DNA replicates, mutations leading to original mutation, is passed to its offspring.
ins, and some viruses also cause mutations cancer are most likely to occur in cells under- In this fashion, mutations responsible for
because they damage or alter DNA. Because going cell division, such as rapidly dividing the development of cancer accumulate in
mutations are most likely to occur during epithelial cells, rather than in nondividing cells, cells. Therefore, cancer is polygenic (see
DNA replication, cancer usually develops such as in skeletal muscle cells and neurons. chapter 3).
in tissues that are undergoing frequent cell Cancer develops in somatic cells because Some genes promote cell division, where-
divisions. of mutations that occur during cell divi- as others suppress it. Genes that promote cell
If mutations affect genes that regulate sions. Therefore, few cancers are inherited. division are called proto-oncogenes. Mutations
cell divisions, and if the result is uncontrolled Approximately 10% of human cancers, how- in proto-oncogenes can give rise to abnormal
cell divisions, a neoplasm can be produced. ever, are inherited because of an increased regulatory genes, called oncogenes (ong⬘ko-
A neoplasm can become cancer if additional genetic susceptibility to cancer. For example, jenz), which increase the rate of cell divi-
mutations change the structure and function a person can inherit a normal allele and a sion. Oncogenes can code for growth factors,
of its cells. For example, some mutations mutated allele for a regulatory gene that is growth factor receptors, or chemical signals
increase the ability of cancer cells to invade involved in the development of cancer. As that control cell divisions. Many types of
and destroy surrounding tissues, some muta- long as the normal allele functions, the effect oncogenes have been identified in human
tions allow cancer cells to metastasize, and of the mutated allele is masked. However, if cancers. Tumor suppressor genes are normal
some mutations make cancer cells resistant the normal allele mutates during cell divi- genes that slow or stop cell division. Mutations
to drug treatments, such as the drugs used in sion of a somatic tissue, expression of the that delete or inactivate tumor suppressor
chemotherapy. allele involved in the development of cancer genes can also increase the rate of cell divi-
Two major mechanisms help prevent the can be expressed. Compared with a person sion by taking off the brakes, so to speak, of
development of cancer in cells: (1) DNA repair with two normal alleles for a regulatory gene the processes that promote cell division. Many
enzymes detect and correct errors that occur involved in the development of cancer, a per- altered tumor suppressor genes have been
during replication and (2) a self-destruc- son with a genetic susceptibility for cancer is identified in human cancer cells.
tion mechanism destroys cells with abnormal much more likely to develop cancer because Additional mutations cause the struc-
DNA. Apoptosis (ap⬘op-to⬘sis) is a process only one allele has to mutate, instead of two. ture and functions of the cancer cells to dif-
by which cells self destruct. Many cells, such Certain kinds of colon cancers and breast fer from those of normal cells. For example,
as epithelial cells, have a limited life span, cancers are examples of genetic susceptibility these mutations increase the ability of cancer
whereas others, such as neurons and skeletal to cancer. cells to invade and destroy surrounding tis-
muscle cells last a lifetime. Apoptosis is a The accumulation of mutations result- sues and to metastasize. The continued accu-
normal process involved in the self-destruc- ing in cancer occurs over many genera- mulation of mutations in cancer cells is also
tion of cells that have a limited life span. tions of cells and may require several years responsible for changes in the characteristics
Apoptosis can also cause self destruction in to develop. This is one reason that cancer of the cancer cells over time. These changes
cells with damaged DNA. Therefore, apop- becomes more common in people as they can result in cancer cells in a tumor becom-
tosis can cause self-destruction in cells with become older. Once a mutation alters a gene ing less sensitive to treatment designed to kill
mutations, and apoptosis can, therefore, in a cell, that altered gene can be passed the cancer cells. Some mutations help make
remove cells with mutations before cancer to the daughter cells when the parent cell cancer cells less sensitive to chemotherapeu-
develops. The likelihood that cancer will undergoes cell division. For cells that survive tic drugs.
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major changes in the structural characteristics of the skin develop. changes result in reduced blood supply to tissues and increased
Characteristic alterations in brain function also develop in the susceptibility to blockage and rupture. The rate of red blood cell
elderly. All these changes result in the differences among young, synthesis declines in the elderly as well. Reduced flexibility and
middle-age, and older people. elasticity of connective tissue is responsible for increased wrinkling
At the tissue level, age-related changes affect cells and the of skin, as well as the increased tendency for bones to break in
extracellular materials they produce. In general, cells divide older people.
more slowly in older than in younger people. Collagen fibers Injuries in the very young heal more rapidly and more
become more irregular in structure, even though they may completely than in older people. A fracture in an infant’s femur
increase in number. As a consequence, connective tissues with is likely to heal quickly and eventually leave no evidence of the
abundant collagen, such as tendons and ligaments, become less fracture in the bone. A similar fracture in an adult heals more
flexible and more fragile. Elastic fibers fragment, bind to calcium slowly and a scar, seen in x-rays of the bone, is likely to persist
ions, and become less elastic. Consequently, elastic connective throughout life.
tissues become less elastic.
Changes in the structure of elastic and collagen fibers of arte- 54 Describe the age-related changes that occur in cells such as
rial walls cause them to become less elastic. Atherosclerosis results nerve cells, muscle cells, and cells of hemopoietic tissues.
as plaques form in the walls of blood vessels, which contain col- 55 Describe the age-related changes in tissues with abundant
lagen fibers, lipids, and calcium deposits (see chapter 21). These collagen and elastic fibers.
SUMMARY
Tissues and Histology (p. 110) Functional Characteristics
1. Tissues are collections of similar cells and the substances 1. Simple epithelium is usually involved in diffusion, filtration,
surrounding them. secretion, or absorption. Stratified epithelium serves a protective
2. The four primary tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and role. Squamous cells function in diffusion and filtration. Cuboidal
nervous tissues. or columnar cells, with a larger cell volume that contains many
3. Histology is the microscopic study of tissues. organelles, secrete or absorb.
2. A smooth free surface reduces friction (mesothelium and endothelium),
microvilli increase absorption (intestines), and cilia move materials
Embryonic Tissue (p. 110) across the free surface (respiratory tract and uterine tubes). Transitional
All four of the primary tissue types are derived from each of the three epithelium has a folded surface that allows the cell to change shape, and
germ layers (mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm). the number of cells making up the epithelial layers changes.
3. Cells are bound together mechanically by glycoproteins, desmo-
somes, and the zonulae adherens and to the basement membrane
Epithelial Tissue (p. 110) by hemidesmosomes. The zonulae occludens and zonulae adherens
1. Epithelium consists of cells with little extracellular matrix, it covers form a permeability barrier or tight junction, and gap junctions
surfaces, it has a basement membrane, and it does not have blood allow intercellular communication.
vessels.
2. The basement membrane is secreted by the epithelial cells and Glands
attaches the epithelium to the underlying tissues. 1. Glands are organs that secrete. Exocrine glands secrete through
ducts, and endocrine glands release hormones that are absorbed
Functions of Epithelial Tissues directly into the blood.
Epithelial tissues (1) protect underlying structures, act as barriers, permit 2. Glands are classified as unicellular or multicellular. Goblet cells are
the passage of some substances through epithelial layers, secrete substances, unicellular glands. Multicellular exocrine glands have ducts, which are
and absorb substances. simple or compound (branched). The ducts can be tubular or end in
small sacs (acini or alveoli). Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.
Classification of Epithelium 3. Glands are classified according to their mode of secretion.
Merocrine glands (pancreas) secrete substances as they are pro-
1. Simple epithelium has a single layer of cells, stratified epithelium
duced, apocrine glands (mammary glands) accumulate secretions
has two or more layers, and pseudostratified epithelium has a single
that are released when a portion of the cell pinches off, and holo-
layer that appears stratified.
crine glands (sebaceous glands) accumulate secretions that are
2. Cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal, or columnar.
released when the cell ruptures and dies.
3. Stratified squamous epithelium can be nonkeratinized or
keratinized.
4. Transitional epithelium is stratified, with cells that can change shape Connective Tissue (p. 120)
from cuboidal to flattened. Connective tissue is distinguished by its extracellular matrix.
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Functions of Connective Tissue Two types of dense irregular connective tissue exist: collage-
Connective tissues enclose and separate organs and tissue; connect tissues nous (capsules of organs and dermis of skin) and elastic (large
to one another; play a role in support for movement; store high-energy arteries).
molecules; cushion; insulate; transport; and protect. 3. Connective tissue with special properties
■ Adipose tissue has fat cells (adipocytes) filled with lipid and very
little extracellular matrix (a few reticular fibers).

Cells of Connective Tissue Adipose tissue functions as energy storage, insulation, and
1. The extracellular matrix results from the activity of specialized con- protection.
nective tissue cells; in general, blast cells form the matrix, cyte cells Adipose tissue can be yellow (white) or brown. Brown fat is
maintain it, and clast cells break it down. Fibroblasts form protein specialized for generating heat.
fibers of many connective tissues, osteoblasts form bone, and chon- ■ Reticular tissue is a network of reticular fibers and forms
droblasts form cartilage. the framework of lymphoid tissue, bone marrow, and the
2. Adipose (fat) cells, mast cells, white blood cells, macrophages, and liver.
mesenchymal cells (stem cells) are commonly found in connective ■ Hemopoietic tissue, or red bone marrow, is the site of
tissue. blood cell formation, and yellow bone marrow is a site of fat
storage.
4. Cartilage
Extracellular Matrix ■ Cartilage has a relatively rigid matrix composed of protein fibers
1. The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has protein fibers, and proteoglycan aggregates. The major cell type is the chondro-
ground substance, and fluid as major components. cyte, which is located within lacunae.
2. Protein fibers of the matrix have the following characteristics Hyaline cartilage has evenly dispersed collagen fibers that
■ Tropocollagens are linked together to form collagen fibrils,
provide rigidity with some flexibility. Examples include
which are joined to form collagen fibers. The collagen fibers the costal cartilage, the covering over the ends of bones in
resemble ropes. They are strong and flexible but resist joints, the growing portion of long bones, and the embryonic
stretching. skeleton.
■ Reticular fibers are fine collagen fibers that form a branching
Fibrocartilage has collagen fibers arranged in thick bundles; it
network that supports other cells and tissues. can withstand great pressure, and it is found between vertebrae,
■ Elastin fibers have a structure similar to that of a spring. After
in the jaw, and in the knee.
being stretched, they tend to return to their original shape. Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage, but it has elastin
3. Ground substance has the following as major components: fibers. It is more flexible than hyaline cartilage. It is found in
■ Hyaluronic acid makes fluids slippery.
the external ear.
■ Proteoglycan aggregates trap water, which gives tissues the capacity
5. Bone
to return to their original shape when compressed or deformed. Bone cells, or osteocytes, are located in lacunae that are
■ Adhesive molecules hold proteoglycans together and to plasma
surrounded by a mineralized matrix (hydroxyapatite) that makes
membranes. bone very hard. Cancellous bone has spaces between bony tra-
beculae, and compact bone is more solid.
Classification of Connective Tissue 6. Blood and hemopoietic tissue
■ Blood cells are suspended in a fluid matrix.
Connective tissue is classified according to the type of protein and the
■ Hemopoietic tissue forms blood cells.
proportions of protein, ground substance, and fluid in the matrix.
Embryonic Connective Tissue Muscle Tissue (p. 134)

Mesenchyme arises early, consists of irregularly shaped cells and abundant 1. Muscle tissue has the ability to contract.
matrix, and gives rise to adult connective tissue. 2. Skeletal (striated voluntary) muscle attaches to bone and is respon-
sible for body movement. Skeletal muscle cells are long, cylindrically
shaped cells with many peripherally located nuclei.
Adult Connective Tissue 3. Cardiac (striated involuntary) muscle cells are cylindrical, branching
1. Loose connective tissue cells with a single, central nucleus. Cardiac muscle is found in the
■ Loose (areolar) connective tissue has many different cell types and heart and is responsible for pumping blood through the circulatory
a random arrangement of protein fibers with space between the system.
fibers. This tissue fills spaces around the organs and attaches the 4. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary) muscle forms the walls of hollow
skin to underlying tissues. organs, the iris of the eye, and other structures. Its cells are spindle-
2. Dense connective tissue shaped with a single, central nucleus.
■ Dense regular connective tissue is composed of fibers arranged
in one direction, which provides strength in a direction parallel

to the fiber orientation. Two types of dense regular connective Nervous Tissue (p. 136)
tissue exist: collagenous (tendons and most ligaments) and elastic 1. Nervous tissue is able to conduct electric impulses and is composed
(ligaments of vertebrae). of neurons (conductive cells) and neuroglia (support cells).
■ Dense irregular connective tissue has fibers organized in many 2. Neurons have cell processes called dendrites and axons. The dendrites
directions, which produces strength in different directions. can receive electric impulses, and the axons can conduct them.
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Neurons can be multipolar (several dendrites and an axon), bipolar Tissue Repair (p. 140)
(one dendrite and one axon), or unipolar (one axon).
1. Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for dead ones. Tissue
repair occurs by regeneration or replacement.
Membranes (p 137) ■ Labile cells divide throughout life and can undergo
1. Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells, their basement mem- regeneration.
brane, the lamina propria, and sometimes smooth muscle cells; ■ Stable cells do not ordinarily divide after growth is complete but
they line cavities that open to the outside and often contain mucous can regenerate if necessary.
glands, which secrete mucus. ■ Permanent cells cannot replicate. If killed, permanent tissue is
2. Serous membranes line cavities that do not open to the exterior and repaired by replacement.
do not contain glands but do secrete serous fluid. 2. Tissue repair by primary union occurs when the edges of the wound
3. Synovial membranes are formed by connective tissue and line joint are close together. Secondary union occurs when the edges are far
cavities. apart.
Inflammation (p. 138)

1. The function of the inflammatory response is to isolate injurious
Tissues and Aging (p. 142)
agents from the rest of the body and to attack and destroy the inju- 1. Age-related changes in tissues result from reduced rates of cell divi-
rious agent. sion and changes in the extracellular fibers.
2. The inflammatory response produces five symptoms: redness, heat, 2. Collagen fibers become less flexible and have reduced strength.
swelling, pain, and disturbance of function. 3. Elastic fibers become fragmented and less elastic.
REVIEW AND COMPREHENSION

1. Given these characteristics: 7. In parts of the body, such as the urinary bladder, where considerable
1. capable of contraction expansion occurs, one can expect to find which type of epithelium?
2. covers free body surfaces a. cuboidal c. transitional e. columnar
3. lacks blood vessels b. pseudostratified d. squamous
4. composes various glands 8. A tissue that contains cells with these characteristics:
5. anchored to connective tissue by a basement membrane 1. covers a surface
Which of these are characteristics of epithelial tissue? 2. one layer of cells
a. 1,2,3 c. 3,4,5 e. 2,3,4,5 3. cells are flat
b. 2,3,5 d. 1,2,3,4 Performs which of the following functions?
2. Which of these embryonic germ layers gives rise to muscle, bone, a. phagocytosis
and blood vessels? b. active transport
a. ectoderm b. endoderm c. mesoderm c. secretion of many complex lipids and proteins
3. A tissue that covers a surface, is one cell layer thick, and is composed d. allow certain substances to diffuse across it
of flat cells is e. protection from abrasion
a. simple squamous epithelium. 9. Epithelial cells with microvilli are most likely found
b. simple cuboidal epithelium. a. lining blood vessels. d. lining the small intestine.
c. simple columnar epithelium. b. lining the lungs. e. in the skin.
d. stratified squamous epithelium. c. lining the uterine tube.
e. transitional epithelium. 10. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium can be found lining the
4. Epithelium composed of two or more layers of cells with only the a. digestive tract. c. thyroid gland. e. urinary bladder.
deepest layer in contact with the basement membrane is b. trachea. d. kidney tubules.
a. stratified epithelium. d. columnar epithelium. 11. A type of cell connection whose only function is to prevent the cells
b. simple epithelium. e. cuboidal epithelium. from coming apart is the
c. pseudostratified epithelium. a. desmosome. b. gap junction. c. tight junction.
5. Stratified epithelium is usually found in areas of the body where the 12. The glands that lose their connection with epithelium during
principal activity is embryonic development and secrete their cellular products into the
a. filtration. c. absorption. e. secretion. bloodstream are called glands.
b. protection. d. diffusion. a. apocrine c. exocrine e. merocrine
6. Which of these characteristics do not describe nonkeratinized strati- b. endocrine d. holocrine
fied squamous epithelium? 13. Glands that accumulate secretions and release them only when the
a. many layers of cells d. found in the skin individual secretory cells rupture and die are called
b. surface cells are flat e. outer layers covered by fluid glands.
c. surface cells are living a. apocrine b. holocrine c. merocrine
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14. A gland has a duct that branches repeatedly, and 23. Fibrocartilage is found
the ducts end in saclike structures. a. in the cartilage of the trachea.
a. simple tubular d. simple acinar b. in the rib cage.
b. compound tubular e. compound acinar c. in the external ear.
c. simple coiled tubular d. on the surface of bones in moveable joints.
15. The fibers in dense connective tissue are produced by e. between vertebrae.
a. fibroblasts. c. osteoblasts. e. macrophages. 24. A tissue in which cells are located in lacunae surrounded by a hard
b. adipocytes. d. osteoclasts. matrix of hydroxyapatite is
16. Mesenchymal cells a. hyaline cartilage.
a. form embryonic connective tissue. b. bone.
b. give rise to all adult connective tissues. c. nervous tissue.
c. in adults produce new connective tissue cells in response to injury. d. dense regular collagenous connective tissue.
d. all of the above. e. fibrocartilage.
17. A tissue with a large number of collagen fibers organized parallel to 25. Which of these characteristics apply to smooth muscle?
each other would most likely be found in a. striated, involuntary c. unstriated, involuntary
a. a muscle. c. adipose tissue. e. cartilage. b. striated, voluntary d. unstriated, voluntary
b. a tendon. d. a bone. 26. Which of these statements about nervous tissue is not true?
18. Extremely delicate fibers that make up the framework for organs a. Neurons have cytoplasmic extensions called axons.
such as the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes are b. Electric signals (action potentials) are conducted along axons.
a. elastic fibers. d. cilia. c. Bipolar neurons have two axons.
b. reticular fibers. e. collagen fibers. d. Neurons are nourished and protected by neuroglia.
c. microvilli. e. Dendrites receive electric signals and conduct them toward the
19. In which of these locations are dense irregular elastic connective cell body.
tissue found? 27. The linings of the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive
a. ligaments d. large arteries passages are composed of
b. nuchal ligament e. adipose tissue a. serous membranes. d. synovial membranes.
c. dermis of the skin b. mucous membranes. e. endothelium.
20. Which of these is not true of adipose tissue? c. mesothelium.
a. It is the site of energy storage. 28. Chemical mediators of inflammation
b. It is a type of connective tissue. a. cause blood vessels to constrict.
c. It acts as a protective cushion. b. decrease the permeability of blood vessels.
d. Brown adipose is found only in babies. c. initiate processes that lead to edema.
e. It functions as a heat insulator. d. help prevent clotting.
21. Which of these types of connective tissue has the smallest amount e. decrease pain.
of extracellular matrix? 29. Which of these types of cells are labile?
a. adipose d. loose connective tissue a. neurons c. liver
b. bone e. blood b. skin d. pancreas
c. cartilage 30. Permanent cells
22. Given these characteristics: a. divide and replace damaged cells in replacement tissue repair.
1. cells located in lacunae b. form granulation tissue.
2. proteoglycans in ground substance c. are responsible for removing scar tissue.
3. no collagen fibers present d. are usually replaced by a different cell type if they are destroyed.
4. perichondrium on surface e. are replaced during regeneration tissue repair.
5. heals rapidly after injury Answers in Appendix E
Which of these characteristics apply to cartilage?
a. 1,2,3 c. 2,4,5 e. 2,3,4,5
b. 1,2,4 d. 1,2,4,5
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Given the observation that a tissue has more than one layer of cells up the kidney had lost many of the simple cuboidal epithelial
lining a free surface, (1) list the possible tissue types that exhibit cells that normally line them, although the basement membranes
those characteristics, and (2) explain what additional observations appeared to be mostly intact. Predict how likely this person is to
need to be made to identify the tissue type. recover fully.
2. A patient suffered from kidney failure a few days after he was 3. Compare the cell shapes and surface specializations of an epithelium
exposed to a toxic chemical. A biopsy of his kidney indicated that that resists abrasion with those of an epithelium that carries out the
many of the thousands of epithelium-lined tubules that make absorption of materials.
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CONFIRMING PAGES
4. Tell how to distinguish between a gland that produces a merocrine 8. A gland produces a watery secretion containing solutes and is close
secretion and a gland that produces a holocrine secretion. Assume to being isotonic. Which of the processes responsible for producing
that you have the ability to chemically analyze the composition of secretions functions in this gland?
secretions. 9. A tissue has the following characteristics: a free surface; a single layer
5. Name a tissue that has the following characteristics: abundant extra of cells, cells; narrow, tall cells; microvilli, many mitochondria, and
cellular matrix consisting almost entirely of collagen fibers that are globlet cells. Describe the tissue type and as many functions of the
parallel to each other. Injuries of which of the following types result cell as possible.
from damage to this kind of tissue: dislocated neck vertebrae, a torn 10. Most people who develop breast cancer do not have a known
tendon, a ruptured intervertebral disk? family history of breast cancer. However, approximately 7% of
6. Indicate whether the following statement is correct or not: “If a tissue breast cancers are associated with the dominant breast cancer sus-
is capable of contracting, is under involuntary control, and has mono- ceptibility genes called BRCA1, located on chromosome 17, and
nucleated cells, it is smooth muscle.” Explain your answer. BRCA2, located on chromosome 13. The BRCA1 gene is also asso-
7. Antihistamines block the effect of a chemical mediator of inflam- ciated with an increased probability of ovarian cancer. However,
mation called histamine, which is released during the inflamma- not all people who have these genes develop cancer. Explain how
tory response. What effect does administering antihistamines have that might occur.
on the inflammatory response, and is the use of an antihistamine Answers in Appendix F
beneficial?
Visit this book’s website at www.mhhe.com/seeley8

for chapter quizzes, interactive learning exercises,
and other study tools.
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CONFIRMING PAGES
I-1 Index
INDEX
Note: Page numbers followed by f or t indicate Absorptive cells, of duodenum, 896–898 Acetylcholinesterase, 291, 291f, 397, 398f Actin
figures and tables, respectively. Absorptive state, metabolic, 951, 952f in action potentials, 291 fibrous (F actin), 282–283, 283f
Abstinence, 1068 blockers, 295 globular (G actin), 282–283, 283f, 293f
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Acetyl-CoA in muscle contraction, 293, 293f, 294f,
A band, 284, 284f, 286f, 292f Range (AMDR) in fatty acid metabolism, 946–947 307–308, 309f
AAT. See Alpha-1 antitrypsin for carbohydrates, 930 production of, 943 Actin filaments
ABCDE rule, of skin cancer, 160 for fats, 931 adenosine triphosphate in, 941t functions of, 57t, 76
Abdomen, 15f for proteins, 932 in aerobic respiration, 942f, 943f in microvilli, 86, 86f
arteries of, 737f Accessory glands, of male reproductive ACh. See Acetylcholine structure of, 57t, 76, 76f
definition of, 14 system, 1044–1045 Achalasia, 581 Actin myofilaments
regions of, 14, 16f Accessory hemiazygos vein, 743f, 745, Achilles tendon, 326f, 365, 367f in skeletal muscle, 281–283, 282f, 283f, 284f
transverse section through, 17f 745t, 746f Achondroplasia, 101t contraction of, 285, 286f, 293,
veins of, 746–748, 746t, 749f Accessory nerve (XI), 426f, 468t Achondroplastic dwarfism, 192 293f, 294f
Abdominal aorta, 728, 729f, 735f, 738f, 963f functions of, 463t, 468t, 470 Acid(s), 37–39 in smooth muscle, 307–308
at birth, 1107f, 1108f origin of, 463f definition of, 37, 1020 structure of, 281–283, 283f
branches of, 736, 736t, 737f spinal roots of, 468t strong, 38, 1020, 1020f Actinic keratosis, 154
Abdominal aortic plexus, 571f Accessory organs, of digestive tract, 874 taste of, 518, 520f Action, of skeletal muscle, 321
Abdominal aponeurosis, 348f Accessory pancreatic duct, 900f, 905f weak, 38, 1020, 1020f Action potential(s), 136, 287–288,
Abdominal cavity, 16, 18f Accessory structures, of eye, 521–524, 522f Acid–base balance, regulation of, 1020–1028 387–390, 387f
Abdominal muscles, in respiration, Accommodation buffer systems in, 1021, 1021t, 1022f afterpotential of, 387, 389f, 390
838f, 839 definition of, 482 kidneys in, 1022f, 1024–1026, 1024f, 1027f all-or-none principle of, 288, 388
Abdominal nerve plexuses, and visual, 530, 530f mechanisms of, 1021–1026, 1022f and blood pressure, 765–766
parasympathetic axons, 570 ACE. See Angiotensin-converting enzyme renal system in, 1022f, 1024–1026, of cardiac muscle, 311, 692–693, 693f
Abdominal oblique muscle Acetabular labrum, 267, 267f 1024f, 1027f characteristics of, 387–388, 388t
external, 325f, 326f, 344, 344f, 344t, 345f, Acetabular ligament, transverse, 267, respiratory system in, 1022f, in chemical synapses, 396–404, 396f
347f, 349f 267f, 268t 1023–1024, 1023f in conducting system of heart, 692
internal, 344, 344f, 344t, 345f Acetabular notch, 242f Acid–base pair, conjugate, 39 definition of, 382, 387
Abdominal region, 15f Acetabulum, 241, 241f, 242f, Acidic solutions, 38 depolarization phase of, 287, 288f, 289f,
Abdominal wall, muscles of, 343–344, 267, 267f Acidosis, 38, 1025–1026, 1025t 388, 389f
344f, 344t Acetaminophen, for arthritis, 273 metabolic, 1025–1026, 1025t in cardiac muscle, 311, 692, 693f
Abdominopelvic cavity, 16, 18f, 192f Acetic acid respiratory, 1025–1026, 1025t sinoatrial node, 694f
Abdominopelvic nerve plexus, in action potentials, 291–292, 291f, 397 Acinar glands in skeletal muscle, 293f
and sympathetic dissociation of, 37–38 classification of, 120, 121f in smooth muscle, 310, 310f
axons, 570 Acetoacetic acid, in diabetes mellitus, 644 structure of, 120, 121f ectopic, 696t
Abducent nerve (VI), 466t Acetone, in diabetes mellitus, 644 Acini in electrical synapses, 394–396, 396f
functions of, 463t, 466t, 469 Acetylcholine (ACh), 399t in exocrine gland classification, 120 excitation–contraction coupling of,
origin of, 463f in action potential transmission, 291–292, of pancreas, 632, 905, 905f 292–293, 293f
and vision, 524 291f, 398f Acne, 166 frequency, 391, 391f
Abducent nucleus, 447f binding to nicotinic receptors, 575 Acoustic meatus definition of, 288, 391
Abduction, 260–261, 261f blockers, 295 external, 542, 543f, 550f and skeletal muscle contraction, 298–299
Abductor digiti minimi muscle, 357, 357t, breakdown of, 291f, 397, 398f internal, 214 functions of, 382
358f, 368t, 369f composition of, 289–290 Acquired immunity, 816–818, 816f gated ion channels during, 287, 289f
Abductor hallucis muscle, 368t, 369f and erection, 1048 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome graded potentials and, 387, 391, 391f
Abductor pollicis brevis muscle, 357, and extrinsic regulation of heart, 706 (AIDS), 674, 817, 1073. See also and Hering-Breuer reflex, 862
357t, 358f functions of, 399t Human immunodeficiency measurement of, 295
Abductor pollicis longus muscle, 355f, location of, 399t virus (HIV) and neuromuscular junction, 288–292
356t, 357 and organophosphate poisoning, 299 Acromegaly, 192, 618 parasympathetic, and erection, 1049
ABO blood group, 667–668, 668f receptors, 295 Acromial region, 15f permeability changes during, 285
Abortion, 1068t, 1070 in myasthenia gravis, 399f, 399t, 439 Acromioclavicular joint, separation of, 266 propagation of, 288, 290f, 391–394,
Abruptio placentae, 1087 sites for, 291f Acromion process, 235, 236f, 240f, 392f, 393f
Absolute refractory period, 695 in smooth muscle regulation, 311 350f, 352f refractory period of, 390, 390f
of action potentials, 390, 390f, 391 in sodium channels, 383 functions of, 235 absolute, 390, 390f, 391
Absorption receptor sites for, 63, 63f surface anatomy of, 234f relative, 390, 390f
definition of, 912 and stomach secretions, 892 Acrosomal reaction, 1083 repolarization phase of, 287, 288f, 289f,
digestive system and, 875–876, 875t, structure of, 399t Acrosome, of sperm, 1035f, 1037 387, 388–390, 389f
912–920 in synaptic vesicles, 289–290 ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone in cardiac muscle, 692, 693f
I-1
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Index I-2
sinoatrial node, 694f Adenoids, 787 Adrenal androgens, 630 Agglutinogens, 667
in skeletal muscle, 293f Adenosine secretion disorders of, 631t Aging, 1112–1113, 1112f
in smooth muscle, 310 in ATP, 50, 50f Adrenal cortex, 627, 627f cellular aspects of, 144
resting membrane potential and, 285 caffeine and, 402t hormones of, 628t, 629–630 cytologic, 1113
sensory, 1048, 1065 functions of, 402t secretion of, 631t effects of
of skeletal muscle, 285, 291f, 293f, and glutamate, 402t pathologies of, 632 on arteries, 727–728
298–299, 693f location of, 402t prenatal development of, 1096 on digestive system, 920–921
of smooth muscle, 310, 310f as neuromodulator, 402t stress and, 633 on endocrine system, 643
stimulus strength and, 288, 290f, 296–297, as neurotransmitter, 402t Adrenal glands, 8f, 567f, 586f, 627–632, 963f on heart, 711
391, 391f production of, during stroke, 402t anatomy of, 627f on immunity, 818–820
sympathetic structure of, 402t ANS and, 573t on integumentary system, 165–166
and emission, 1049 Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) histology of, 627, 627f on joints, 272
and erection, 1049 ATP synthesized from, 32, 34, 50, 303 hormones of, 628t on kidneys, 996–997
threshold for, 387, 387f and ATP-powered pumps, 61, 62f innervation of, 568 on lymphatic system, 818–820
transmission of, by peripheral nervous composition of, 32–33 stress and, 633 on nervous system, 506–508
system, 375–376 in metabolism, 937 Adrenal medulla, 568, 627, 627f on respiratory system, 863
voltage-gated ion channels during, in muscle contraction, 293, 294f, 303 hormones of, 628–629, 628t on skeletal muscle, 312
388, 389f in platelet release reaction, 663 secretion control of, 629f on skeletal system, 198, 228
Activation energy structure of, 50f prenatal development of, 1096 on special senses, 556–559
definition of, 35 synthesis of, 32–33, 34 stress and, 633 on tissues, 142–144
enzymes and, 35, 36f, 47 activation energy for, 36f Adrenal medullary mechanism, in blood free radical theory of, 1113
Activation gates, of voltage-gated energy released in, 34, 35f, 50 pressure regulation, 767f, Agonist, 596
sodium channels, 388–390, 389f Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 768–769, 768f Agonist muscles, 321
Active angiotensin. See Angiotensin II in acetyl-CoA production, 941t Adrenaline. See Epinephrine Agranulocytes, 653t, 654, 655f
Active immunity, 816f, 818 in active transport, 70–71, 72f Adrenergic agents, 574 AHA. See American Heart Association
artificial, 816f, 818 ADP synthesized from, 32–33 Adrenergic neurons, 572 AIDS. See Acquired immunodeficiency
natural, 816f, 818 activation energy for, 36f Adrenergic receptors, 575 syndrome
Active range of motion, 263 energy released in, 34, 35f, 50 α-Adrenergic-blocking agents, 574 Air pressure, barometric, 842, 843f
Active site, 47 in aerobic respiration, 304t β-Adrenergic-blocking agents, 574 Airflow, 841
Active tension, 301 and aging, 1113 for heart problems, 713 decrease in, 841
Active tension curve, 301, 302f in anaerobic respiration, 304t β-Adrenergic-stimulating agents, 574 establishing, 832
Active transport, 70–71, 75t and ATP-powered pumps, 61, 62f Adrenocortical insufficiency, chronic. See Ala(e), 223f, 232, 232f
energy required for, 70, 72f and cardiac muscles, 690 Addison disease Alar cartilage, greater, 212f
of hormones, 595, 595t in citric acid cycle, 941t, 944 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 614t, Albinism, 95–96, 95f, 100, 100f, 101t, 156
rate of, 70 composition of, 32, 50, 50f 618–619 Albino, 95
secondary, 71, 73f, 75t in cystic fibrosis, 63 and adrenal cortex, 630 Albumin, 651f, 652–653, 652t
Active ventricular filling, in cardiac cycle, function of, 3 and G proteins, 598t passage through filtration barrier, 971
698f, 699f, 700, 701t, 702 in glycolysis, 938–941, 939f, 940f, 941t in parturition, 1105, 1106f Albuterol, 574
Active vitamin D, and calcium and metabolic rate, 953 Adrenogenital syndrome, 632 Alcohol
regulation, 1016 in metabolism, 937–938, 937t Adult connective tissue, 124–134 addiction to, 401t, 506
Acute contagious conjunctivitis, 523 in muscle contraction Adult respiratory distress syndrome as diuretic, 988
Acute glomerular nephritis, 997 as energy source, 293, 303 (ARDS), 864 and heart disease, 713
Acute hormone regulation, 593f skeletal, 293, 294f, 303 Adult stem cells, 1085 and prenatal development, 1096, 1110
Acute rejection, of graft, 807 and muscle fatigue, skeletal, 301–303 Advanced glycosylation end products Alcoholism, and cirrhosis of liver, 951
Acute renal failure, 997, 998 in muscle relaxation, 294 (AGEs), 986 Aldosterone, 628t, 629, 985
Adam’s apple. See Thyroid cartilage in muscles, sources of, 304t Adventitia and blood pressure, 771
Adaptation. See Accommodation production of, 32, 303, 930, 944–945 of digestive tract, 877 and distal convoluted tubule,
Adaptive immunity, 792, 798–812, 815f, 816f in aerobic respiration, 303, of ureters, 993f 985–986, 985f
acquisition of, 816f 944–945 Aerobic respiration, 303, 942–945, 942f, 943f and intracellular receptors, 605t
cells in, 796t in anaerobic respiration, 303 acetyl-CoA formation in, 942f, 943, 943f secretion disorders of, 631t
memory of, 792 creatine phosphate in, 303 ATP in, 303, 944–945 and sodium excretion, 1012
specificity of, 792 energy required for, 34, 35f, 50, 303 chemical equation for, 303 Aldosteronism, 632
ADD. See Attention deficit disorder from glucose, 303, 945 citric acid cycle in, 942f, 943f, 944 Alendronate, 197
Addiction, 400t, 401t, 506 in mitochondria, 83 efficiency of, 303 Alexia, 505
Addison disease, 632 structure of, 50, 50f electron-transport chain in, 942f, 944, 945f Alimentary canal. See Digestive tract
and pigmentation, 156 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase, rate of, 303 Alimentary tract. See Digestive tract
Adduction, 260–261, 261f in electron-transport chain, 944 in slow-twitch muscle fibers, 305 Alkaline solutions, 38
Adductor brevis muscle, 362f, 363t Adenylate cyclase, 599 as source of adenosine triphosphate, 304t Alkalosis, 38, 1025–1026, 1025t
innervation of, 434f ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone Afferent arteriole, 966, 967f metabolic, 1025–1026, 1025t
Adductor hallucis muscle, 368t, 369f ADHD. See Attention deficit/hyperactivity and filtration pressure, 972 respiratory, 1025–1026, 1025t
Adductor longus muscle, 325f, 360f, 361f, disorder Afferent division. See Sensory division Allantois, 1092f
362f, 363t Adhesive molecules, in ground Afferent lymphatic vessels, 787, 788f prenatal development of, 1099, 1099f
innervation of, 434f substance, 124 Afferent neurons. See Sensory neurons Allele(s), 95
Adductor magnus muscle, 326f, 360f, Adipocytes. See Adipose cells African Americans, bone mass in, 198 in cancer cells, 143
362f, 363t Adipose cells. See also Fat(s) Afterdischarge, 405 dominant, 95
innervation of, 434f, 436f glucagon and, 635t Afterload, 705 multiple, 97–98
Adductor pollicis longus muscle, innervation insulin and, 635t Afterpotential, of action potentials, 387, mutated, 97
of, 429f lipids in, 122, 128 389f, 390 recessive, 95
Adductor pollicis muscle, 357t, 358f location of, 122 Age transmission of, 99–100, 99f, 100f
innervation of, 431f structure of, 122, 128, 129t clinical, 1082 Allelic variant, 97
Adductor tubercle, 243 Adipose tissue, 128–129 postovulatory, 1082 Allergens, 806
Adenine ANS and, 573t Age spots, 166 Allergic reactions, 798, 806
in ATP, 50f brown, 128–129 Age-related changes to penicillin, 799
in DNA, 48, 49f energy storage in, 121 in female reproductive system, 1073 Allergy of infection, 806
in RNA, 48 functions of, 128, 129t in male reproductive system, 1071–1073 All-or-none law, of skeletal muscle
structure of, 48, 48f location of, 128, 129t AGEs. See Advanced glycosylation contraction, 296
Adenocarcinomas, 142 structure of, 128, 129t end products All-or-none principle, of action potentials,
Adenohypophysis. See Anterior yellow, 128, 133 Agglutination, 667, 669f 288, 388
pituitary gland ADP. See Adenosine diphosphate Agglutinins, 667 all-trans-Retinal, 533f, 534

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-3 Index
Alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) Ammonium ions hemorrhagic, 673 Anterior chamber, of eye, 526f, 527f, 528
augmentation of, 836 and acid–base balance, 1026, 1027f iron-deficiency, 166, 673 Anterior commissure, 456f
deficiency of, 836 functions of, 27t macrocytic, 673 Anterior compartment syndrome, 364
Alpha cells, of pancreatic islets, 634, Amniocentesis, 1103, 1103f microcytic, 673 Anterior crest, of tibia, 244, 246f
635t, 905f Amnion, 445f, 1087, 1088f, 1089f pernicious, 673 Anterior (motor) horn, 414, 414f, 415, 415f
Alpha motor neurons, 416 Amniotic cavity, 1087, 1088f, 1092f testing for, 671 Anterior ligament, of malleus, 544f
in Golgi tendon reflex, 418, 418f Amniotic sac. See Amnion Anencephaly, 1096 Anterior lobe, of cerebellum, 449, 450f
in stretch reflex, 416–417, 417f Amorphosynthesis, 501 Anergy, 808 Anterior nucleus, 449, 451f
in withdrawal reflex, 418, 419f, 420, 420f Amphetamines, action of, 400t Anesthesia ventral, 449, 451f
Alpha (α) particles, 29 Amphiarthrosis, 253 brachial, 427 Anterior pituitary gland, 610, 611, 611f
Alpha (α) proteins, 63 Amplitude-modulated signals, 586 definition of, 439 hormones of, 614t, 616–619
Alpha receptors, 575 Amplitude-modulated systems, 586f dental, 469 prenatal development of, 1096
drugs binding to, 574 Ampulla, 554, 555f epidural, 412 target tissues of, 611f
Alpha waves, 502 of ductus deferens, 1041f, 1042, 1043f local, 403 Anterior surface, of patella, 245f
ALS. See Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and ejaculation, 1045 pudendal nerve, 438 Anterolateral system, 482t–483t,
Alternative pathway, of innate immunity, of uterine tube, 1050f, 1053 and shock, 775 483–484, 484f
794, 795f Amygdala. See Amygdaloid nuclear complex spinal, 413 Antibiotics
Alternative splicing, 89 Amygdaloid body, 455f, 456f Anesthetic leprosy, 439 for peptic ulcers, 894
Altitude, high, and ventilation, 862 Amygdaloid nuclear complex, 455 Aneuploidy, 100 and vitamin K depletion, 666
Alveolar bone, 883f in explicit memory, 503 Aneurysms, 462, 728, 754 Antibodies, 661. See also
Alveolar ducts, 834–835, 834f in fear, 503 Angina pectoris, 689 Immunoglobulins (Ig)
Alveolar glands, 883 Amylase, functions of, 885t Angiogram, 714f in adaptive immunity, 799
Alveolar nerves Amyloid plaques, 504 Angioplasty, 689 and blood grouping, 667
anesthesia for, 469 β-Amyloid protein, 504 Angiotensin, and blood pressure, 771 classes of, 809t
inferior, 465t, 469 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), 492 Angiotensin I, 983 effects of, 808–809, 810f
superior, 465t, 469 Anabolic reactions. See Anabolism Angiotensin II, 771, 985 functions of, 809t
Alveolar pressure (Palv), 842, 843f Anabolic steroids, 307 Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), 986 monoclonal, 808, 816
Alveolar processes, 207t, 210f, 221f, Anabolism, 32, 937, 937t Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), 983 production of, 811–812, 811f
223f, 224 definition of, 32 and blood pressure, 771 structure of, 808, 809f
Alveolar sacs, 834, 834f role of, 32 Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) Antibody-mediated immunity, 799, 799t,
Alveolar ventilation (V̇A), 848 Anaerobic respiration, 303, 941–942, 941f inhibitors, for hypertension, 771 808–812, 815f
Alveolar volume, changing, 842–846, 843f ATP production in, 303 Angiotensinogen, 983 Anticoagulants, 666, 713
Alveoli, 834, 834f, 835f, 882, 1058 efficiency of, 303 and blood pressure, 771 Anticodons, 89
airflow into and out of, 842 in fast-twitch muscle fibers, 306 Angle (bone), 206t Antidepressant therapy, 399f, 399t
dental, 254 in muscle contraction, 303 of mandible, 207t, 209f, 223f Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 613–614, 614t
in exocrine gland classification, 120 rate of, 303 of ribs, 233 and extracellular fluid volume regulation,
of lung, 825f as source of adenosine triphosphate, 304t of scapula, 236f 1009f, 1010–1011
of salivary glands, 884f Anaerobic threshold, 862 of sternum, 233, 234f and G proteins, 598t
Alzheimer disease, 504 Anal canal, 908f, 909 subpubic, 244f, 244t and nephron, 986–988, 987f
etiology of, 504 Anal sphincter ANH. See Atrial natriuretic hormone and osmolality of extracellular fluid,
glutamate receptors in treatment external, 345t, 346f, 908f, 909, 1057f Animals 1007–1008
of, 401t internal, 908f, 909 in biomedical research, 9 secretion control of, 615f
symptoms of, 504 Anal triangle, 346, 1034, 1034f humans and, differences between, 9 and sodium excretion, 1012, 1013t
Amacrine cells, 531f, 536 Analgesics, 488 Anions and urine concentration and volume,
AMDR. See Acceptable Macronutrient Anaphase, 93, 94f concentrations of 988–989, 989f
Distribution Range Anaphase I, 1038, 1039f in body fluid compartments, 1005t and urine regulation, 989, 990
Ameboid movement, of white blood Anaphase II, 1039f differences across plasma membrane, Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
cells, 660 Anaphylactic shock, 775 382–383, 382t mechanism, and blood pressure
Amenorrhea, 1066 Anaphylaxis, 806 definition of, 27 regulation, 773, 773f, 774f
primary, 1066 Anatomic dead space, 848 dissociation of, 32 Antigen(s)
secondary, 1066 Anatomic imaging, 4–5 Anisotropic (A) bands, 284, 284f, 286f, 292f in adaptive immunity, 798, 804f, 805f
American Heart Association (AHA), 663 Anatomic shunt, 850 Ankle, 15f antibody binding to, 809f
Amine group, in amino acids, 45, 45f Anatomical crown, of tooth, 882, 883f Ankle bone. See Talus binding to antibodies, 810f
Amino acid(s) Anatomical imaging, 2 Ankle joint, 270–271, 270f and blood grouping, 667
alleles and, 97 Anatomical neck, of humerus, 235, 237f injuries to, 272 foreign, 798, 801f
chemical formulas of, 948f Anatomical position, 13, 13f ligaments of, 270f, 271, 272t processing of, 801f
chemistry of, 45, 45f Anatomical snuffbox, 355f, 357 movements of, muscles of, 364–368, 365t self-antigens, 798, 801f
essential Anatomy sprained, 272 Antigen receptors, 800–801
sources in diet, 932 definition of, 2 Annular ligament, 543 Antigenic determinants, 800–801, 800f
uses in body, 932 developmental, 2 radial, 266f, 267 Antigen-presenting cells, 802
hydrogen bonding among, 45, 46f gross, 2 Annulus fibrosus, 227f, 228 Antihemophilic factor, in coagulation, 664t
metabolism of, 948–950, 948f regional, 2 in herniated disks, 228, 228f Antihistamines, for inflammation, 140
peroxisomes in, 82 surface, 2 Anomalies, anatomic Antihyperalgesics, 489
as neurotransmitters, 400t–401t systemic, 2 definition of, 2 Antihypertensive agents, 713
nonessential Anconeus muscle, 351, 351t, 355f effects of, 2 Antioxidants, 934, 1113
sources in diet, 932 innervation of, 429f Anomic aphasia, 500 Antiparallel strands, of DNA, 48
uses in body, 932 Androgen(s), 628t, 629, 1046 Anopheles mosquito, and malaria, 674 Antiport movement, 61
in plasma, 652t adrenal, 630 Anosmia, 517 Antiporters, 61
protein synthesis from, 32, 32f, 33f secretion disorders of, 631t ANS. See Autonomic nervous system Antiserum, 818
structure of, 45, 45f and female sexual behavior, 1065 Ansa cervicalis, 426f, 469t Antithrombin, 666
transport of, 917, 918f in ovarian cycle, 1062 inferior root of, 426f Antitragus, 543f
Amino acid derivatives, 589t and sperm cell development, 1037 superior root of, 426f Antrum, 1051f, 1053, 1054f
chemical structure of, 589f synthetic, and muscle mass, 1048 Antacids, for peptic ulcers, 894 Anus, 7f, 346f, 874, 874f, 909, 1033f, 1034f,
Aminopeptidase, functions of, 885t Androgen-binding protein, 1037 Antagonist, 596 1056f, 1057f
Ammonia Androstenedione, 630 Antagonist muscles, 321 Anxiety disorders, treatment of, 400t
and acid–base balance, 1026, 1027f Anemia, 98, 671, 673 Antebrachial region, 15f Aorta, 8f, 682, 684f, 685f, 687f, 728
conversion to urea, 950, 950f aplastic, 673 Antebrachial vein, median, 744f abdominal, 728, 729f, 735f, 738f, 963f
hepatocytes and, 903–904 folate deficiency and, 673 Antecubital region, 15f at birth, 1107f, 1108f
Ammonia salts, in plasma, 652t hemolytic, 657, 673 Anterior, 13, 13f, 14t branches of, 736, 736t, 737f

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-4
aging and, 711 ARBs. See Angiotensin receptor blockers of Lyme disease, 274 Atherosclerotic lesions, 689
ascending, 680f, 686f, 728, 732f, 735f Arches, of foot, 247, 248f, 271 rheumatoid, 265, 273, 274f Athetosis, 496
blood flow in, 755f Arcuate arteries, of kidneys, 969, 969f of shoulder joint, 266 Athlete’s foot, 167
blood pressure in, 756, 756f Arcuate line, 242f suppurative, 274 Atlas vertebrae, 225f, 228, 229f
branches of, 735f Arcuate popliteal ligament, 269f, 270t treatment of, 273 Atom(s), 24–26
dense irregular elastic connective tissue Arcuate veins, of kidneys, 969, 969f tuberculous, 274 characteristics of, 25–28
in, 128t ARDS. See Adult respiratory distress Arthrodesis, for arthritis, 273 definition of, 2, 24
descending, 680f, 728, 732f, 735f, 737f syndrome Arthroplasty, 275 model of, 25f
resistance in, 756 Areola, 1057f, 1058 Arthus reaction, 806 Atomic mass, 26
thoracic, 728, 729f, 732f, 735f, 736t Areolar connective tissue, 522f Articular cartilage, 174, 255, 257f Atomic mass unit, unified, 26
branches of, 733–736, 736t Areolar glands, 1057f, 1058 bone growth at, 189 Atomic number, 25
trauma to, 728 Areolar tissue. See Loose connective tissue in endochondral ossification, 186f–187f Atomic structure, 25, 25f
Aortic arch, 6f, 680f, 684f, 685f, 686f, 688f, Arginine vasotocin, 641, 641t, 642 on long bones, 180, 181f, 182t, 191f Atopy, 806
728, 729f, 732f, 735f, 746f Arm, 15f. See also Upper limb structure of, 174 ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate
at birth, 1107f, 1108f bones of, 235–236 Articular disk, 255, 334f ATP synthase, in electron-transport
and blood pressure, 765–766 definition of, 14, 235 Articular facets, 226f, 227 chain, 944
Aortic arch reflex, 766 movements, muscles of, 348–351, of cervical vertebrae, 229f ATP-powered pumps, 61, 62f
Aortic bodies 348f–349f, 348t inferior, 226f, 230 functions of, 60t
and blood pressure, 769, 769f, 770f movements of, 350t of lumbar vertebrae, 231f Atresia, 1053
and carbon dioxide regulation, 861 Arm pit, 15f of sacrum, 232f Atrial contractions, premature, 696t
and oxygen regulation, 861 Arrector pili muscle, 150f, 160–161, 162f superior, 226f, 229f, 230, 230f, 231f Atrial diastole, 697
Aortic body chemoreceptor reflex, 709–710 ANS and, 573t of thoracic vertebrae, 230, 230f Atrial fibrillation, 696t, 697f
Aortic pressure curve, 703 contraction of, 160–161, 164 Articular process, 226t Atrial flutter, 696t
Aortic semilunar valve, 685f, 686f, 687, 687f, Arrhythmias inferior, 226f, 227, 231f Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH), 991
688f, 690f, 702f cardiac, 696t superior, 226f, 227, 230f, 231f and blood pressure, 773
Aortic valve stenosis, 710 sinus, 696t of thoracic vertebrae, 230f, 231f and sodium excretion, 1013t, 1014
Apertures ART. See Artificial reproductive Articular surface, 232f Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH)
lateral, 459, 460f technologies Articulation. See also Joint(s) mechanism
median, 459, 460f Arterial blood pressure, mean, 703–705, 704f definition of, 252 and blood pressure regulation, 773, 774f
Apex, of heart, 679, 680f, 685f, 691f Arterial capillaries, 723, 723f Artificial heart, 713 and extracellular fluid volume regulation,
Apgar scores, 1109, 1109t Arteries. See also specific arteries Artificial immunity 1009f, 1010, 1010f
Aphasia of abdomen, 737f active, 816f, 818 Atrial septal defect (ASD), 1098
anomic, 500 aging of, 727–728 passive, 816f, 818 Atrial systole, 697
conduction, 500 blood flow in, 755f Artificial insemination, 1047 Atrioventricular bundle, 691, 691f
expressive, 500 blood pressure in, 756, 756f Artificial pacemaker, 713 Atrioventricular canals, 683
jargon, 500 blood volume in, 755t Artificial reproductive technologies left, 686f
receptive, 500 of brain, 731f (ART), 1088 prenatal development of, 1097f
speech, 500 conducting, 725 Artificial skin, 161 right, 686f
Apical ectodermal ridge, 1091 coronary. See Coronary arteries Arytenoid cartilage, 829, 829f, 831f Atrioventricular (AV) node, 691–692, 691f
Apical foramen, 882, 883f distributing, 725 movement of, 830 block of, 696t
Apical membrane, of nephrons, reabsorption elastic, 725, 726f Arytenoid muscles complete, 696t, 697f
from, 974, 974t of head, 729f, 730–732, 730f, 731t, 732f oblique, 337t first-degree, 696t
Apical surface. See Free (apical) surfaces of kidneys, 969, 969f transverse, 337t second-degree, 696t
Aplastic anemia, 673 of lower limb, 729f, 738, 738f, 739f, 739t Ascending aorta, 680f, 686f, 728, 732f, 735f Atrioventricular valves, 683–687
Apnea, 859 muscular, 725, 726f Ascending axons, 421, 421f Atrium (pl., atria), 682
apo E-IV gene, 504 of neck, 730–732, 730f, 731t Ascending colon, 896f, 908, 908f left, 680f, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f, 687f,
Apocrine glands, 120, 122f of pelvis, 736, 736t, 737f, 738f Ascending limb, of loop of Henle, 966, 688f, 691f
Apocrine sweat glands, 162, 162f of penis, 1043, 1043f 968f, 969f prenatal development of, 1097f
ANS and, 573t pulmonary, 728 reabsorption in, 974t, 977f, 978f prenatal development of, 1097f, 1098
functions of, 162 resistance in, 756 Ascending lumbar vein, 746, 746f, 746t right, 680f, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f,
location of, 162 of shoulder, 734f Ascending pathways, and female sexual 688f, 743f
structure of, 162 of skeletal muscle, 281, 281f behavior, 1065 prenatal development of, 1097f
Apolipoprotein E (apo E), 504 of skin, 150f Ascending pharyngeal artery, 731t Atrophy, of muscular tissue, 307, 312
Aponeurosis, 321, 338f structure of, 723–725 Ascites, 880 Attachment proteins, 59–60, 60f
abdominal, 348f in systemic circulation, 728–738, 729f Ascorbic acid. See Vitamin C functions of, 60t
of biceps brachii, 353f testicular, 736t, 1041f ASD. See Atrial septal defect Attention deficit disorder (ADD), 505
epicranial, 331f of thorax, 732f Asians, bone mass in, 198 Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
plantar, 368, 369f of trunk, 729f Aspartic acid, structure of, 45f (ADHD), 400t, 505
Apoptosis, 143 of upper limb, 729f, 733, 733t, 734f Aspirin Auditory association area, 487f
Appendectomy, 908 Arterioles, 723f, 725 for arthritis, 273 Auditory cortex, 553
Appendicitis, 908 afferent, 966, 967f and bleeding, 663 primary, 487, 487f, 501f
Appendicular skeleton, 205f, 233–248 and filtration pressure, 972 in heart attack prevention, 663 Auditory meatus
components of, 233 ANS and, 573t for inflammation, 140 external, 208, 209f, 215t, 216f, 217f
number of bones in, 204t blood flow in, 755f Association areas, 487–490 internal, 214f, 215t, 217f
Appendix, 7f, 874f, 896f blood pressure in, 756, 756f Association fibers, 454, 454f cranial nerves and, 466t, 467t
vermiform, 880, 908, 908f blood volume in, 755t longitudinal, 454f Auditory ossicles, 204t, 216–224,
Appositional growth efferent, 966, 967f, 969f short, 454f 542, 543f
in bones, 185 and filtration pressure, 972 Association neurons. See Interneurons Auditory tube, 338, 542, 543f, 544f, 550f
in cartilage, 174f, 175 resistance in, 756 Asthma, 832, 841, 861, 864–865 opening of, 827f
Apraxia, 491 Arteriosclerosis, 727–728, 763, 1112 and shunted blood, 850 Auerbach plexus. See Myenteric plexus
Aquaporins, 988 and carotid sinus syndrome, 768 Astigmatism, 540 Auricles, 542, 543f, 682
and osmosis, 66 Arteriovenous anastomoses, 727 Astral fibers, 94f Auricular artery, posterior, 730f, 731t
Aqueous component, of pancreatic juice, 906 Arthritis Astrocytes, 379–380 Auricular nerve, greater, 426f
Aqueous humor, 526f, 528 classification of, 273 functions of, 379–380 Auricular surface, 232, 242f
Arachidonic acid, 643, 663 definition of, 273 structure of, 379, 380f of ilium, 242
and blood clots, 932 etiology of, 273 Astrocytosis, reactive, 379 Auricularis muscles
Arachnoid granulations, 459, 460f of gout, 274 Ataxic movements, 496 anterior, 330t, 331f
Arachnoid mater, 413, 413f, 457, 457f hemophilic, 273 Atherosclerosis, 144, 727, 728f, 1112–1113 posterior, 330t, 331f
Arbor vitae, 449, 450f juvenile rheumatoid, 273 hypercholesterolemia and, 74 superior, 330t, 331f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-5 Index
Auscultatory method, of blood pressure of motor neurons, 281, 281f, 289 epithelial tissue and, 110–111, 111f, Bile salts, 901, 914
measurement, 752 of multipolar neurons, 137t, 378, 379f 119, 119f formation of, cholesterol in, 43–44
Autocrine chemical signals, 587, 588t, myelinated, 381, 381f pseudostratified columnar, 117t functions of, 43–44, 885t
642–643 action potential propagation in, simple columnar, 114t structure of, 44f
Autoimmune diseases, 798, 807 393–394, 393f simple cuboidal, 114t Bilirubin, 659, 660f
aging and, 819 of neuromuscular junction, 290f simple squamous, 113t functions of, 885t
of peripheral nervous system, 439, 471 in olfactory cell, 515f stratified columnar, 116t in plasma, 652t
and rheumatoid arthritis, 273 organization of, 382 stratified cuboidal, 115t Biliverdin, 659, 660f
Automatic bladder, 996 of spinal cord neurons, 415 stratified squamous, 115t functions of, 885t
Autonomic ganglion, 376f, 565 structure of, 136, 378 transitional, 117t Binding proteins, 593–594, 594f
Autonomic nerve fibers, distribution of, type A, 394 functions of, 110–111 Binding site, of ligands, 595
569–570, 571f type B, 394 in hair follicle, 159f Binocular vision, 537f, 542
Autonomic nerve plexus, 569–570 type C, 394 secretion of, 110 Biofeedback, 580
sensory neurons in, 570 of unipolar neurons, 137t, 379, 379f Basic multicellular unit (BMU), 191 Biogenic amines, 399t–400t
Autonomic nervous system (ANS), 376f, unmyelinated, 381f, 382 Basic solutions, 38 Biomedical research, 9
564–581. See also Parasympathetic action potential propagation in, 392, 392f Basilar artery, 461, 731f, 731t, 732, 732f Biopsy, 112
nervous system; Sympathetic Axon hillock, 378, 378f Basilar membrane, 544f, 545f, 546, 549–552, applications of, 110, 112
nervous system Axoplasm, 378 550f, 551f mechanism of, 110, 112
anatomy of, 565–570 Azidothymidine (AZT), for HIV Basilic veins, 740f, 742f, 743, 743t, 744f, 745f Biotin, 933t, 934
and digestive system, 878 infections, 817 Basolateral membrane, 912 Biotinidase deficiency, newborn screening
disorders of, 581 Azygos vein, 742f, 743f, 745, 745t, Basophils, 651f, 653–654, 653t, 655f, 661 for, 949t
drugs and, 574 746f, 785f antibody binding to, 809f Biotransformation, 748
dual innervation by, 578 in innate immunity, 796t, 797 Bipennate muscle, 321, 322f
and enteric nervous system, 376, B-cell receptors, 801, 805f Bipolar cells, 536
565–566, 569 B cell(s), 661, 786, 793f BCOP. See Blood colloid osmotic pressure of retina, 531f
functions of, 376 activation of, 804–805 Bedsores. See Decubitus ulcers Bipolar layer, of retina, 531, 531f
generalizations about, 578–581 in adaptive immunity, 796t, 799 Bell’s palsy. See Facial palsy Bipolar neurons, 136
at rest vs. activity, 580–581 aging and, 818 Belly, of muscle, 321, 321f location of, 379
innervation by, 578, 579f and antibody production, 811 Benadryl, for motion sickness, 557 structure of, 379, 379f
cooperative effects of, 578–580 in lymphocyte development, 799–800 Benign tumors, 142 Birth
general vs. localized effects of, 580 origin of, 800f uterine, 1074, 1074f and episiotomy, 1056
opposite effects of, 578 processing of, 800f Benzodiazepines, 401t first year after, 1111
insulin and, 637 proliferation of, 804–805, 805f Beta carotene, and aging, 1113 pelvic outlet/inlet in, 243
organization of, 565f B7 cells, 804f Beta cells, of pancreatic islets, 634, positive feedback during, 12
physiology of, 572–576 Back pain, low, 342 635t, 905f Birth control, 1068–1070
regulation of, 576–578 Bacteria, inflammation response to, 139f Beta endorphins, 614t, 619. See also barrier methods, 1068
vs. somatic nervous system, 565, 566t Bacterial infections, of skin, 166 β-Endorphins behavioral methods, 1068
spinal cord injury and, 578 Balance, 542, 553–555, 554f Beta (β) particles, 29 chemical methods, 1068–1070
stimulatory vs. inhibitory effects of, 578 neuronal pathways for, 556, 557f Beta (β) proteins, 63 effectiveness of, 1068t
Autonomic neurons, in spinal cord, 415, 415f Balanced polymorphism, 657 Beta receptors, 575 lactation and, 1068
Autonomic plexuses, 423 Baldness, pattern, 158–159 drugs binding to, 574 prevention of implantation, 1070
Autonomic reflexes, 416, 576–578, 576f male, 1047 Beta thalassemia, 98 surgical methods, 1070
Autophagia, 82 Barbiturates, 400f, 400t Beta waves, 502 Birth defects, 1110
Autopsy, 110 Bare area, of liver, 899f, 900 Beta-oxidation, in fatty acid metabolism, 946 neural tube, 1096, 1096f
Autoregulation Barium, and x-rays, 29 Bicarbonate patent ductus arteriosus, 1109
of blood flow, 763 Barometric air pressure (PB), 842, 843f in body fluid compartments, 1005t reducing risk of, 1110
of urine production, 973 Baroreceptor(s), 577 carbonic acid and, as conjugate acid–base Birth-control pills, 1068, 1069
Autorhythmicity, of cardiac muscle, 693–694 and ADH secretion, 987 pair, 39 Birthmarks, 167
Autosomal chromosomes, 96 in blood pressure regulation, 765–766, concentrations in body, 971t, 1005t strawberry, 167
AV node. See Atrioventricular node 766f, 767f functions of, 27t, 885t Bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol), for
Avogadro’s number, 26 Baroreceptor reflexes, 706f, 707, 708f in pancreas, 906f, 907 diarrhea, 920
Awareness, of sensory information, 477 in blood pressure regulation, 765–766, in plasma, 652t 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), and
Axial skeleton, 205f, 206–233 766f, 767f in stomach, 890 hemoglobin and oxygen
components of, 206 Basal body, 85f, 86 Bicarbonate buffer system, 1021, 1021t transport, 855
functions of, 206 Basal cell, in olfactory cell, 515f, 517 Biceps brachii muscle, 7f, 325f, 347f, 348f, 349f, Bisphosphonates, 197
number of bones in, 204t Basal cell carcinoma, 142, 154, 154f 351, 351t, 352f, 353f, 354 Bitter taste, 518, 520f
Axillary artery, 729f, 733, 733t, 734f Basal layer, of endometrium, 1055, 1064f aponeurosis of, 353f Black hair, 160
in pulse monitoring, 759 Basal membrane, of nephrons, 974 innervation of, 430f Blackheads, 166
Axillary hair reabsorption from, 974t Biceps brachii tendon, 353f Bladder. See Urinary bladder
development of, 158 Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 953 Biceps femoris muscle, 326f, 362f, 363t, Blast(s), functions of, 122
functions of, 158 Basal nuclei (ganglia), 455, 455f, 496–497 364, 364f Blastocele, 1084f, 1085, 1088f
Axillary lymph node, 7f, 783f disorders of, 496–497 innervation of, 436f, 437f Blastocyst, 1084f, 1085
Axillary nerve, 427, 427f, 428, 428f functions of, 444t, 455, 496 tendon of, 364f implantation of, 1085–1087, 1086f
Axillary region, 15f structure of, 455, 455f Biceps tendinitis, 351 Bleeding
Axillary vein, 740f, 742f, 743, 743t, 744f, 745f Basal surface Bicipital groove. See Intertubercular groove aspirin and, 663
Axis vertebra, 225f, 228, 229f of epithelial tissue, 110 Bicipital muscle, 322, 323f vitamin K and, 666
Axoaxonic synapses, 403, 403f of nephrons, 974 Bicuspid valve, 683, 686f, 687f, 688f, 690f, 702f Blind spot, 527
Axolemma, 378 Base (chemical), 37–39. See also incompetent, 712 Blindness, 541
Axon(s), 377, 378, 378f Acid–base balance stenosis of, 712 color, 540, 540f
ascending, 421, 421f definition of, 37, 1020 Bifid spinous processes, 228 night, 538, 540–541
of bipolar neurons, 379, 379f strong, 38 Bifocals, 540 Blisters. See Bullae
classification of, 394 weak, 38 Bile, 659–660, 660f, 900, 901 Blocking agents, and autonomic nervous
collateral, 378, 378f Base (heart), 679 flow through liver, 902f system, 574
damage to Base pairs, complementary, 48 functions of, 885t Blonde hair, 159
replacement after, 140 Basement membrane in gallbladder, 904 Blood, 650
response to, 395, 395f of blood vessel, 724f, 726f production of, 901–903 ANS and, 573t
descending, 421, 421f of capillary, 722f secretion of, 903f carbon dioxide transport in, 654–656, 851,
diameter of, 394 definition of, 110 Bile canaliculus, 900, 901f 856, 857f
functions of, 136, 378 epidermis and, 153f Bile duct, common, 897f, 900, 900f, 905f chemistry of, 37, 672

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-6
circulation of. See Circulation Blood pressure, 700t, 752, 756, 756f. of mandible, 209, 209f, 210f, 223f remodeling of, 178, 183, 191
clotting. See Blood clot See also Shock of pancreas, 905, 905f in bone repair, 193, 193f
coagulation. See Coagulation antidiuretic hormone and, 614, 987 of ribs, 233, 234f repair of, 192–193, 193f
composition of, 651f and autonomic reflexes, 577, 578 of sphenoid bone, 218f resorption of, 176
as connective tissue, 132 blood flow and, positive feedback in, of sternum, 233 shapes of, 180, 180f
deoxygenated, 840 10–12, 12f of stomach, 888, 889f skeletal muscle attachment to, 281, 282f
disorders of, 673–674 blood volume and, 1010–1011 of uterus, 1050f, 1055 strength of, mechanical stress and, 191
extracellular matrix of, 132 classifications of, 756t of vertebrae, 225f, 226, 226f, 226t, 227f, structure of, 131
filtration of, 69 during exercise, 10, 12f 229f, 230f, 231f x-rays of, 29
flow. See Blood flow gravity and, 760 Body cavities, 16. See also specific cavities; Bone collar, 184, 186f–187f
formed elements, 651f, 653–662, 653t and homeostasis, 707–708 specific cavity Bone marrow, 132t, 133, 133t
production of, 654, 655f Laplace’s law and, 754 formation of, 1091 in adults, 181
functions of, 133t, 651–652 mean arterial, 703–705, 704f Body fluids, 1005–1006 in children, 181
hemoglobin transport in, 851–856 measurement of, 703, 753f compartments of, 1005t functions of, 133t
and hemostasis, 662–667 regulation of, 765–776 concentrations of, 1005t hemopoietic tissue in, 133
infectious diseases of, 674 adrenal medullary mechanism in, 767f, regulation of, 1006–1011 location of, 133t
location of, 133t 768–769, 768f volumes of, 1005t in long bones, 180–182, 181f
osmolality of atrial natriuretic mechanism in, 773, 774f regulation of, 1006–1011 red, 133, 133t, 654, 793f
hormonal regulation of, 1008f baroreceptor reflexes in, 765–766, Body mass index (BMI), 955 in adults, 181
reduction in, 1006f, 1007 766f, 767f Body odor, 162 in children, 181
oxygen transport in, 654, 658, chemoreceptor reflexes in, 769, 769f, 770f Body organization in intramembranous ossification, 183
851–856 and fluid shift mechanism, 773 definition of, 2 in long bones, 180–182, 181f, 182t
oxygenated, 840 long-term, 771–776, 774f structural and functional, levels of, 2–6, 3f stem cells, 176
pH of, 38 negative feedback in, 9–10, 11f Body parts, names of, 14, 15f structure of, 133t
carbon dioxide and, 856 renin-angiotensin-aldosterone Body positions, 13 transplantation of, 654
regulation of, 860, 860f mechanism in, 771, 772f, 774f Body regions, names of, 14–15, 15f for leukemia, 1085
and ventilation, 860–861 short term, 765–771 Body surfaces for sickle-cell disease, 657
plasma, 651f, 652–653, 1005 stress-relaxation response in, 773–776 epithelial tissue on, 110 yellow, 133, 133t, 654
as colloidal solution, 37 vasopressin mechanism in, 773, rule of nines for, 160, 160f in adults, 181
composition of, 652t 773f, 774f Body temperature in children, 181
volume of, 1005t Blood recipient, 668 and chemical reaction speed, 35 in long bones, 181, 181f, 182t
water content of, 36 Blood smear, 660, 661f exercise and, 307 Bone mass
structure of, 132, 133t Blood stem cells, 1085 and homeostasis, 711 age and, 198
substitutes for, 658 Blood supply regulation of, 954–956, 954f, 956f hormone replacement therapy and, 197
supply to brain, 461 aging and, 166 race and, 198
to brain, 461 to lungs, 840 integumentary system in, 150, Bone matrix, 132t, 175, 176f
to lungs, 840 Blood tests, diagnostic, 671–672 164, 165f aging and, 198
as transport medium, 122 Blood transfusions, 658, 667, 671 mechanisms of, 9 in classification of bones, 178
viscosity of, 754 Blood typing, 671 water in, 37 collagen in, 175, 175f, 178, 198
Blood cells, production of, 174 Blood vessels. See also Arteries; shivering and, 307 composition of, 175
Blood clot, 664, 664f. See also Capillaries; Veins Body weight, dietary fat and, 953 decalcification of, osteoclasts in, 176
Coagulation ANS and, 573t Bodybuilding, 370, 370f functions of, 131
dissolution of, 667, 667f blood volume in, 754–755, 755t Bohr effect, 854, 856 in intramembranous ossification, 184f
fatty acids and, 932 critical closing pressure of, 754 Bolus, 874 maintenance of, osteocytes in, 176
formation of cross-sectional area of, 755 Bond(s) minerals in, 175, 175f
control of, 666 dilation of, in inflammation response, 139 charge distribution in, 31t production of, osteoblasts in, 175–176
in inflammation response, 140 epithelial tissue and, basement membrane chemical, 26–28 structure of, 131
testing for ability, 672 between, 111 comparison of, 31t Bone tuberculosis, 192
in tissue repair, 140, 141f fetal, 901, 1087f hydrogen, 30–31, 30f, 31t Bone tumors, 192
prevention of, 663, 664 histology of, 724f Bond-line formulas, 30t Bony labyrinth, 543–546, 544f
retraction of, 666–667 maternal, 1087f Bone(s), 131–132. See also specific bones Bony palate. See Hard palate
unwanted, dangers of, 666 nerves of, 727 aging and, 144 Border (bone)
Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP), 758, occlusion of, 764 anatomy of, 180–183 definition of, 206t
760, 972–973, 972f permeability of, in inflammation blood supply in, 132 of scapula, 236f
Blood donor, 668 response, 139 in calcium homeostasis, 194–198, 194f Borrelia burgdorferi, 274
universal, 668 in skin, heat exchange in, 164, 165f cells. See specific types Bowman’s capsule, 965f, 966, 967f,
Blood flow, 752–754. See also Circulation structure of, 722–728 composition of, 131 968f, 969f
autoregulation of, 763 tunics of, 723–724 development of, 183–185 and filtration barrier, 970
blood pressure and, positive feedback in, types of, 726f disorders of, 192 and filtration pressure, 972–973, 972f
10–12, 12f valves in, 725, 726f features of, terms for, 206t urine flow through, 994
to cardiac muscle, reduced, 712 Blood volume, 754–755, 755t fractures in, 144 Boyle’s law, 841–842, 842t, 845
laminar, 751–752, 752f and blood pressure, 1010–1011 bone loss and, 198 Brachial anesthesia, 427
local control of, 762t regulation of, 1009f, 1010–1011 classification of, 195, 195f Brachial artery(ies), 8f, 729f, 733, 733t, 734f
long-term, 763–764 Blood–brain barrier, 379, 459, 461 mechanical stress and, 191 deep, 733t, 734f
by tissues, 761–764 astrocytes and, 379 substrates for uniting, 194 in pulse monitoring, 759
Poiseuille’s law and, 752–754 diffusion across, 461 functions of, 121, 122, 174 Brachial cutaneous nerve, medial, 427f
in skin, and skin color, 156 drugs and, 461 glucagon and, 635t Brachial plexus, 422f, 423, 426–433, 427f
through heart, 687–688, 688f functions of, 379 growth of, 185–190 branches of, 426, 427f
through kidneys, 969f Blood–testes barrier, 1037 at articular cartilage, 189 Brachial region, 15f
through liver, 902f Blue baby syndrome, 2, 712 factors affecting, 189–190 Brachial veins, 742f, 743, 743t, 744f,
through tissues, during exercise, 768 BMI. See Body mass index in length, 186, 191f 745, 745f
turbulent, 751–752, 752f BMR. See Basal metabolic rate in width, 189, 190f, 191f Brachialis muscle, 351, 351t, 352f, 353f, 355f
velocity of, 755f BMU. See Basic multicellular unit histology of, 175–180 innervation of, 430f
Blood grouping, 667–670 Body(ies) insulin and, 635t Brachiocephalic arteries, 729f, 730, 730f, 732f,
ABO, 667–668, 668f of clavicle, 236f interdigitation of, 253 734f, 735f
Rh, 669–670 definition of, 206t lines of stress within, 178–179, 178f Brachiocephalic veins, 742, 742t, 744f,
Blood infusion, 667 of epididymis, 1041f, 1042 loss of, 198 745t, 785f
Blood islands, 1096–1098 of femur, 245f mineral storage in, 174 left, 740f, 742f, 743f, 746f
Blood poisoning, 775 of hyoid bone, 224f number of, 204, 204t right, 742f, 743f, 746f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-7 Index
Brachioradialis muscle, 325f, 351, terminal, 834f Calcium location of, 132t
351t, 352f, 353f, 354f, 355f tertiary, 832, 833f, 837f abnormal concentrations of, 393, in long bones, 180, 181f, 182t
innervation of, 429f Brown adipose tissue, 128–129 1016, 1016t loss of, 198
Bradycardia, 696t functions of, 128–129 blood levels of in short bones, 182
Brain, 6f, 8f, 443–471. See also specific parts location of, 128 abnormal, 393 structure of, 131, 132t, 178, 178f
arteries of, 731f Brown hair, 160 regulation of, bone in, 194–198, 194f Cancer, 101, 841
and autonomic reflexes, 577–578, 577f Brown-Séquard syndrome, 495 in blood plasma, 652t breast, 789, 1058, 1059, 1073
blood supply to, 461 Bruisings, 458 in body fluid compartments, 1005t estrogen therapy and, 197
in central nervous system, 375, 375f Brunner glands. See Duodenal glands in cardiac muscle, 312, 710–711 bronchiogenic, 865
vs. computer, 443 Brush border, of duodenum, 896 characteristics of, 24t causes of, 143
damage to Bubonic plague, 791 in coagulation, 664t cervical, 110, 1055, 1073
and microglia, 380 Buccal fat pad, 880 concentration differences across plasma colon, 919
and shock, 775 Buccal glands, 883 membrane, 382t, 386 colorectal, 921
death, 1113 Buccal region, 15f concentrations in body, 1005t definition of, 142
development of, 445, 445f, 446f, 446t Buccinator muscle, 329, 330t, 331f, 332, 332f, deficiency of, 935t endometrial, 1073
divisions of, 444f, 444t 334f, 338f, 880, 884f in digestive system, 918 interferons in treatment of, 796
functions of, 444t, 476, 500–506 Buffer, 38–39 in extracellular fluid, regulation of, lung, 110, 865
nucleus in, 382 Buffer systems, in acid–base balance, 1021, 1016–1018, 1017f metastasis of, 786
PET scans of, 5, 5f 1021t, 1022f functions of, 27t ovarian, 1073
pituitary gland and, 611–613 Buffy coat, 671 as intracellular mediator, 601t pancreatic, 907
size of, 453, 507 Bulb and muscle tetany, 393 prevention of, 143
in speech, 500 of penis, 1042, 1043f and osteoporosis, 196, 197 prostate, 1044
traumatic injury to, 458 of vestibule, 1056 parathyroid hormone and, 194–195, 194f, skin, 154
tumors of, 504 Bulbar conjunctiva, 522f, 523 625, 626f, 918, 1016 tissue changes in, 110
Brain sand, in pineal body, 452 Bulbospongiosus muscle, 336f, 345t, 1057f percent in body, 24t of tongue, 881
Brain waves, 502, 502f Bulbourethral glands, 1033f, 1041f, 1043f, reabsorption from urine, 195 Cancer cells, genetic changes in, 143
sleep and, 502 1044–1045 and resting membrane potential, Cancer therapy
Braincase. See Neurocranium secretions of, 1045 384–385, 386 drugs in, 142
Brainstem, 444f, 445–449 Bulbus cordis, prenatal development of, 1098 in skeletal muscle contraction, side effects of, 142
and autonomic reflexes, 577, 577f Bullae, 167 292–293, 294f radioactive isotopes in, 29
cranial nerves and, 470–471, 498–500 Bundle branch(es) in skeletal muscle fatigue, 301–303 stem cells in, 654
damage to, 445 left, 691, 691f in skeletal muscle relaxation, 293 and taste aversions, 556
development of, 445, 446f aging and, 711 in smooth muscle contraction, 308, Candida albicans, 817
functions of, 444t, 498–500 right, 691, 691f 309f, 311 Candidiasis, with human immunodeficiency
nuclei of, 447f, 498 Bundle branch block, 697f storage in bones, 194 virus, 817
reflexes, 445, 470–471, 498–500 Bunion, 275 in treppe, 299 Canine teeth, 221f, 223f, 881f, 882, 882f
respiratory areas in, 856–858, 858f Burns uptake, PTH and, 195 Cannula, in blood pressure
structure of, 445–449, 447f classification of, 160–161 uses in body, 935t measurement, 752
Branchial arches, 1091, 1092f full-thickness (third-degree), 161, 161f, vitamin D and, 165, 195, 918, 1016 Canthi, 522, 522f
Breast(s), 15f, 1056–1058 168, 168f Calcium channel(s) Capacitation, of sperm cells, 1066
anatomy of, 1057f and infections, 166, 169 and G proteins, 599, 600, 600f Capillaries, 722–723, 722f
cancer of, 789, 1058, 1059, 1073 partial-thickness, 160, 161f, 168, 168f ligand-gated, and smooth muscle arterial, 723, 723f
estrogen therapy and, 197 first-degree, 160, 161f contraction, 311 blood flow in, 755f
development of, 1058, 1059 second-degree, 160, 161f voltage-gated, 290, 291f, 694 blood pressure in, 756, 756f
in female sex act, 1065 regeneration after, 160–161 during action potentials, 396 blood volume in, 755t
fibrocystic changes of, 1058 rule of nines for, 160, 160f in cardiac action potential, 692 continuous, 722, 723f
lobes of, 1057f, 1058 and shock, 775 of sarcoplasmic reticulum, fenestrated, 722, 723f
male, 1058 systemic effects of, 168–169, 169t 292, 293f lymphatic, 783, 784f, 793f
prepubescent, 1058 Bursa(e), 257, 257f. See also Calcium channel blockers, 694 resistance in, 756
Breastbone. See Sternum specific types for heart problems, 713 sinusoidal, 722–723, 723f
Breast-feeding, 1111 of elbow, 266f, 267 Calcium-induced calcium release types of, 722–723, 723f
Breathing. See Respiration of knee joint, 268f–269f, 270 (CICR), 693 venous, 723, 723f
Breathing cycle, normal, 845f of shoulder joint, 264 Calf, 15f Capillary(ies)
Broad ligaments, 1050f, 1055 Bursitis, 257 Callus permeability of, burns and, 168
of female reproductive system, 1049 of elbow, 267 definition of, 193 of skeletal muscle, 281, 281f
Broca’s aphasia, 500 of olecranon bursa, 267 external, 193 Capillary bed
Broca’s area, 487f, 500, 501f of shoulder joint, 266 formation of, in bone repair, 193, 193f control of blood flow through,
Bronchial artery, 736t, 834f subacromial, 351 internal, 193 761–763, 762f
Bronchial nerve, 834f of subcutaneous prepatellar ossification of, in bone repair, 193, 193f functional characteristics of, 761–763
Bronchial vein, 834f bursa, 271 Calmodulin Capillary exchange, 757–760, 758f
Bronchiogenic cancer, 865 Buttock, 15f in long-term memory, 504, 506f and edema, 760
Bronchioles, 832, 833f, 834f in smooth muscle, 308, 309f Capillary network, 723, 723f
respiratory, 834, 834f, 835 Calorie (cal), 928 Capitate bone, 239, 239f
terminal, 832, 833f, 834f Caffeine, 402t Calvaria, 206 Capitulum, 235, 237f
Bronchitis, 864 as diuretic, 988 cAMP. See Cyclic adenosine monophosphate Capsaicin, for arthritis, 273
tissue changes in, 110 Calcaneal region, 15f Canal Capsular pressure (CP), 972, 972f
Bronchogram, 833f Calcaneal tendon, 326f, 365, 367f definition of, 206t Capsule, 1053
Bronchomediastinal trunk, 784 Calcaneofibular ligament, 267t, 270f, 272, of Schlemm, 527f, 528 of lens of eye, 527f, 528
left, 785f 272f, 272t Canaliculus (pl. canaliculi), 176, 176f of lymph node, 787, 788f
right, 785f Calcaneus (heel), 15f, 246, 247f, bile, 900, 901f of spleen, 788, 790f
Bronchopulmonary segments, 248f, 270f in cancellous bone, 178, 178f of thymus, 790
836–838, 837f Calcification, zone of, 186, 188f in compact bone, 179, 179f Carbaminohemoglobin, 658
Bronchus (pl., bronchi), 7f, 680f, 826f Calcified cartilage, in endochondral lacrimal, 523, 523f Carbidopa, 496
cancer of, 426 ossification, 185, 186f–187f Cancellous bone, 131, 178–179 Carbohydrates, 39–41, 930–931
disorders of, 864–865 Calcitonin, 619, 620t, 624, 1017–1018 in endochondral ossification, 187f chemistry of, 39–41
primary, 832, 833f, 837f, 840f and calcium levels, 918 in flat bones, 182, 182f complex, 930
pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue and G proteins, 598t functions of, 132t composition of, 39
in, 117t osteoclast regulation by, 195–198 in intramembranous ossification, 183 digestion of, 913t, 912–913
secondary, 832, 833f, 837f for osteoporosis, 197 in irregular bones, 182 and exercise, 896

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-8
in foods, 929t Cardiac opening, of stomach, 888 growth of, 174f, 175, 186 structure of, 41
functions of, 39–40, 40t Cardiac output (CO), 703, 752, 765 insulin and, 635t uses in body, 930
glucose synthesized from, 32, 32f, 33f renal fraction of, 970 ossification in, 183–184, 185f Celom, 1092f
metabolism of, 938–945 Cardiac part, of stomach, 888, 889f perichondrium around, 130 formation of, 1091
as nutrients, 928 Cardiac plexus, 571f structure of, 130 Cementum, 882, 883f
in plasma membrane, 58, 59f and sympathetic axons, 570 zone of resting, 186, 188f Central canal
recommended amounts, 930 Cardiac reserve, 704–705 Cartilage cells. See Chondrocytes in compact bone, 132t, 179, 179f, 180
sources in diet, 930 Cardiac sphincter. See Lower esophageal Cartilage matrix, 130, 130t, 174–175, 174f in long bone, 181f
types of, 40–41 sphincter production of, 174 of spinal cord, 414f, 415, 445, 459f
uses in body, 930 Cardiac tamponade, 681 Caruncle, 522, 522f Central chemoreceptors, and
Carbon Cardiac veins, 741 Cascade effect, 603, 604f ventilation, 860
characteristics of, 24t, 25, 25f, 26 great, 683, 684f, 685f, 740f CAT scans. See Computerized axial Central diabetes insipidus (CDI), 990
in covalent bonds, 39 middle, 685f tomographic scans Central nervous system (CNS), 565. See also
percent in body, 24t small, 683, 684f, 685f, 740f Catabolism, 33, 937, 937t Brain; Spinal cord
Carbon dioxide Cardioacceleratory center, 707 Catalase and balance, 557f
and blood pH, 856 Cardiogenic shock, 775 function of, 82 components of, 375, 375f, 411
chemical formula for, 30t Cardioinhibitory center, 707 in peroxisomes, 82 development of, 445, 445f, 446f, 446t
chemistry of, 39 Cardiology, 678 Catalysts, 35 and digestive tract, 878
in citric acid cycle, 944 Cardiomyoplasty, 713 Cataracts, 528, 541, 541f disorders of, 462, 504–505
covalent bonds in, 27, 39 Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), aging and, 556 fatigue of, 301
and homeostasis, 708–710 679, 681 Catechol-O-methyltransferase, 397 functions of, 411
partial pressure gradients, 851, 852f Cardioregulatory center, 707 Cations glial cells of, 379–380
and hemoglobin and oxygen Cardiovascular physiology, definition of, 2 concentrations of functions of, 379
transport, 854 Cardiovascular system. See also Blood; Heart in body fluid compartments, 1005t types of, 379–380
partial pressure of acute renal failure and, 999 differences across plasma membrane, and hearing, 552f, 553
changes in, 852f aging and, 1112–1113 382–383, 382t infections in, 462, 504
at sea level, 849t burn injuries and, 169t definition of, 27 organization of tissue in, 382, 404
in plasma, 652t, 653 components of, 8f dissociation of, 32 regeneration in, 395
transport in blood, 654–656, 851, 856, 857f cystic fibrosis and, 857 Caucasians, bone mass in, 198 Central nervous system (CNS) ischemic
and ventilation, 861 diabetes mellitus and, 645 Cauda equina, 8f, 412, 412f, 422f response, 769–771
Carbon monoxide, and oxygen transport, 658 diarrhea and, 921 in spina bifida, 227f and blood pressure, 770f
Carbonic acid functions of, 8f Caudal, 13, 13f, 14t Central sensitization, 489
bicarbonate ions and, as conjugate leiomyomas and, 1074 Caudate lobe, of liver, 899, 899f Central sulcus, 453f, 454, 487f
acid–base pair, 39 muscular dystrophy and, 314t Caudate nucleus, 455, 455f Central tendon
formation of, as reversible reaction, 33 and osteoporosis, 197t Caveolae, in smooth muscle, 308 of diaphragm, 343f, 838–839
Carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer postmenopausal, 1071t Cavernous sinus, 741f, 741t of perineum, 336f, 1104
system, 1021 prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t, Cavities, body, 16. See also Central vein, of liver, 748, 900, 901f
Carbonic anhydrase, 656, 854 1096–1098 specific cavities Centriole(s), 56f, 84, 1039f
and acid–base balance, 1023, 1023f, 1024 systemic lupus erythematosus and, 820 CBC. See Complete blood count in cell division, 84
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, 988 Caries, 883 CCK. See Cholecystokinin functions of, 57t
Carboxyhemoglobin, 658 Carina, 832, 833f CD4 cells, 802, 803f, 804f in mitosis, 94f
Carboxyl group, 42 Carotene, and skin color, 156 CD8 cells, 802 of sperm, 1035f
in amino acids, 45, 45f Carotid artery(ies), 6f, 8f CD28 cells, 804f structure of, 57t, 84, 84f
in fatty acids, 42 common, 730f, 731t, 734f, 759 CDI. See Central diabetes insipidus Centromere, 78, 78f, 1038, 1039f
Carboxypeptidase, 906 left, 729f, 730, 732f, 735f Cecum, 896f, 908, 908f in mitosis, 94f
functions of, 885t right, 730, 732f, 735f Celiac disease, 814, 919 Centrosomes, 56f, 84–85
Carcinoma. See also Cancer external, 729f, 730, 730f, 731t Celiac ganglion, 571f functions of, 84
definition of, 142 left, 732f Celiac plexus, 468t, 571f in microtubule formation, 84–85
Cardiac arrhythmias, 696t right, 732f and sympathetic axons, 570 replication of, 93
Cardiac assistance, 713 internal, 461, 729f, 730, 730f, 731f, 731t Celiac trunk, 729f, 735f, 736, 736t, 737f Cephalic, 13, 13f, 14t
Cardiac branch, 468t left, 732f Cell(s), 55–103 Cephalic phase, of stomach secretions,
Cardiac cycle, 695–703, 698f, 699f, 700t–701t right, 732f in adaptive immunity, 796t 891–892, 893f
Cardiac muscle, 311–312, 687f, 689–691, 690f Carotid bodies and aging, 144 Cephalic veins, 740f, 742f, 743, 743t,
action potentials of, 311, 692–693, 693f and blood pressure, 769, 769f, 770f definition of, 3 744f, 745f
aging and, 711 and carbon dioxide regulation, 861 division of, 92–93 Cerebellar artery(ies)
autorhythmicity of, 693–694 and oxygen regulation, 861 functions of, 55, 56 anterior inferior, 731f, 731t
blood flow to, reduced, 712 Carotid body chemoreceptor reflex, 709–710 in innate immunity, 796–797, 796t posterior inferior, 731f, 731t
cells, 135t, 311, 689, 690f Carotid canals, 214f, 215, 215t, 216f, 217f life cycle of, 91–93, 91f superior, 731f, 731t
electrical properties of, 692–695 groove of, 218f interphase in, 91–92, 91f Cerebellar peduncles
regeneration of, 140 Carotid plexus, internal, 571f mitosis in, 92–93 inferior, 447f, 449, 486f
characteristics of, 134, 134t, 279, 280t Carotid sinus, 730, 730f metabolism, 56, 937, 938f middle, 447f, 449
contraction, 312 and blood pressure, 765–766 physiology of, 2 superior, 447f, 449
regulation of, 375 Carotid sinus reflex, 766 structure of, 55f, 58–86 Cerebellum, 444f, 449, 451f
functions of, 134, 134t, 135t, 279 Carotid sinus syndrome, 768 visualization of, 58 comparator function of, 497, 497f
gap junctions in, 120, 311 Carpal bones, 204t, 205f, 235f, 238, 239f Cell body(ies), 133f development of, 445, 446f, 446t
glucagon and, 635t Carpal region, 15f of bipolar neurons, 379f dysfunction, 498
histology of, 311 Carpal tunnel, 239, 432, 432f composition of, 136 functions of, 444t, 449
insulin and, 635t Carpal tunnel syndrome, 239, 432 damage to, and neuron death, 140 in implicit memory, 503
intercalated disks of, 120, 135t, 311, Carpals, 239 of motor neurons, 281 lateral hemisphere of, 497
690f, 691 Carrier(s), of genetic diseases, 866 of multipolar neurons, 137t, 379f in muscle control, 497, 497f
location of, 134, 135t Carrier proteins, 61, 62f of unipolar neurons, 137f, 379, 379f nuclei of, 449
vs. other muscle types, 134t in membrane transport, 65 Cell mass, inner, 1084f, 1085 structure of, 449, 450f, 497
pacemaker cells of, 311 specificity of, 65 Cell membrane. See Plasma membrane Cerebral aqueduct, 448f, 458, 459f
positive feedback in, 10–12, 12f Carrier-mediated transport, 65 Cell-mediated immunity, 799, 799t, Cerebral arterial circle, 461, 731f,
refractory period of, 695 Cartilage, 130, 174–175. See also specific 812, 815f 732, 732f
striations of, 135t, 690f types aging and, 819 Cerebral artery(ies)
structure of, 134–135, 134t, 135t composition of, 130 Cellulose anterior, 461, 731f, 731t, 732
Cardiac nerves, and extrinsic regulation of functions of, 121, 174 function of, 40t, 41 middle, 461, 731f, 731t, 732
heart, 706 glucagon and, 635t sources in diet, 930 posterior, 461, 731f, 731t, 732

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-9 Index
Cerebral compression, 462 Cesarean section, 243 Chlamydia trachomatis, 1072 Chromatin, 56f, 77, 77f, 78, 78f
Cerebral control, of ventilation, 859–860 CF. See Cystic fibrosis and vision loss, 541 functions of, 57t
Cerebral cortex, 454 CFTR. See Cystic fibrosis transmembrane Chloride structure of, 57t
blood supply to, 461 conductance regulator in body fluid compartments, 1005t Chromium
functional regions of, 487f cGMP. See Cyclic guanosine monophosphate concentration differences across plasma characteristics of, 24t
functions of, 501 Chain ganglia membrane, 382, 382t deficiency of, 935t
left, 501 inferior cervical, and extrinsic regulation concentrations in body, 971t, 1005t percent in body, 24t
motor areas of, 491 of heart, 706 deficiency of, 935t uses in body, 935t
right, 501 thoracic sympathetic, and extrinsic in digestive system, 918 Chromosome(s), 77, 78, 96–97, 1039f
sensory areas of, 486–487 regulation of heart, 706 in extracellular fluid, regulation of, 1014 formation of, in mitosis, 77
in speech, 500, 501f Chalazion, 523 formation of ions, 27, 27f homologous, 97, 97f
Cerebral hemispheres Chambers, of eye, 528 functions of, 27t in mitosis, 94f
dominance in, 501 Chancre, in syphilis, 1073 in plasma, 652t number of, 1038
left, 453, 453f Channel proteins, 60–61, 63f plasma membrane permeability to, sex, 96
functions of, 501 functions of, 60t 383, 383f in sex cells (gametes), 96
right, 453, 453f receptor molecules linked to, 62–63, 63f and resting membrane potential, 384–385 in somatic cells, 96
functions of, 501 Cheek, 15f, 880, 881f in stomach, 890 structure of, 78f
Cerebral medulla, 454 Cheekbone. See Zygomatic bone uses in body, 935t X, 96, 314
Cerebral palsy, 496 Chemical bonding, 26–28 Chloride channels, in cystic fibrosis, 63 Y, 96
Cerebral peduncles, 447f, 448f, 449 comparison of, 31t Chloride shift, 856, 857f Chromosome analysis. See Karyotype
Cerebral sulcus, 453f, 454 covalent, 27–28, 28f, 31t Chlorine Chronic adrenocortical insufficiency. See
Cerebrocerebellum, 497 ionic, 26–27, 27f, 31t characteristics of, 24t Addison disease
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 413, 459–461 Chemical control, of ventilation, 860–861 percent in body, 24t Chronic glomerular nephritis, 997
composition of, 459 Chemical digestion, 875, 912 Choanae, 826, 827f Chronic hormone regulation, 593f
flow of, 459–461, 460f Chemical energy, 34 Choking, Heimlich maneuver for, 832 Chronic inflammation, 140
functions of, 459 Chemical level, of body organization, 2, 2f Cholecalciferol. See Vitamin D Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
hydrocephalus and, 461 Chemical mediators, of innate immunity, Cholecystokinin, 892, 892t, 903f (COPD), 864
production of, 459, 460f 794–796, 794t in pancreas, 907 Chronic pain syndrome, 312, 489
skull fractures and, 459 Chemical reactions, 32–36 Cholesterol Chronic rejection, of graft, 807
spinal tap of, 413 decomposition, 32–33, 32f, 33f and coronary heart disease, 916 Chronic renal failure, 997
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure, energy in, 34 functions of, 43–44, 885t Chronic subdural hematoma, 458
increased, and retina, 528 enzymes and, 47 and gallstones, 904 Chyle, 783, 793f
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA). See Stroke oxidation–reduction, 34 HDL, 916, 916f Chylomicrons, 915, 916f
Cerebrum, 444f, 453–456 reversible, 33 LDL, 915–916, 916f Chyme, 890, 907–908, 918
and autonomic reflexes, 577f speed of, 35–36, 47 endocytosis of, 74 Chymotrypsin, 906
development of, 445, 446f, 446t synthesis, 32, 32f, 33f transport of, 917f functions of, 885t
in explicit memory, 503 temperature and, 35 in plasma, 652t Cialis, 1049
functions of, 444t water in, role of, 37 in plasma membrane, 58, 59f CICR. See Calcium-induced calcium release
gyri of, 453–454, 453f Chemical regulation, of digestive sources in diet, 931 Ciliary arteries, short, 525
lobes of, 453f, 454 system, 878 structure of, 44f Ciliary body, 526, 526f, 527f
structure of, 453–455, 453f Chemical signals, 595 uses in body, 931 Ciliary ganglion, 464t, 571f
sulci of, 453–454, 453f autocrine, 587, 642–643 Cholesterol esterase, functions of, 885t and parasympathetic axons, 570
Cerumen, 542 for cellular communication. See Choline, in action potentials, 291, Ciliary glands, 523
functions of, 162 Hormone(s); Neurotransmitters 291f, 397 Ciliary muscles, 526, 527f
production of, 162 intercellular, 587 Cholinergic neurons, 572 ANS and, 573t
Ceruminous glands, 162, 542 classification of, 588t Cholinergic receptors, of autonomic nervous Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), 538
Cervical canal, 1050f, 1055 paracrine, 587, 642–643 system, 575 Ciliary processes, 526, 527f
Cervical cap, 1068, 1069f Chemical synapses, 396–404, 397f, 399t–402t Chondroblasts Ciliary ring, 526, 527f
Cervical chain ganglia, inferior, and extrinsic Chemiosmotic model, 944 in cartilage growth, 174f, 175 Cilium (pl., cilia), 56f, 85–86
regulation of heart, 706 Chemistry, 23–50 in endochondral ossification, 184 on ependymal cells, 380, 380f
Cervical enlargement, of spinal cord, basic, 24–32 functions of, 122, 174 in epithelial tissue, 118
412, 412f definition of, 23 in hyaline cartilage, 174, 174f pseudostratified columnar, 117t
Cervical intervertebral disks, herniation inorganic, 36–39 origin of, 176 functions of, 57t, 85–86, 118
of, 228 organic, 36, 39–50 in perichondrium, 174 vs. microvilli, 85–86
Cervical lymph node, 7f, 783f Chemoreceptor(s) Chondrocytes, 130, 130t, 131f movement of, 85–86, 85f, 86f
Cervical mucous glands, of central, 860 in bone growth, 188f, 189 in olfactory cell, 515f
endometrium, 1055 functions of, 477 in cartilage growth, 174f, 175 structure of, 57t, 85, 85f, 118
Cervical nerves, 422f peripheral, 860 in endochondral ossification, 184, 185 of trachea, 831f, 832
functions of, 423f and ventilation, 860 functions of, 122 Cimetidine (Tagamet), 892
nomenclature for, 422 Chemoreceptor reflexes, 706f, 708–710, 709f in hyaline cartilage, 174, 174f Cingulate gyrus, 455, 456f
transverse, 426f aortic body, 709–710 nuclei of, 174f functions of, 506
Cervical plexus, 422f, 423, 425–426, 426f in blood pressure regulation, 769, Chondroitin sulfate, 123f, 124 Circle of Willis. See Cerebral arterial circle
Cervical region, 15f 769f, 770f for arthritis, 273 Circuits, oscillating, 405, 406f
Cervical ribs, 233 carotid body, 709–710 Chondromalacia, of knee, 271 Circular folds, 905f
Cervical vertebra, 225f, 228–230, 228t Chemosensitive area, and ventilation, 860 Chondronectin, 124 of duodenum, 896, 897f
fifth, 229f Chemotactic factors, in innate immunity, 796 Chondroplasty, for arthritis, 273 Circular muscle, 322, 322f
first (atlas), 225f, 228, 229f Chemotaxis, 661, 796 Chondrosarcoma, 142 Circular muscle layer
injuries to, 233 Chemotherapy, and taste aversions, 556 Chorda tympani nerve, 465t, 466t, 519, 521f, of digestive tract, 877f
number of, 204t, 225 Chest, 15f 543, 543f, 544f of large intestine, 909f
second (axis), 225f, 228, 229f Chest clapping, for cystic fibrosis, 867 Chordae tendineae, 683, 686f, 687f of stomach, 889f
seventh, 225f, 234f, 326f, 328f, 329f, 347f Chest percussion, for cystic fibrosis, 867 Chorion, 1087 Circulation
structure of, 228, 229f Chest physical therapy, for cystic Chorionic villi, 1087 collateral, 764
third, 341f, 343f fibrosis, 867 in mature placenta, 1087f coronary, 682–683, 685f
whiplash and, 232 Chewing, 874, 875t, 883 Chorionic villus sampling, 1103 dynamics of, 751–755
Cervicothoracic ganglion, 571f muscles of, 332, 333t, 334f Choroid, 525, 526f, 527f, 531f pulmonary, 678, 679f, 728
Cervix, 1050f, 1055 Chicken pox, 167, 439 Choroid plexuses, 380, 459 systemic, 678, 679f
cancer of, 1055, 1073 Chief cells, of stomach, 889f, 890 Christmas factor, in coagulation, 664t arteries in, 728–738, 729f
tissue changes in, 110 Childbirth. See Birth Chromatids, 78, 78f, 97, 1038, 1039f physiology of, 755–760
opening of, 1050f Chin, 15f in mitosis, 94f veins in, 739–750, 740f

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-10
Circulatory shock, 771, 775 Cochlear implant, 558, 558f Colostrum, 1111 Compound exocrine glands, 120, 121f
Circulatory system Cochlear nerve, 467t, 543f, 545f, 547, 550f Column(s) Compound fracture. See Open fracture
of newborn, 1107–1109, 1107f–1108f Cochlear nucleus, 447f, 553 spinal, 414 Compulsion, 506
prenatal development of, 1096–1098 Codominance, 98 of vagina, 1055 Computed tomographic (CT) scans, 4, 4f, 5f
Circulatory system shock, 1016 Codons Columnar epithelial cells, shape of, 113, 118 Computer(s)
Circumcision, 1043 anticodons for, 89 Columnar epithelial tissue vs. brain, 443
Circumduction, 262, 262f start, 89 pseudostratified, 113, 117t, 119t nerve replacement with, 438
Circumferential lamellae, 179f, 180 stop, 89 simple, 109f, 114t Computerized axial tomographic (CAT)
in bone growth, 189 Coenzymes, 47 stratified, 116t, 119t scans, 4
Circumflex artery, 683, 685f in vitamin production, 934 Comminuted fracture, 195, 195f Concentration gradient
lateral, 738f Cofactors, 47 Commissural fibers, 454, 454f in diffusion, 65–66
descending branch of, 738f Cognition, glutamate and, 401t, 402t Commissures and ion channels, 287
Cirrhosis, of liver, 904 Coitus interruptus, 1068 anterior, 456f Concentric contractions, 300, 300t
alcoholism and, 951 Cold receptors, 477–478 between cerebral hemispheres, 501 Concentric lamellae, 179, 179f
Cisterna chyli, 785f, 786 Cold sores, 167, 471 gray, 414–415, 414f in bone growth, 189, 190f
Cisternae, 79, 81f Colic flexures white, 414–415, 414f in bone remodeling, 191
Citracal. See Citrate left, 908f Common bile duct, 897f, 900, 900f, 905f Conchae, 827f, 828
Citrate, and bone mass, 197 right, 908f Common carotid artery, 730f, 731t, 734f Concomitant strabismus, 540
Citric acid cycle, 938f Colitis, 919 left, 729f, 730, 732f, 735f Concussion, 458, 462, 505
adenosine triphosphate in, 941t Collagen in pulse monitoring, 759 Conditioned reflexes, 503–504
in aerobic respiration, 942f, 943f, 944 aging and, 1112 right, 730, 732f, 735f Condom, 1068, 1068t, 1069f
enzymes of, 83 in bone matrix, 175, 175f Common clotting pathway, 666 Conducting arteries, 725
Classic hemophilia, 674 functions of, 2 Common cold, 865 Conducting system, of heart, 691–692, 691f
Classical pathway, of innate immunity, 794, in osteogenesis imperfecta, 177 Common hepatic artery, 736t, 737f Conducting zone, of tracheobronchial tree,
795f, 809 prevalence of, 123 Common hepatic duct, 900, 900f 832–836
Clasts, functions of, 122 structure of, 2, 123 Common iliac arteries, 728, 729f, 736, 736t, Conduction
Clavicle, 7f, 15f, 204t, 205f, 234f, 235, 235f, type I, 123 738f, 963f in body temperature regulation, 954, 954f
236f, 334f, 335f, 350f, 352f type II, 123 at birth, 1107f, 1108f saltatory, 393, 393f
in respiration, 838f type III, 123 left, 735f, 737f, 740f, 749f Conduction aphasia, 500
structure of, 235 Collagen α-chains, 123, 123f, 177 right, 737f, 749f Conduction deafness, 558
surface anatomy of, 234f Collagen fibers, 23f, 123, 123f Common iliac veins, 746, 746t, 750f, 963f Condylar process, 223f
Clavicular region, 15f aging and, 166, 198 left, 740f, 749f Condyle, definition of, 206t
Clearance, 991–992 in bone matrix, 178, 198 right, 747f, 749f, 750f Cone(s), 526, 532t, 535–536
calculation of, 991 in connective tissue Communicating arteries distribution of, 536
Cleavage furrow, 93, 94f, 1039f cartilage, 130, 131f anterior, 731f, 732 Cone cell, of retina, 531f
Cleavage lines, 157, 157f dense irregular elastic, 126 posterior, 731f, 731t, 732 Cone-rod dystrophy, 538
Cleft lip, 216, 1093 dense regular, 125–126 Communicating rami, 422, 424f Congenital disorders, 1110. See also Birth
Cleft palate, 216, 1094 dense regular collagenous, 127t Communication, 875t defects
Clergyman’s knee, 271 dense regular elastic, 126, 127t Compact bone, 131, 178f, 179–180 Congenital heart conditions, 712
Clinical age, 1082 extracellular matrix of, 123 blood vessels in, 179f, 180 Congenital immunodeficiencies, 807
Clinical crown, of tooth, 882, 883f loose, 126t in endochondral ossification, 187f Congestive heart disease, aging and, 711
Clinical perineum, 1056, 1056f, 1057f in periosteum, on long bones, 182 in flat bones, 182, 182f Conjugate acid–base pair, 39
Clitoris, 1050f, 1056, 1056f, 1057f in skin, 157f, 166 functions of, 132t Conjugated bilirubin, 659, 660f
in female sex act, 1065 in woven bone, 178 in irregular bones, 182 Conjugation
Cloaca, 1092f, 1099, 1099f, 1100f Collagen fibrils, 123, 123f location of, 132t and excretion, 979
Cloacal membrane, 1091, 1092f, 1099f Collagen molecule, 123 in long bones, 180, 181f, 182t of hormones, 595, 595t
Clones, in lymphocyte development, 799 Collagenous connective tissue loss of, 198 Conjunctiva, 523, 526f, 527f
Closed fracture, 195 dense irregular, 126, 128t in short bones, 182 Conjunctival fornix
Closed head injury, 458 dense regular, 125–126, 127t structure of, 131, 132t, 179–180, 179f inferior, 522f, 523
Clotting factors. See Coagulation factor(s) Collarbone. See Clavicle Comparator function, cerebellar, 497, 497f superior, 522f, 523
CNS. See Central nervous system Collateral axons, 378, 378f Compensated shock, 775 Conjunctivitis, 523
CNTF. See Ciliary neurotrophic factor Collateral circulation, 764 Competition, in mediated transport, Connecting stalk, 1088f, 1089f
CO. See Cardiac output Collateral ganglia, 566, 566f, 567f 69, 69f Connective tissue, 120–134. See also Blood;
Coagulation, 664–666, 665f. See also Collateral ligaments, 270 Complement Bone(s)
Blood clot lateral (tibial), 268f–269f, 270t, 271, 271f antibody binding to, 809f adipose, 128–129, 129t
disseminated intravascular, 674 medial (fibular), 266f–269f, 268f–269f, in innate immunity, 794, 794t adult, 124–134
fatty acids and, 932 270t, 271 Complement cascade, 794, 795f aging and, 144
testing for, 672 radial, 266f, 267 antibodies in, 810f cartilage, 130
Coagulation factor(s), 664–665, 664t, 665f ulnar, 266f, 267 Complementary base pairs, 48 cells of, 122
Coagulation factor V, 663 Collecting duct, 965f, 966, 968f, 969f Complete blood count (CBC), 671–672 classification of, 110, 124, 125t
Cobalamin. See Vitamin B12 reabsorption in, 974t, 976 Complete dominance, 98 dense, 124–126, 127t, 128t
Cobalt Colles fracture, 238 Complete fracture, 195, 195f diversity of, 110
characteristics of, 24t Colliculus (pl., colliculi), 448 Complete heart block, 696t, 697f embryonic, 124
deficiency of, 935t inferior, 447f, 448, 553 Complete protein, sources in diet, 932 extracellular matrix of, 122, 123–124
percent in body, 24t superior, 447f, 448, 448f, 537f, 538, 553 Complete tetanus, 298 functions of, 121–122
uses in body, 935t Colloid, definition of, 652 Complex carbohydrates, 930 of heart, 690f
Cocaine, 400t Colloidal solution recommended amounts, 930 hemopoietic, 133
Coccidioidomycosis, 865 definition of, 37 Compliance loose, 124, 126t
Coccygeal bone. See Coccyx plasma as, 37 decreased, 846 ossification in, 183
Coccygeal nerves, 412f, 422, 422f, 438 Colon, 908–909 of lungs, 846 reticular, 129, 129t
Coccygeal plexus, 422f, 423, 438 ascending, 908, 908f aging and, 863 in skeletal muscle, 280–281, 281f
Coccygeus muscle, 344, 345t cancer of, 919 of thorax, 846 Connective tissue layer
Coccyx, 204t, 205f, 225, 225f, 232, 232f, 241, descending, 908, 908f vascular, 754–755 of digestive tract, 877f
346f, 360f, 1034f, 1057f reflexes in, 911f Complicated fracture, 195 of stomach, 889f
injuries to, 233 sigmoid, 908 Compound(s), 28–29 Connexons, 394, 396f
male vs. female, 244f transverse, 879f, 908, 908f definition of, 28 Constant region, of antibody, 808
Cochlea, 543f, 544f, 545f, 546 Color blindness, 101t, 540, 540f formulas for, 29, 30t Constipation, 911, 919
Cochlear duct, 545f, 546, 550f Color vision, 535–536, 535f molecular mass of, 29 Contact hypersensitivity, 806–807
Cochlear ganglion, 545f, 547 Colorectal cancer, aging and, 921 vs. molecules, 28–29 Continuous capillaries, 722, 723f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-11 Index
Contraception. See Birth control of hair, 158, 159f Creatinine Cutaneous innervation, sensory,
Contractility, of muscle, 279. See also Muscle of kidney, 962, 964f, 965f, 969f concentrations in body, 971t trigeminal nerve in, 463–469
contraction(s) of lymph node, 787, 788f in plasma, 652t Cutaneous sensation, projection of, 487
Contraction phase, of muscle twitch, 295, of ovary, 1051, 1051f Cremaster muscle, 1034, 1041f, 1042 Cuticle
296f, 296t taste area of, 521f Crenation, 68, 68f of hair, 158, 159f
Contrecoup, 458 of thymus, 791, 792f Crest, on bone, 206t of nail, 163, 163f
Control center, in negative feedback, 10 Corti, organ of. See Organ of Corti Crest cells, neural, 110 CVA (cerebrovascular accident). See Stroke
Contusions, 458 Cortical nephrons, 965f, 966 in mesenchyme formation, 124 Cyanide poisoning, 50
Conus medullaris, 412, 412f, 422f Cortical sinus, of lymph node, 788f Cretin, 622 Cyanosis, 156, 166
Convection, in body temperature regulation, Corticobulbar tract, 492t–493t, 493, 494f CRH. See Corticotropin-releasing hormone and heart disease, 712
954, 954f Corticospinal tract, 493, 494f Cribriform plate, 212f, 213, 214f, 220f, Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
Convergence, visual, 531 anterior, 492f, 492t–493t, 493, 494f 515f, 827f and G proteins, 516, 516f, 599–600, 601f
Cooper’s ligaments. See Mammary ligaments lateral, 492f, 492t–493t, 493, 494f fracture of, 214 as intracellular mediator, 601t
COPD. See Chronic obstructive pulmonary Corticotropin. See Adrenocorticotropic olfactory nerve and, 464t Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP),
disease hormone Crick, Francis, 96 601–603
Copper Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 612 Cricoarytenoid muscle(s) and erection, 1048
characteristics of, 24t and adrenal cortex, 630 lateral, 337t as intracellular mediator, 601t
deficiency of, 935t Cortisol, 628t, 630 posterior, 337t Cyclic hormone regulation, 593f
percent in body, 24t and intracellular receptors, 605t Cricoid cartilage, 338f, 827f, 829, 829f, 831f Cyclizine (Marezine), for motion
uses in body, 935t secretion control of, 631f Cricothyroid ligament, 829f sickness, 557
Coracoacromial ligament, 266t secretion disorders of, 631t Cricothyroid muscle, 334f, 335f, 337t, 338f Cyclooxygenase (COX), 663
Coracobrachialis muscle, 348f, 348t, 353f stress and, 633 Cricothyrotomy, 832 Cystic duct, 900, 900f
innervation of, 430f Cortisone, for inflammation, 140 Crista Cystic fibrosis (CF), 63, 101t, 866–867, 915
Coracohumeral ligament, 266t Costal cartilage, 233, 234f of bone, 206t Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance
Coracoid process, 235, 236f, 347f, 350f Costimulation, in immunity, 802, 803f, 804f of mitochondria, 83, 83f regulator (CFTR), 866
Cords, of brachial plexus, 426 Costochondral joint, 255, 256f Crista ampullaris, 554, 555f, 556f Cystic veins, 747t, 748f
lateral, 427f, 429f, 430f, 431f, 432f Cough reflex, 841 Crista galli, 207t, 212f, 213, 214f, 220f Cystitis, 994
medial, 427f, 429f, 430f, 431f, 432f Coumadin, for venous thrombosis, 761 Crista terminalis, 682 Cystoscopy, 994
posterior, 427f, 428f, 429f, 430f, 431f, 432f Countercurrent mechanism, 982 Critical closing pressure, of blood vessels, 754 Cytes, functions of, 122
Cori cycle, in anaerobic respiration, 942 Coup, 458 Crohn disease, 919 Cytokine(s), 794
Cornea, 522f, 525, 526f, 527f Covalent bonds, 27–28, 28f Cross section, 15, 19f functions of, 803t
transplantation of, 525 double, 28 Cross-bridge, actin-myosin, 282f, 283, 283f, in immunity, 802
Corniculate cartilage, 829, 829f, 831f nonpolar, 28, 31t 293–295 Cytokine receptor, 803f
Cornified cells, in stratum corneum, 153 polar, 28, 28f, 31t in skeletal muscle contraction, Cytokinesis, 93, 94f
Cornu, 206t single, 28 293–295, 294f Cytologic aging, 1113
greater, 224f Covalent compounds, dissociation of, 31 in smooth muscle contraction, 308, 309f Cytology, definition of, 2
lesser, 224f COX. See Cyclooxygenase Cross-bridge cycling, 293 Cytoplasm, 56, 56f, 76–77
Corona radiata, 1051f, 1053, 1054f, Coxa(e), 17f, 241 Cross-bridge movement, 293–295 cytokinesis of, 93
1082, 1082f number of, 204t Crossed extensor reflex, withdrawal reflex functions of, 57t
Coronal plane, 15, 17f surface anatomy of, 243f with, 420, 420f structure of, 57t
flexion and extension defined by, 260f Coxal bone, 196f, 205f, 240f, 241, 241f, 242f Crossing-over, 1038 Cytoplasmic inclusions, 57t, 76–77
Coronal suture, 206, 207f, 209f, 210f, 253, development of, 241 Crossmatch, 671 Cytosine
253t, 254f surface anatomy of, 241 Crown, of tooth, 882, 883f in DNA, 48, 49f
Coronary arteries, 728, 730, 732f Coxal joint. See Hip joint Cruciate ligament(s) structure of, 48, 48f
blocked, treatment of, 689 Coxal region, 15f anterior, 268f–269f, 270, 270t, 271, 271f Cytoskeleton, 56f, 59f
left, 682–683, 685f, 686f, 729f CP. See Capsular pressure posterior, 268f–269f, 270, 270t, 271 composition of, 76
right, 682–683, 684f, 685f, 686f, 729f CPR. See Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Crural region, 15f functions of, 57t, 76
Coronary bypass, 689 Cramps Crus structure of, 57t, 76f
Coronary circulation, 682–683, 685f menstrual, 1066 of clitoris, 1056 Cytosol, 76–77
Coronary heart disease, 712 muscle, 312 of penis, 1042, 1043f composition of, 76
cholesterol and, 916 Cranial cavity, 213 Crutch paralysis, 429 functions of, 57t
Coronary infarct, 712 interior of, 213–214, 214f Crypt(s) structure of, 57t
Coronary ligament venous sinuses of, 741, 741f, 741t of colon, 909 Cytotoxic reactions, 806
of knee, 270t Cranial fossa of large intestine, 909f Cytotoxic T cells, 812, 813f
of liver, 879f, 880, 899f anterior, 214, 214f of Lieberkuhn. See Intestinal glands in adaptive immunity, 796t, 799
Coronary sinus, 683, 685f, 686f, 739 middle, 214, 214f, 217f Cryptorchidism, 1037, 1100 Cytotrophoblast, 1085, 1086f, 1088f
Coronary sulcus, 682, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f posterior, 214, 214f, 219f Crystallines, 528
Coronary thrombosis, 712 Cranial nerves, 375, 375f, 462–471. See also CSF. See Cerebrospinal fluid
Coronoid fossa, 237f specific nerves CT scans. See Computed tomographic scans DAG. See Diacylglycerol
Coronoid process in brainstem, 498–500 Cubital joints, 253 Daily Reference Values (DRVs), 936
of mandible, 207t, 209, 209f, 223f in brainstem reflexes, 470–471 Cubital vein, median, 740f, 743, 743t, Daily values, 936–937
of ulna, 236, 238f disorders of, 471 744f, 745f Dalton (Da), 26
Corpora cavernosa, 1042, 1043f, 1056 functions of, 462, 463t, 464t–469t Cuboid bone, 246–247, 248f Dalton’s law, 842t, 848
Corpora quadrigemina, 448 parasympathetic, 462, 463t Cuboidal epithelial cells, shape of, Dandruff, 153
Corpus albicans, 1051f, 1053, 1054f sensory, 462, 463t 113, 118 Dark adaptation, in eyes, 535
Corpus callosum, 444f, 451f, 454, 454f, somatic motor, 462, 463t Cuboidal epithelial tissue Dartos muscle, 1033, 1041f
456f, 501 nuclei of, 493 simple, 114t Daughter helper T cells, 804f
Corpus cavernosum, 1041f origin of, 463f stratified, 115t, 119t Deafness
Corpus luteum, 1051f, 1053, 1054f and parasympathetic axons, 570 Cumulus cells. See Cumulus oophorus conduction, 558
in menstrual cycle, 1060f Cranial region, 15f Cumulus mass, 1051f, 1053, 1054f sensorineural, 558
Corpus spongiosum, 1041f, 1042, 1043f Craniosacral division, of autonomic nervous Cumulus oophorus, 1053 treatment for, 558
Corpus striatum, 455, 455f system. See Parasympathetic nervous Cuneiform(s), 246, 248f Death, 1113
Corrugator supercilii muscle, 329, 330t, system Cuneiform cartilage, 829, 829f, 831f Debridement, 169
331f, 332f Cranium. See Skull Cupula, of ear, 554, 555f, 556f Decalcification, bone, 192
Cortex. See also specific sensory cortex Crazy bone, 431 Curare, 295 Deciduous teeth, 882
adrenal. See Adrenal cortex Creatine phosphate Current, local, 392 Declarative memory. See Explicit memory
of adrenal glands. See Adrenal cortex as energy source for muscle Cushing syndrome, 632, 632f, 633 Decomposition reactions, 32–33, 32f, 33f
of brain, 382 contracture, 303 Cushing’s syndrome, 1026 Decubitus ulcers, 167
cerebral. See Cerebral cortex as source of adenosine triphosphate, 304t Cusps, of tooth, 882, 883f Decussation, pyramidal, 447f, 448, 493, 494f

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-12
Deep, 14, 14t hydrogen bonding in, 48, 49f Developmental anatomy, definition of, 2 and osteoporosis, 197t
Deep brachial artery, 733t, 734f in meiosis, 99 Deviated nasal septum, 211 prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t
Deep fascia, of penis, 1043f mutations of, in cancer cells, 143 Diabetes, and vision loss, 541, 541f regulation of, 877–878
Deep femoral artery, 729f, 738f, 739t nuclear, 78 Diabetes insipidus chemical, 878
Deep femoral vein, 750f nucleotides of, 86–87 central, 990 nervous, 878
Deep infrapatellar bursa, 269f, 270 in protein synthesis nephrogenic, 990 secretions of, 885t
Deep inguinal rings, 1036 regulation of, 78 and urine production, 986 systemic lupus erythematosus and, 820
Deep lymph nodes, 787 transcription in, 88–89 Diabetes mellitus, 1, 636 transport in, 912–920
Deep lymphatic vessels, 834f, 840 replication of, 92, 92f insulin-dependent (Type I), 636, 644–645 Digestive tract, 874
Deep palmar arch, 733, 734f structure of, 48, 49f noninsulin-dependent (Type II), 636, 986 aging and, 920
Deep palmar arch artery, 733t transcription of, 88f and urine production, 986–987 fluid volumes in, 918, 918f
Deep palmar venous arch, 743t, 744f, 745f Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ligase, Diabetic nephropathy, 986 functions of, 875t
Deep transverse perineal muscle, 345t, 346, functions of, 92 Diabetic retinopathy, 541, 541f, 556, 575 histology of, 876–877, 877f
346f, 1057f Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) polymerase, Diacylglycerol regions of, 874
Deep veins, 741 functions of, 92 and G proteins, 600, 602f Digit(s)
thrombosis of, 761 Deoxyribonucleotide, structure of, 48f as intracellular mediator, 601t of foot, 248f
Defecation, 876, 908 Deoxyribose, 40 Dialysis, 998, 998f of hand, 239, 239f
regularity of, 911 structure of, 48f Diapedesis, 660–661 Digital arteries, 733, 733t, 734f, 738f,
spinal cord injury and, 912 Department of Agriculture, nutrition Diaphragm (birth control method), 1068, 739f, 739t
Defecation reflex, 910–911, 911f recommendations of, 928 1068t, 1069f Digital branches, 738
Degenerating follicle, 1051f Department of Health and Human Services, Diaphragm (muscle), 6f, 18f, 19f, 341f, 342t, Digital region, 15f
Degenerative tendonitis, 351 nutrition recommendations of, 928 343, 343f, 680f, 785f, 833f, 838–839 Digital subtraction angiography (DSA),
Deglutition. See Swallowing Depolarization, of resting membrane central tendon of, 343f, 838–839 5, 5f
Dehydration, 1006–1007 potential, 385–386, 385f pelvic, 344–346 Digital veins, 743t, 744f, 745f, 750f,
and shock, 775 Depolarization phase, of action potentials, 287, in respiration, 838f 751f, 751t
Dehydration reaction, 32, 33f 288f, 289f, 388, 389f urogenital, 346 Digitalis, for heart problems, 713
7-Dehydrocholesterol, and vitamin D, 165, 934 in cardiac muscle, 311, 692, 693f Diaphragmatic hernia, fetal surgery Dihydrotestosterone, 1037, 1046
Delayed hypersensitivity, 806–807 sinoatrial node, 694f for, 1104 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol
Delayed hypersensitivity T cells, 812 in skeletal muscle, 293f Diaphysis and calcium regulation, 1016
in adaptive immunity, 796t, 799 in smooth muscle, 310, 310f in endochondral ossification, 186f–187f and intracellular receptors, 605t
Deletions, 100 Depo-Provera, 1069 of long bone, 180, 181f, 182t Dilator pupillae, 526, 527f
Delivery. See Birth Depression(s) Diarrhea, 910, 920–921 Dimenhydrinate (Dramamine), for motion
Delta cells, of pancreatic islets, 634, 635t of anatomical structure, 262, 262f and shock, 775 sickness, 557
Delta waves, 502 in bones, 206t Diastole, 697, 698f, 699f Dipeptides, 45, 916, 917
Deltoid muscle, 325f, 326f, 348f, 348t, 349f, mental/emotional, 505 ventricular, 701t, 702 formation of, 45f
350, 352f treatment of, 399f, 399t Diastolic pressure, 700t, 752, 753f, 756t synthesis of, 32, 33f
innervation of, 428f Depressor anguli oris muscle, 329, 330t, DIC. See Disseminated intravascular Diphenhydramine (Benadryl), for motion
Deltoid tuberosity, 235, 237f 331f, 332f coagulation sickness, 557
Denaturation, 45 Depressor labii inferioris muscle, 329, 330t, Dichromatism, 540 Diphosphoglycerate. See 2, 3-
Dendrites, 377, 378, 378f 331f, 332f Dicrotic notch, 701t, 703 Bisphosphoglycerate
of bipolar neurons, 379, 379f Depth of focus, 530 Diencephalon, 444f, 449–453 Diphtheria, 865
damage to, replacement after, 140 Depth perception, 542 development of, 445, 446f, 446t Diploid number of chromosomes,
functions of, 136, 378 Dermal papilla, 152f, 157 divisions of, 444t, 449–453 96, 1038
of multipolar neurons, 137t, 378, 379f Dermal root sheath, 158, 159f functions of, 444t Diplopia, 540
in olfactory cell, 515f Dermatitis, 167 structure of, 447f, 449–453, 451f Directional terms, 13–14, 13f, 14t
structure of, 136, 378 Dermatomal map, 422, 423f Diet, 928–937 Disaccharidases, 898, 912
Dendritic cells, 802 Dermatome, 422 healthy, benefits of, 928 uses in body, 930
in adaptive immunity, 796t Dermis, 150f, 157 and sodium homeostasis, 1012 Disaccharides, 40, 912
Dendritic spines, 378, 378f burns and, 160–161, 161f vegetarian, 932, 936 glucose synthesis from, 32, 33f
Denervation atrophy, 312 functions of, 150, 151t Differential white blood count, 672 sources in diet, 930
Dens, 228, 229f papillary layer of, 151t, 152f, 157 Differentiation, definition of, 9 structure of, 40, 41f
Dense bodies, of smooth muscle, prenatal development of, 1095 Diffuse brain injury, 458 Disease, negative feedback and, 11–12
307–308, 308f reticular layer of, 151t, 152f, 157 Diffuse lymphatic tissue, 786, 786f, 788f Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Dense connective tissue, 124–126 structure of, 150, 150f, 151t, 152f, 157 Diffusion, 65–66, 65f, 66f, 75t (DIC), 674
irregular, 126 uses of, 157 in capillary exchange, 757 Dissociation, 31, 31f
irregular collagenous, 126, 128t Descending aorta, 680f, 728, 732f, causes of, 65 in acids and bases, 37–38
irregular elastic, 126, 128t 735f, 737f definition of, 65 Distal, 13f, 14, 14t
regular, 125–126 Descending artery, anterior. See facilitated, 70, 71f, 75t Distal convoluted tubules, 965f, 966, 967f,
regular collagenous, 125–126, 127t Interventricular arteries, anterior rates of, 66 968f, 969f
regular elastic, 126, 127t, 128t Descending axons, 421, 421f Diffusion coefficient, 849–850 aldosterone and, 985–986, 985f
structure of, 124–126 Descending branch, of lateral circumflex Digastric muscle, 322, 323f, 333t, 334f, 335f reabsorption in, 974t, 976
Density gradient. See Concentration gradient artery, 738f Digestion, 875, 875t secretions in, 979t
Dental anesthesia, 469 Descending colon, 908, 908f chemical, 875, 912 Distributing arteries, 725
Dental arches, 882 Descending limb, of loop of Henle, 966, definition of, 912 Disuse atrophy, 312
Dental caries, 883 968f, 969f in digestive system, 912–920 Diuretics, 988
Dental diseases, 883 reabsorption in, 977f mechanical, 875, 912 Dizygotic twins, 1084
Dentate fracture, 195 Descending pathways, and female sexual Digestive enzymes, 874–875 DMD. See Duchenne muscular
Dentate nucleus, 455, 456f behavior, 1065 Digestive system, 873–921 dystrophy
Denticulate ligaments, 413, 413f Desmosomes, 119, 119f, 691 acute renal failure and, 999 DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid
Dentin, 882, 883f in epidermis, 152, 153f aging and, 920–921 Docasahexaenoic acid (DHA), and blood
Dentoalveolar gomphoses, 253t in epithelium, 119 anatomy of, 874 clots, 932
Deoxygenated blood, 840 functions of, 119, 152 burn injuries and, 169t Domain, of proteins, 45–47
Deoxyhemoglobin, 658 structure of, 119 components of, 7f Dominance
Deoxyribonuclease, 906 Desquamation, 151 cystic fibrosis and, 867 complete, 98
functions of, 885t Detoxification, and liver, 903–904 functions of, 7f, 874–876, 875t of genes, 98
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 78 Deuterium, 26, 26f leiomyomas and, 1074 incomplete, 98
composition of, 48 Development muscular dystrophy and, 314t Dominant alleles, 95
distribution in cell nucleus, 78 definition of, 9 myocardial infarction and, 715 Donor, of blood, 668
functions of, 47, 48, 78 prenatal, 1082–1104 of newborn, 1109 L-Dopa. See Levodopa

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-13 Index
Dopamine in gland classification, 120 Edema, 140 Electric signals, for cellular communication,
amphetamines and, 400t of male reproductive system, 1041–1042 with burns, 168 382–394
blood–brain barrier and, 461 system of, 900f and capillary exchange, 760 Electrical synapses, 394–396, 396f
cocaine and, 400t tubules on, 120 pulmonary, and respiratory membrane Electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG), 679,
functions of, 400t Ductus arteriosus, 712 thickness, 849 695, 697f
location of, 400t at birth, 1107f, 1108 Edinger-Westphal nucleus, 447f alterations in, 695, 697f
in Parkinson disease, 23, 400t, 461 Ductus deferens, 8f, 1033f, 1035f, 1036f, EDTA. See Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid mechanism of, 32
in shock treatment, 576 1041f, 1042, 1043f EEG. See Electroencephalogram Electroencephalogram (EEG), 502, 502f
structure of, 400t ampulla of, 1041f, 1042, 1043f Effector, in negative feedback, 10 Electrolytes
Dopaquinone, in melanin production, 155 and ejaculation, 1045 Effector organs, in reflex arc, 416, 416f definition of, 32, 1012
Dorsal, 13, 13f, 14t prenatal development of, 1100f Effector T cells in extracellular fluid, regulation of,
Dorsal artery, of penis, 1043f Ductus venosus, at birth, 1107f activation of, 804–805 1012–1020
Dorsal column, 414, 414f, 483f Duodenal glands, 897f, 898 in adaptive immunity, 799 Electromagnetic spectrum, 528–529, 529f
Dorsal interossei muscle, 357, 357t, 358f, 368t Duodenal papilla proliferation of, 804–805 Electron(s), 25
first, 355f, 358f major, 896, 897f, 900f, 905f Efferent arteriole, 966, 967f, 969f in chemical bonding, 26–28
innervation of, 431f minor, 896, 897f, 900f, 905f and filtration pressure, 972 Electron cloud, 25, 25f
Dorsal nerve, of penis, 1043f Duodenal ulcers, 894, 898 Efferent division, of peripheral nervous Electron microscopes, 58
Dorsal nucleus Duodenocolic reflexes, 910 system. See Motor division mechanism of, 112
lateral, 449, 451f Duodenum, 879f, 896–898, 896f, Efferent ductules, 1034, 1035f, 1041 resolution of, 112
of vagus nerves, 447f 897f, 905f Efferent lymphatic vessels, 787, 788f scanning, 58, 112
Dorsal ramus, 422, 424f anatomy of, 897f EGF. See Epidermal growth factor tissue examination with, 112
Dorsal region, 15f histology of, 897f Egg cells. See Oocyte(s) transmission, 58, 112
Dorsal respiratory groups, 856–858, 858f Duplications, 100 Eicosanoids, 641t, 643, 663 Electron-dot formulas, 30t
Dorsal root(s), 376f, 414f, 415, 415f, 424f Dupp sound, 702 functions of, 43 Electron-transport chain, 942f, 945f
sensory axons in, 415 Dura mater, 412, 413f, 422f, 456, 457f types of, 43 in aerobic respiration, 944
Dorsal root (spinal) ganglion, 376f, 413f, functions of, 456 uses in body, 931 enzymes of, 83
414f, 415, 415f, 424f in spina bifida, 227f Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and blood Electron-transport system, 938f
Dorsal tier, 449 structure of, 456 clots, 932 Elements, 24–26
Dorsal veins, 751f Dural folds, 456 Ejaculation, 1045, 1049 in body, 24, 24t
of foot, 750f, 751t Dural venous sinuses, 456–457, 457f, 458 initiation of, 1048 definition of, 24
of penis, 1043f Dwarfism, 192, 192f, 618 during sleep, 1048 isotopes of, 26, 29
Dorsal venous arch, 750f, 751t achondroplastic, 192 Ejaculatory ducts, 1033f, 1041f, 1042, symbols for, 24t, 25
Dorsal-column/medial-lemniscal system, pituitary, 192 1043f, 1045 synthesis of, 26
482t–483t, 483, 484–485, 485f Dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR), 4–5 Ejection, period of, in cardiac cycle, 697, Elephantiasis, 791
functions of, 484 Dynein arms, 85–86, 85f 698f, 699f, 700t, 701–702 Elevation, of anatomical structure,
in pain sensation, 488 Dynorphins, 643 EKG. See Electrocardiogram 262, 262f
primary neurons of, 484, 485f Dysautonomia, 581 Elastic arteries, 726f Elimination, 876
secondary neurons of, 485, 485f Dyskinesias, 496 large, 725 Embolism, 508, 733
tertiary neurons of, 485, 485f Dyslexia, 505 Elastic cartilage, 130 Embolus, 666, 1112
Dorsalis pedis artery, 729f, 738, 738f, Dysmetric movements, 496 functions of, 131f Embryo, 1082, 1102f
739f, 739t Dystrophin, 314, 314f location of, 130, 131f 35 days after fertilization, 1093f
in pulse monitoring, 759 Dystrophy. See specific types structure of, 130, 131f malformations of, 1091
Dorsiflexion, 260, 261f Elastic connective tissue Embryo transfer, 1088
Dorsomedial nucleus, 451f aging and, 144 Embryology, definition of, 2
Dorsum, of tongue, 519f Ear, 15f dense irregular, 126, 128t Embryonic disk, 1087, 1088f, 1089f
Dorsum region, 15f auditory function of, 547–552 dense regular, 125–126, 128t Embryonic hemoglobin, 656–658
Double helix, 48 disorders of, 559 Elastic fibers, 23f Embryonic period, of prenatal
Douche, spermicidal, 1068 external, 542, 543f, 548 aging and, 144, 166 development, 1082
Dowager’s hump. See Kyphosis elastic cartilage in, 131f in connective tissue Embryonic stem cells, 110, 1085
Down syndrome, 100–101, 101t functional replacement of, 558 cartilage, 130, 131f Embryonic tissue, 110
Down-regulation, 596–597, 596f inner, 542, 543–547, 543f, 544f, 545f, dense irregular elastic, 126 connective, 124, 125t
Dramamine, for motion sickness, 557 549–552 dense regular elastic, 126 vs. malignant neoplasms, 142
Dreams, 502 middle, 542–543, 543f, 544f, 548–549 extracellular matrix of, 123 Emission, 1045, 1049
Drug(s) muscles of, 544f loose, 126t Emmetropia, 530
absorption of, aging and, 921 prenatal development of, 1096 in skin, 166 Emotional shock, 775
lipid-soluble, 881 Ear canal, glands in, 162 structure of, 123, 123f Emotions, and respiration, 859–860
Drugs Earache, 559 Elastic membrane Emphysema, 836, 841, 864
addiction to, 400t, 506 Eardrum. See Tympanic membrane external, 724, 726f and physiologic dead space, 848
and autonomic nervous system, 574 Early cell division, in prenatal of blood vessel, 724f Emulsification, 913
binding to alpha and beta development, 1084 internal, 723, 726f bile salts and, 901
receptors, 574 Early erythroblasts, 655f, 658 of blood vessel, 724f Enamel, 882, 883f
binding to muscarinic receptors, 574 Early repolarization phase, of cardiac action Elasticity Encapsulated cell technology (ECT), 538
binding to nicotinic receptors, 574 potential, 692, 693f of muscle, 279 Encephalitis, 462
blocking calcium channels, 694 Earwax. See Cerumen of skeletal muscles, 285 End-diastolic volume, 701, 701t
excretion of, 979 EBV. See Epstein-Barr virus Elastin Endocarditis, 712
and reticular activating system, 495 Eccentric contractions, 300, 300t in dense regular elastic connective Endocardium, 682, 682f
DRVs. See Daily Reference Values Eccrine sweat glands. See Merocrine sweat tissue, 128t Endochondral ossification, 183–185, 185f
DSA. See Digital subtraction angiography glands in elastic ligaments, 126 vs. intramembranous ossification, 183t
DSR. See Dynamic spatial reconstruction ECG. See Electrocardiogram elasticity of, 123 process of, 183–185, 186f–187f
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), 101t, Ecstasy, 400t structure of, 123, 123f Endocochlear potential, 550
313–314 ECT. See Encapsulated cell technology Elbow joint, 15f, 266–267, 266f Endocrine, derivation of term, 586
genetics of, 314, 314f Ectoderm, 110, 1087, 1088f, 1089f, bursae of, 267 Endocrine cells
pathophysiology of, 314 1090t, 1092f disorders of, 267 of duodenum, 898
signs and symptoms of, 313, 313f Ectodermal ridge, apical, 1091 extension of, 351 of stomach, 889f, 890
systemic interactions in, 314t Ectopic action potentials, 696t flexion of, 351 Endocrine glands, 586f, 609. See also specific
Duct(s). See also specific ducts Ectopic focus, 694 ligaments of, 266f, 267 glands
acini on, 120 Ectopic pregnancy, 1067 movements of, 260f definition of, 120
alveoli on, 120 Eczema, 167 olecranon process as, 236 neural control of, 590
of epididymis, 1035f, 1042 ED. See Erectile dysfunction point of, 15f testes, 1034

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-14
Endocrine system. See also specific glands Enterogastric reflex, 892 drug competition with, 63 Ergosterol. See Vitamin D
acute renal failure and, 999 Enterokinase, 906 excretion of, 595 Erysipelas, 166
aging and, 643 functions of, 885t and G proteins, 598t Erythema, 156
burn injuries and, 168, 169t Enteropathy, gluten-sensitive, 919 in heart regulation, 707 Erythroblast(s)
characteristics of, 586–587 Enterovirus spp., 439 receptors for, 596 early, 655f, 658
components of, 8f Environmental pollutants, excretion of, 979 secretion control of, 590, 591f intermediate, 655f, 658–659
diarrhea and, 921 Enzyme(s), 47. See also specific enzymes in smooth muscle regulation, 311 late, 655f, 659
functional organization of, 585–605 action of, 47, 47f stress and, 633 Erythroblastosis fetalis, 669, 670f, 671
functions of, 8f, 610 induced fit model of, 47 Epinephrine agonists, 596 Erythrocytes. See Red blood cells
myocardial infarction and, 715 lock-and-key model of, 47 Epinephrine antagonists, 596 Erythrocytosis, 671, 673
negative-feedback regulation of, 587, 590, regulation of, 47 Epineurium primary, 673
591f, 592 site of, 47 of peripheral nerves, 421f, 422 relative, 673
vs. nervous system, 585, 586–587 and activation energy, 35, 36f, 47 of spinal nerves, 413f secondary, 673
and osteoporosis, 197t cofactors and, 47 Epiphyseal line, in long bones, 180, 181f, 191f Erythropoiesis, 658
positive-feedback regulation of, 587, definition of, 35, 47 Epiphyseal plate, 253t Erythropoietin
590–592, 592f digestive, 874–875 in endochondral ossification, 187f for hemolytic disease of the
prenatal development of, in lipid synthesis, 80 fracture of, 189, 189f newborn, 671
1094t–1095t, 1096 lysosomal, 82 growth at, 186, 188f, 191f and red blood cell production, 659, 659f
regulatory systems of, 586, 586f mitochondrial, 83 in irregular bones, 182 Esophageal artery, 736t
systemic lupus erythematosus nomenclature for, 47 in long bones, 180, 181f, 182t, Esophageal phase, of swallowing, 887f, 888
and, 820 in peroxisomes, 82 186, 188f Esophageal plexus, 468t, 571f
Endocytosis, 71–73, 73f, 75t pH and, 37–38 in short bones, 182 and parasympathetic axons, 570
receptor-mediated, 73, 74f in plasma membrane, 63–64, 64f zones of, 186, 188f Esophageal sphincter
specificity in, 72–73 functions of, 60t Epiphysis lower, 886, 888, 889f
types of, 71–73 proenzymes, 91 in endochondral ossification, upper, 886
Endoderm, 110, 1087, 1088f, 1089f, in proteasomes, 83 186f–187f Esophagus, 6f, 7f, 18f, 680f, 827f, 831f, 874,
1090t, 1092f shape of, 47 of irregular bones, 182 874f, 886
Endolymph, 544f, 545, 545f, 550f specificity of, 47 of long bone, 180, 181f, 182t, 191f functions of, 875t
Endometriosis, 1071 structure of of short bones, 182 secretions of, 885t
Endometrium, 1050f, 1055, 1088f DNA regulation of, 48 Epiploic appendages, 908–909, ESRD. See End-stage renal disease
cancer of, 1073 and function, 47 908f, 909f Essential amino acids
in mature placenta, 1087f synthesis of, regulation of, 47 Episiotomy, 438, 1056, 1104 sources in diet, 932
in menstrual cycle, 1061t, 1064f Eosinophils, 651f, 653, 653t, 655f, 661 Epithalamus, 451f, 452 uses in body, 932
Endomysium, 281, 281f, 282f in innate immunity, 796t, 797 functions of, 444t, 452 Essential fatty acids, 932
Endoneurium, 421f, 422 EPA. See Eicosapentaenoic acid structure of, 452 Essential hypertension, 763
Endoplasmic reticulum, 79–80 Ependymal cells, 380, 458 Epithelial cells Essential nutrients, 928
Golgi apparatus and, 80, 81f in cerebrospinal fluid production, 459, 460f connections among, 119–120, 119f Essential vitamins, 932–934
ribosomes in, 79–80, 80f functions of, 380 layers of, 116–118 Estradiol, 1037
rough, 56f, 57t, 79–80, 80f structure of, 380, 380f mitosis in, 111 Estrogen(s), 640, 641t, 1032t
smooth, 56f, 57t, 80, 80f Epicardium, 682, 682f nuclei of, 111f and bone growth, 190
structure of, 79–80, 80f Epicondyle(s) shapes of, 116–118 in female puberty, 1059
Endorphins, 641t, 643 definition of, 206t structure of, 111f and female sexual behavior, 1065
functions of, 402t, 403–404 lateral abnormal, 110 and intracellular receptors, 605t
location of, 402t of femur, 243, 245f and tissue function, 116–120 and lactation, 1110
opiates and, 402t of humerus, 236, 237f, 240f, 354f surfaces of, 118–119 in menstrual cycle, 1060f, 1061t
structure of, 402t medial Epithelial root sheath, 158, 159f and osteoporosis, 196, 197
β-Endorphins, 614t, 619 of femur, 243, 245f Epithelial tissue, 110–120 in ovarian cycle, 1062, 1063f
Endosteum of humerus, 236, 237f, 240f, absorption by, 112 during pregnancy, 1067, 1067f
in bone growth, 189, 190f 353f, 354f characteristics of, 110–111, 111f and sperm cell development, 1037
in long bones, 181f, 182, 182t Epicondylitis, lateral, 354 classification of, 110, 112–116, 113t structure of, 44f
Endothelial cells, 900 Epidermal growth factor (EGF), 641t, diversity of, 110 in uterine cycle, 1064f, 1065
of capillary, 722f 643, 1089 functions of, 111–112 Ethmoid bone, 204t
Endothelin, in vascular spasm, 662 Epidermis, 150–153, 150f location and, 118t–119t anterior view of, 220f
Endothelium, 722 burns and, 160–161, 161f structure and, 116–120 in cranial cavity, 214f
of blood vessel, 724f, 726f functions of, 151t of large intestine, 909f cribriform plate of, 464t, 515f
End-stage renal disease (ESRD), 986 heat exchange across, 164, 165f location of, 118t–119t features of, 207t
End-systolic volume, 700t, 702, 704 medications administered through, 164 naming of, 113 intramembranous ossification of, 184f
Energy, 34 mitosis in cells of, 152 olfactory, 515, 515f, 516–517 lateral view of, 220f
activation, 35, 36f, 47 prenatal development of, 1095 secretion by, 112 in nasal cavity, 211t, 212f
chemical, 34 strata of, 151–153, 152f, 153f structure of, 110–111, 111f, 116–120 openings in, 215t
definition of, 34 structure of, 150–153, 150f, surfaces of, 110 in orbit, 211f, 211t
free, 954 151t, 152f types of, 112–116, 113t–116t orbital plate of, 220f
heat, 34 thick vs. thin, 154–155 of ureters, 992–993, 993f perpendicular plate of, 210f, 212f, 220f
kinetic, 34 Epididymis, 8f, 1033f, 1035f, 1036f, of urinary bladder, 992–993, 993f superior view of, 220f
mechanical, 34 1041–1042, 1041f of uterus, 1088f Ethmoid foramina, 220f
potential, 34 duct of, 1035f, 1042 Epithelium. See Epithelial tissue anterior, 211f, 215t
principle of conservation of, 34 prenatal development of, 1100f Epitopes. See Antigenic determinants posterior, 211f, 215t
Enkephalins, 641t, 643 Epidural anesthesia, 412 Eponychium, 163, 163f Ethmoidal labyrinth, 212, 213f
functions of, 403–404 Epidural hematoma, 458 EPSPs. See Excitatory postsynaptic Ethmoidal sinus, 220f
ENS. See Enteric nervous system Epidural space, 412, 456 potentials Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 666
Enteric interneurons, 569 Epigastric region, 14, 16f Epstein-Barr virus, 674 Etymology, 12
Enteric motor neurons, 569 Epiglottis, 519f, 827f, 829, 829f, Equator, in mitosis, 94f Euphoria, 402t
Enteric nervous system (ENS), 376, 831f, 888 Equilibrium, in reversible reactions, 33 Eustachian tube. See Auditory tube
565–566, 569 Epilepsy, 400t, 505 Erectile dysfunction (ED), 1048, 1049 Evaginations, along digestive tract, 1091
and digestive system, 878 Epimysium, 281, 281f, 282f treatment of, 402t Evaporation, in body temperature regulation,
Enteric plexus, of digestive tract, 877, 877f Epinephrine, 628, 628t Erectile tissue, 1042 954, 954f
Enteric sensory neurons, 569 and adrenal gland, 568 Erection, 1042, 1048–1049, 1049f Eversion, 247
Enteritis, 919 and basal metabolic rate, 953 initiation of, 1048 of foot, 263, 263f
regional, 919 concentration of, 592 Erector spinae muscles, 340, 340t, 341f Excitability, of muscle, 279

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-15 Index
Excitation–contraction coupling, Extensor digitorum longus muscle, 325f, F actin, 282–283, 283f sources in diet, 931
292–293, 293f 365t, 366f Face trans form of, 931
Excitatory neurons, 402 innervation of, 437f bones of. See Viscerocranium saturated, sources in diet, 931
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP), Extensor digitorum muscle, 355f, 356t, 357 bony landmarks on storage in bone cavities, 174
402–403, 403f innervation of, 429f anterior view of, 210f unsaturated, sources in diet, 931
spatial summation of, 404 Extensor digitorum tendons, 355f, 357 lateral view of, 209f Fat pad syndrome, 271
Excitotoxicity, 401t Extensor hallucis longus muscle, muscles of, 325f Fatigue, 301–303
Excretion, 875t, 876 365t, 366f prenatal development of, 1091–1094, 1093f definition of, 301
conjugation and, 979 innervation of, 437f Facet, of bone, 206t muscular, 301–303
definition of, 165 Extensor indicis muscle, 355f, 356t, 357 Facial artery, 730f, 731t psychologic, 301
of hormones, 594–595, 595t innervation of, 429f in pulse monitoring, 759 synaptic, 301
by skin, 150, 165 Extensor pollicis brevis muscle, 355f, Facial expression, muscles of, 329–332, 330t, Fat-soluble vitamins, 44, 934
Excursion 356t, 357 331f, 332f Fatty acids, 589t
lateral, 262, 262f innervation of, 429f Facial motor nucleus, 447f and blood clots, 932
medial, 262 Extensor pollicis longus muscle, 355f, Facial (VII) nerve, 466t, 543f, 571f essential, 932
Exercise 356t, 357 anesthesia and, 469 free, 946
aerobic metabolism after, 303–305 innervation of, 429f damage to, 524 metabolism of, 946
blood flow during, 768 Extensor retinaculum, 355f functions of, 463t, 466t, 470 peroxisomes in, 82
blood pressure during, 10, 12f External ear, 542, 543f, 548 in hearing, 549 saturated, 42, 43f
and body temperature, 307 elastic cartilage in, 131f origin of, 463f structure of, 42, 43f
carbohydrate rich meals and, 896 External lamina, 281 and parasympathetic axons, 570 in triglyceride production, 42, 42f
and heart, 711 Exteroreceptors, functions of, 477 and parasympathetic nervous unsaturated, 42–43, 43f
and hormonal regulation of nutrients, Extracellular fluid system, 569 Fauces, 828, 880, 881f
638, 640f concentration of, regulation and taste, 519, 521f Faulds, Henry, 157
and intrinsic regulation of heart, 705 of, 1006f Facial palsy, 471 FDA. See Food and Drug Administration
metabolic rate and, 953 and diffusion, 66, 66f Facial pimples, 741 Fear, 503
and muscle fibers, 306–307 electrolytes in, regulation of, Facial veins, 740f, 741f, 742f, 742t Feces, 876, 907–908, 910
muscle soreness caused by, 301, 370 1012–1020 Facilitated diffusion, 70, 71f, 75t Female(s), water content in, 36
and muscle tears, 370 osmolality of, regulation of, Factor I. See Fibrinogen Female climacteric, 1070
oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve 1007–1008, 1008f Factor II. See Prothrombin Female fertility, 1065–1067
during, 853–854, 853f solutes in, regulation of, 1011f FADH2 Female infertility, 1071
during pregnancy, 1104 volume of, regulation of, and ATP production, 944 Female pelvis, 1050f
and pulmonary blood pressure, 850–851 1008–1011, 1010f in citric acid cycle, 944 Female perineum, 1057f
respiratory adaptations to, 863 water in, regulation of, 1011f in electron-transport chain, 942f, Female pronucleus, 1082f, 1083
and ventilation, 862 Extracellular fluid compartment, 1005 944, 945f Female puberty, 1059
Exercise physiology, definition of, 2 volume of, 1005t Falciform ligament, 879f, 880, 899f Female reproductive system
Exocrine glands Extracellular ion concentrations, and Fallen arches, 255 age-related changes in, 1073
apocrine, 120, 122f homeostasis, 710–711 congenital, 272 anatomy of, 1049–1058
classification of, 120 Extracellular matrix Fallopian tubes. See Uterine tubes components of, 8f
compound, 120 of blood, 132 False pelvis, 242–243 external genitalia of, 1056, 1056f
definition of, 120 of connective tissue, 122, 123–124, 123f False ribs, 233, 234f functions of, 8f
holocrine, 120, 122f composition of, 123–124 False vocal cords. See Vestibular folds hormones in, 640–641, 1032t
merocrine, 120, 122f structure of, 123–124, 123f Falx cerebelli, 456 physiology of, 1059–1071
multicellular, 120 definition of, 110 Falx cerebri, 456, 457f prenatal development of, 1099–1101, 1100f
secretion by, mechanisms of, 120, 122f production of, 122 Familial hypercholesterolemia, 917 Female sex act, 1065
simple, 120 in tissue classification, 110 Far point of vision, 530 Female sexual behavior, 1065, 1071t
structure of, 120, 121f Extracellular substances, 58 Farsightedness. See Hyperopia Femoral artery(ies), 8f, 729f, 738, 738f,
testes, 1034 Extradural hemorrhages, 458 FAS. See Fetal alcohol syndrome 739f, 739t
unicellular, 120, 121f Extrapyramidal system, of motor nerve Fascia, 281, 281f deep, 729f, 738f, 739t
Exocytosis, 74, 74f, 75t tracts, 492 Fascicles, nerve, 421f, 422 in pulse monitoring, 759
Exons, 89, 89f Extrinsic clotting pathway, 665 Fasciculus (pl., fasciculi) Femoral canal, 787
Exophthalmos, 624 Extrinsic muscles nerve, 414 Femoral cutaneous nerves, 438
Expiration of eye, 524, 524f of skeletal muscle, 281, 281f, 282f lateral, 433f
alveolar pressure changes in, of tongue, 881 Fasciculus cuneatus, 483f, 485 posterior, 433f
842, 843f Extrinsic proteins. See Peripheral proteins Fasciculus gracilis, 483f, 485, 485f Femoral hernia, 787
muscles of, 838, 838f Extrinsic regulation, of heart, Fast block to polyspermy, 1083 Femoral iliac vein, 751t
pressure changes during, 845–846, 845f 705–707, 706f Fast channels. See Voltage-gated sodium Femoral nerve, 433f, 434, 435, 435f
Expiratory reserve volume, 846 Eye, 15f, 522f, 525f channels Femoral region, 15f
Explicit memory, 503 accessory structures of, 521–524, 522f Fast-twitch (low-oxidative) muscle fibers, Femoral vein(s), 8f, 740f, 748, 750f, 751f
Expressive aphasia, 500 anatomy of, 525–528 305–306, 306t deep, 750f
Extensibility ANS and, 573t blood supply to, 305 Femur, 7f, 205f, 240f, 243, 245f, 267, 267f
of muscle, 279 chambers of, 528 distribution of, 306 diaphysis of, 189f
of skeletal muscles, 285 disorders of, 539–541 fatigue of, 306 distal, 268–270, 268f–269f
Extension, 259–260, 260f extrinsic muscles of, 524, 524f type IIa, 306, 306t epiphyseal plate of, fracture of, 189, 189f
Extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle, 354, functions of, 528–531 type IIb, 306, 306t epiphysis of, 189f
355f, 356t gonorrheal infections of, 1072 Fat(s). See also Adipose cells; Lipid(s) fracture of, 246
innervation of, 429f layers of, 525–528, 526f absorption of, lymphatic system and, 783 ligament of head of, 267f, 268, 268t
Extensor carpi radialis longus muscle, 354, pigmentation of, 526, 531 of breasts, 1057f number of, 204t
355f, 356t prenatal development of, 1096 in diet, body weight and, 953 patella and, 245
innervation of, 429f reflex movements of, 448 energy storage in, 41 Fenestrae, 722, 723f, 966, 967f
Extensor carpi ulnaris muscle, 354, Eye drops, 575 in foods, 929t Fenestrated capillaries, 722, 723f
355f, 356t Eyeball, 525f functions of, 41, 885t Fenestration, 228
innervation of, 429f movements of, muscles of, 338–340, hydrogenation of, 931 Fertility
Extensor digiti minimi muscle, 355f, 339f, 339t in integumentary system, 150f, female, 1065–1067
356t, 357 Eyebrows, 521, 522f 157–158, 159f postmenopausal, 1071t
innervation of, 429f Eyelashes, 522f, 523 monounsaturated, 42 Fertilization, 1052–1053, 1052f, 1066,
Extensor digiti minimi tendon, 355f growth of, 159 sources in diet, 931 1082–1085, 1082f
Extensor digitorum brevis muscle, 368t length of, 159 polyunsaturated, 42 35 days after, 1093f
innervation of, 437f Eyelids, 522–523, 522f cis form of, 931 in vitro, 1088

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-16
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 1096, 1110 Fibula, 7f, 205f, 240f, 244–246, 246f, Flexor digiti minimi brevis muscle, 357, 357t, Food and Nutrition Board, Recommended
Fetal arteriole, in mature placenta, 1087f 268f–269f, 270 358f, 368t, 369f Dietary Allowances of, 934
Fetal blood vessels, 901, 1087f at foot, 248f Flexor digitorum brevis muscle, 368t, 369f Food guide pyramid, 928, 930f
Fetal heart rate (FHR), 1103 lateral malleolus, 270f, 272 Flexor digitorum brevis tendon, 369f Food labels, 936, 936f
Fetal hemoglobin, 656–658, 855 number of, 204t Flexor digitorum longus muscle, 365t, 367f Foot, 15f
Fetal monitoring, 1103 Fibular artery, 729f, 738, 738f, 739f, 739t innervation of, 436f arches of, 247, 248f, 271, 272
Fetal period, of prenatal Fibular (peroneal) nerve Flexor digitorum longus tendons, 369f embryology of, 272
development, 1082 common, 433f, 434, 436–437, 437f Flexor digitorum profundus muscle, 354f, lateral longitudinal, 248f
Fetal surgery, 1104 deep, 437, 437f 356t, 357 medial longitudinal, 248f, 272
Fetal tissue samples, 1103 superficial, 437, 437f innervation of, 431f, 432f transverse, 248f, 272
Fetal ultrasound, 1103 Fibular vein, 740f, 748, 750f, 751f, 751t Flexor digitorum superficialis muscle, 353f, bones of, 246–247, 248f
Fetal umbilicus, at birth, 1107f Fibularis (peroneus) brevis muscle, 325f, 354f, 356t, 357 extrinsic muscles of, 364
Fetal venule, in mature placenta, 1087f 326f, 365, 365t, 366f innervation of, 432f intrinsic muscles of, 368, 368t, 369f
α-Fetoprotein, 1103 innervation of, 437f Flexor digitorum superficialis ligaments of, 270f, 271, 272, 272t
Fetoscopy, 1103 Fibularis (peroneus) longus muscle, 325f, tendons, 358f movements of, muscles of, 365t, 368
Fetus, 1082, 1101 326f, 365, 365t, 366f Flexor digitorum tendons, 358f top of, 15f
endochondral ossification in, 185f innervation of, 437f Flexor hallucis brevis muscle, 368t, 369f Foramen (pl., foramina), 515f
growth of, 1101–1104, 1102f Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon, 366f Flexor hallucis longus muscle, 365t, 367f definition of, 206t
intramembranous ossification in, Fibularis (peroneus) tertius muscle, innervation of, 436f prenatal development of, 1097f
184f, 185f 365t, 366f Flexor hallucis longus tendon, 369f significance of, 206
in mature placenta, 1087f innervation of, 437f Flexor pollicis brevis muscle, 357, of skull, 215t
vertebral column of, 225 Fight-or-flight response, 580 357t, 358f Foramen caecum, 519f
FEV1. See Forced expiratory volume in Filament(s) Flexor pollicis longus muscle, 354f, 356t Foramen lacerum, 214, 214f, 215,
one second actin, 57t, 76, 76f, 86, 86f innervation of, 432f 215t, 216f
Fever, 957 intermediate, 57t, 76, 76f, 307–308, 308f Flexor (withdrawal) reflex. See Withdrawal Foramen magnum, 214, 214f, 215, 215t,
and chemical reaction speed, 35 Filiform papillae, 518, 519f (flexor) reflex 216f, 219f
in inflammatory response, 798 Filtrate, 970 Flexor retinaculum, 325f, 358f accessory nerve and, 468t
Fever blisters, 471 concentration of, changes in, 983 Floating ribs, 233, 234f and taste, 521f
FGF. See Fibroblast growth factor volume of, changes in, 983 Flocculonodular lobe, 449, 450f, 497 Foramen ovale, 214, 214f, 215t, 216f,
FHR. See Fetal heart rate Filtration, 69, 75t Flu, 865 218f, 683
Fibrillin-1, 134 in urine production, 970–973, 970f Fluid balance, lymphatic system and, 783 at birth, 1107f
Fibrillin gene, 134 Filtration barrier, in urine production, Fluid shift mechanism, in blood pressure prenatal development of, 1097f, 1098
Fibrin, 664, 667f 970–971 regulation, 773 trigeminal nerve and, 465t
in clot retraction, 140 Filtration fraction, 970 Fluid volumes, in digestive tract, 918, 918f Foramen rotundum, 214, 214f, 215t, 218f
in coagulation, 664, 666 Filtration membrane, 966, 967f, 970–971 Fluid-mosaic model of plasma membrane, trigeminal nerve and, 465t
Fibrinogen, 651f, 652t, 653, 1045 Filtration pressure, in urine production, 58, 59f Foramen spinosum, 214, 214f, 215t,
in coagulation, 664t 972–973, 972f Fluorine 216f, 218f
Fibrinolysis, 667, 667f Filtration slits, 966, 967f characteristics of, 24t Forced expiratory vital capacity, 847
Fibrin-stabilizing factor, in Filum terminale, 412f, 413 deficiency of, 935t Forced expiratory volume in one second
coagulation, 664t Fimbria, 1050f, 1053 percent in body, 24t (FEV1), 847
Fibroblast(s) Final repolarization phase, of cardiac action uses in body, 935t Forearm, 15f
in connective tissue potential, 692, 693f Focal brain injury, 458 bones of, 236–237
dense, 126 Finger(s), 15f Focal point, 529 definition of, 14
dense elastic, 127t distal phalanx of, 239f Focus, 541 extension of, muscles of, 351, 355f
dense regular collagenous, 127t extensor muscles of, 326f depth of, 530 flexion of, muscles of, 351, 355f, 432
dense regular elastic, 128t flexor muscles of, 325f of images on retina, 529–531, 530f movements of, muscles of, 351–354, 351t,
loose, 124 middle phalanx of, 239f Focusing, 529 353f–355f
functions of, 122, 126 movements, muscles of, 354–359, Folate, 933t, 1096 pronation of, muscles of, 354
glucagon and, 635t 356t, 358f deficiency of, and anemia, 673 supination of, muscles of, 354
insulin and, 635t proximal phalanx of, 239f and red blood cell production, 659 Foregut, 1091, 1092f
in perichondrium, 174 Fingerprints, 157 Folia, 449, 450f Forehead, 15f
in tissue repair, 140, 141f First heart sound, 700t, 702 Foliate papillae, 518, 519f Foreign antigens, 798, 801f
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF), 641t, First-degree burns, 160, 161f Folic acid. See Folate Foreskin, 1042, 1043
643, 1089 Fissure(s) Follicle(s) Formed elements, 651f, 653–662, 653t
Fibrocartilage, 130 on bone, 206t ovarian production of, 654, 655f
function of, 131f of brain, 453, 453f, 454 development of, 1053, 1054f Fornix
location of, 130, 131f of lungs, 836 fate of, 1053 of limbic system, 456, 456f
structure of, 130, 131f Fixator muscles, 321 thyroid, 619, 620t of vagina, 1055
Fibrocystic changes, of breasts, 1058 Fixed ends, of skeletal muscles. See Origin Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), Fosamax. See Alendronate
Fibrocytes Fixed macrophages, 122 614t, 1032t Fossa. See also specific types
in dense connective tissue, 126 Flaccid paralysis, 295, 312 in female puberty, 1059 definition of, 206t
functions of, 122 Flagellum, 86 and G proteins, 598t Fossa ovalis, 683, 1108
Fibroid tumors, 1074, 1074f functions of, 57t in male puberty, 1047 at birth, 1108f
Fibromyalgia, 312 movement of, 86 in menstrual cycle, 1060f, 1061t Fourth ventricle, 458, 459f
Fibronectin, 124 of spermatid, 1037 in ovarian cycle, 1062 Fovea, definition of, 206t, 536
Fibrosis structure of, 57t, 86 secretion of, 596–597, 596f, 619, Fovea capitis, 245f
cystic, 63, 866–867, 915 Flat bones, structure of, 180, 180f, 182, 182f 1045–1046, 1046f Fovea centralis, 527, 528f
muscular, 312 Flat feet, congenital, 272 Follicle-stimulating hormone surge, in Fractures, 144
pulmonary, 865 Flatus, 910 ovarian cycle, 1062, 1063f bone loss and, 198
Fibrositis, 312 Flaxseed, 932 Follicular phase, of menstrual cycle, classification of, 195, 195f
Fibrous bands, 544f Flexion, 259–260, 260f 1060, 1063f closed, 195
Fibrous capsule, of synovial joint, lateral, 261 Fontanels, 183, 185f, 254f comminuted, 195, 195f
255–256, 257f Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 353f, 354, 356t Food complete, 195, 195f
Fibrous joints, 253–254, 253t innervation of, 432f nutritional value of, 929t complicated, 195
Fibrous layer, 525 Flexor carpi radialis tendon, 354, temperature of, 518 of cribriform plate, 214
Fibrous pericardium, 680f, 681, 354f, 355f texture of, 518 dentate, 195
681f, 840f Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 353f, 354, thermic effect of, 953 of epiphyseal plate, 189, 189f
Fibrous rings, around heart valves, 355f, 356t Food and Drug Administration (FDA), of femoral neck, 246
689, 690f innervation of, 431f Percent Daily Value of, 936 greenstick, 195

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-17 Index
hairline, 195 Funny bone, 431 Gases Generator potential. See Receptor potential
impacted, 195, 195f Fur, 158 in blood Genetic(s), aging and, 1113
incomplete, 195, 195f Fusiform muscle, 322, 323f plasma, 652t, 653 Genetic code, 89
linear, 195 regulation of, 860, 860f Genetic disorders, 93–95, 100–101, 101t
of malleolus, 247, 247f and blood pressure, 770f of peripheral nervous system, 439, 471
mechanical stress and, 191 G actin, 282–283, 283f, 293f Gastric acid, secretion of, inhibitors of, Genetic engineering, 103
oblique, 195, 195f G0 phase, 91f, 92 892, 892t Genetics, 93–101
open, 195 G1 phase, 91f, 92 Gastric arteries definition of, 93
in osteogenesis imperfecta, 177 G2 phase, 91f, 92 left, 736t, 737f mendelian, 95–96
of patella, 245 G proteins right, 736t modern concepts in, 96–99
of radius, 238 activation of Gastric glands Genicular arteries, 738f
skull, 459 by binding of odorant, 516, 516f ANS and, 573t Geniculate ganglion, 466t
spiral, 195, 195f membrane-bound receptors and, of stomach, 889f, 890, 891f Geniculate nucleus
stellate, 195 598–600, 598t, 599f, 600f, Gastric juice. See Stomach, secretions of lateral, 449, 451f, 537f, 538
substrates for uniting, 194 601f, 602f Gastric phase, of stomach secretions, medial, 449, 553
transverse, 195, 195f functions of, 63 892, 893f Genioglossus muscle, 336f, 336t
Fraternal twins, 1084 receptors and, 63 Gastric pits, of stomach, 889f, 890 Geniohyoid muscle, 333t, 335f, 336f
Freckles, 166 and GDP, 63, 64f Gastric secretions, 885t Genital folds, 1100
Free bilirubin, 659, 660f and GTP, 63, 64f Gastric surface, of spleen, 790f Genital herpes, 439, 1072–1073
Free energy, 954 receptors linked to, 63, 64f Gastric veins, 747t, 748f, 749f Genital region, 15f
Free fatty acids, metabolism of, 946 in smooth muscle contraction, 311 Gastrin, 892, 892t Genital tubercle, 1100
Free nerve endings GABA. See Gamma-aminobutyric acid Gastrocnemius bursa, 270 Genital warts, 1073
functions of, 477–478, 479f, 479t Galactose Gastrocnemius muscle, 325f, 326f, 364f, 365, Genitalia, external, of female reproductive
in skin, 479f isomers of, 40, 40f 365t, 366f, 367f system, 1056, 1056f
in spinothalamic tract, 484f sources in diet, 930 innervation of, 436f Genitofemoral nerve, 433f, 438
structure of, 477, 479t structure of, 40, 40f Gastrocnemius tendon, 367f Genome, 96, 97
Free radical theory of aging, 1113 uses in body, 930 Gastrocolic reflexes, 910 Genome Project, Human, 96, 102–103
Free radicals, 492, 934 Galactosemia, newborn screening for, 949t Gastroduodenal artery, 736t Genomic map, 102, 102f
action of, 492 Galen, Claudius, 9 Gastroenteritis, 1027 Genomic medicine, 95
Free (apical) surfaces Gallbladder, 6f, 7f, 874f, 879f, 899f, 900, Gastroepiploic artery, left, 736t Genotype, 95–96
of epithelial tissue, 110, 111f 900f, 904 Gastroesophageal opening, of stomach, definition of, 95
pseudostratified columnar, 117t ANS and, 573t 888, 889f Genu, 207t, 209f, 210f
simple columnar, 114t Gallstones, 904, 904f Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), GERD. See Gastroesophageal reflux disease
simple cuboidal, 114t Gametes (sex cells), 95, 619. See also 894, 921 Germ cells, 1037
simple squamous, 113t Oocyte(s); Sperm cell(s) Gastrointestinal hormones, 892t primordial, 1099–1100
stratified columnar, 116t Gamma globulins, 808 and insulin secretion, 637 Germ layers, 110
stratified cuboidal, 115t Gamma motor nerve endings, in muscle Gastrointestinal phase, of stomach derivatives of, 1090t
stratified squamous, 115t spindles, 481f secretions, 892 formation of, 1087–1089
transitional, 117t Gamma motor neurons, 416 Gastrointestinal (GI) tract, 874 German measles, 167
of nephrons, 974 in stretch reflex, 416–417f hormones of, 642 Germinal center, of lymph node,
Frenulum, 336f, 880, 881, 881f Gamma proteins, 63 Gastroomental vein, 747t, 748f, 749f 787–788, 788f
Frequency-modulated signals, 586, 586f Gamma rays Gastrulation, 1089 Germinal epithelium, 1051
Frontal bone, 204t, 206, 254f, 515f, 517f definition of, 29 Gate-control theory, of pain control, 488 GFR. See Glomerular filtration rate
anterior view of, 210f, 211f, 218f in PET scans, 5 Gated ion channels, 287, 383, 383f GH. See Growth hormone
in cranial cavity, 214f from radioactive isotopes, 29 during action potentials, 287, 289f GHIH. See Growth hormone-inhibiting
intramembranous ossification of, 184f Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), Gated potassium channels, during action hormone
lateral view of, 209f 400t–401t potentials, 289f GHRH. See Growth hormone-releasing
in nasal cavity, 211t, 212f alcohol and, 401t Gated sodium channels, during action hormone
openings in, 215t barbiturates and, 400f, 400t potentials, 287, 289f GI. See Gastrointestinal
in orbit, 211f, 211t benzodiazepines and, 401t Gating spring, 547, 547f, 548f Giantism, 192, 192f, 618
orbital plate of, 210f, 218f functions of, 400t GCP. See Glomerular capillary pressure pituitary, 192
superior view of, 207f location of, 400t GDNF. See Glial cell line–derived Gingiva, 254, 881f, 882, 883f
Frontal fontanel, 254f structure of, 400t neurotrophic factor Gingivitis, 254, 883
Frontal lobe, 453f Ganglion (pl., ganglia). See also GDP. See Guanosine diphosphate Girdles
functions of, 454 specific types Gelatinous mass, 553 definition of, 233
Frontal plane, 15, 17f definition of, 375, 411 Gelatinous matrix, of ear, 553f pectoral, 204t, 235, 235f, 240f
Frontal process, 219f, 221f Ganglion cells, of retina, 531f, 536 Gemellus muscle(s) pelvic, 204t, 240–241, 240–243, 240f
Frontal region, 15f Ganglionic blocking agents, 574 inferior, 359t, 360f Glabella, 210f, 218f
Frontal sinuses, 212f, 213f, 214f, 827f Ganglionic layer, of retina, 531, 531f superior, 359t, 360f Glands, 120. See also Endocrine glands;
Frontonasal process, 1091 Gangliosides, 507 Gene(s), 78, 86–88, 95 Exocrine glands; specific glands
Frostbite, 164, 957 Gangrene, 725 apo E-IV, 504 ANS and, 573t
Fructose Gap junctions, 691 in cancer, 143 composition of, 120
isomers of, 40, 40f in cardiac muscle, 120, 311 definition of, 48, 86 definition of, 120
sources in diet, 930 definition of, 120 dominance, 98 development of, 120
structure of, 40, 40f in epithelial tissue, 120 hex A, 507 nervous system regulation of, 375
in sucrose formation, 40, 41f functions of, 120 human leukocyte antigen, 807 paraurethral, 1056
uses in body, 930 in multiunit smooth muscle, 310 mutations of, 100 prenatal development of, 1095
FSH. See Follicle-stimulating hormone in smooth muscle, 120 and polygenic traits, 98 Glans penis, 1033f, 1041f, 1042, 1043f
Fulcrum, 322, 324f structure of, 119f, 120 recessive, inheritance of, 100, 100f Glaucoma, 528, 541, 556
Full-thickness burns, 161, 161f, 168, 168f in visceral smooth muscle, 309 regulatory, 87 Glenohumeral joint. See Shoulder joint
Functional layer, of endometrium, Gas exchange and sex-linked traits, 98–99 Glenohumeral ligament, 266t
1055, 1064f aging and, 863 structural, 87 Glenoid cavity, 235, 236f, 266
Functional residual capacity, 846 diffusion through liquids, 849 transmission of, 99–100 Glenoid labrum, 264, 265f
Functional units of the kidney, 970 diffusion through respiratory membrane, Gene expression, 86–88, 87f Glial cell. See Neuroglia
Fundus 849–850 environmental effects on, 95 Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor
of stomach, 888, 889f exercise and, 862 regulation of, 91 (GDNF), 496
of uterus, 1050f, 1055 partial pressure in, 848, 849t Gene therapy, 103 Globin, 656
Fungal infections, of skin, 167 physical principles of, 848–851 for cystic fibrosis, 867 Globulins, 651f, 652t, 653
Fungiform papillae, 518, 519f and pulmonary capillary blood flow, 851 General senses, 477 Globus pallidus, 455

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-18
Glomerular capillary pressure (GCP), Gluteus maximus muscle, 326f, 346f, 359, in male puberty, 1047 Growth factor II, insulin like, 617
972, 972f 359t, 360f, 362, 1057f in menstrual cycle, 1060f Growth hormone (GH), 614t, 616–618
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 970, Gluteus medius muscle, 326f, 359, 359t, in ovarian cycle, 1062 aging and, 643
973, 991 360f, 362 secretion of, 619, 1045–1046, 1046f and bone growth, 190
calculation of, 971t Gluteus minimus muscle, 359t, 360f, 362 and secretion of LH and FSH, and growth disorders, 192, 618
Glomerular nephritis, 973, 997 Glycerides, fatty acids in, 42 596–597, 596f and lactation, 1110
acute, 997 Glycerol synthetic, 1046 and muscle, 307
chronic, 997 structure of, 42, 42f Gonorrhea, 1072 and phosphorylation, 603t
Glomerulonephritis, 972 tonicity of, 69 Goose bumps, 160 secretion control of, 617f
Glomerulus, 965f, 966, 967f, 968f, 969f in triglyceride production, 42, 42f Gout, 274 Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
Glomus, 727 Glycine, 401t Graafian follicle, 1051f, 1053, 1054f (GHIH), 612, 612t
Glossectomy, 881 functions of, 401t Gracilis muscle, 325f, 326f, 360f, 361f, Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve, 467t, 571f location of, 401t 362f, 363t (GHRH), 612, 612t
functions of, 463t, 467t, 470 structure of, 45f, 401t innervation of, 434f Growth plate. See Epiphyseal plate
origin of, 463f strychnine and, 401t Graded potentials, 386–387, 387f Growth stage, in hair, 158
and parasympathetic axons, 570 Glycocalyx, in plasma membrane, 58, 59f and action potentials, 387, 391, 391f GTP. See Guanosine triphosphate
and parasympathetic nervous Glycocholate, structure of, 44f causes of, 386 Guanine
system, 569 Glycogen characteristics of, 386, 387t in DNA, 48, 49f
and taste, 519, 521f energy storage in, 41 spread of, 386–387 structure of, 48, 48f
Glottis, 829, 831f in liver, 903 stimulus strength, 386, 387f Guanosine diphosphate (GDP), 598–599
Glucagon sources in diet, 930 summation of, 386, 404, 405f G proteins and, 63, 64f
effects of, 634–635, 635t structure of, 40, 41f Graft Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), 598–599, 601
and G proteins, 598t uses in body, 930 acute rejection of, 807 and erection, 1048
secretion of, 635 Glycogenesis, 950 chronic rejection of, 807 G proteins and, 63, 64f
target tissues of, 634–635, 635t Glycogenolysis, 951 Graft-versus-host rejection, 807 Guanylyl cyclase, 601
Glucocorticoids, 628t, 629, 630 Glycolipids, in plasma membrane, 58, 59f Gram (g), 24 Gubernaculum, 1034–1036, 1036f
effects of, 630t as marker molecules, 59 Granular cells, of duodenum, 898 Gustatory cells, 518
and intracellular receptors, 605t Glycolysis, 938–941, 938f, 939f–940f Granulation tissue, 140–141, 141f Gustatory hairs, 518, 519f
and lactation, 1110 in aerobic respiration, 942, 942f Granule cells, 515f Gustatory pore, 518
secretion disorders of, 631t in anaerobic respiration, 941, 941f Granulocytes, 653–654, 653t, 655f Gustatory stimuli. See Taste
target tissues of, 630t Glycoproteins, 589t Granulosa cells, 1051f, 1053, 1054f Gut, formation of, 1091
Gluconeogenesis, 630, 951 in epithelial cells, 119 Grave disease, 593, 624 Gynecomastia, 1058
Glucosamine, for arthritis, 273 in Golgi apparatus, 80 Gravity
Glucose in plasma membrane, 58, 59f and blood pressure, 760
aging and, 643 as marker molecules, 59, 60f and pulmonary blood pressure, 850 H2 receptors, 892
and ATP production, 945 Glycosaminoglycans, 124 and swallowing, 888 H test, 524
blood, 652t GM2 ganglioside, 507 and weight, 24 H zone, 284, 284f, 286f
isomers of, 40, 40f GnRH. See Gonadotropin-releasing Gray commissures, 414–415, 414f HAART. See Highly active antiretroviral
in PET scans, 5 hormone Gray hair, 160, 166 therapy
chemical formula for, 29, 30t Goblet cells Gray matter, 382 Habenular nuclei, 451f, 452, 456f
concentrations in body, 971t of duodenum, 898 of brain, 382 Hageman factor, in coagulation, 664t
and glucagon secretion, 638 in epithelial tissue of spinal cord, 382, 414–415, 414f Hair(s), 7f, 150f, 158–161
and hormone secretion regulation, pseudostratified columnar, 117t, 118 Gray ramus communicans, 567f, axillary, 158
587–590, 590f simple columnar, 114t 568, 571f color of, 159–160
and insulin secretion, 590 of large intestine, 909f Great cardiac vein, 683, 684f, 685f, 740f as diagnostic aid, 166
metabolism of, 303 in mucous membranes, 138 Great saphenous vein, 740f, 750, 750f, in ear, 542
in aerobic respiration, 303 of respiratory system, as unicellular 751f, 751t functions of, 158, 164
in anaerobic respiration, 303 glands, 120 Greater auricular nerve, 426f growth of, 158–159
ATP production in, 303 structure of, 118 Greater curvature, of stomach, 888 length of, 159
from carbohydrates, 32, 32f, 33f of trachea, 831f, 832 Greater omentum, 879f, 880 prenatal development of, 1095
carbon dioxide production in, 39 Goiter, 624 Greater pelvis. See False pelvis pubic, 158
in nutrient interconversion, Golgi apparatus, 56f, 80 Greater sciatic notch, 241–242, 242f, 436 scalp, 158
950–951, 951f functions of, 57t, 80, 81f Greater splanchnic nerve, 571f structure of, 158
secondary active transport of, 71, 73f of melanocytes, 155, 156f Greater trochanter, 243, 243f, 245f substances stored in, 166
sources in diet, 930 of neurons, 378f Greater tubercle terminal, 158
structure of, 40, 40f structure of, 57t, 80, 81f of humerus, 235, 237f vellus, 158
in sucrose formation, 40, 41f Golgi tendon organs, 418, 418f of rotator cuff, 350f Hair bulb, 158, 159f, 162f
tubular maximum for, 992, 992f functions of, 479t, 481 Greater vestibular gland, 1056 Hair bulb matrix, 158, 159f
uses in body, 930 in posterior spinocerebellar tract, 486f Greater wing, of sphenoid bone, 209, 209f, Hair bundle, 546f, 547
Glutamate, 401t structure of, 479t, 481f 210f, 211f, 214f, 216f, 218f Hair cells of ear, 546–547, 555f, 556f
adenosine and, 402t Golgi tendon reflex, 418, 418f Greenstick fracture, 195 of cochlea, 545f, 546f
and cognition, 401t, 402t Gomphoses, 253t, 254, 255f Groin, 15f inner, 545f, 546–547, 546f
functions of, 401t Gonad(s) Groove, in bone, 206t of macula, 553f
location of, 401t hormones of, 619 Gross anatomy, definition of, 2 outer, 545f, 546–547, 546f
in long-term memory, 504, 506f prenatal development of, Ground substance Hair end organs. See Hair follicle receptors
released from rod cells, 534f, 535 1099–1101, 1100f in cartilage, 130 Hair follicle, 150f, 158, 162f
stroke and, 401t, 402t and sex hormone secretion, 1045 in extracellular matrix of connective blood vessels in, 159f
structure of, 401t Gonadal arteries, 735f, 736t tissue, 123 muscle cells associated with, 160–161
taste of, 520f left, 737f adhesive molecules in, 124 structure of, 158, 159f
Gluteal arteries right, 737f Growth Hair follicle receptors, 479f
inferior, 736t Gonadal ridges, 1099, 1100f bone, 185–190 functions of, 479f, 479t, 480
superior, 736t, 738f Gonadal veins, 746t definition of, 8–9 structure of, 479t, 480
Gluteal injections, 243, 243f left, 747f, 749f disorders of, 618 Hair papilla, 158
Gluteal nerves, 438 right, 747f, 749f hair, 158–159 Hair root, 158, 159f
inferior, 433f Gonadotropin(s), 619, 1045 Growth factor(s), 1089 Hair shaft, 149f, 158, 159f
superior, 433f Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), epidermal, 641t, 643, 1089 Hairline fracture, 195
Gluteal region, 15f 612, 612t, 1032t fibroblast, 641t, 643, 1089 Haldane effect, 856
Gluteal tuberosity, 245f in female puberty, 1059 and phosphorylation, 603t Half-life, 594
Gluten-sensitive enteropathy, 814, 919 and male infertility, 1046 Growth factor I, insulin like, 617 of hormones, 594–595, 595t

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-19 Index
Halitosis, 883 chambers of, 683–687. See also Atrium; Helper T cells Hernia
Hallucinogens, 400t Ventricle(s) in adaptive immunity, 796t, 799, 802–805 diaphragmatic, fetal surgery for, 1104
Hallux valgus, 275 conducting system of, 691–692, 691f proliferation of, 804, 804f femoral, 787
Hamate, 239 congenital conditions affecting, 712 Hemarthrosis hiatal, 886
Hamate bone, 239f coronary circulation, 682–683, 685f definition of, 271 inguinal, 1037
Hamstring muscle, 326f, 362f, 364 electrical properties of, 692–695 of knee joint, 271 Herniated intervertebral disks, 228, 228f
in patellar reflex, 420 functions of, 679 Hematocrit, 671, 672f Heroin, 402t
Hamulus, 206t histology of, 689–692, 690f and viscosity of blood, 754 Herpes, 439
Hand, 15f innervation of Hematoma, 458 genital, 1072–1073
back of, 15f parasympathetic, 705–706 definition of, 192 Herpes simplex, 167
bones of, 239–240, 239f sympathetic, 706–707 formation of, in bone repair, Herpes simplex I, 471
extrinsic muscles of, 354–357 location of, 679, 680f 192–193, 193f Herpes simplex II, 439
intrinsic muscles of, 357, 357t, 358f, 431 prenatal development of, Hematopoiesis, 654, 655f Herpes zoster, 439
movements of, muscles of, 354–359, 1096–1098, 1097f Hematuria, 972, 994 Heterozygous, 95
356t, 358f regulation of, 705–707 Heme, 656, 656f hex A gene, 507
tendons of, 354, 357 extrinsic, 705–707, 706f Hemiazygos vein, 743f, 745, 745t, Hexoseaminidase A, 507
Handle, of malleus, 544f hormonal, 707 746f, 785f Hiatal hernia, 886
Haploid number of chromosomes, intrinsic, 705 Hemiballismus, 496 High-density lipoproteins (HDL), 916, 916f
96, 1038 shape of, 679 Hemidesmosomes, 119, 119f Highly active antiretroviral therapy
Haptens, in adaptive immunity, 798 size of, 679 and epidermis, 152, 153f (HAART), 817
Hard palate, 215–216, 216f, 826, 827f, valves of, 683–687, 686f. See also specific functions of, 119, 152 Hilum, 789, 790f, 962, 964f
880, 881f valves Hemilaminectomy, 228 of lungs, 836, 840f
Hassall’s corpuscles. See Thymic corpuscles and abnormal heart sounds, 703 Hemoglobin, 654, 656–658, 656f Hindgut, 1091, 1092f
Haustra, 908, 908f, 909f aging and, 711 breakdown of, 659–660, 660f prenatal development of, 1099f
Haversian canal. See Central canal functions of, 687f DNA coding for, 91 Hip, 15f
Haversian system. See Osteon incompetent, 703, 712 embryonic, 656–658 broken, 196f
HBOCs. See Hemoglobin-based oxygen locations of, 702f fetal, 656–658, 855 frontal section through, 17f
carriers replacement/repair of, 713 measurement of, 671 movements of, muscles of, 363t
HCG. See Human chorionic gonadotropin stenosed, 703, 710, 712 transport of, 851–856 Hip joint, 267–268, 267f
HDL. See High-density lipoproteins veins draining, 741 Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers dislocation of, 268
HDN. See Hemolytic disease of the newborn Heart attack. See Myocardial (HBOCs), 658 congenital, 255
Head infarct/infarction Hemolysis, 654, 667 ligaments of, 267–268, 267f, 268t
of body, 14, 15f Heart block, 710 Hemolytic anemia, 657, 673 muscles of
arteries of, 729f, 730–732, 730f, Heart defects, 1098 Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), anterior, 359
731t, 732f Heart disease, 712–713 669, 670f, 671 deep, 362
movement of, 327–329, 327t aging and, 711 Hemophilia, 101t, 673–674 posterior, 360f
muscles of, 327–340, 327t prevention of, 713 arthritis in, 273 posterolateral, 359
reflex movements of, 448 Heart failure, 712–713 Hemophilia A, 98–99, 674 Hipbones. See Coxa(e)
sagittal section of, 17f and respiratory membrane Hemophilia B, 674 Hippocampus, 455, 456f
veins of, 740f, 741–742, 742f, thickness, 849 Hemopoiesis, 654 in explicit memory, 503
742t, 743f Heart lung machine, 713 Hemopoietic tissue, 133 Hirschsprung disease, 581, 878
of bones, 206t Heart medications, 713 in bone marrow, 133 Hispanics, bone mass in, 198
of epididymis, 1041f, 1042 Heart murmurs, 703, 710, 1098 HemoPure, 658 Histamine
of femur, 243, 245f, 267, 267f Heart rate (HR), 703–704, 765 Hemorrhagic anemia, 673 in basophils, 661
ligament of, 267f, 268, 268t aging and, 711 Hemorrhagic brain injury, 458 and innate immunity, 794t
of fibula, 246f fetal, 1103 Hemorrhagic shock, 775 and stomach secretions, 892
of humerus, 235, 237f Heart skeleton, 689, 690f Hemorrhagic stroke, 508, 733 Histidine, sources in diet, 932
of malleus, 544f Heart sounds, 702–703 Hemorrhoids, 910 Histology, definition of, 2, 110
of mandible, 334f abnormal, 703 Hemostasis, 662–667 Histones, 77, 78, 78f
of metacarpals, 240f first, 700t, 702 Henry’s law, 842t, 849 Histoplasmosis, 865
of muscle, 321, 321f, 322 second, 701t, 702 Heparin, 666 HIV. See Human immunodeficiency virus
of pancreas, 897f, 905, 905f third, 701t, 702–703 in basophils, 661 HLA genes. See Human leukocyte antigen
of radius, 237, 238f Heart tissues, inflammation of, 712 for venous thrombosis, 761 genes
of ribs, 233, 234f Heart transplant, 713 Hepatic artery, 736t, 899f, 900, 901f Holocrine glands, 120, 122f
of sperm, 1035f Heart tube, prenatal development common, 736t, 737f Homeostasis, 9–12, 9f
of spermatid, 1037 of, 1097f Hepatic cords, 900, 901f definition of, 9
of ulna, 237, 238f, 240f Heart wall, 682, 682f Hepatic duct, 899f, 900f, 901f heart and, 707–711
Head injuries, 458 Heartburn, 891 Hepatic flexure, 908f and local control of blood flow, 762t
Head nerve plexuses, and sympathetic Heat Hepatic phagocytic cells, 900, 904 mechanisms of, 9
axons, 570 and body temperature, 954 Hepatic portal system, 747–748, 747t, 748f negative feedback and, 9–10
Headaches, 505 definition of, 34 Hepatic portal vein, 727, 740f, 747, 747t, nervous system in, 375
migraine, 505 specific, 36 748f, 749f, 899f, 900, 900f, 901f positive feedback and, 10–12
tension, 505 Heat energy, 34 at birth, 1107f, 1108f Homocystinuria, newborn screening for, 949t
Hearing, 542–556 Heat exchange Hepatic sinusoids, 900, 901f Homolog, 97
central nervous system and, 552f, 553 in body temperature regulation, Hepatic veins, 740f, 746t, 747f, 748, 748f, Homologous pair of chromosomes, 97,
neuronal pathways for, 552–553 954–956, 954f 749f, 900 97f, 1038
steps involved in, 548–552, 550f in skin, 164, 165f Hepatitis, 674, 904 Homozygous, 95
Hearing impairments, and speech, 548 Heat exhaustion, 957 Hepatitis A, 904 Horizontal cells, of retina, 531f, 536
Hearing loss, loud noises and, 551 Heat stroke, 957 Hepatitis B, 904 Horizontal fissure, of lung, 837f
Heart, 6f, 8f, 18f, 678. See also under Cardiac Heavy chain Hepatitis C, 904 Horizontal plane, 15, 17f
abnormal rhythms of, 696t of antibody, 808 Hepatocytes, 900–901, 901f Horizontal plate, of palatine bone, 207t, 212f,
aging and, 711 antibody binding to, 809f and blood sugar levels, 903 216f, 222f
anatomy of, 681–687 Heel. See Calcaneus and nutrient interconversion, 903 Hormone(s), 585, 588t. See also specific
external, 682–683, 684f–685f Height, and testosterone, 1048 Hepatopancreatic ampulla, 900, 900f, 905f hormones
internal, 683–687, 686f Heimlich maneuver, 832 Hepatopancreatic ampullar sphincter, 905 of adrenal cortex, 628t, 629–630
ANS and, 573t Helices, 45, 46f Herceptin, 816 of adrenal medulla, 628–629, 628t
artificial, 713 Helicobacter pylori, and peptic ulcers, 894 Hereditary lymphedema type I, 791 and bone growth, 190
blood flow through, 687–688, 688f Helicotrema, 545f, 546, 550f Heredity, definition of, 86 chemical structure of, 587, 589f
blood volume in, 755t Helix, 543f Hering-Breuer reflex, 862 concentrations of

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-20
plasma proteins and, 594, 594f Humeroradial joint, 266 infrahyoid group, 333t, 336 hormones of, 612t
during pregnancy, 1067f Humeroulnar joint, 266 suprahyoid group, 333t, 336 and lactation, 1110f
at target cells, 594, 594f Humerus, 7f, 204t, 205f, 235–236, Hypercalcemia, 1016, 1016t limbic system and, 506
conjugation of, 595, 595t 235f, 237f Hypercapnia, 861 in male puberty, 1047
and connective tissue, 255 lateral epicondyle of, 236, 354f Hypercholesterolemia, 74, 101t in menstrual cycle, 1060f
definition of, 120 medial epicondyle of, 236, 353f, 354f familial, 917 and sex hormone secretion, 1045
distribution of, 593–594 Humoral immunity. See Hyperesthesia, 439 structure of, 452
excretion of, 594–595, 595t Antibody-mediated immunity Hyperexcitable urinary bladder, 996 target tissues of, 611f, 613f
and female sexual behavior, 1065 Hunger contractions, 895 Hyperextension, 260 and temperature regulation, 956
gastrointestinal, 642, 892t Huntington chorea, 496 Hyperhidrosis, 581 Hypothenar eminence, 357, 358f
half-life of, 594–595, 595t Huntington disease, 101t Hyperkalemia, 1014, 1015t Hypothenar muscles, 357t
and heart regulation, 707 Hurler syndrome, 82 Hyperlipoproteinemia, familial, 82 Hypothermia, 957
of hypothalamus, 612t Hyalgan, for arthritis, 273 Hypermagnesemia, 1018, 1018t therapeutic, 957
lipid, 589t Hyaline cartilage, 130 Hypernatremia, 1014, 1014t Hypothyroidism, 622–624, 622t, 623t
structure of, 587, 589f appositional growth in, 174f Hyperopia, 539, 539f Hypotonic solutions, 68, 68f
lipid-soluble, 595 bone and, 174 Hyperosmotic solutions, 68 Hypoxia, 861
in local circulation regulation, 764–765 composition of, 174, 174f Hyperparathyroidism, 625, 626t Hysterectomy, 1074
measurement of, radioactive isotopes in, 29 functions of, 130t Hyperphosphatemia, 1020, 1020t
metabolism of, 594–595, 595t interstitial growth in, 174f Hyperplastic obesity, 955
and nutrient regulation, 638, 639f location of, 130, 130t Hyperpolarization, of resting membrane I band(s), 284, 284f, 286f, 292f
of pineal body, 641–642, 641t, 642f of long bones, 180 potential, 385–386, 385f IBD. See Inflammatory bowel disease
of pituitary gland, 613–619, 614t structure of, 130, 130t Hypersensitivity IBS. See Irritable bowel syndrome
protein, 589t, 595 Hyaline membrane disease, 844 contact, 806–807 Ibuprofen, for arthritis, 273
structure of, 587, 589f Hyaluronic acid, 256–257 delayed, 806–807 ICOP. See Interstitial colloid osmotic pressure
regulation, chronic, 593f in arthritis treatment, 273 Hypersensitivity reactions, 806–807 ICSH. See Interstitial cell-stimulating
reproductive, 640–641, 641t, 1032t in cartilage, 130 immediate, 806 hormone
aging and, 643 in extracellular matrix of connective tissue, Hypertension, 713, 756t, 763 IDDM. See Insulin-dependent diabetes
concentration of, 592 123–124 ACE inhibitors for, 771 mellitus
secretion of structure of, 123–124, 123f and retina, 528 Identical twins, 1084
burn injuries and, 168 in synovial membranes, 138 Hyperthermia, 957 Idiopathic hypertension, 763
changes through time, 592, 593f Hydrocephalus, 461 malignant, 957 IFNα. See Interferon alpha
control of, 587–593 external, 461 therapeutic, 957 IFNβ. See Interferon beta
hormonal, 590–592, 591f fetal surgery for, 1104 Hyperthyroidism, 593, 622, 622t, 623t, 624 IFNγ. See Interferon gamma
by nervous system, 591f internal, 461 Hypertonic solutions, 68, 68f IFP. See Interstitial fluid pressure
nonhormonal, 590f and retina, 528 Hypertrophic obesity, 955 Ig. See Immunoglobulins
during menstrual cycle, 1063f Hydrochloric acid, 37 Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, 888 Ileocecal junction, 896f, 898
postmenopausal, 1071t functions of, 885t Hypertrophy Ileocecal sphincter, 898–899
in smooth muscle regulation, 309f, 311 in stomach, 890, 891f of chondrocytes, in endochondral Ileocecal valve, 898, 908f
structural categories of, 589t Hydrogen ossification, 185 Ileum, 896, 896f, 898, 908f
target tissues and, interaction between, and acid–base balance, 1024–1026, of skeletal muscle, 280, 307 Iliac artery(ies)
595–597, 596f 1024f, 1027f zone of, in epiphyseal plate, 186, 188f common, 728, 729f, 736, 736t, 737f, 738f,
of thymus, 641t, 642 in acids, 37–38 Hyperventilation, voluntary, 859 749f, 963f, 1107f, 1108f
transport of, 593–594, 595t in amino acids, 45, 45f Hypocalcemia, 393, 1016, 1016t external, 729f, 735f, 736, 736t, 737f,
tropic, 616–619 characteristics of, 24t, 25, 25f Hypocapnia, 861 738, 738f
water-soluble, 594–595 covalent bonds, 27–28 Hypochondriac region, 14, 16f internal, 729f, 735f, 736, 736t, 737f, 738f,
Hormone receptors functions of, 27t Hypodermis, 157–158 1107f, 1108f
classes of, 597–605 isotopes of, 26, 26f burns and, 161f Iliac crest, 241, 242f, 243f, 344f, 345f, 360f
intracellular, 597f, 598t, 604–605, molecule, 27–28, 28f, 30t fat storage in, 157–158 Iliac fossa, 242, 242f
605f, 605t percent in body, 24t functions of, 150, 151t Iliac region, of abdomen, 14, 16f
membrane-bound, 597, 597f, 598–603, 598t in plasma, 652t structure of, 150, 150f, 151t Iliac spine
on smooth muscle, 309f, 311 secretion of, into nephron, 979t, 980f Hypogastric plexus anterior inferior, 242f, 243f
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in stomach, 890 inferior, 571f anterior superior, 241, 241f, 242f, 243f,
and bone loss, 197 Hydrogen bonds, 30–31, 30f, 31t superior, 571f 360f, 361f
and bone mass, 197 in DNA, 48, 49f and sympathetic axons, 570 posterior inferior, 242f
Hormonelike substances, 641t, 642–643 Hydrogen peroxide Hypogastric region, 14, 16f posterior superior, 241, 242f, 360f
Horns, 414, 414f, 415, 415f, 459f from amino acid metabolism, 82 Hypoglossal canal, 214, 214f, 215t, 219f Iliac vein(s)
Host, in parasite-host relationship, 782 from fatty acid metabolism, 82 hypoglossal nerve and, 469t common, 740f, 746, 746t, 747f, 750f, 963f
Host-versus-graft rejection, 807 Hydrogenation, of fats, 931 Hypoglossal (XII) nerve, 426f, 469t external, 740f, 746, 746t, 747f, 749f, 750f,
Housemaid’s knee, 271 Hydrolysis reactions, 32, 33f functions of, 463t, 469t, 470 751f, 751t
HR. See Heart rate Hydrophilic, definition of, 43 origin of, 463f femoral, 751t
HRT. See Hormone replacement therapy Hydrophilic heads, of lipid bilayer, 58, 59f Hypoglossal nucleus, 447f internal, 740f, 746, 746t, 747f, 749f
5HT3 receptors, 878 Hydrophobia, 504 Hypokalemia, 393, 1014, 1015t Iliacus muscle, 359, 359t, 360f
Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), Hydrophobic, definition of, 43 Hypomagnesemia, 1018, 1018t innervation of, 435f
1032t, 1047 Hydrophobic tails, of lipid bilayer, 58, 59f Hyponatremia, 1014, 1014t Iliocostalis muscle(s), 340
in ovarian cycle, 1062 Hydroxide Hyponychium, 163, 163f cervicis, 329f, 340t, 341f
during pregnancy, 1067, 1067f in bases, 38 Hypoparathyroidism, 625, 626t lumborum, 340t, 341f
Human Genome Project, 96, 102–103 functions of, 27t Hypophosphatemia, 1020, 1020t thoracis, 340t, 341f
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), in plasma, 652t Hypophysis. See Pituitary gland Iliofemoral ligament, 267f, 268, 268t
817, 1073 Hydroxyapatite, 175 Hypopolarization. See Depolarization Iliohypogastric nerve, 433f, 438
in newborns, 1111 in bone matrix, 131, 175 Hyposmotic solutions, 68 Ilioinguinal nerve, 433f, 438
Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) chemical formula for, 175 Hypospadia, 1100–1101 Iliopsoas muscle, 359, 359t, 360f, 361f
genes, 807 β-Hydroxybutyric acid, in diabetes Hypotension, orthostatic, 10 innervation of, 435
Human placental lactogen, and mellitus, 644 Hypothalamohypophysial portal system, Iliotibial tract, 326f, 360f, 361f
lactation, 1110 Hydroxyurea, for sickle-cell disease, 657 611–612, 727 Ilium, 241, 241f, 242f
Human somatotropin, and lactation, 1110 Hymen, 1055 Hypothalamohypophysial tract, 612 male vs. female, 244t
Humanization, 816 Hyoglossus muscle, 336f, 336t, 338f Hypothalamus, 8f, 444f, 451f, 452–453, 586f, Imaging, anatomic
Humeral circumflex arteries, 734f Hyoid bone, 204t, 224, 224f, 334f, 335f, 336, 610, 610f, 611f definition of, 2
Humeral joint. See Shoulder joint 336f, 338f, 827f, 829f and autonomic reflexes, 577, 577f risks with, 5
Humeral ligament, transverse, 266t Hyoid muscles, 332, 333t, 334f–335f functions of, 444t, 452–453, 452t types of, 4–5

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-21 Index
Immediate hypersensitivity Infection(s) Inhibiting immunity, 808 hypodermis of, 150f, 157–158
reaction, 806 allergy of, 806 Inhibitory neurons, 403 leiomyomas and, 1074
Immune, definition of, 792 bacterial, of skin, 166 Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP), myocardial infarction and, 715
Immune complex disease, 806 burn injuries and, 166, 169 403, 403f and osteoporosis, 197t
Immune response, in spleen, 789 in central nervous system, 462, 504 spatial summation of, 404, 405f overview of, 150
Immune surveillance, 807 and chronic inflammation, 140 Initial segment, of axons, 378, 378f prenatal development of,
Immune system fungal, of skin, 167 Injections, 158 1094t–1095t, 1095
aging and, 1113 of joints, 274 intradermal, 158 sensory receptors in, 150, 164
burn injuries and, 169, 169t opportunistic, with human intramuscular, 158 systemic lupus erythematosus and, 820
cystic fibrosis and, 867 immunodeficiency virus, 817 subcutaenous, 158 Intention
diabetes mellitus and, 645 in peripheral nervous system, 439, 471 Innate immunity, 792–798, 799t, 815f primary, 140
diarrhea and, 921 of respiratory system, 865 alternative pathway of, 794, 795f secondary, 140, 141
interactions of, 814, 815f and rheumatoid arthritis, 273 cells in, 796–797, 796t Interarterial septum, 683
muscular dystrophy and, 314t viral chemical mediators of, 794–796, 794t Interatrial septum, prenatal development of,
myocardial infarction and, 715 of skin, 167 classical pathway of, 794, 795f, 809 1097f, 1098
and osteoporosis, 197t treatment of, 796 complement in, 794, 794t Intercalated disks, 136
problems of, 806–807 and vision loss, 541 histamine in, 794t of cardiac muscle, 120, 135t, 311, 690f, 691
transplantation and, 807 Infectious diseases inflammatory response in, 797–798 Intercalated duct, of pancreas, 905, 905f
Immunity, 792–818 of blood, 674 interferons in, 794t, 795–796 Intercellular chemical signals, 587
acquired, 816–818, 816f sexually transmitted, 1072–1073 kinins in, 794t classification of, 588t
active, 816f, 818 Infectious hepatitis. See Hepatitis A leukotrienes in, 794t Intercellular matrix, of connective tissue
active artificial, 816f, 818 Infectious mononucleosis, 674 mechanical mechanisms of, 792 mesenchyme, 125t
active natural, 816f, 818 Inferior, 13, 13f, 14t prostaglandins in, 794t mucous, 125t
adaptive, 792, 798–812, 815f, 816f Inferior colliculus, 447f, 448, 553 pyrogens in, 794t Intercellular substances, 58
aging and, 818–820 Inferior concha, 827f surface chemicals in, 794t Intercondylar eminence, 244, 246f
antibody-mediated, 799, 799t, Inferior ganglion, 467t Inner cell mass, 1084f, 1085 Intercondylar fossa, 245f
808–812, 815f Inferior lobe, of lungs, 837f Inner ear, 542, 543–547, 543f, 544f, 545f, Interconversion, of nutrients, 903,
cell-mediated, 799, 799t, 812, 815f Inferior meatus, 827f 549–552 950–951, 951f
humoral. See Antibody-mediated Inferior nasal concha, 204t Inner plexiform layer, of retina, 531, 531f Intercostal arteries, 733–736, 736t
immunity Inferior palpebra, 522f Inorganic chemistry, 36–39 anterior, 733–736, 735f
inhibiting, 808 Inferior vena cava, 8f, 343f, 682, 684f, 685f, definition of, 36 posterior, 735f, 736
innate, 792–798, 799t, 815f 686f, 688f, 738f, 739, 740f, 742f, 743f, Inositol, and G proteins, 600 Intercostal muscles, 785f
neuroendocrine regulation of, 816 746f, 746t, 747f, 748f, 749f, 750f, Inositol triphosphate, 601t external, 342, 342t, 343f, 838
passive, 816f, 818 785f, 899f, 963f INR. See International Normalized Ratio in respiration, 838f
passive artificial, 816f, 818 at birth, 1107f, 1108f Insecticides, 295 internal, 342t, 343, 343f, 838
passive natural, 816f, 818 of liver, 899f and organophosphate poisoning, 299 in respiration, 838f
stimulating, 808 Inferior vestibule, of oral cavity, 881f Insensible perspiration, 1007 Intercostal nerves, 422
Immunization, 816 Infertility Insertion, of muscle, 321, 321f, 322 Intercostal veins
Immunodeficiencies, 807 female, 1071 Inspiration anterior, 745
congenital, 807 male, 1046, 1047 alveolar pressure changes in, 842, 843f posterior, 745, 746f
Immunoglobulins (Ig), 808 and gonadotropin-releasing muscles of, 838, 838f Interferon(s)
IgA, 809t hormone, 1046 pressure changes during, 845–846, 845f in cancer treatment, 796
IgD, 809t Inflammation, 138–140, 139f Inspiratory capacity, 846 and innate immunity, 794t
IgE, 809, 809t chronic, 140 Inspiratory reserve volume, 846 in innate immunity, 795–796
IgG, 809, 809t of heart tissues, 712 Insula, 454 in viral infections treatment, 796
IgM, 809, 809t, 811 local, 798 Insulin Interferon alpha (IFNα), functions of, 803t
Immunotherapy, 814–816 manifestations of, 139 chemical structure of, 589f Interferon beta (IFNβ), 816
Imodium, for diarrhea, 920 mediators of, 139–140, 139f effects of, 1, 634–635, 635t functions of, 803t
Impacted fracture, 195, 195f systemic, 798 and glucose transport, 913 Interferon gamma (IFNγ), functions of, 803t
Impetigo, 166 Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), 919 and hormone secretion regulation, Interleukin(s), 805f
Implantation, of blastocyst, 1085–1087, 1086f Inflammatory response, 797–798, 798f 587–590, 590f Interleukin-1, 804f
Implicit memory, 503–504 Influenza, 865 and lactation, 1110 functions of, 803t
Impotence, 1048, 1049, 1072 Infraglenoid tubercle, 236f and phosphorylation, 603t receptor, 804f
In vitro fertilization (IVF), 1088 Infrahyoid muscles, 333t, 336 secretion of, 634, 637f Interleukin-2, 641t, 643, 804f
Inactivation gates, of voltage-gated sodium Infraorbital foramen, 209f, 210f, 211f, neural control of, 590 functions of, 803t
channels, 388–390, 389f 215t, 221f regulation of, 1 receptor, 804f
Inborn errors of metabolism, 949 Infraorbital groove, 211f target tissues of, 634–635, 635t Interleukin-4, functions of, 803t
Inca bone, 206 Infraorbital margin, 210f, 219f Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), Interleukin-5, functions of, 803t
Incisive canal (foramen), 212f, Infrapatellar bursa 636, 644–645 Interleukin-8, functions of, 803t
215t, 221f deep, 269f, 270 Insulinlike growth factor I, 617 Interleukin-10, functions of, 803t
Incisive fossa, 216f subcutaneous, 270, 271 Insulinlike growth factor II, 617 Interlobar arteries, of kidneys, 969, 969f
Incisors, 221f, 223f, 881f, 882, 882f Infraspinatus muscle, 326f, 348t, 349f, 350f Integral proteins, in plasma membrane, Interlobar veins, of kidneys, 969, 969f
central, 212f Infraspinous fossa, 235, 236f 58–59, 59f, 60f Interlobular arteries, of kidneys, 969, 969f
lateral, 212f Infundibulum, 447f, 451f, 452, 610, 610f, as channel proteins, 60–61 Interlobular cells, of pancreas, 905f
Incisura, 701t, 703 611f, 1050f, 1053 Integrase, and HIV infections, 817 Interlobular ducts, of pancreas, 905, 905f
Incompetent heart valves, 703, 712 Infusion, blood, 667 Integrase inhibitors, for AIDS, 817 Interlobular veins, of kidneys, 969, 969f
Incomplete dominance, 98 Ingestion, 874, 875t Integration, in male sex act, 1048 Intermediate cuneiform, 246, 248f
Incomplete fracture, 195, 195f Inguinal canals, 344f, 1036–1037, 1036f, Integrins, 60f, 62 Intermediate erythroblasts, 655f, 658–659
Incomplete proteins, sources in diet, 932 1041f, 1100 Integumentary system, 149–169. See also Intermediate filaments
Incomplete tetanus, 298 Inguinal hernia, 1037 Hair(s); Nail(s); Skin functions of, 57t, 75–76
Incus, 204t, 543, 543f, 544f, 550f Inguinal ligament, 344f, 345f acute renal failure and, 999 of smooth muscle, 307–308, 308f
posterior ligament of, 544f Inguinal lymph node, 7f, 783f aging and, 165–166 structure of, 57t, 76, 76f
Induced fit model of enzyme action, 47 Inguinal region, 15f clinical disorders of, 166–167 Intermediate mass. See Interthalamic
Infant respiratory distress syndrome, Inguinal rings components of, 7f adhesion
844, 1104 deep, 1036 cystic fibrosis and, 867 Intermediate olfactory area, 517–518, 517f
Infarct, 733 superficial, 1037, 1041f as diagnostic aid, 149, 166 Intermolecular forces, 30–32
coronary, 712 Inhibin, 640, 641t, 1047 diarrhea and, 921 Internal capsules, 454, 454f, 455f
Infarction, myocardial, 663, 689, 712, and sperm cell development, 1037 fat storage in, 157–158 of corticospinal tracts, 493, 494f
714–715 Inhibiting hormones, 612 functions of, 7f, 150, 163–165 International Normalized Ratio (INR), 672

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-22
Interneurons (association neurons), 536 lining of, simple columnar epithelial tissue Irregular bones, structure of, 180, 180f, 182 prosthetic, 275
enteric, 569 in, 114t Irregular connective tissue, dense, 126 range of motion for, 263
excitatory, in withdrawal reflex, 418, planes of section through, 18f collagenous, 126, 128t replacement of, 275
419f, 420f Intracellular fluid elastic, 126, 128t saddle, 258, 258f, 258t
functions of, 378 composition of, regulation of, 1011–1012 Irreversible shock, 775 synovial, 253, 255–259, 257f
inhibitory and diffusion, 66, 66f Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), 919 biaxial movements, 257
in Golgi tendon reflex, 418, 418f solutes in, regulation of, 1011f Ischemia, 695 multiaxial movements, 257
in withdrawal reflex, 419f, 420 water in, regulation of, 1011f in decubitus ulcers, 167 types of, 257–259, 258t
in reflex arc, 416, 416f Intracellular fluid compartment, 1005 definition of, 167 uniaxial movements, 257
in spinothalamic tract, 484f volume of, 1005t Ischemic stroke, 508 Joint capsule, 255, 257f
Interossei dorsal muscle, 357, 357t, 358f, 368t Intracellular mediators, 599, 601t, 602f Ischiadic nerve. See Sciatic nerve Joint cavity, 255, 257f
first, 355f, 358f Intracellular receptors, 66, 66f, 597, 597f, Ischiadic notch. See Sciatic notch Joint replacement
innervation of, 431f 598t, 604–605, 605f, 605t Ischiadica, 439 hemireplacement, 265
Interossei palmar muscle, 357, 357t, 358f, Intracellular substances, 58 Ischial ramus, 242f total, 265
368t, 369f Intracerebral hematoma, 458 Ischial spine, 242f Jugular foramen, 214f, 215, 215t, 216f, 217f
innervation of, 431f Intradermal injections, 158 male vs. female, 244f, 244t accessory nerve and, 468t
Interphase, 91–92, 91f, 94f Intralobular ducts, of pancreas, 905 Ischial tuberosity, 242, 242f, 346f, 360f, glossopharyngeal nerve and, 467t
Interplexiform cells, 531f, 536 Intramembranous ossification, 183, 184f, 185f 362f, 1034f vagus nerve and, 468t
Interspinales cervicis muscle, 329f vs. endochondral ossification, 183t male vs. female, 244t Jugular foramina, 214
Interspinales muscles, 341f, 341t, 342f Intramural part, of uterine tube. See Uterine Ischiocavernosus muscle, 345t, 346f Jugular notch, 233, 234f
Interstitial cells, 1034, 1035f part Ischiofemoral ligament, 268t Jugular trunks, 784
of digestive tract, 877 Intramural plexus, of digestive tract, 877 Ischium, 241, 241f, 242f left, 785f
prepubescent, 1037 Intramuscular injections, 158 Islets of Langerhans. See Pancreatic islets right, 785f
at puberty, 1037 Intrauterine devices (IUDs), 1068t, Isoleucine, sources in diet, 932 Jugular veins, 8f
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH), 1069f, 1070 Isomaltase, functions of, 885t external, 740f, 741, 742f, 742t
1032t, 1046. See also Luteinizing Intrinsic clotting pathway, 665–666 Isomers left, 743f
hormone (LH) Intrinsic factor, in stomach, 890 definition of, 40 right, 743f
Interstitial colloid osmotic pressure (ICOP), Intrinsic muscles, of tongue, 881 monosaccharide, 40, 40f internal, 740f, 741, 741t, 742, 742f,
758, 760 Intrinsic proteins. See Integral proteins Isometric contractions, 299–300, 300t 742t, 744f
Interstitial fluid, 1005 Intrinsic regulation, of heart, 705 Isosmotic solutions, 68 left, 743f, 785f
Interstitial fluid pressure (IFP), 757–758 Introns, 89, 89f Isotonic contractions, 299–300, 300t right, 743f, 785f
Interstitial fluid volume, 1005t Inulin, 991 Isotonic solutions, 68, 68f Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, 273
regulation of, 757–760, 758f Inversion, of foot, 263, 263f Isotopes Juxtaglomerular apparatus, 966, 967f
Interstitial growth, in cartilage, 174f, 175 Inversions, 100 in chemical reactions, 29 and blood pressure, 771
Interstitial lamellae, 179f, 180 Involuntary muscle, 136 definition of, 26 Juxtaglomerular cells, 966, 967f
Interthalamic adhesion, 447f, 449, 451f Iodide, and thyroid hormones, 27t, 621 radioactive, clinical use of, 29 Juxtamedullary nephrons, 965f, 966, 968f
Intertransversarii muscle, 341f, 341t, 342f Iodine Isotropic (I) bands, 284, 284f, 286f, 292f and urine concentration, 991
Intertrochanteric crest, 245f characteristics of, 24t Isovolumic contraction, period of,
Intertrochanteric line, 245f deficiency of, 935t in cardiac cycle, 697, 698f, 699f,
Intertubercular groove, 235, 237f percent in body, 24t 700t, 701 Kaposi’s sarcoma, with acquired
Interventricular arteries uses in body, 935t Isovolumic relaxation, period of, in cardiac immunodeficiency syndrome, 817
anterior, 682–683, 684f, 685f Iodine deficiency goiter, 624 cycle, 698f, 699f, 700, 701t, 702 Karyotype, 96–97, 97f, 1103
posterior, 683, 685f Iodopsin, 532t, 535 Isthmus Keratin
Interventricular foramina, 458, 459f Ion(s) of thyroid gland, 619 composition of, 153
Interventricular groove common in body, 27, 27t of uterine tube, 1050f, 1053 in epidermis, 151–153, 153f
anterior, 682 concentration differences across plasma of uterus, 1055 in hair, 158
posterior, 682 membrane, 382–383, 382t IUDs. See Intrauterine devices hard, 153, 158
Interventricular septum, 683, 686f, 688f definition of, 27 IVF. See In vitro fertilization production of, 151
prenatal development of, 1097f, 1098 in digestive system, 918 Ixodes ticks, 274 soft, 153
Interventricular sulcus extracellular concentrations, and Keratin fibers, in epidermis, 152–153, 153f
anterior, 682 homeostasis, 710–711 Keratinization, 151, 153f
posterior, 682 movement of, 61 Jargon aphasia, 500 disease and, 151
Intervertebral disks, 225f, 227–228, 227f in plasma, 652t, 653 Jaundice, 166, 659–660 Keratinized stratified squamous epithelial
age and, 228 Ion channels, 285–287. See also in premature infants, 1109 tissue, 113–116
fibrocartilage in, 131f, 227–228 specific types Jaw. See Mandible; Maxilla location of, 114t, 116
functions of, 227 gated, 287, 383, 383f Jejunum, 896, 896f, 897f, 898, 905f structure of, 114t, 116
herniated (ruptured), 228, 228f during action potentials, 287, 289f Jock itch, 167 Keratinocytes
structure of, 227–228, 227f ligand-gated, 61, 287, 383 Joint(s), 252–275. See also specific joints aging and, 166
as symphyses, 255 in mediated transport, 69–70 aging and, 272 in epidermis, 151, 152–153, 156, 166
Intervertebral foramina, 225f, 226f, 226t, nongated. See Leak channels ball-and-socket, 258t, 259, 259f functions of, 151
227, 227f voltage-gated, 61, 287, 383 cartilaginous, 253t, 254–255 in melanin production, 156, 156f
of lumbar vertebrae, 231f during action potentials, 388, 389f classification of, 252–259 mitosis in, 152, 166
spinal nerves and, 422, 424f Ionic bonding, 26–27, 27f, 31t condyloid, 258t, 259, 259f structure of, 152
of thoracic vertebrae, 230f Ionic compounds costochondral, 255 Keratohyalin, 152, 153, 153f
Intervertebral notch dissociation in, 31 cubital, 253 Ketogenesis, 947
inferior, 226f vs. molecules, 29 definition of, 252 Ketone(s)
superior, 226f IP3. See Triphosphate descriptions of, 263–272 chemical formulas of, 948f
Intervertebral notches, 227 Ipsilateral of spinal cord, 484 disorders of, 273–275, 274f excessive amounts of, 947
Intervertebral symphysis, 253t IPSP. See Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials ellipsoid, 258t, 259, 259f Ketone bodies, 947
Intestinal disorders, 919 Iris, 522f, 526, 526f, 527f fibrous, 253–254, 253t in diabetes mellitus, 644
Intestinal glands, 877f, 897f, 898 Iron functions of, 121 Ketosis, 947
Intestinal (crypts) glands, 876 characteristics of, 24t gliding, 257, 258f, 258t Kidney, 6f, 8f, 962f, 963f
Intestinal obstruction, in plasma loss deficiency of, 935t hinge, 248, 258t, 259f and acid–base balance, 1022f,
shock, 775 functions of, 27t infections of, 274 1024–1026, 1024f, 1027f
Intestinal phase, of stomach secretions, 893f in hemoglobin, 656, 656f, 658 and movement, 253 aging and, 643, 996–997
Intestinal trunks, 784, 785f percent in body, 24t naming of, 253 anatomy of, 964f
Intestines. See also Large intestine; Small in plasma, 652t pivot, 258, 258t, 259f external, 962
intestine uses in body, 935t plane, 257, 258f, 258t internal, 962–966
ANS and, 573t Iron-deficiency anemia, 166, 673 during pregnancy, 255 at birth, 1107f, 1108f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-23 Index
blood flow through, 969f in plasma, 652t Lateral, 13f, 14, 14t Lesser trochanter, 243, 245f
blood vessels of, 969, 969f production of, in anaerobic Lateral apertures, 459, 460f Lesser tubercle
in calcium homeostasis, 194f respiration, 303 Lateral canthus, 522f of humerus, 235, 237f
filtration in, 69 Lactiferous ducts, 1057f, 1058 Lateral column, 414, 414f of rotator cuff, 350f
functional units of, 970 Lactiferous sinus, 1057f, 1058 Lateral condyles Lesser vestibular gland, 1056
histology of, 962–966 Lactose of femur, 243, 245f Lesser wing, of sphenoid bone, 211f,
and hormone excretion, 595 formation of, 4 of tibia, 244, 246f 214f, 218f
left, 963f intolerance, 913 Lateral cuneiform, 246, 248f Leucine, sources in diet, 932
location of, 962 sources in diet, 930 Lateral epicondyle Leukemia, 672, 674, 1085
prenatal development of, 1099, 1099f Lacuna(e) of femur, 243, 245f tissue changes in, 110
right, 963f in bone, 131, 132t, 176, 176f of humerus, 236, 237f, 240f, 354f Leukocytes. See White blood cells
simple cuboidal epithelial tissue of, 114t compact, 179, 179f Lateral epicondylitis, 354 Leukocytosis, 672
simple squamous epithelial tissue of, 113t in cartilage, 130, 130t, 131f, 174, 174f Lateral facet, of patella, 245f Leukopenia, 672
and sodium excretion, 1012 in prenatal development, 1085–1087, Lateral fissure, 453f, 454 Leukotrienes, 641t, 643, 663
sympathetic stimulation on, 973 1086f, 1088f Lateral hemispheres, of cerebellum, 449, 450f functions of, 43
Kidney failure, with gout, 274 Lag (latent) phase, of muscle twitch, 295, Lateral horn, 414, 414f, 415, 415f in innate immunity, 794t
Kidney stones, 994 296f, 296t Lateral lemniscus, 553 uses in body, 931
Kilocalories (kcal), 928 Lagging strand, 92 Lateral malleolus, 246f Levator anguli oris muscle, 329, 330t,
in certain foods, 929t Lambdoid suture, 206, 207f, 208f, 209f, 253, Lateral nucleus 331f, 332f
Kilogram (kg), 24 253t, 254f dorsal, 449, 451f Levator ani muscle, 344, 345t, 346f, 1057f
Kinetic energy, 34 Lamella(e) posterior, 449, 451f Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle,
Kinetic labyrinth, 553, 554 in cancellous bone, 178, 178f ventral, 449, 451f 330t, 331f, 332f
Kinetochore, 78, 78f, 85 circumferential, 179f, 180, 189 Lateral olfactory area, 517, 517f Levator labii superioris muscle, 329, 330t,
Kinins, and innate immunity, 794t in compact bone, 131, 132t, 179–180 Lateral surface 331f, 332f
Kinocilium, 553, 553f concentric, 179, 179f, 189, 190f, 191 of epithelial tissue, 110 Levator palpebrae superioris muscle, 329,
Klinefelter syndrome, 101, 101t interstitial, 179f, 180 of nephrons, 974 330t, 332f, 339f, 464t, 522f, 523, 524f
Knee in lamellar bone, 178 Lateral ventricle, 458 Levator scapulae muscle, 329f, 341f, 346,
hollow behind, 15f Lamellar bodies, 152, 153f anterior horn of, 459f 346t, 347f, 349f
movements of, 260f Lamellar bone, 178 inferior horn of, 459f Levator veli palatini muscle, 337t, 338f
Knee joint, 268–270, 268f–269f structure of, 178 posterior horn of, 459f Lever
bursae of, 268f–269f, 270 Lamellated corpuscles. See Pacinian Latissimus dorsi muscle, 326f, 344f, 347f, 348, class I, 323, 324f
chondromalacia of, 271 corpuscles 348t, 349f class II, 324, 324f
disorders of, 271 Lamina, 226–227, 226f, 226t Latissimus dorsi tendon, 353f class III, 324, 324f
hemarthrosis of, 271 of cervical vertebrae, 229f LATS. See Long-acting thyroid stimulator definition of, 322
injuries to, 271, 271f external, 281 LDL. See Low-density lipoprotein(s) Levodopa
ligaments of, 268f–269f, 270, 270t, 271 of lumbar vertebrae, 231f Lead poisoning, 504–505 blood–brain barrier and, 461
tendons of, 270 in spina bifida, 227 diagnosis of, 166 for Parkinson disease, 461, 496
Kneecap. See Patella of thoracic vertebrae, 230f Leading strand, 92 Leydig cells, 1034, 1035f
Knee-jerk reflex, 417, 420 Lamina propria, 138 Leak channels, 61, 383, 383f prepubescent, 1037
Knuckles, 240f of blood vessel, 724f, 726f Leber hereditary optic neuropathy, 84 at puberty, 1037
Korotkoff sounds, 752 of digestive tract, 876, 877f Lecithin LH. See Luteinizing hormone
Kupffer cells. See Hepatic phagocytic cells of large intestine, 909f functions of, 885t LHRH. See Luteinizing hormone-releasing
Kyphosis, 197, 225 of stomach, 889f sources in diet, 931 hormone
of trachea, 831f uses in body, 931 Lie detector tests, 162
of ureters, 993f Left, 13f, 14t Life
Labia majora, 1050f, 1056, 1056f Laminar flow, of blood, 751–752, 752f Left atrium, 680f, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f, 687f, characteristics of, 6–9
Labia minora, 1050f, 1056, 1056f, 1057f Laminectomy, 227, 228 688f, 691f stages of, 1111–1112
Labial frenulum, 880, 881f Langerhans cells, 802 prenatal development of, 1097f Ligament(s). See also specific ligaments
Labial glands, 883 in epidermis, 151 Left lobe, of liver, 899, 899f of ankle joint, 270f, 271, 272, 272t
Labile cells, 140 functions of, 151 Left ventricle, 680f, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f, dense regular connective tissue in,
Labioscrotal swellings, 1100 Lanugo, 158, 1102 687f, 688f, 690f, 691f, 732f 126, 127t
Labor, stages of, 1104–1105 Laparoscopy, 1070 aging and, 711 elastic, 126
Labored breathing, 839 Laplace’s law, 754 prenatal development of, 1097f of elbow, 266f, 267
Labyrinth, 206t Large elastic arteries, 725 Leg, 15f. See also Lower limb of foot, 270f, 271, 272, 272t
Lacrimal apparatus, 523, 523f Large intestine, 6f, 7f, 874, 874f, anterior compartment, 366f functions of, 121, 174
Lacrimal bone, 204t, 209f, 210f, 211f 907–911, 908f muscles of, 364, 364f, 365t of hip joint, 267–268, 267f, 268t
anterolateral view of, 222f anatomy of, 908–910 bones of, 244–246 of knee joint, 268f–269f, 270, 270t, 271
in nasal cavity, 211t, 212f functions of, 875t definition of, 14, 244 of shoulder joint, 265f, 266, 266t
notch for, 221f histology of, 909f lateral compartment, 366f structure of, 126
in orbit, 211f, 211t movement in, 910–911 muscles of, 364f, 365, 365t vs. tendons, 126
Lacrimal canaliculi, 523, 523f secretions of, 910 movements of, muscles of, 362–364, 365t, Ligamentum arteriosum, 1108
Lacrimal duct, 523, 523f Large veins, 725, 726f 366f–367f at birth, 1108f
Lacrimal glands, 523, 523f Laryngeal branch posterior compartment, muscles of Ligamentum nuchae, 206–207, 208
ANS and, 573t left recurrent, 468t deep, 364f, 365, 365t, 367f Ligamentum teres, 1109
Lacrimal nuclei, 447f right recurrent, 468t superficial, 364f, 365, 365t, 367f Ligamentum venosum, 1109
Lacrimal papilla, 523 superior, 468t Leiomyomas, 1074, 1074f at birth, 1108f
Lacrimal sac, 523, 523f Laryngitis, 829, 865 Lemniscus, medial, 448f, 485f Ligand(s), 61, 586, 595, 595f
Lactase Laryngopharynx, 827f, 828, 886 Lens, 526f, 527f, 528 definition of, 287, 383
activity of, changes with age in, 1109 Laryngospasm, 338 aging and, 556 Ligand-gated calcium channels, and smooth
deficiency of, 913 Larynx, 6f, 7f, 335f, 680f, 826f, 827f, 833f prenatal development of, 1096 muscle contraction, 311
functions of, 885t anatomy of, 829f Lens fibers, 528 Ligand-gated ion channels, 61, 287, 383
Lactation, 1110–1111, 1110f muscles of, 336–338, 337t, 338f Lentiform nucleus, 455, 455f, 495f Ligand-gated sodium channels, 383
and birth control, 1068 in respiratory system, 828–831 Leprosy, anesthetic, 439 Light, 528–529, 529f
breasts during, 1057f, 1058 stratified columnar epithelial tissue in, 116t Lesions, as diagnostic aid, 166 reflection of, 529
prolactin and, 619 Laser corneal sculpturing, 539 Lesser curvature, of stomach, 888 refraction of, 529
Lacteals, 783, 793f Last menstrual period (LMP), 1082 Lesser occipital nerve, 426f Light adaptation, in eyes, 535
of duodenum, 896, 897f Latch state, of smooth muscle contraction, 308 Lesser omentum, 879f, 880, 899f Light chain
Lactic acid Late erythroblasts, 655f, 659 Lesser sciatic notch, 242f of antibody, 808
in anaerobic respiration, 941, 942 Late-onset Tay-Sachs disease (LOTS), 507 Lesser splanchnic nerve, 571f antibody binding to, 809f

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-24
Light microscopes, 58 and detoxification, 903–904 Lou Gehrig’s disease. See Amyotrophic lateral Lung buds, 1092f, 1098, 1098f
clinical applications of, 112 enlargement of, 901 sclerosis Lung recoil, 842–844
mechanism of, 112 formation of, 1092f Loud noises, and hearing loss, 551 Lunula, 163, 163f
resolution of, 112 functions of, 901–904 Low-density lipoprotein(s) (LDL), Luteal cells, 1053
tissue examination with, 112 glucagon and, 635, 635t, 638 915–916, 916f Luteal phase, of menstrual cycle, 1060, 1063f
Limb buds, development of, 1091 glycogen granules in, 41f endocytosis of, 74 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 614t, 1032t.
Limbic system, 455–456, 506 histology of, 899f, 900–901, 901f transport of, 917f See also Interstitial cell-stimulating
and autonomic reflexes, 577f and hormone conjugation, 595 Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors, hormone (ICSH)
functions of, 444t, 455–456, 506 insulin and, 635t 74, 916 in female puberty, 1059
structure of, 455–456, 456f lobes of, 899 Lower esophageal sphincter, 886, 888, 889f and G proteins, 598t
and ventilation control, 859–860 and nutrient interconversion, 903 Lower limb, 15f. See also Leg in male puberty, 1047
Line, of bone, 206t and phagocytosis, 904 arteries of, 729f, 738, 738f, 739f, 739t in menstrual cycle, 1060f, 1061t
Linea, 206t rupture of, 901 bones of, 240–248, 240f in ovarian cycle, 1062
Linea alba, 325f, 343, 344f, 345f secretions of, 885t number of, 204t secretion of, 596–597, 596f, 619,
Linea aspera, 245f storage in, 903 components of, 14, 15f 1045–1046, 1046f
Linea semilunaris, 343, 344f, 345f synthesis in, 904 functions of, 240 Luteinizing hormone surge, in ovarian cycle,
Linea terminalis, 242, 242f Livitra, 1049 muscles of, 359–369 1062, 1063f
Linear fracture, 195 LMP. See Last menstrual period skeletal muscles of, surface anatomy Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone
Lingual arteries, 730f, 731t Lobar bronchi. See Secondary bronchi of, 364f (LHRH), 619, 1045. See also
Lingual branch, of trigeminal Lobes veins of, 740f, 748–750, 750f, 751f, 751t Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
nerve, 469t of breasts, 1057f, 1058 Lower respiratory tract, 826, 826f Lyme disease, 274
Lingual frenulum, 881, 881f of cerebrum, 453f, 454 diseases of, 865 Lymph, 783, 793f
Lingual glands, 883 of liver, 899, 899f LSD, 400t drainage into veins, 784–786, 785f
Lingual nerve, 465t of lungs, 836, 837f Lubb sound, 702 formation of, 784f
anesthesia and, 469 Lobules, 1034 Lumbar arteries, 735f, 736t, 737f movement of, 784f
Lingual tonsils, 787, 787f, 827f, 881 of breasts, 1057f, 1058 Lumbar fascia, 345f supply to lungs, 840
Lingual veins, 742f, 742t of cerebellum, 449, 450f Lumbar intervertebral disks, herniation Lymph node(s), 784, 787–788, 788f, 793f, 834f
Lingula, 206t, 223f of ear, 543f of, 228 axillary, 7f, 783f
Linoleic acid, 931–932 of liver, 900, 901f Lumbar nerves, 422f cervical, 7f, 783f
α-Linoleic acid, 931–932 of lungs, 838 functions of, 423f deep, 787
Linolenic acid, structure of, 43f of pancreas, 905f nomenclature for, 422 inguinal, 7f, 783f
Lip(s), 880, 881f of thymus, 790, 792f Lumbar plexus, 422f, 423, 433–438, 433f intestinal, 783f
cleft, 216, 1093 Local anesthesia, action of, 403 Lumbar region reticular tissue in, 129t
Lipase, 913–914 Local circulation, regulation of of abdomen, 14, 16f sentinel, 789
action of, 47 hormonal, 764–765 of back, 15f superficial, 787
functions of, 885t nervous, 764–765, 764f Lumbar splanchnic nerves, 571f thoracic, 785f
Lipid(s), 41–44, 913–916. See also Fat(s) Local current, 392 Lumbar trunk, 784 Lymphadenitis, 791
in adipose cells, 122, 128 Local inflammation, 798 left, 785f Lymphangitis, 791
chemistry of, 41 Local potentials. See Graded potentials right, 785f Lymphatic capillaries, 783, 784f, 793f
composition of, 41 Local reflexes, 578 Lumbar veins, 749f Lymphatic ducts, 784–785, 793f
digestion of, 913t of digestive tract, 878 ascending, 746, 746f, 746t right, 783f, 785
energy storage in, 128 Lock-and-key model of enzyme action, 47 Lumbar vertebrae, 225f, 228t, 230 Lymphatic follicles, 786
functions of, 40t, 41, 80 Locus, 97 fifth, 225f Lymphatic nodules, 786, 786f, 788f,
in Golgi apparatus, 80 Loin, 15f first, 225f 790f, 909f
metabolism of, 946–947, 946f Long bones injuries to, 233 Lymphatic organs, 786–791
in neuron cell bodies, 377 gross anatomy of, 180, 182t number of, 204t, 225 primary, 800
as nutrients, 928 growth of, 186 structure of, 230, 231f secondary, 800
in plasma membrane, 58, 59f remodeling of, 191, 191f variation in, 232 Lymphatic sinuses, 787, 788f
production of structure of, 180–182, 180f, 181f Lumbosacral enlargement, of spinal cord, Lymphatic system, 783–791, 783f, 793f
enzymes required for, 80 Long-acting thyroid stimulator (LATS), 593 412, 412f acute renal failure and, 999
in smooth endoplasmic reticulum, 80 Longissimus capitis muscle, 327t, 329f, Lumbosacral plexus, 422f, 433–438, 433f aging and, 818–820
recommended amounts, 931–932 340t, 341f Lumbosacral trunk, 433f burn injuries and, 169t
sources in diet, 931 Longissimus cervicis muscle, 329f, 340t, 341f Lumbricales muscle(s), 354f, 357t, 358f, components of, 7f
transport of, 915–916, 915f Longissimus muscles, 340, 340t 368t, 369f diabetes mellitus and, 645
types of, 41–44 Longissimus thoracis muscle, 340t, 341f lateral, innervation of, 432f diarrhea and, 921
uses in body, 931 Longitudinal arches medial, innervation of, 431f disorders of, 791
Lipid bilayer, 58, 59f lateral, 248f Lumen, 831f functions of, 7f, 783
movement through, 65 medial, 248f, 272 Lunate bone, 238, 239f muscular dystrophy and, 314t
Lipid hormones, 589t Longitudinal fissure, 453, 453f Lunate surface, 242f myocardial infarction and, 715
structure of, 587, 589f Longitudinal muscle layer Lung(s), 6f, 7f, 826f, 836–838, 840f and osteoporosis, 197t
Lipid-soluble drugs, 881 of digestive tract, 877f aging and, 863 prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t
Lipid-soluble hormones, 595 of large intestine, 909f alveoli of, 825f Lymphatic tissue, 786–791, 793f
Lipochromes, 77 of stomach, 889f ANS and, 573t diffuse, 786, 786f, 788f
Lipogenesis, 950 Longitudinal section, 15, 18f blood supply of, 840 secondary, 800
Lipoproteins, 915–916, 916f Long-term memory, 503–505 cancer of, 865 Lymphatic trunks, 784, 793f
in Golgi apparatus, 80 Long-term potentiation, 504, 506f tissue changes in, 110 Lymphatic vessels, 7f, 783–784, 783f, 793f
Lipotropins, 614t, 619 Longus capitis muscle, 327t capacity, total, 846 afferent, 787, 788f
Liquids, diffusion of gas through, 849 Longus colli muscle, 340t compliance of, 846, 863 deep, 834f, 840
Liver, 6f, 7f, 874f, 879f, 899–904, 900f, 963f Loops of Henle, 965f, 966, 968f, 969f cystic fibrosis and, 63 efferent, 787, 788f
aging and, 920 and medullary concentration gradient, 979, disorders of, 864–865 superficial, 834f, 840
anatomy of, 899–900, 899f 980, 981f, 982 function, measurement of, 846–848 Lymphedema, 789, 791
ANS and, 573t reabsorption in, 974t, 976, 977f, 978f left, 680f, 837f, 840f Lymphoblasts, 654, 655f
bile flow through, 902f Loose connective tissue, 124 lobes of, 836, 837f Lymphocytes, 651f, 653t, 654, 661,
bile production in, 901–903 functions of, 124, 126t lobules of, 838 661f, 786
at birth, 1107f, 1108f, 1109 location of, 126t lymphatic supply to, 840 activation of, 800–805
blood flow through, 902f structure of, 124, 126t pleura of, 839–840 prevention of, 808
cirrhosis of, 904 Loperamide (Imodium), for diarrhea, 920 prenatal development of, 1098, 1098f in connective tissues, 122
alcoholism and, 951 Lordosis, 225 right, 680f, 837f, 840f loose, 124
damage to, 904 LOTS. See Late-onset Tay-Sachs disease transplantation of, for cystic fibrosis, 867 reticular, 129t

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-25 Index
development of, 655f, 799–800 Male sexual behavior, 1048–1049 Marrow. See Bone marrow Median nerve, 427, 427f, 432, 432f
inhibition of, 805–808 Male urethra, 1042 Mass damage to, 432
proliferation of, 802–805 Malformations, embryonic, 1091 atomic, 26 Median plane, 15
Lymphokines, in immunity, 802 Malignant hyperthermia, 957 definition of, 24 Median raphe, 346f
Lymphoma, 791 Malignant tumors, 142 measurement of, 24 Median sulcus, 447f
Lymphotoxin, functions of, 803t Malleolus molecular, 29 posterior, 414, 414f
D-Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 400t fracture of, 247, 247f Mass movements, in large intestine, 874, 910 ventral, 447f
Lysine, sources in diet, 932 lateral, 246, 246f, 367f Mass number, 25–26 Mediastinum, 16, 18f, 679, 680f, 839
Lysis, 68, 68f medial, 244, 246f, 367f Masseter muscle, 331f, 333t, 334f, 883, 884f Mediated transport, 69–71, 69f
Lysosomal enzymes, 82 Malleus, 204t, 543, 543f, 544f, 550f Mast cells Mediators of inflammation, 139–140, 139f
diseases of, 82 anterior ligament of, 544f antibody binding to, 809f Medications. See Drugs
Lysosomes, 56f, 82 handle of, 544f composition of, 122 Medicine, genetics and, 93–95
action of, 82, 82f head of, 544f functions of, 124 Meditation, 580
functions of, 57t, 82 superior ligament of, 544f in innate immunity, 796t, 797 Medium arteries. See Muscular arteries
structure of, 57t MALT. See Mucosa-associated location of, 122 Medium veins, 725, 726f
Lysozymes, 661, 886 lymphoid tissue in loose connective tissue, 124 Medroxy progesterone
and innate immunity, 794t Maltase, functions of, 885t Mastication, 874, 875t, 883 (Depo-Provera), 1069
Maltose muscles of, 332, 333t, 334f Medulla
formation of, 40 Mastication reflex, 883 of adrenal glands, 627, 627f
M line, 282f, 283f, 284, 284f sources in diet, 930 Mastoid air cells, 208, 542 hormones of, 628–629, 628t
MAC. See Membrane attack complex Mammae. See Breast(s) Mastoid fontanel, 254f secretion control of, 629f
Macrocytes, 671 Mammary glands, 8f, 1056–1058 Mastoid process, 207t, 208, 208f, 209f, stress and, 633
Macrocytic anemia, 673 adipose tissue in, 129t 216f, 217f of hair, 158, 159f
Macrophages, 659 functions of, 162 Maternal arteriole, in mature placenta, 1087f of kidney, 962, 964f, 965f
antibody binding to, 809f glucagon and, 635t Maternal blood vessels, 1087f of kidneys, 969f
fixed, 122 insulin and, 635t Maternal venule, in mature placenta, 1087f of lymph node, 787, 788f
functions of, 122, 124 location of, 162 Matrix, 83, 83f. See also specific types of ovary, 1051, 1051f
in innate immunity, 796t, 797 Mammary ligaments, 1058 Matrix vesicles, 175–176 of thymus, 791, 792f
in loose connective tissue, 124 Mammary plexus, 7f, 783f Matter, 24 Medulla oblongata, 444f, 447f, 450f, 463f
of lymphatic sinuses, 787 Mammary region, 15f Mature follicle, 1051f, 1053, 1054f and blood pressure, 769f, 770f
in tissue repair, 141f Mammillary body, 451f, 452, 456f, 463f, Maxilla, 204t, 209 and carbon dioxide regulation, 861
wandering, 122 464t, 610f, 611f anterior view of, 210f, 211f vs. cerebral medulla, 454
Macula, 527, 528f, 553, 553f Mandible, 204t, 205f, 209 in cleft lip/palate, 216 development of, 445, 446f, 446t
Macula densa, 966, 967f angle of, 207t, 209f, 223f features of, 207t functions of, 444t, 448
Macular degeneration, 541, 541f body of, 209, 209f, 210f, 223f inferior view of, 216f nuclei of, 448
aging and, 556 coronoid process of, 207t, 209, 209f, 223f intramembranous ossification of, 184f structure of, 445–448
Magnesium as facial bone, 224 lateral view of, 209f, 221f Medullary cavity
abnormal levels of, 1018, 1018t features of, 207t, 209 medial view of, 221f in endochondral ossification, 187f
in body fluid compartments, 1005t head of, 334f in nasal cavity, 211t, 212f in long bones, 180, 181f, 182t
characteristics of, 24t intramembranous ossification of, 184f in orbit, 211f, 211t Medullary concentration gradient, 979–983,
concentrations in body, 1005t lateral view of, 209f, 223f palatine process of, 207t, 212f, 216f, 221f 981f, 982f
deficiency of, 935t medial view of, 223f zygomatic process of, 221f Medullary cords, of lymph node, 787, 788f
in digestive system, 918 movements of, 262f Maxillary alveolar process, 881f Medullary infarction, lateral, 508
in extracellular fluid, regulation of, muscles of, 332 Maxillary artery, 730f, 731t Medullary rays, 962, 964f
1018, 1019f oblique line of, 210f Maxillary branch, of trigeminal nerve, Medullary respiratory center, 856–858, 858f
functions of, 27t openings in, 215t 465t, 469 Medullary sinus, of lymph node, 788f
percent in body, 24t ramus of, 207t, 209, 223f Maxillary dental arch, 882 Megacolon, 581, 878
in plasma, 652t Mandibular alveolar process, 881f Maxillary process, 219f, 1091–1093 Megakaryoblasts, 654, 655f
uses in body, 935t Mandibular branch, of trigeminal nerve, Maxillary sinus, 213f, 221f Megakaryocytes, 655f, 662
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 5, 5f 465t, 469 Maximal stimulus, 29, 298f, 391, 391f Meibomian cyst, 523
Major calyces, 963, 964f Mandibular condyle, 207t, 209, 209f, 223f McBurney’s point, 908 Meibomian gland, 522f, 523
Major duodenal papilla, 896, 897f, Mandibular dental arch, 882 Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), Meiosis, 99f
900f, 905f Mandibular foramen, 215t, 223f 703–705, 704f, 765 in oocyte development, 1038,
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Mandibular fossa, 207t, 215, 216f, 217f regulation of, 765–776 1052–1053, 1052f
molecules, 801–802 Mandibular notch, 223f Measles, 167 in spermatogenesis, 1037, 1038, 1040f
class I, 801–802, 801f Mandibular process, 1093 Meatus, 206t, 827f, 828 and transmission of genes, 99–100
class II, 801f, 802, 803f, 804f, 805f Mandibular ramus, 209f Mechanical digestion, 875, 912 Meiosis I, 1038, 1039f
Major thalassemia, 98 Mandibular symphysis, 210f Mechanical energy, 34 Meiosis II, 1038, 1039f
Malabsorption, tropical, 919 Manganese Mechanical mechanisms, of innate Meissner corpuscles, 479f
Malabsorption disease, 814 characteristics of, 24t immunity, 792 aging and, 506
Malabsorption syndrome (sprue), 919 deficiency of, 935t Mechanoreceptors, functions of, 477 functions of, 479f, 479t, 480
Malaria, 674 percent in body, 24t Meconium, 1109 structure of, 479t, 480
sickle-cell trait and resistance to, 657 uses in body, 935t Medial, 13f, 14, 14t Meissner plexus. See Submucosal plexus
Male(s), water content in, 36 Mannitol, tonicity of, 69 Medial border, of scapula, 240f Melanin
Male infertility, 1046, 1047 Manual region, 15f Medial canthus, 522f definition of, 155
Male pattern baldness, 1047 Manubriosternal symphysis, 253t, 256f Medial condyles functions of, 155
Male pelvis, 1033, 1033f Manubrium, 233, 234f of femur, 243, 245f in hair, 159–160
Male pronucleus, 1082f, 1083 MAO. See Monoamine oxidase of tibia, 244, 246f location of, 155
Male reproductive system MAP. See Mean arterial blood pressure Medial cuneiform, 246, 248f in neuron cell bodies, 377
age-related changes in, 1071–1073 Maple syrup urine disease, newborn Medial epicondyle during pregnancy, 156
anatomy of, 1033–1045, 1033f, screening for, 949t of femur, 243, 245f, 247f production of, 155–156, 156f, 159
1034f, 1041f Marezine, for motion sickness, 557 of humerus, 236, 237f, 240f, 353f, 354f in skin, 155–156
components of, 8f Marfan syndrome, 101t, 134 Medial facet, of patella, 245f Melanocyte(s)
functions of, 8f Margin, of bone, 206t Medial ligament, of ankle, 270f, 272t aging and, 166
hormones in, 640, 1032t Marginal arteries Medial malleolus, 246f functions of, 151
physiology of, 1045–1049 left, 683, 685f Medial nucleus, 449, 451f Golgi apparatus of, 155, 156f
prenatal development of, right, 683, 684f, 685f Medial olfactory area, 517, 517f in hair follicle, 159f
1099–1101, 1100f Marker molecules, 59, 60f Median aperture, 459, 460f location of, 151
Male sex act, 1048–1049 functions of, 60t Median fissure, anterior, 414, 414f melanin production by, 155–156, 156f, 159

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-26
in moles, 167 positive and negative feedback in, 592f anaerobic, 303 Midline, 13f
prenatal development of, 1095 postmenopausal, 1071t ANS and, 573t Midpiece
structure of, 155 uterine cycle, 1063–1065, 1064f burn injuries and, 168–169 of sperm, 1035f
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), Menstruation, 1059 of carbohydrates, 938–945 of spermatid, 1037
614t, 619 Mental activities, 375 cellular, 56, 937, 938f Mifepristone (RU486), 1070
Melanoma, 154f, 160 Mental foramen, 209f, 210f, 215t, 223f definition of, 7, 33 Migraine headaches, 505
Melanosomes, production of, 156, 156f Mental nerve, 465t of hormones, 594–595, 595t Milk letdown, 1110f, 1111
Melatonin, 641–642, 641t, 642f anesthesia and, 469 inborn errors of, 949 Milk production, prolactin and, 619
aging and, 643 functions of, 469 of lipids, 946–947, 946f Milliosmole (mOsm), 37
Membrane(s), 137–138 Mental region, 15f postabsorptive state of, 951–953, 952f Millivolts, 285, 295, 383
definition of, 137 Mentalis muscle, 329, 330t, 331f, 332f of proteins, 948–950, 948f Milroy syndrome, 791
location of, 138, 138f Mercury (Hg) manometer, 752 rate of, 953–954 Mineralocorticoids, 628t, 629–630
mucous, 138 Mercury poisoning, chronic, 504 muscular activity and, 953–954 and intracellular receptors, 605t
serous, 16–18, 19f, 138 Merkel cells and thermic effect of food, 953 secretion disorders of, 631t
synovial, 138 functions of, 151 in skeletal muscle, 303 Minerals, 934–935, 935t
Membrane attack complex (MAC), 794 location of, 151 in smooth muscle, 311 major, 934
Membrane channel proteins, in plasma Merkel disks and testosterone, 1048 as nutrients, 928
membrane, 59f, 65 functions of, 479f, 479t, 480 Metacarpals, 205f, 235f, 239, 239f, 358f trace, 934
Membrane potential(s), 285 in skin, 479f number of, 204t Mini-pill, 1068t, 1069
abnormal, disorders associated with, 393 structure of, 479t, 480 surface anatomy of, 240f Minor calyces, 962, 964f
during action potential, 285, 288f Merocrine glands, 120, 122f Metanephros, 1099, 1100f Minor duodenal papilla, 896, 897f,
definition of, 58 Merocrine sweat glands, 162, 162f Metaphase, 93, 94f 900f, 905f
resting. See Resting membrane ANS and, 573t Metaphase I, 1038, 1039f Minor thalassemia, 98
potential (RMP) ducts of, 162, 162f Metaphase II, 1039f Minute ventilation, 848
threshold, 287, 288f functions of, 162 Metarterioles, 723, 723f aging and, 863
Membrane-bound receptors, 597, 597f, location of, 162 Metastasis, 142 exercise and, 863
598–603, 598t structure of, 162 Metatarsals, 205f, 240f, 247, 248f Minute volume. See Cardiac output (CO)
and activation of G proteins, 598–600, Mesencephalon. See Midbrain number of, 204t Miscarriage, 1087, 1088
598t, 599f, 600f, 601f, 602f Mesenchymal cells, 125t Metencephalon, 445, 446f, 446t Mitochondrial diseases, 84
and alteration of intracellular enzymes, undifferentiated. See Stem cell(s) Methionine, sources in diet, 932 Mitochondrial DNA, 83–84
601–603, 602f Mesenchyme, 124, 1091 7-methyl guanosine cap, 89, 89f aging and, 1112
and channel proteins, 62, 63f location of, 124, 125t Methylmercaptan, odor of, 517 inheritance of, 84
and G proteins, 63, 64f structure of, 124, 125t Methylprednisolone, for spinal cord mutations in, 84, 1113
and phosphorylation of intracellular Mesenteric arteries injury, 425 vs. nuclear DNA, 84
proteins, 599, 603, 603f inferior, 729f, 735f, 736, 736t, 737f MHC molecules. See Major histocompatibility Mitochondrion, 56f, 83–84, 282f, 284f
Membranous labyrinth, 544f, 545, 545f, 550f superior, 729f, 735f, 736, 736t, 737f complex molecules enzymes of, 83
Membranous urethra, 1041f, 1042, 1043f Mesenteric ganglion MHC-restricted, 802 functions of, 57t, 83
Memory, 502–505 inferior, 571f Miacalcin. See Calcitonin of heart, 690f
of adaptive immunity, 792 superior, 571f Micelles, 914 in intestinal epithelial cell, 927f
aging and, 507 Mesenteric plexus Microcytes, 671 of neuromuscular junction, 290f
explicit (declarative), 503 inferior, 571f Microcytic anemia, 673 of neurons, 378f
glutamate and, 401t and sympathetic axons, 570 Microfilaments. See Actin filaments of presynaptic terminal, 289
implicit (procedural), 503–504 superior, 571f Microglia, 380 proteins of, 83–84
long-term, 503–505 and sympathetic axons, 570 brain damage and, 380 of sperm, 1035f
processing of, 502f Mesenteric veins functions of, 380 structure of, 57t, 83, 83f
sensory, 502, 504 inferior, 740f, 747, 747t, 748f, 749f structure of, 380f Mitosis, 92–93, 94f
short-term, 502–503, 504 superior, 740f, 747, 747t, 748f, 749f Microscopes, 112 in epidermal cells, 151, 166
sleep and, 505 Mesentery(ies), 18, 19f, 879f, 880, 896f applications of, 112 in epithelial cells, 111
Memory B cells function of, 18 electron, 58, 112 phases of, 93
in adaptive immunity, 796t structure of, 18 light, 58, 112 Mitral cells, 515f, 517
in antibody production, 811–812 Mesentery proper, 879f, 880 Microtubules Mitral valve. See Bicuspid valve
Memory engram, 505 Mesoappendix, 880 in centrioles, 84–85, 84f Mixing, in digestive tract, 874, 875t
Memory response, in antibody Mesocolon in cilia, 85–86, 85f Mixing waves, in stomach, 894, 895f
production, 811–812, 811f sigmoid, 880 formation of, regulation of, 84–85 Mixtures, 37
Memory T cells, 813f transverse, 879f, 880 functions of, 57t, 76 Mobile ends, of skeletal muscles.
in adaptive immunity, 796t Mesoderm, 110, 1088, 1089f, 1090t, 1092f structure of, 57t, 76, 76f See Insertion
MEN 2. See Multiple endocrine in mesenchyme formation, 124 Microvilli, 56f, 86, 86f Modiolus, 546
neoplasia type 2 Mesonephric ducts, 1099f, 1100, 1100f vs. cilia, 86 Moist stratified squamous epithelial tissue
Menarche, 1059 Mesonephros, 1099, 1099f, 1100f of duodenum, 896, 897f location of, 113–116, 114t
Mendel, Gregor, 95 Mesosalpinx, 1050f, 1053 of ear, 553f structure of, 114t, 116
Mendelian genetics, 95–96 Mesothelium, 138 in epithelial tissue, 118 Molar mass, 26
Meniere disease, 559 Mesovarium, 1050f, 1051, 1051f functions of, 57t, 86, 118 Molars, 221f, 223f, 881f, 882, 882f, 884
Meningeal dura, 456, 457f Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), 78, location of, 118 Mole(s), 167
Meninges 604, 605f structure of, 57t, 86, 86f, 118 Mole (mol), 26
of brain, 213, 456–457, 457f formation of, 88f Micturition, 995 Molecular mass, 29
of spinal cord, 412–413, 413f pre-, 88–89, 89f Micturition reflex, 994–996, 996f Molecules, 28–29
Meningiomas, 504 structure of, 78 Midbrain, 444f, 447f, 448–449 vs. compounds, 28–29
Meningitis, 462, 741 synthesis (transcription) of, 88–89 development of, 445, 445f, 446f, 446t definition of, 27, 28
Meniscofemoral ligament, 269f, 270t in nucleus, 78 functions of, 444t formulas for, 29, 33t
Meniscus (pl., menisci), 255, 269f, 270, and translation, 89 structure of, 448–449, 448f function of, 2
271, 271f Metabolic acidosis, 1025–1026, 1025t Middle cardiac vein, 685f kinetic energy of, 34
medial, 271, 271f Metabolic alkalosis, 1025–1026, 1025t Middle concha, 827f molecular mass of, 29
Menopause, 1070–1071, 1073 Metabolic disorders, newborn Middle ear, 542–543, 543f, 544f, movement of, 61
Menses, 1059, 1060f, 1061t, 1064f screening for, 949 548–549 Molybdenum
Menstrual cramps, 1066 Metabolic states, 951–953 muscles of, 544f characteristics of, 24t
Menstrual cycle, 1059–1065, 1060f, 1061t Metabolism, 937–938 Middle lobe, of lungs, 837f deficiency of, 935t
absence of, 1066 absorptive state of, 951, 952f Middle meatus, 827f percent in body, 24t
hormone secretion during, 1063f aerobic, 303 Midgut, 1092f uses in body, 935t
ovarian cycle, 1062 of amino acids, 948–950, 948f prenatal development of, 1099f Monoamine oxidase (MAO), 397, 398f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-27 Index
Monoblasts, 654, 655f of head, muscles of, 327–329, 327t elasticity of, 279 myocardial infarction and, 715
Monoclonal antibodies, 808, 816 of hip, muscles of, 363t excitability of, 279 and osteoporosis, 197t
Monocytes, 651f, 653t, 654, 655f, 661 joints and, 253 of expiration, 838, 838f physiology of, 278–314
in innate immunity, 796t of leg, muscles of, 362–364, 365t, 366f–367f extensibility of, 279 prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t, 1096
macrophages derived from, 122 multiaxial, 257 fibrosis, 312 systemic lupus erythematosus and, 820
Mononuclear phagocytic system, 797 scapular, muscles of, 346–348, 346t, 347f functions of, 279 Muscularis
Mononucleosis, infectious, 674 special, 262–263 hypertrophy of, 280, 307 of digestive tract, 876, 877, 877f
Monosaccharides, 40, 913 of synovial joints, 257 of inspiration, 838, 838f of stomach, 888, 889f
sources in diet, 930 of thigh, muscles of, 359–362, 359t, nervous system regulation of, 375 Musculocutaneous nerve, 427, 427f, 430, 430f
structure of, 40, 40f 360f–362f, 363t relaxation, 285, 286f Musculus uvulae, 337t, 338f
transport of, 914f tongue, muscles of, 332–336, 336f, 336t energy requirement for, 294 Mutagens, 100
uses in body, 930 types of, 259–263 physiology of, 294 Mutated allele, 97
Monosodium urate crystals, in gout, 274 uniaxial, 257 of respiration, 838–839, 838f Mutations, genetic, 100
Monosynaptic reflex, 416 voluntary, 490 rotator cuff, 266 Myasthenia gravis, 295, 399f, 399t, 439
Monounsaturated fats, 42 MRI. See Magnetic resonance imaging striated, 134, 135t, 280, 280f, 282f, 690f Mycobacterium leprae, 439
sources in diet, 931 mRNA. See Messenger ribonucleic acid and synthetic androgens, 1048 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 192, 817
Monozygotic twins, 1084 MS. See Multiple sclerosis and testosterone, 1048 Myelencephalon, 445, 446f, 446t
Mons pubis, 1050f, 1056, 1056f, 1057f MSH. See Melanocyte-stimulating hormone types of, 279, 280t Myelin sheaths
Morgan, T. H., 96 Mucin, 886 Muscle bundles, 285 development of, 394
Morning-after pills, 1070 Mucopolysaccharidoses, 82 Muscle contraction(s). See also Excitation– disorders of, 394
Morphine, 402t Mucosa contraction coupling functions of, 381, 394
Morphogenesis, 9 of digestive tract, 876, 877f action potentials and, 285, 292–293, 293f oligodendrocytes in, 380f, 381f
Morula, 1084–1085, 1084f of stomach, 889f concentric, 300, 300t Schwann cells in, 378f, 381, 381f
Motion, range of, 263 of uterine tube, 1053–1055 eccentric, 300, 300t structure of, 381, 381f
Motion pictures, 537 Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue energy requirements for, 293–294 Myelinated axons, 381, 381f
Motion sickness, 557 (MALT), 786 energy sources for, 293–294, 294f, 303–305 action potential propagation in,
Motor cortex, primary, 454, 487f, 491 Mucous connective tissue, 124, 125t functions of, 134 393–394, 393f
in speech, 501f Mucous epithelium, of digestive tract, heat production in, 307 Myelitis, 462
topography of, 491, 491f 876, 877f isometric, 299–300, 300t Myeloblasts, 654, 655f
Motor (efferent) division, of peripheral Mucous glands isotonic, 299–300, 300t Myelocytes, 655f
nervous system, 376, 376f cervical, of endometrium, 1055 measurement of, 295 Myelogram, 413
Motor end-plate. See Postsynaptic membrane in mucous membranes, 138 power stroke in, 294 Myenteric plexus, of digestive tract, 877, 877f
Motor nerve endings, gamma, 481f urethral, secretions of, 1045 recovery stroke in, 294 Mylohyoid line, 223f
Motor nerve tracts, 491–496 Mucous membranes, 138 segmental, 874, 876f, 898 Mylohyoid muscle, 333t, 334f, 335f, 338f
descending, 491–496, 492f, functions of, 138 sliding filament model of, 285, 286f Myoblasts, 279–280, 1096
492t–493t, 494f and innate immunity, 792 stimulus frequency and, 298–299, Myocardial infarct/infarction (heart attack),
direct, 492, 492t–493t, 493–495, 494f location of, 138, 138f 298f, 299f 663, 689, 712, 714–715
indirect, 492, 492t–493t, 494f, structure of, 138 stimulus strength and, 296–297, 298f Myocarditis, 712
495–496, 495f of trachea, 831f, 832 Muscle fibers Myocardium, 682, 682f
Motor (efferent) neurons, 281, 376f of uterus, 1055 exercise and, 306–307 Myofibrils, 281, 282f, 284f, 290f, 292f, 690f
aging and, 507 Mucous neck cells, of stomach, 889f, 890 fast-twitch (low-oxidative), 305–306, 306t in motor units, 297f
alpha, 416–417, 417f, 418, 418f, 419f, Mucus physiology of, 285–295 Myofilaments, 281–283, 282f, 283f, 284f. See
420, 420f in digestive system, 874–875 slow-twitch (high-oxidative), 305, 306t also Actin myofilaments; Myosin
functions of, 378 functions of, 885t Muscle pain, exercise-related, 301 myofilaments
gamma, 416–417, 417, 417f secretion by mucous membranes, 138 Muscle pain syndrome, chronic, 312 in smooth muscle, 307–308, 308f
lower, 490, 494f in small intestine, 884 Muscle spindles Myoglobin
in motor unit, 297, 297f of stomach, 890 functions of, 479t, 481 function of, 305
in reflex arc, 416, 416f Multicellular glands, 120 in stretch reflex, 416–417, 417f in slow-twitch muscle fibers, 305
somatic. See Somatic motor neurons Multifidus muscle, 329f, 341f, 341t, 342f structure of, 416, 417f, 479t, 480, 481f Myometrium, 1050f, 1055
in spinal cord, 415 Multipennate muscle, 321, 322f Muscle tissue, 134–136 Myopathy, 312
structure of, 281, 281f, 288–289, 415 Multiple alleles, 97–98 classification of, 110, 134, 134t Myopia, 539, 539f
upper, 490, 494f Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 Muscle tone Myosin, in muscle contraction, 293,
Motor nuclei, in brainstem, 447f (MEN 2), 878 skeletal, 300 307–308, 309f
Motor speech area. See Broca’s area Multiple motor unit summation, 297, smooth, 311 Myosin ATPase
Motor trigeminal nuclei, 447f 298f, 300t Muscle twitch, 295 in fast-twitch muscle fibers, 305
Motor unit(s) Multiple sclerosis (MS), 503 contraction phase of, 295, 296f, 296t in muscle contraction, 305
recruitment of, 297 Multiple-wave summation, 298–299, definition of, 295 in slow-twitch muscle fibers, 305
of skeletal muscle, 296–297, 297f, 300–301 298f, 300t lag (latent) phase of, 295, 296f, 296t Myosin kinase, 308, 309f
Motor unit summation, multiple, 297, Multipolar neurons, 136 phases of, 295, 296f, 296t Myosin molecules, 283, 283f
298f, 300t functions of, 137t relaxation phase of, 295, 296f, 296t heads, 283, 283f, 293, 294f
Mouth, 15f. See also Oral cavity location of, 137t, 379 Muscular activity, metabolic rate and, heavy, 283
Movement(s) structure of, 137t, 378–379, 379f 953–954 hinge region of, 283, 283f, 293
angular, 259–261 Multiunit smooth muscle, 310 Muscular arteries, 725, 726f rod, 283, 283f
of ankle, muscles of, 364–368, 365t Mumps, 884 Muscular dystrophy, 313–314 in skeletal muscle contraction, 293, 294f
of arms, muscles of, 348–351, Muscarinic agents, 574 Duchenne. See Duchenne muscular Myosin myofilaments
348f–349f, 348t Muscarinic blocking agents, 574 dystrophy (DMD) in skeletal muscle, 281–283, 282f, 283f, 284f
ataxic, 496 Muscarinic receptors, 575 Muscular layer contraction of, 285, 286f, 293, 293f, 294f
biaxial, 257 drugs binding to, 574 of uterine tube, 1053 in smooth muscle, 307–308
circular, 261–262 Muscle(s). See also Cardiac muscle; Muscular of uterus, 1055 structure of, 281–283, 283f
combination, 263 system; Skeletal muscle(s); Smooth Muscular system Myosin phosphatase, 308, 309f
dysmetric, 496 muscle(s); specific muscles acute renal failure and, 999 Myotonic dystrophy, 439
of eyeball, muscles of, 338–340, aging and, 1112 anatomy of, 320–370 Myotubes, 1096
339f, 339t anatomy of, 320–370 burn injuries and, 169t MyPyramid, 928, 930f
of foot, muscles of, 364–368, 365t atrophy of, 307, 312 components of, 7f
of forearm, muscles of, 351–354, 351t, cells, mitochondria of, 83 diabetes mellitus and, 645
353f–355f characteristics of, 279 diarrhea and, 921 NAD. See Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
gliding, 259 contractility of, 279 functions of, 7f, 279 NADH
of hand, muscles of, 354–359, 356t, contraction. See Muscle contraction(s) histology of, 278–314 and ATP production, 944
357t, 358f disorders of, 312 leiomyomas and, 1074 in citric acid cycle, 944

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-28
in electron-transport chain, 942f, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 1072 functional organization of, 374–406 Neurophysiology, definition of, 2
944, 945f and vision loss, 541 injury in, response to, 395, 395f Neurotransmitters, 588t
in glycolysis, 940, 940f, 941 Neonatal gonorrheal ophthalmia, and vision location of, 136 action of, 287
Nail(s), 163 loss, 541 Net filtration pressure (NFP), 757, 758f, in action potentials, 396–397
functions of, 163, 164 Neonate. See Newborn 759, 760 release of, 396–397, 396f
growth of, 163 Neoplasm, 142, 143 Net hydrostatic pressure, 757, 758, 758f, 759 removal of, 397, 398f
prenatal development of, 1095 Neostigmine, 295 Net osmotic pressure, 757, 758, 758f, of autonomic nervous system, 572
structure of, 163, 163f Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI), 990 759–760 definition of, 290, 378
Nail bed, 163, 163f Nephron(s), 963–966, 965f Neural crest, 445, 1092f examples of, 399t–402t
Nail body, 163, 163f antidiuretic hormones and, 986–988, 987f formation of, 1089–1091 inhibitory, 397–398
Nail fold, 163, 163f cortical, 965f, 966 Neural crest cells, 110, 445, 445f, 1090f, in smooth muscle, 311
Nail groove, 163, 163f histology of, 968f 1090t, 1091 stimulating, 397–398
Nail matrix, 163, 163f juxtamedullary, 965f, 966, 968f in mesenchyme formation, 124 Neutral solution, 38
Nail root, 163, 163f and urine concentration, 991 Neural folds, 445, 445f, 1089, 1090f Neutralization, in digestive tract, 875t
Nares. See Nostrils and reabsorption, 974, 974t, 975f Neural groove, 445, 445f, 1089, 1090f Neutrons, 25, 25f
Nasal bone, 204t, 209f, 210f, 517f solute concentrations in, changes in, 976 Neural layer of retina, 526, 531, 531f Neutrophils, 651f, 653, 653t, 655f,
anterolateral view of, 222f urine flow through, 994 Neural mechanisms, and extracellular fluid 661, 661f
intramembranous ossification of, 184f and urine production, 970 volume regulation, 1008–1010, 1009f in inflammation response, 139f
in nasal cavity, 211t, 212f walls of, 974 Neural plate, 445, 445f, 1089, 1090f in innate immunity, 796–797, 796t
Nasal cartilage, lateral, 212f Nephronic loops. See Loop of Henle Neural tube, 445, 1092f polymorphonuclear, 661
Nasal cavity, 7f, 210f, 211, 515, 515f, 517f, Nephropathy, diabetic, 986 defects in, 1096, 1096f in tissue repair, 140
826–828, 826f, 827f Nerve(s). See also specific nerves development of, 445, 445f Newborn, 1106–1110
bones of, 211–212, 211t, 212f in blood vessels, 727 formation of, 1089–1091, 1090f circulatory system of, 1107–1109,
Nasal concha, 212 definition of, 375, 411 Neuralgia, 439 1107f–1108f
inferior, 204t, 210f, 211t, 212, 212f, 827f inflammation of, 439 Neuritis, 439 digestive system of, 1109
middle, 210f, 212, 212f, 220f, 827f injury in, response to, 395 optic, 503 first year after birth, 1111
superior, 212, 212f, 220f, 827f in nervous system, 8f Neuroblastoma, 629 human immunodeficiency virus
Nasal placodes, 1093 replacement of, with computers, 438 Neurocranium, 204t, 224 in, 1111
Nasal region, 15f Nerve cells. See Neuron(s) Neuroectoderm, 110, 1090t, 1091 respiratory system of, 1107–1109
Nasal septum, 210f, 211, 212f, 826–828 Nerve endings Neuroendocrine regulation, of Newborn screening, for metabolic
deviated, 211 free, 477–478, 479f, 479t immunity, 816 disorders, 949
Nasal spine, 218f gamma motor, 481f Neurofibrillary tangles, 504 NFP. See Net filtration pressure
anterior, 210f, 212f, 221f sensory, 477, 479t, 481f Neurofibromatosis, 101t, 471 Niacin. See Vitamin B3
Nasalis muscle, 330t, 331f, 332f Nerve fibers. See Axon(s) Neurogenic shock, 775 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD),
Nasolacrimal canal, 209f, 211, 211f, Nerve tracts, 414 Neuroglia, 136, 137t, 138f in glycolysis, 940–941
215t, 222f ascending, 415f, 421, 421f, 482–486, around multipolar neurons, 137t Nicotine patches, 164
Nasolacrimal duct, 211, 523, 523f, 828 482t–483t, 483f around unipolar neurons, 137t Nicotinic agents, 574
Nasopharynx, 515f, 827f, 828, 886 in cerebral medulla, 454, 454f of central nervous system, 379–380 Nicotinic receptors, 575
Nasus. See Nose decussation of, 448 functions of, 379 drugs binding to, 574
National Geographic Society, smell descending, 415f, 421, 421f, 486, 491–496 types of, 379–380 NIDDM. See Noninsulin-dependent diabetes
survey of, 517 functions of, 382 definition of, 377 mellitus
Natural family planning, 1068 in medulla oblongata, 448 functions of, 136, 377, 379 Night blindness, 538, 540–541
Natural gas, odor of, 517 motor, 491–496 nuclei of, 137t progressive, 540–541
Natural killer (NK) cells, in innate sensory, 482–486 of peripheral nervous system, 381, 381f stationary, 541
immunity, 796t, 797 Nervous layer, 525, 526–528 Neurohormones, 587, 588t Nipple, 1057f, 1058
Navel, 15f Nervous system. See also Autonomic nervous of pituitary glands, 610, 612 in female sex act, 1065
Navicular, 248f system(ANS); Central nervous structure of, 587 Nissl substance, 377, 378f
NDI. See Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus system(CNS); Peripheral nervous Neurohypophysis. See Posterior Nitric oxide
Near point of vision, 530 system(PNS) pituitary gland for erectile dysfunction, 402t
Nearsightedness. See Myopia acute renal failure and, 999 Neurolemmocytes. See Schwann cells and erection, 1048
Nebulin, 285 aging and, 506–508 Neuromodulators, 398, 399t–402t, 588t as intracellular mediator, 601t
Neck burn injuries and, 169t Neuromuscular junction. See Synapse(s) as neurotransmitter, 402t
of body, 14, 15f cells of, 377–382 Neuron(s), 377–379. See also Motor neurons; stroke and, 402t
arteries of, 730–732, 730f, 731t comparison with endocrine system, 585, Sensory neurons structure of, 402t
back of, 15f 586–587 bipolar, 136, 379, 379f transport in blood, 658
movement of, 327–329 components of, 8f circuits of, 404–406, 406f Nitrogen
muscles of, 327–329, 328f–329f diabetes mellitus and, 645 classification of, 378–379 characteristics of, 24t
veins of, 741–742, 742f, 742t diarrhea and, 921 composition of, 136 partial pressure at sea level, 849t
of bones, 206t in digestive system regulation, 878 excitatory, 402 percent in body, 24t
of femur, 243, 245f division of, 375–376, 375f functions of, 136, 377 in plasma, 652t
fracture of, 246 functions of, 8f, 375 inhibitory, 403 Nitrogen balance, 932
of humerus, 235 integration of, 476–509 multipolar, 136, 137t, 378–379, 379f Nitroglycerin
anatomical, 235, 237f glucagon and, 635t postganglionic, 565, 566f, 567f, 568f for heart problems, 713
surgical, 235, 237f and hormone secretion regulation, 591f preganglionic, 565, 566f, 567f, 568f solubility of, 881
of radius, 238f insulin and, 635t, 637 regeneration of, 140 S-Nitrosothiol, 658
of ribs, 233, 234f in local circulation regulation, in spinal cord, organization of, 415 NK cells. See Natural killer cells
of tooth, 882, 883f 764–765, 764f structure of, 136, 377–378, 378f Nociceptors. See Pain receptors
Neck nerve plexuses, and sympathetic muscular dystrophy and, 314t types of, 378–379, 379f Node of Ranvier, 378f, 381, 381f
axons, 570 myocardial infarction and, 715 unipolar, 136, 137t, 379, 379f in action potential propagation,
Necrosis, skin, 167 organization of, 375–376, 377f Neuron cell body, 377, 378f 393–394, 393f
Necrotic arteries, 733 and osteoporosis, 197t Neuronal pathways, 404–406 Noise, and hearing loss, 551
Negative feedback, 9–10 prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t, 1096 for balance, 556, 557f Non-A and non-B hepatitis. See Hepatitis C
in blood pressure maintenance, 9–10, 11f reflex arc in, 415–416 convergent, 404, 406f Nonconcomitant strabismus, 540
in endocrine system, 587, 590, 591f, 592 and respiration, disorders of, 865 divergent, 405, 406f Noncontracting urinary bladder, 996
and hyperthyroidism, 593 systemic lupus erythematosus and, 820 for hearing, 552–553 Nondisjunction, 100
mechanism of, 9–10, 11f Nervous tissue, 136 for taste, 519–521, 521f Nonelectrolytes, 32
in menstrual cycle, 592f action potentials in. See Action potential(s) for vision, 537–542, 537f Nonessential amino acids
Negative selection, in lymphocyte classification of, 110, 136 Neuropathy, Leber hereditary optic, 84 sources in diet, 932
development, 799 composition of, 136 Neuropeptides, 402t uses in body, 932

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-29 Index
Nongated ion channels. See Leak channels in herniated disks, 228, 228f Odor, body, 162 Opiates, 402t
Nongated sodium channels, 694 Nurse cells, 1037 Odorants, 516, 516f Opponens digiti minimi muscle, 357,
Nongonoccal urethritis, 1072 Nursemaid’s elbow, 267 Oil(s) 357t, 358f
Noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Nutrients, 928 monounsaturated, sources in diet, 931 Opponens pollicis muscle, 357, 357t, 358f
(NIDDM), 636 in compact bone, 183 polyunsaturated, sources in diet, 931 Opportunistic infections, with human
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelial essential, 928 saturated, sources in diet, 931 immunodeficiency virus, 817
tissue, 113–116 hormonal regulation of, 638, 639f unsaturated, sources in diet, 931 Opposition, of thumb, 263, 263f
Nonpolar covalent bonds, 28, 31t interconversion of, 903, 950–951, 951f Okazaki fragments, 92 Opsin, 532–535, 533f
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs malabsorption of, 814 Olecranon bursa, 257, 266f, 267 mutations of, 538
(NSAIDs) in plasma, 652t, 653 Olecranon bursitis, 267 Opsonins, 809
for arthritis, 273 Nutrition, 928–937, 929t Olecranon fossa, 237f Optic canal, 210f, 211f, 214, 214f, 215t, 218f
for menstrual cramps, 1066 and aging, 1113 Olecranon process, 236, 238f, 240f Optic chiasm, 451f, 463f, 464t, 525f, 537–538,
Nonstriated muscle, 136 and bone growth, 189–190 of ulna, 355f 537f, 610f, 611f
Noradrenaline. See Norepinephrine cystic fibrosis and, 867 Olecranon region, 15f Optic disc, 527, 528f, 536
Norepinephrine, 628, 628t healthy, benefits of, 928 Olfaction, 515–518 Optic foramen, optic nerve and, 464t
and adrenal gland, 568 in heart disease prevention, 713 aging and, 556 Optic (II) nerve, 339f, 464t, 524f, 525f, 526f,
amphetamines and, 400t and integumentary system, 166 link with taste, 518 531f, 536
and attention deficit/hyperactivity Nyctalopia, 538 neuronal pathways for, 517–518, 517f functions of, 462, 463t, 464t
disorder, 400t Nystagmus, 496, 556 Olfactory area inflammation of, 503
conversion to inactive metabolites, 397 intermediate, 517–518, 517f origin of, 463f
functions of, 400t lateral, 517, 517f Optic neuritis, 503
location of, 400t OA. See Osteoarthritis medial, 517, 517f Optic neuropathy, Leber hereditary, 84
in regulation of heart, 707 Obesity, 955 Olfactory bulb, 456f, 463f, 464t, 515f, Optic radiations, 537f, 538
repackaging of, 397, 398f hyperplastic, 955 516–517, 517f, 1096 Optic stalk, prenatal development of, 1096
secretion of, regulation of, 398, hypertrophic, 955 Olfactory cortex, 455, 456f, 487, 517 Optic tract, 464t, 537f, 538
590, 591f Oblique arytenoid muscle, 337t Olfactory epithelium, 515, 515f, 516–517 Optic vesicles, 446f
in smooth muscle regulation, 311 Oblique capitis superior muscle, Olfactory foramina, 212f, 214, 214f, 215t prenatal development of, 1096
structure of, 400t 327t, 329f Olfactory fossa, 213 Oral cavity, 7f, 827f, 874, 874f, 880–886
Normal range, 9, 9f Oblique fissure, of lung, 837f Olfactory hairs, 516, 516f functions of, 875t
Normocytes, 671 Oblique fracture, 195, 195f Olfactory (I) nerve, 464t, 515f, 517f, 1096 secretions of, 871t
Nose, 7f, 15f, 826f Oblique line, of mandible, 210f, 223f functions of, 462, 463t, 464t Oral cavity proper, 880
external, 826 Oblique muscle(s), 524 limbic system and, 506 Oral contraceptives, 1068, 1068t, 1069, 1069f
in respiratory system, 826–828 inferior, 339f, 339t, 340, 464t, 522f, origin of, 463f Oral region, 15f
Nostrils, 826, 827f 524, 524f Olfactory neurons, 515f, 516 Orbicular muscle. See Circular muscle
Notch, definition of, 206t superior, 339–340, 339f, 339t, 465t, Olfactory recess, 212f Orbicularis oculi muscle, 329, 330t, 331f,
Notochord, 445, 445f, 1088, 1089f, 1090f 524, 524f Olfactory region, 515, 515f 332f, 522–523, 522f, 523
NSAIDs. See Nonsteroidal Oblique muscle layer, of stomach, 889f Olfactory tract, 463f, 464t, 515f, 516, 517f Orbicularis oris muscle, 329, 330t, 331f, 332f,
anti-inflammatory drugs Oblique popliteal ligament, 269f, 270t Olfactory vesicle, 515f, 516 334f, 880
Nuchal ligament, 126 Oblique section, 15, 18f Oligodendrocytes, 380f Orbit(s), 210
Nuchal lines, 207t, 208 Obsession, 506 in myelin sheaths, 380f bones of, 210, 211f, 211t
inferior, 208f, 216f, 219f Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and nerve regeneration, 395 functions of, 210
superior, 208f, 216f, 219f treatment of, 400t structure of, 380f, 381f structure of, 210
Nuchal region, 15f Obturator artery, 736t, 738f Olivary nucleus, superior, 551 superolateral corner of, as weak
Nuclear envelope, 56f, 77–78, 77f Obturator externus muscle, 359t, 360f Olives, of medulla oblongata, 447f, 448, 463f point, 211
functions of, 57t innervation of, 434f Omega-3 fatty acids, 931 Orbital fissures
in mitosis, 94f Obturator foramen, 241, 241f, 242f Omega-6 fatty acids, 931 inferior, 211f, 215t, 216f
structure of, 57t, 77–78, 77f Obturator internus muscle, 359t, 360f Omega-9 fatty acids, 931, 932 superior, 210f, 211f, 214, 215t, 218f
Nuclear pores, 56f, 77f, 78 Obturator nerve, 433f, 434, 434f Omental bursa, 879f, 880 cranial nerves and, 464t, 465t, 466t
Nucleic acids, 47–48 Occipital artery, 730f, 731t Omentum Orbital plate
composition of, 47 Occipital bone, 204t, 206, 254f greater, 879f, 880 of ethmoid bone, 220f
Nucleolar organizer regions, 79 features of, 207t lesser, 879f, 880, 899f of frontal bone, 210f, 218f
Nucleolar organizing regions, 79 inferior view of, 214f, 216f, 219f OMIM. See Online Mendelian Inheritance Orbital region, 15f
Nucleolus, 56f, 77f, 78–79 intramembranous ossification of, 184f in Man Orbital surface, 221f
functions of, 57t lateral view of, 209f Omohyoid muscle, 333t, 334f, 335f Organ(s), 6f
in mitosis, 94f openings in, 215t Oncogenes, 143 connective tissue around, 121
structure of, 57t, 78–79 posterior view of, 208f Oncology, 142 definition of, 3
Nucleoplasm, 77, 77f superior view of, 207f Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man planes of section through, 15, 18f
Nucleotides Occipital condyles, 207t, 208f, 214–215, (OMIM), 102 smooth muscle in, 136t
anticodons, 89 216f, 219f Oocyte(s), 1051, 1051f Organ of Corti, 546
codons, 89 Occipital fontanel, 254f chromosomes of, 96 Organ systems, 7f–8f
composition of, 47–48, 48f Occipital lobe, 453f, 538 development of, 1038, 1051–1053, definition of, 3–6
in DNA, 47–48, 88 functions of, 454 1052f, 1054f prenatal development of, 1094–1101,
in RNA, 48, 88 Occipital nerve, lesser, 426f in fertilization, 1082–1083, 1082f 1094t–1095t
sequence of, 88 Occipital protuberance, external, 206, 208f, meiosis in, 1038, 1052–1053, 1052f Organelles, 56, 77–86
triplets, 86–87 216f, 219f primary, 1052, 1052f, 1054f definition of, 3, 77
Nucleus (atom), 25, 25f Occipital region, 15f secondary, 1052, 1052f, 1054f functions of, 57t, 77
Nucleus (cell), 56, 56f, 77–79, 77f Occipital sinus, 741f, 741t Oogenesis, 1051–1053 structure of, 57t, 77
definition of, 77 Occipitofrontalis muscle, 329, 330t, 331f, 332f Oogonia, 1051–1052, 1052f Organic chemistry, 39–50
functions of, 57t Occipitomastoid suture, 208f, 209f Open fracture, 195 definition of, 36
meiosis in, 1039f Occlusion, of blood vessels, 764 Open head injury, 458 Organism, definition of, 6
mitosis in, 92 OCD. See Obsessive-compulsive disorder Openings Organization
mRNA synthesis in, 78 Oculomotor (III) nerve, 464t, 571f in skull, 215t definition of, 6
of neuroglia, 133f functions of, 462–463, 463t, 464t types of, 206t structural and functional, levels of, 2–6, 6f
structure of, 57t, 77–78, 77f origin of, 463f OPG. See Osteoprotegerin tissue level of, 110
Nucleus (nervous system). See specific nucleus and parasympathetic axons, 570 Ophthalmic artery, 525 Organophosphate poisoning, 299
Nucleus ambiguus, 447f and parasympathetic nervous system, 569 Ophthalmic branch, of trigeminal nerve, Organophosphates, 295
Nucleus cuneatus, 447f, 485, 485f and vision, 524, 526 465t, 469 Orgasm
Nucleus gracilis, 447f, 485, 485f Oculomotor nucleus, 447f Ophthalmic veins, 741f, 741t female, 1065
Nucleus pulposus, 227f, 228 Odontoid process. See Dens Ophthalmoscope, 527, 528, 528f, 575 male, 1048

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-30
Origin, of muscle, 321, 321f, 322 Osteosarcoma, 142 in dorsal-column/medial-lemniscal head of, 897f, 905f
Oropharyngeal membrane, 1091, 1092f Osteotomy, for arthritis, 273 system, 485f histology of, 632–634, 905f
Oropharynx, 827f, 828, 886 Ostium, 1055 functions of, 479f, 479t, 480 hormones of, 635t
Orthostatic hypotension, 10 Otic ganglion, 571f structure of, 479t, 480 secretion control of, 637–638
Oscillating circuits, 405, 406f and parasympathetic axons, 570 PAH. See Para-aminohippuric acid prenatal development of, 1096
Osmolality, 37, 976 Otic region, 15f Pain, 488–489 secretions of, 885t, 906
of extracellular fluid, regulation of, Otitis media, 559 chronic, 264, 489 regulation of, 907, 907f
1007–1008, 1008f Otolith(s), 553, 553f sensitization in, 489 tail of, 905, 905f
Osmole (osm), 37, 976 Otolithic membrane, 553f control, gate-control theory of, 488 Pancreatic amylase, 906, 912
Osmoreceptor(s), 614 Otosclerosis, 559 definition of, 488 functions of, 885t
Osmoreceptor cells, 987 Outer plexiform layer, of retina, 531, 531f low back, 342 Pancreatic ducts, 897f, 900f, 905
Osmosis, 66–69, 67f, 75t, 976 Oval window, 543, 543f, 544f, 545f, 550f mechanism of sensation, 488 accessory, 900f
Osmotic diuretics, 988 Ovarian arteries, 736t muscle, exercise-related, 301, 370 Pancreatic islets, 632–634, 905, 905f
Osmotic pressure, 66–69, 68f Ovarian cycle, 1062 phantom, 488–489 histology of, 634f
Ossification Ovarian epithelium, 1051, 1051f referred, 488, 489f Pancreatic juice, 906
centers of, 183, 184f Ovarian ligament, 1050f, 1051 in sickle-cell disease, 657 Pancreatic lipases, 906
primary, 185, 186f Ovarian veins, 746t substance P and, 402t functions of, 885t
secondary, 185, 187f Ovaries, 8f, 586f, 1050f, 1051–1053 superficial, 488 Pancreatic veins, 747, 747t
endochondral, 183–185, 183t, 185f, cancer of, 1073 temporomandibular joint, 264 Pancreatitis, 907
186f–187f and follicles, 1053 visceral, 488 Panic disorders, treatment of, 400t
intramembranous, 183, 183t, 184f, 185f development of, 1053 Pain receptors (nociceptors) Pannus, 273
osteoblasts in, 176, 176f histology of, 1051, 1051f functions of, 477 Pantothenic acid, 933t, 934
Osteoarthritis, 273 hormones of, 641t temperature and, 478 Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, 1055
joint replacement for, 265 during menopause, 1070, 1071t in withdrawal reflex, 418, 419f, 420 Papilla(e)
Osteoblasts, 175–176 in menstrual cycle, 1060f Pain syndrome, chronic, 312, 489 dermal, 152f, 157
in bone growth, 189, 190f and oocyte development, 1038, 1051–1053 Palate, 515f, 880 duodenal, 896, 897f, 900f, 905f
in bone remodeling, 191 and ovulation, 1052 cleft, 216, 1094 filiform, 518, 519f
in bone resorption, 176 prenatal development of, 1100f hard, 215–216, 216f foliate, 518, 519f
in calcium homeostasis, 194–198, 194f Overeating, and obesity, 955 soft, 216 fungiform, 518, 519f
in cancellous bone, 173f, 178 Overweight, definition of, 955 muscles of, 336–338, 337t, 338f hair, 158
collagen synthesis by, vitamin C and, 190 Oviducts. See Uterine tubes Palatine bone, 204t, 211f renal, 962, 964f, 965f
in endochondral ossification, 185 Ovulation, 1052, 1052f, 1054f anterior view of, 222f of tongue, 518, 519f
functions of, 175 in menstrual cycle, 1060f, 1061t features of, 207t vallate, 518, 519f
in intramembranous ossification, Oxidation, 34 horizontal plate of, 207t, 212f, 216f, 222f Papillary duct, 966
183, 184f Oxidation–reduction reactions, 34 medial view of, 222f Papillary layer, of dermis, 151t, 152f, 157
mechanical stress and, 191 Oxidative deamination, 950, 950f in nasal cavity, 211t Papillary muscles, 683, 686f, 687f, 688f
nuclei of, 132t Oxygen openings in, 215t Papilledema, 528
origin of, 176, 183 characteristics of, 24t, 25, 25f in orbit, 211f, 211t Para-aminohippuric acid (PAH), 979, 992
ossification by, 176, 176f chemistry of, 39 vertical plate of, 212f, 222f Paracrine chemical signals, 587, 588t,
structure of, 175–176 and homeostasis, 708–710 Palatine foramina 642–643
Osteochondral progenitor cells, 176 partial pressure of anterior, 215t, 216f Parafollicular cells, of thyroid gland, 619, 620t
in endochondral ossification, 185 changes in, 852f posterior, 215t, 216f Parahippocampal gyrus, 455, 456f
in intramembranous ossification, 183 at sea level, 849t Palatine glands, 883 Paralysis
location of, 176 percent in body, 24t Palatine process, of maxilla, 207t, 212f, crutch, 429
Osteoclasts, 176 in plasma, 652t, 653 216f, 221f flaccid, 295, 312
in bone remodeling, 191 recovery consumption of, 305 Palatine tonsils, 519f, 787, 787f, 827f, 880 infantile. See Poliomyelitis
bone resorption by, 176 transport in blood, 654, 658, 851–856 Palatoglossus muscle, 336f, 336t, 337t, 338f spastic, 295
in calcium homeostasis, 194–198, 194f and ventilation, 861 Palatopharyngeus muscle, 337t, 338, 338f Paramesonephric ducts, 1100, 1100f
in cancellous bone, 178, 178f Oxygen debt, in anaerobic respiration, 952 Palm, 15f Paranasal sinuses, 212, 213f, 827f, 828
functions of, 122 Oxygen deficit, 303–305 Palmar aponeurosis, 353f Parasites, 782
nuclei of, 77 Oxygen diffusion gradients, reduced, 862 Palmar arch Parasympathetic action potentials, and
origin in, 176 Oxygen partial pressure gradients, 851, 852f deep, 733, 734f erection, 1049
regulation of, 194–195 and oxygen and hemoglobin superficial, 733, 734f Parasympathetic blocking agents, 574
Osteocytes, 131, 176f transport, 851–855 Palmar arch artery Parasympathetic cranial nerves, 462, 463t
in cancellous bones, 178, 178f Oxygenated blood, 840 deep, 733t Parasympathetic innervation, of heart,
in compact bones, 179, 179f Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, superficial, 733t 705–706
formation of, 176 853–854, 853f, 854f, 861 Palmar interossei muscle, 357, 357t, 358f, Parasympathetic nervous system, 565,
functions of, 122 shifting, 854f 368t, 369f, 431f 568–569, 568f, 569t
in intramembranous ossification, 184f Oxyhemoglobin, 658 Palmar region, 15f distribution of nerve fibers in, 570
nuclei of, 132t Oxyntic cells. See Parietal cells Palmar venous arch effects of, 573t
structure of, 176f Oxytocin, 614t, 615, 1032t deep, 743t, 744f, 745f functions of, 376
Osteogenesis. See Ossification chemical structure of, 589f superficial, 743t, 744f, 745f at rest vs. activity, 580–581
Osteogenesis imperfecta, 101t, 177, 177f and G proteins, 598t Palmaris longus muscle, 353f, 356t general vs. localized effects of, 580
Osteomalacia, 190, 192 and lactation, 1110f innervation of, 432f insulin and, 637
Osteomyelitis, 192 in parturition, 1105–1106, 1106f tendon of, 354f receptors in, 572f
Osteon(s), 173f secretion control of, 616f Palmitic acid, structure of, 43f Parasympathetic reflex, 576f
aging and, 198 during sexual intercourse, 1065 Palpebrae. See Eyelids Parasympathomimetic agents, 574
in bone growth, 189, 190f and smooth muscle contraction, 311 Palpebral conjunctiva, 522f, 523 Parathyroid glands, 8f, 586f, 624–627, 625f
in compact bone, 179, 179f use during labor, 1105 Palpebral fissure, 522, 522f hormones of, 620t
remodeling and, 191 Palv. See Alveolar pressure prenatal development of, 1096
in long bone, 181f Pancreas, 6f, 7f, 8f, 586f, 632–638, 874f, 879f, Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 620t, 625
Osteonectin, 124 P wave, 695, 697f, 701t 900f, 905–907 aging and, 643
Osteoporosis, 192, 196–197, 196f, 624 Pacemaker, 691 anatomy of, 905, 905f and calcium regulation, 194–195, 194f, 625,
diagnosis of, 197 artificial, 713 ANS and, 573t 626f, 918, 1016
etiology of, 196, 197t Pacemaker cells bicarbonate ion production in, 906f, 907 and G proteins, 598t
treatments for, 196–197 in cardiac muscle, 311 body of, 905f and osteoporosis, 196
Osteoprotegerin (OPG) in smooth muscle, 310 cancer of, 907 and phosphate regulation, 1018–1020
in calcium homeostasis, 194–195 Pacinian corpuscles, 479f cystic fibrosis and, 63 secretion control of, 626f
for osteoporosis, 197 aging and, 506 formation of, 1092f secretion disorders of, 625, 626t

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-31 Index
Paraurethral glands, 1056 Pectineus muscle, 325f, 360f, 361f, 362f, 363t Pericardial fluid, 16, 19f, 681, 681f Peritoneum, 1f, 878–880, 879f, 1036f
Paraventricular nucleus, 451f innervation of, 435f Pericardial sac. See Pericardium inflammation of, 18
Paravertebral ganglia, 566 Pectoral girdle Pericarditis, 18, 681, 712 mesenteries in, 18, 19f
Paresthesia, 439 bones of, 204t, 235, 235f, 240f Pericardium, 681, 681f, 684f parietal, 16, 18, 19f, 345f, 878, 879f,
Parietal arteries, 732f vs. pelvic girdle, 240 fibrous, 680f, 681, 681f, 840f 963f, 993f
Parietal bones, 204t, 206, 254f Pectoral nerves inflammation of, 18 visceral, 16, 18, 19f, 878, 879f,
anterior view of, 210f lateral, 427f parietal, 16, 19f, 680f, 681, 681f, 840f 888, 889f
in cranial cavity, 214f medial, 427f serous, 681, 681f in digestive tract, 877
features of, 207t Pectoral region, 15f visceral, 16, 19f, 680f, 681, 681f, 840f of digestive tract, 877f
intramembranous ossification of, 184f Pectoralis major muscle, 7f, 325f, 344f, 347f, Perichondrium, 130 Peritonitis, 18, 880
lateral view of, 208, 209f, 217f 348, 348f, 348t, 349f, 352f in endochondral ossification, 184, Peritubular capillaries, of kidneys,
posterior view of, 208f Pectoralis minor muscle, 346, 346t, 347f, 838 186f–187f 969, 969f
superior view of, 207f in respiration, 838f structure of, 130, 174–175, 174f Perivitelline space, 1083
Parietal branches Pedal region, 15f Periciliary layer (PCL), 866–867 Permanent cells, 140
of abdominal artery, 736t Pedicle, 226f, 226t, 227 Perilymph, 544f, 545, 545f, 550f Permanent teeth, 882
of pelvic arteries, 736t of cervical vertebrae, 229f Perilymphatic cells, 545, 545f Permeability, selective, 64, 66–67
of thoracic aorta, 733–736, 736t of lumbar vertebrae, 231f Perimenopause, 1070 Pernicious anemia, 673
Parietal cells, of stomach, 889f, 890, 891f of thoracic vertebrae, 230f Perimetrium, 1050f, 1055 Peroneal artery, 738
Parietal eminence, 207f, 217f Pelvic brim, 242, 244f Perimysium, 281, 281f, 282f Peroneal veins, 748, 750f, 751f, 751t
Parietal layer, of Bowman’s capsule, 966, 967f Pelvic cavity, 16, 18f, 1036f Perineal region, 15f Peroxisomes, 56f, 82
Parietal lobe, 453f Pelvic diaphragm, 344–346 Perineum, 15f, 344–346, 1034, 1056, 1057f functions of, 57t
functions of, 454 Pelvic floor, muscles of, 344–346, central tendon of, 346f, 1104 structure of, 57t
Parietal pericardium, 16, 19f, 680f, 681, 345t, 346f clinical, 1056, 1056f, 1057f Perpendicular plate, of ethmoid bone, 210f,
681f, 840f Pelvic girdle female, 1057f 212f, 220f
Parietal peritoneum, 16, 18, 19f, 345f, 879f, bones of, 204t, 240f, 241–243 muscles of, 344–346, 345t, 346f Perspiration
880, 963f, 993f functions of, 240–241 in pregnancy, 1104 insensible, 1007
Parietal pleura, 16, 19f, 680f, 785f, 833f, 834f, Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), 1073 Perineurium, 421f, 422 sensible, 1007
839, 840f Pelvic inlet, 243 Period Pertussis. See Whooping cough
Parietal serous membranes, 16, 19f and birth, 243 of ejection, 697, 698f, 699f, 700t, PET scans. See Positron emission
Parkinson disease male vs. female, 243, 244f, 244t 701–702 tomographic scans
dopamine in, 23 Pelvic nerve(s), 569, 571f of isovolumic contraction, 697, 698f, 699f, Petechiae, 663
etiology of, 400t and parasympathetic axons, 570 700t, 701 Petrosal sinuses
signs and symptoms of, 496 Pelvic nerve plexus, and parasympathetic of isovolumic relaxation, 698f, 699f, 700, inferior, 741f, 741t
treatment of, 23, 400t, 461, 496 axons, 570 701t, 702 superior, 741f, 741t
Parotid gland(s), 883, 884f Pelvic outlet, 243 Periodic abstinence, 1068 Petrous portion, of temporal bone, 207t,
inflammation of, 884 and birth, 243 Periodontal disease, 254, 883 214f, 217f
Parotid gland duct, 883, 884f male vs. female, 243, 244f, 244t Periodontal ligaments, 254, 882, 883f Peyer’s patches, 786, 898
stratified cuboidal epithelial tissue in, 115t Pelvic region, 15f Periosteal dura, 456, 457f pH
Parotiditis, 884 Pelvic splanchnic nerves, 568f, 569, 570, 571f Periosteum and acid–base balance, 1022f, 1023
Paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, 696t Pelvis, 7f, 15f, 241, 242f in bone growth, 189, 190f of blood, 38
Pars distalis, 611f arteries of, 736, 736t, 737f, 738f on compact bones, 179f carbon dioxide and, 856
Pars intermedia, 611f definition of, 14 in endochondral ossification, 185, regulation of, 860, 860f
Pars tuberalis, 611f false, 242–243 186f–187f and ventilation, 860–861
Partial pressure, 848, 849t female, 243, 244f, 244t, 1050f on long bones, 181f, 182, 182t and blood pressure, 770f
gradient of, 850 male, 243, 244f, 244t, 1033, 1033f of skull, 457f of body fluid, regulation of, 38–39
Partial-thickness burns, 160, 161f, true, 243 structure of, 182 and enzyme action, 38–39
168, 168f veins of, 746–748, 746t, 749f, 750f Peripheral chemoreceptors, and and hemoglobin and oxygen
Parturition, 1104–1106, 1105f, 1106f Penicillin, allergic reactions to, 799 ventilation, 860 transport, 854
Passive immunity, 816f, 818 Penile urethra. See Spongy urethra Peripheral circulation, 721 and homeostasis, 708–710, 709f
artificial, 816f, 818 Penis, 8f, 1033f, 1036f, 1042–1043, 1043f functions of, 722 scale, 38, 38f
natural, 816f, 818 arteries of, 1043, 1043f Peripheral nerves, structure of, 421–422, 421f of stomach, at birth, 1109
Passive range of motion, 263 development of, 1042 Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 565. and ventilation, 860–861
Passive tension, 301 in male sex act, 1048 See also Autonomic nervous Phagocytes, 796
Passive ventricular filling, 698f, 699f, 700, nerves of, 1043, 1043f system(ANS); Somatic nervous Phagocytic vesicles, 56f, 71, 73f
701t, 702 skin of, 1042 system Phagocytosis, 71–72, 73, 73f, 796, 904
Patella, 204t, 205f, 240f, 243–244, veins of, 1043, 1043f components of, 375, 375f, 411 antibodies in, 810f
245f, 247f Pennate muscle, 321, 322f disorders of, 439, 471 Phalanx (phalanges), 205f
defects in, 245 Pepsin, 890, 916 functions of, 411 distal
fractures in, 245 functions of, 885t glial cells of, 381, 381f of finger, 239f
injuries to, 271 Pepsinogen, 890 infections in, 439, 471 of thumb, 239f
surface anatomy of, 247f Peptic ulcers, 894 motor (efferent) division of, 376, 376f of toe, 248f
Patellar groove, 245, 245f Peptidase, 898, 916 organization of tissue in, 382 of foot, 240f, 247, 248f
Patellar ligament, 268f, 269f, 270t, 361f, functions of, 885t regeneration in, 395 of hand, 235f, 239–240, 358f
362, 417 Peptide(s), chemical structure of, 589f sensory (afferent) division of, middle
Patellar reflex, 417, 420 Peptide bonds, 45, 45f 375–376, 376f of finger, 239f
Patellar region, 15f Pepto-Bismol, for diarrhea, 920 Peripheral proteins, in plasma of toe, 248f
Patellar retinaculum, 268f, 270t Percent Daily Value, 936 membrane, 58–59, 59f number of, 204t
Patellar tendon, 361f Perception. See Sensation Peripheral resistance (PR), 703, 765 proximal
Patent ductus arteriosus, 712, 1109 Perforating canals Peripheral sensitization, 489 of finger, 239f
Pathologic arteriovenous in compact bone, 179f, 180 Perirenal fat, 962, 963f of thumb, 239f
anastomoses, 727 in long bone, 181f Peristalsis, 874, 876f of toe, 248f
Pathology, definition of, 2 Perforating fibers, 188 Peristaltic contractions, 895, 895f Phantom pain, 488–489
Pattern baldness, 158–159 Perforin, 812 in small intestine, 898 Pharyngeal artery, ascending, 731t
Pavlov, Ivan, 503 functions of, 803t Peristaltic waves, 874 Pharyngeal branch, 468t
Pavlovian reflexes. See Conditioned reflexes Periarterial lymphatic sheath, 789, 790f in stomach, 894, 895f Pharyngeal constrictor muscles, 338,
PB. See Barometric air pressure Pericapillary cells, 722, 722f of swallowing, 888 886–888, 887f
PCL. See Periciliary layer Pericardial cavity, 16, 19f, 680f, 681, Peritoneal cavity, 16, 19f, 963f inferior, 337t, 338f, 886
Pectinate muscles, 682 681f, 840f formation of, 1091 middle, 337t, 338f, 886
Pectineal line, 242f, 245f formation of, 1091 Peritoneal fluid, 16, 19f superior, 337t, 338f, 886

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-32
Pharyngeal phase, of swallowing, Pigmentation enzymes in, 63–64, 64f Pneumotaxic center. See Pontine
886–888, 887f of eye, 526, 531 fluid-mosaic model of, 58, 59f respiratory group
Pharyngeal pouches, 1092f of skin, 155–156 functions of, 57t, 58 Pneumothorax, 844
formation of, 1091 Pigmented cell, of retina, 531, 531f homeostasis in, 65 PNS. See Peripheral nervous system
Pharyngeal tonsils, 787, 787f, 827f Pigmented layer of retina, 526, 531, 531f lipid bilayer of, 58, 59f Podocyte. See Visceral layer, of Bowman’s
Pharynx, 7f, 826f, 827f, 874, 874f, 886 PIH. See Prolactin-inhibiting hormone lipids in, 58, 59f, 65 capsule
formation of, 1091, 1092f Pilocarpine, and cystic fibrosis, 867 membrane potential of, 58, 287, 288f, 393 Podocyte cells, 966
functions of, 875t Pimples, facial, 741 permeability characteristics of, 64–65, 285, Poiseuille’s law, 752–754
muscles of, 336–338, 337t, 338f Pineal body, 8f, 447f, 451f, 452, 586f 383, 383f, 385–386 Poisoning
prenatal development of, 1099f brain sand in, 452 polarized, 285, 384 cyanide, 50
in respiratory system, 828 functions of, 452 potential difference across, 285, 384 lead, 504–505
Phasic receptors, 482 hormones of, 641–642, 641t, 642f proteins in, 59–64, 59f, 60f diagnosis of, 166
Phenotype, 95–96 Pinkeye, 523 functions of, 60t mercury, chronic, 504
definition of, 95 Pinocytosis, 72–73, 73f resting membrane potential of, 285, 289f, organophosphate, 299
Phenylalanine Pinocytotic vesicles, 72, 73f 383–386, 384f, 385f, 385t strychnine, 401t
and phenylketonuria, 97 Piriformis muscle, 359t, 360f structure of, 57t, 59f Polar bodies, formation of, 1052
sources in diet, 932 Pisiform bone, 239, 239f transport through, 64–71 Polar covalent bonds, 28, 28f, 31t
structure of, 45f Pitch, 547, 549f comparison of mechanisms, 75t Polar molecules, 28f
Phenylephrine, 574 Pituitary diverticulum, 611 by diffusion, 65–66, 65f, 66f, 75t Polarized plasma membrane, 285, 384
Phenylketonuria (PKU), 97–98, Pituitary dwarfism, 192 by endocytosis, 71–73, 75t Poliomyelitis, 297, 439
100, 101t Pituitary giantism, 192 by exocytosis, 74, 75t Poly-A tail, 89, 89f
newborn screening for, 949t Pituitary gland, 8f, 451f, 586f, 610–619, 610f filtration and, 69, 75t Polycystic kidney disease, 966
Pheochromocytoma, 629 anterior, 610, 611, 611f mediated, 69–71, 69f, 75t Polycythemia, 673
Pheromones, 506, 587, 588t hormones of, 614t, 616–619 by osmosis, 66–69, 67f, 75t Polycythemia vera, 673
Phlebitis, 725 prenatal development of, 1096 Plasma proteins, 652t, 653 Polydactyly, 96, 96f
Phosphate target tissues of, 611f hormone concentrations and, 594, 594f Polydipsia, in diabetes mellitus, 644
abnormal levels of, 1020, 1020t cranial nerves and, 463f, 464t Plasma thromboplastin antecedent, in Polygenic traits, 98
in body fluid compartments, 1005t hormones of, 613–619, 614t coagulation, 664t Polygraph tests, 162
concentrations in body, 1005t in menstrual cycle, 1060f, 1061t Plasma thromboplastin component, in Polymorphism, 97
in digestive system, 918 posterior, 610, 611f coagulation, 664t balanced, 657
in extracellular fluid, regulation of, hormones of, 613–615, 614t Plasmin, 667, 667f Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs), 661
1018–1020, 1019f hypothalamic regulation of, 452 Plasmodium spp., and malaria, 674 Polypeptides, 45, 589t
functions of, 27t prenatal development of, 1096 Plateau phase, of cardiac action Polyphagia, in diabetes mellitus, 644
in plasma, 652t target tissues of, 613f potential, 692, 693f Polyribosome, 91
uptake, vitamin D in, 165 relationship to brain, 611–613 Platelet(s), 651f, 653, 653t, 655f, 661f, 662 Polysaccharides, 40–41
Phosphate buffer system, 1021, 1021t and sex hormone secretion, 1045 Platelet accelerator, in coagulation, 664t sources in diet, 930
Phosphodiesterase, 599 structure of, 610–611 Platelet adhesion, 663 structure of, 40–41, 41f
Phospholipids, 663 PKU. See Phenylketonuria Platelet aggregation, 663 uses in body, 930
chemistry of, 43 Placenta Platelet count, 672 Polyspermy
in plasma membrane, 58, 59f, 65 development of, 1085–1087, 1086f Platelet factor III, 663 fast block to, 1083
production of, in smooth endoplasmic mature, 1087f Platelet plugs, formation of, 662–664, 663f slow block to, 1083
reticulum, 80 during pregnancy, 1067 Platelet release reaction, 663 Polysynaptic reflex, 416
structure of, 43, 43f problems with, 1087 Platysma muscle, 330t, 331f, 332f Polyunsaturated fats, 42
uses in body, 931 Placenta previa, 1087 Plavix, 664 cis form of, 931
Phosphorus Planes, 15, 17f Pleated sheets, 45, 46f sources in diet, 931
characteristics of, 24t Plantar aponeurosis, 368, 369f Pleura, 839–840 trans form of, 931
deficiency of, 935t Plantar arteries inflammation of, 18 Polyuria, in diabetes mellitus, 644
percent in body, 24t lateral, 738, 738f, 739f, 739t parietal, 16, 19f, 680f, 785f, 833f, 834f, Pompe disease, 82
uses in body, 935t medial, 738, 738f, 739f, 739t 839, 840f Pons, 444f, 447f, 448, 450f, 463f
Phosphorylation, 599, 603, 603f, 603t Plantar calcaneocuboid ligament, 270f, 272t visceral, 16, 19f, 680f, 833f, 834f, development of, 445, 446f, 446t
in glycolysis, 940 Plantar calcaneonavicular ligament, 839–840, 840f functions of, 444t
Photoperiod, 642 270f, 272t Pleural cavities, 16, 19f, 680f, 833f, 834f, nuclei of, 448
Photoreceptor(s), 477 Plantar fasciitis, 272, 368 839, 840f structure of, 448
Photoreceptor layer, of retina, 531, 531f Plantar flexion, 260, 261f formation of, 1091 Pontine respiratory group, 858, 858f
Phototherapy, 671 Plantar ligaments left, 680f Popliteal artery, 729f, 738, 738f, 739f, 739t
Phrenic arteries long, 270f, 272t right, 680f in pulse monitoring, 759
inferior, 735f, 736t, 737f short, 270f, 272t Pleural fluid, 16, 19f Popliteal bursa, 270
superior, 735f, 736, 736t Plantar nerves Pleural pressure (Ppl), 844 Popliteal fossa, 436
Phrenic nerves, 343, 425, 426f lateral, 436f, 437 Pleurisy, 18 Popliteal ligaments, 270
damage to, 426 medial, 436f, 437 Plexiform layer arcuate, 269f, 270t
Phrenic veins, 746t Plantar region, 15f inner, 531, 531f oblique, 269f, 270t
inferior, 747f Plantar veins, 750f, 751f, 751t outer, 531, 531f Popliteal region, 15f
Phylloquinone. See Vitamin E Plantaris muscle, 365, 365t, 367f Plexuses. See also specific types Popliteal vein, 740f, 748, 750f, 751f, 751t
Physiologic contracture, of muscle, Plasma, 651f, 652–653, 1005 definition of, 375, 422 Popliteus muscle, 365t, 367f
301–302 as colloidal solution, 37 roots of, 422–423 innervation of, 436f
Physiologic dead space, 848 composition of, 652t Plicae circulares. See Circular folds Porta, of liver, 899f, 900
Physiologic shunt, 850 volume of, 1005t Pluripotent cells, 1084, 1085 Portal system(s)
Physiology water content of, 36 PMNs. See Polymorphonuclear hepatic, 747–748, 747t, 748f
cardiovascular, 2 Plasma cells neutrophils hypothalamohypophysial, 611–612
cell, 2 in adaptive immunity, 796t PMS. See Premenstrual syndrome Portal triad, of liver, 900, 901f
definition of, 2 in antibody production, 811 Pneumocystis carinii, 817 Portwine stains, 167
exercise, 2 Plasma clearance, 991–992 Pneumocystis pneumonia, with human Positions, body, 13, 13f
goals of, 2 calculation of, 991 immunodeficiency virus, 817 anatomical, 13, 13f
systemic, 2 Plasma loss shock, 775 Pneumocytes prone, 13
Pi. See Protease inhibitors Plasma (cell) membrane, 56, 56f, 58–71, 59f type I, 835, 835f supine, 13
Pia mater, 379, 413, 413f, 457, 457f carbohydrates in, 58, 59f type II, 835–836, 835f Positive feedback, 10–12, 12f
PID. See Pelvic inflammatory disease cation and anion concentration differences Pneumonia, 865 during birth, 12
PIF. See Prolactin-inhibiting factor across, 382–383, 382t pneumocystis, 817 in cardiac muscle, 10–12, 12f
Pigment cell layer, of retina, 531, 531f composition of, 58 and shunted blood, 850 in endocrine system, 587, 590–592, 592f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-33 Index
harmful, 10–12, 12f Prefrontal area, 487f, 491 Presbyopia, 530, 539–540 Proliferation, zone of, 186, 188f
in menstrual cycle, 592f Preganglionic neurons, 565, 566f, aging and, 556 Proliferative phase, of menstrual cycle, 1060,
normal, 12 567f, 568f Pressoreceptors. See Baroreceptor(s) 1060f, 1061t, 1064f
Positive selection, in lymphocyte Pregnancy, 1065–1067 Pressure sores. See Decubitus ulcers Promoters, in transcription, 88
development, 799 aspirin during, 663 Presynaptic cells, 394 Pronation, 261, 261f
Positron(s), 5 complications of, 1087, 1088 Presynaptic facilitation, 403–404 Pronator quadratus muscle, 351t, 354, 354f
Positron emission tomographic (PET) corpus luteum of, 1053 Presynaptic inhibition, 403–404, 403f innervation of, 432f
scans, 5, 5f ectopic, 1067 Presynaptic membranes, 398 Pronator teres muscle, 351t, 353f, 354
Postabsorptive state, metabolic, enlargement of uterus during, Presynaptic terminals, 289–290, 290f, 378, innervation of, 432f
951–953, 952f 1102, 1102f 378f, 396, 397f Prone, definition of, 261
Postcentral gyrus, 453f, 454 exercise during, 1104 Pretectal area, 499 Prone position, 13
Postconcussion syndrome, 462, 505 hormones in, 640–641, 1067f Prevertebral ganglia, 566 Pronephros, 1099, 1099f
Posterior, 13, 13f, 14t joint changes during, 255 PRF. See Prolactin-releasing factor Pronucleus
Posterior chamber, of eye, 526f, 527f, 528 melanin production during, 156 PRH. See Prolactin-releasing hormone female, 1082f, 1083
Posterior horn, 414, 414f, 415f nitrogen balance in, 932 Priapism, 657 male, 1082f, 1083
Posterior ligament, of incus, 544f perineum in, 1104 Primary amenorrhea, 1066 Proopiomelanocortin, 618
Posterior lobe, of cerebellum, 449, 450f prevention of. See Birth control Primary bronchus, 832, 833f, 837f, 840f Prophase, 93, 94f
Posterior nucleus, 451f termination of, 1070 Primary erythrocytosis, 673 Prophase I, 1038, 1039f
lateral, 449, 451f twin, 1084, 1088 Primary fissure, of cerebellum, 449, 450f Prophase II, 1039f
ventral, 449, 451f Preload, 705 Primary follicle, 1051f, 1053, 1054f Propionibacterium acnes, 166
Posterior pituitary gland, 610, 611f Premature atrial contractions, 696t Primary lymphatic organs, 800 Propranolol, 574
hormones of, 613–615, 614t Premature infants, 1104 Primary lymphedema, 791 Proprioception, 462, 482
hypothalamic regulation of, 452 from IVF pregnancies, 1088 Primary neurons Pacinian corpuscles and, 480
prenatal development of, 1096 jaundice in, 1109 of dorsal-column/medial-lemniscal system, types of, 482
target tissues of, 613f Premature ventricular contractions (PVCs), 484, 485f Proprioceptors, functions of, 477
Posterior surface, of patella, 245f 696t, 697f of posterior spinocerebellar tract, 486f Proproteins, 91
Postganglionic neurons, 565, 566f, Premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 1066 of spinothalamic tract, 484, 484f Propulsion, in digestive tract, 874, 875t
567f, 568f Pre-messenger ribonucleic acid Primary oocyte, 1052, 1052f, 1054f Prosencephalon, 445, 446f, 446t
Postmenopause, 1071t (pre-mRNA), 88–89, 89f Primary palate, 1093 Prostacyclin, 641t, 643, 666
Postovulatory age, 1082 Premolars, 221f, 223f, 881f, 882, 882f Primary receptors, 481–482, 481f Prostaglandins, 641t, 643, 663
Postremal chamber. See Vitreous chamber Premotor area, 487f, 491, 501f Primary response, in antibody functions of, 43
Postsynaptic cells, 394 in implicit memory, 504 production, 811, 811f in innate immunity, 794t
Postsynaptic membrane, 289, 290f, Prenatal development, 1082–1104 aging and, 819 uses in body, 931
396, 397f alcohol and, 1096, 1110 Primary spermatocytes, 1037, 1040f Prostate gland, 8f, 1033f, 1041f,
Posttranscriptional processing, 89, 89f blastocyst, 1084f, 1085 Primary teeth, 882 1043f, 1044
Posttranslational processing, 91 body cavity formation, 1091 Prime mover muscles, 321 age-related changes in, 1072
Potassium of brain, 445, 445f, 446f, 446t Primitive streak, 1088, 1089f cancer of, 1044
in blood of cardiovascular system, Primordial follicle, 1051f, 1053, 1054f ducts of, 1043f
abnormal levels of, 393 1094t–1095t, 1096–1098 Primordial germ cells, 1099–1100 prenatal development of, 1100f
plasma, 652t of central nervous system, 445, 445f, Proaccelerin, in coagulation, 664t secretions of, 1045
in body fluid compartments, 1005t 446f, 446t Procedural memory. See Implicit memory Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), 1044
in cardiac tissue, 710 of circulatory system, 1096–1098 Procerus muscle, 330t, 331f, 332f Prostatic urethra, 1041f, 1042, 1043f
characteristics of, 24t of digestive system, 1094t–1095t Process(es). See also specific types Prostheses, joint, 275
concentration differences across early cell division, 1084 definition of, 206t Protease
plasma membrane, 382, 382t, of endocrine system, 1094t–1095t, 1096 on skull, 207t in emphysema, 836
385–386. See also Sodium–potassium of face, 1091–1094, 1093f Process vaginalis, 1036, 1036f function of, 47
exchange pump fertilization, 1082–1083, 1082f Products, of chemical reactions, 32 and HIV infections, 817
concentrations in body, 971t, 1005t germ layer formation, 1087–1089 Proenzymes, 91 Protease inhibitors (Pi), 836
abnormal, 393, 1014, 1015t growth of fetus, 1101–1104, 1102f Proerythroblasts, 654, 655f, 658 for AIDS, 817
deficiency of, 935t gut formation, 1091 Progeria, 1113 Proteasomes, 56f, 83
in digestive system, 918 of heart, 1096–1098, 1097f Progesterone, 640, 641t, 1032t functions of, 57t, 83
in extracellular fluid, regulation of, implantation, 1085–1087, 1086f in female puberty, 1059 structure of, 57t, 83
1014–1016, 1015f of integumentary system, 1094t–1095t, 1095 and intracellular receptors, 605t Protection, as function of water, 37
functions of, 27t of limb buds, 1091 and lactation, 1110 Protein(s), 44–47, 916–917
percent in body, 24t of lymphatic system, 1094t–1095t in menstrual cycle, 1060f, 1061t binding, 593–594, 594f
plasma membrane permeability to, 383f, malformations in, 1091 in ovarian cycle, 1062, 1063f in body fluid compartments, 1005t
385–386 morula, 1084–1085, 1084f in parturition, 1105–1106 chemistry of, 44
and resting membrane potential, 285, of muscular system, 1094t–1095t, 1096 during pregnancy, 1067, 1067f complete, sources in diet, 932
384–385, 384f of nervous system, 1094t–1095t, 1096 in uterine cycle, 1064f, 1065 composition of, 44
secretion of, into nephron, 979t, 980f neural crest formation, 1089–1091 Progesterone-like contraceptives, 1070 concentrations in body, 971t, 1005t
uses in body, 935t neural tube formation, 1089–1091 Progranulocyte, 655f denaturation of, 45
Potassium channels of organ systems, 1094–1101, 1094t–1095t Progressive lenses, 540 digestion of, 913t
gated, during action potentials, 289f placental development, 1085–1087, 1086f Progressive night blindness, 540–541 as enzymes. See Enzyme(s)
specificity of, 285 of reproductive system, 1094t–1095t, Progressive shock, 775 fibers. See Protein fibers
voltage-gated, 694 1099–1101, 1100f Projection(s) in foods, 929t
during action potentials, 388, 389f of respiratory system, 1094t–1095t, of bone, 206t formation of, 87
in cardiac action potential, 692 1098, 1098f of cutaneous sensation, 487 functions of, 44, 44t
Potassium-sparing diuretics, 988 of skeletal system, 1094t–1095t, 1095 Projection fibers, 454, 454f in Golgi apparatus, 80, 81f
Potential difference, across plasma of skin, 1094t–1095t, 1095 Prolactin, 614t, 619, 1032t hormones, 589t, 595
membrane, 285, 384 smoking and, 1096 and G proteins, 598t structure of, 587, 589f
Potential energy, 34 somite formation, 1091 and lactation, 1110, 1110f, 1111 incomplete, sources in diet, 932
Potentiation, long-term, 504, 506f of special senses, 1096 and phosphorylation, 603t metabolism of, 948–950, 948f
Pott’s fracture, 247 of urinary system, 1094t–1095t, Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF), 1111 mitochondrial, 83–84
Power stroke, in muscle contraction, 294 1099, 1099f Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), 612, molecular mass of, 44
PR. See Peripheral resistance Preoptic area, 451f 612t, 619 as nutrients, 928
PR interval, 695, 697f Prepatellar bursa, subcutaneous, 269f, Prolactin-releasing factor (PRF), 1111 passage through filtration barrier, 971
Precapillary sphincter, 723, 723f 270, 271 Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH), 612, in plasma, 652t, 653
Precentral gyrus, 453f, 454, 491 Prepotential, 693–694, 694f 612t, 619 in plasma membrane, 59–64, 59f, 60f
Prefixes, 12 Prepuce, 1033f, 1042, 1043, 1056, 1056f Prolapsed uterus, 1055, 1104 functions of, 60t

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-34
and plasma membrane concentration PTH. See Parathyroid hormone Pyelonephritis, 997 Ramus communicans
differences, 382, 382t Ptosis, 329 Pyloric antrum, of stomach, 889f gray, 567f, 568, 571f
plasma membrane permeability to, Puberty Pyloric canal, of stomach, 888, 889f white, 566, 567f, 571f
383, 383f female, 1059 Pyloric orifice, of stomach, 888, 889f Range
receptor, 61–63, 62f, 63f, 287, 291f and breast development, 1058 Pyloric part, of stomach, 888, 889f of motion, 263
recommended amounts, 932 hair during, 158 Pyloric sphincter, of stomach, 888, 889f normal, 9, 9f
sources in diet, 932 male, 1047 Pyloric stenosis, hypertrophic, 888 Ranitidine (Zantac), 892
structure of, 45–47, 46f Pubic bone, 1036f Pyorrhea, 883 RANKL. See Receptor for activation of
and function, 45, 47 Pubic crest, 242, 242f Pyramid(s) nuclear factor kappa B ligand
primary, 45, 46f Pubic hair food guide, 928, 930f Raphe, 1033
quaternary, 46f, 47 development of, 158 of medulla oblongata, 447f, 448, 493 Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 502, 505
secondary, 45, 46f functions of, 158 renal, 962, 964f, 965f, 969f RAS. See Reticular activating system
tertiary, 45–47, 46f Pubic ramus Pyramidal decussation, 447f, 448, 493, 494f Rashes, as diagnostic aid, 166
synthesis of inferior, 242f Pyramidal system, of motor nerve Rate, of blood flow, 752–753
as dehydration reaction, 32, 32f, 33f superior, 242f tracts, 492 Rathke’s pouch, 611
DNA regulation of, 78 Pubic region, 15f Pyridoxine. See Vitamin B6 Raynaud disease, 581
ribosomes in, 79 Pubic symphysis. See Symphysis pubis Pyrimidines. See specific types RBC. See Red blood count
transcription in, 88–89 Pubic tubercle, 242, 242f, 345f Pyrogens, 957 RDA. See Recommended Dietary
in translation, 89–91, 90f Pubis, 241, 241f, 242f in inflammatory response, 798 Allowances
uses in body, 932 Pubofemoral ligament, 267f, 268t in innate immunity, 794t RDIs. See Reference Daily Intakes
Protein buffer system, 1021, 1021t Pudendal artery, internal, 736t, 738f Pyrosis, 891 Reabsorption
Protein envelope, in epidermis, 153f Pudendal cleft, 1056, 1056f Pyruvic acid in collecting duct, 974t, 976
Protein fibers, in connective tissue Pudendal nerve, 433f, 438 in aerobic respiration, 303, 942f, 943f in distal convoluted tubule, 974t, 976
cartilage, 130 anesthesia for, 438 in anaerobic respiration, 303 in loop of Henle, 974t, 976, 977f, 978f
dense, 124 Pudendal plexus, 423 in glycolysis, 938–941, 940f, 941 nephrons and, 974, 974t, 975f
dense irregular, 126 Pudendum. See Vulva in proximal convoluted tubule, 974–976,
extracellular matrix of, 123–124 Pull, of muscle contraction, 322 974t, 975f
Protein kinases, 599 Pulmonary arteries, 688, 688f, 728, 834f QRS complex, 695, 697f, 700t, 701t tubular, 970, 970f, 973–976
Proteoglycan(s) left, 680f, 684f, 685f, 686f QT interval, 695, 697f in urine production, 970, 970f, 973–976
in bone matrix, 175 right, 680f, 684f, 685f, 686f, 840f Quadrangular membrane, 829f Reactants, 32
in cartilage, 130 Pulmonary capacities, 846–847, 847f Quadrants, of abdomen, 14, 16f concentration of, and chemical
in extracellular matrix of connective Pulmonary capillaries, 834f Quadrate lobe, of liver, 899, 899f reaction speed, 36
tissue, 124 Pulmonary capillary perfusion, Quadrate muscle, 322, 323f Reactions, chemical. See Chemical
Proteoglycan aggregate, 123f, 124 ventilation and, 850 Quadratus femoris muscle, 359t, 360f, 361f reactions
Proteoglycan monomers, 124 Pulmonary circulation, 678, 679f, 728 Quadratus lumborum muscle, 341f, 344t Reactive astrocytosis, 379
Prothrombin, in coagulation, 664t, 666 Pulmonary disease, chronic Quadratus plantae muscle, 368t, 369f Receptive aphasia, 500
Prothrombin time measurement, 672 obstructive, 864 Quadriceps femoris muscle, 325f, 360f, 362, Receptive field, 536
Prothrombinase, in coagulation, 666 Pulmonary edema 363t, 417 Receptor(s). See also specific types
Proton pump, in stomach, 890 and respiratory membrane thickness, 849 innervation of, 435 of autonomic nervous system,
Protons, 25, 25f and shunted blood, 850 in patellar reflex, 420 572–576, 572f
Proto-oncogenes, 143 Pulmonary fibrosis, 865 Quadriceps femoris tendons, 417 definition of, 287, 383
Protraction, 262, 262f Pulmonary plexus, 468t, 571f in negative feedback, 10
Provitamin(s), 934 and sympathetic axons, 570 in synapses, 397–398
Provitamin A, and aging, 1113 Pulmonary semilunar valve, 686f, 687, 688f, RA. See Rheumatoid arthritis Receptor for activation of nuclear
Proximal, 13f, 14, 14t 690f, 702f Rabies, 504 factor kappa B ligand (RANKL),
Proximal convoluted tubule, 965f, 966, 967f, Pulmonary trunk, 8f, 680f, 682, 684f, 685f, Race, and bone mass, 198 194–195
968f, 969f 686f, 688f, 728, 729f Radial annular ligament, 266f, 267 hormone replacement therapy and, 197
reabsorption in, 974–976, 974t, 975f at birth, 1107f, 1108f Radial arteries, 729f, 733, 733t, 734f Receptor potential, 481–482, 481f
secretions in, 979t Pulmonary veins, 682, 687f, 688f, 728, 834f in pulse monitoring, 757, 759 Receptor proteins, 61–63, 62f, 63f
Proximal radioulnar joint, 266–267 left, 680f, 684f, 685f, 686f Radial collateral ligament, 266f, 267 in action potentials, 287, 291f
Prozac, 399t right, 680f, 684f, 685f, 686f, 740f, 840f Radial fossa, 237f and channel proteins, 62–63, 63f
PSA. See Prostate-specific antigen Pulmonary vessels, 721 Radial groove, 237f functions of, 60t
Pseudogout, 274 blood volume in, 755t Radial keratotomy, 539 and ligands, 63, 285
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 166 Pulmonary volume, 846–847, 847f Radial nerve, 427, 427f, 429, 429f Receptor sites, 61, 63f, 383
Pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue, Pulmozyne, for cystic fibrosis, 867 damage to, 429 drugs and, 63
112–113 Pulp, 882 Radial notch, 237, 238f of ligands, 595
functions of, 117t, 119t Pulp cavity, 882, 883f Radial pulse, 757 Receptor-mediated endocytosis, 73, 74f
goblet cells in, 11, 117t Pulse, 757, 759, 759f Radial tuberosity, 237, 238f Recessive alleles, 95
location of, 117t, 119t Pulse pressure, 757 Radial veins, 743–745, 743t, 744f, 745f Recessive genes, inheritance of, 100, 100f
structure of, 112–113, 117t Pulvinar, 449, 451f Radiation, in body temperature Recipient, of blood, 668
Psoas major muscle, 359, 359t, 360f, 963f Pumps regulation, 954, 954f Reciprocal innervation
innervation of, 435f ATP-powered, 61, 62f Radiation treatment, and taste stretch reflex with, 420
Psoas minor muscle, 341t, 360f functions of, 60t aversions, 556 withdrawal reflex with, 418–420, 419f
Psoriasis, 167 proton, in stomach, 890 Radioactive isotopes, clinical use of, 29 Recommended Dietary Allowances
Psychic cortex, 454 sodium–potassium exchange. See Sodium– Radiograph, 4, 4f (RDA), 934
Psychic stimuli, and sexual reflexes, 1048 potassium exchange pump applications of, 4 Recovery oxygen consumption, 305
Psychologic fatigue, 301 Punctum, 523, 523f limitations of, 4 Recovery stroke, in muscle contraction, 294
Pterygoid canal, 215t, 218f Punnett square, 100 Radiopaque substances, 29 Rectal artery, middle, 736t
Pterygoid hamulus, 207t, 216f, 218f, 338f Pupil, 522f, 526, 526f, 527f Radioulnar joint, proximal, 266–267 Rectum, 7f, 874f, 895f, 908f, 909, 1033f,
Pterygoid muscles ANS and, 573t Radioulnar syndesmosis, 253t, 254, 255f 1036f, 1050f
lateral, 333t, 334f, 883 constriction of, 530 Radius, 7f, 205f, 235f, 236–237, 238f, prenatal development of, 1099, 1099f
medial, 333t, 334f, 883 Purines, 402t 353f, 354f reflexes in, 911f
Pterygoid plates Purkinje, Johannes, 449 fractures in, 238 Rectus abdominis muscle, 7f, 325f, 343, 344f,
lateral, 207t, 215, 216f, 218f, 334f Purkinje cells, 449, 450f number of, 204t 344t, 345f
medial, 207t, 212f, 215, 216f, Purkinje fibers, 691, 691f at wrist, 239f tendinous intersections (inscriptions),
218f, 334f Pus, 140, 661, 797 Raloxifene, 197 343, 344f
Pterygomandibular raphe, 338f Putamen, 455 Ramus (pl., rami). See also specific types Rectus capitis anterior muscle, 327t
Pterygopalatine ganglion, 466t, 571f PVCs. See Premature ventricular definition of, 206t Rectus capitis lateralis muscle, 327t
and parasympathetic axons, 570 contractions of mandible, 223f Rectus capitis posterior muscle, 327t, 329f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-35 Index
Rectus femoris muscle, 7f, 325f, 361f, 362 sympathetic, 576f Replacement muscular dystrophy and, 314t
innervation of, 435f withdrawal (flexor), 418–420, 419f cellular, 140–141 myocardial infarction and, 715
Rectus muscles, 524 Reflex arc, 415–416, 416f joint, 275 of newborn, 1107–1109
inferior, 339, 339f, 339t, 464t, 522f, 524, 524f Reflexive memory. See Implicit memory Replacement therapy, for shock, 775 and osteoporosis, 197t
lateral, 339, 339f, 339t, 466t, 524, 524f, 525f Refraction, of light, 529 Replication prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t,
medial, 339, 339f, 339t, 464t, 524, Refractory period of centrosome, 93 1098, 1098f
524f, 525f of action potentials, 390, 390f DNA, 92, 92f systemic lupus erythematosus
superior, 339, 339f, 339t, 464t, 522f, 524, absolute, 390, 390f, 391 Repolarization phase, of action and, 820
524f, 525f relative, 390, 390f potentials, 287, 288f, 289f, 387, Respiratory tract
Rectus sheath, 343, 344f, 345f of cardiac muscle, 695 388–390, 389f lower, 826, 826f
Red, ability to see, 521, 521f, 535f, 536 absolute, 695 in cardiac muscle, 692, 693f diseases of, 865
Red blood cells, 133t, 651f, 653, 653t, relative, 695 sinoatrial node, 694f upper, 826, 826f
654–660, 655f, 656f, 661f Regeneration, 140–141 in skeletal muscle, 293f diseases of, 865
abnormal structure of, 110 in central nervous system, 395, 425 in smooth muscle, 310 Respiratory zone, of tracheobronchial
aging and, 144 of muscle cells, 140 Reposition, of thumb, 263, 263f tree, 835
function of, 654–656 in peripheral nervous system, 395 Reproduction, definition of, 9 Responsiveness, definition of, 8
and hemoglobin, 656–658 of skin, after burns, 160–161 Reproductive hormones, 640–641, 641t, 1032t Rest, oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
life history of, 658–660 tissue repair by, 140 aging and, 643 during, 843–854, 853f
nucleus of, 78 Regional anatomy, definition of, 2 concentration of, 592 Resting membrane potential (RMP),
osmosis in, 68f Regional enteritis, 919 Reproductive system, 1031–1074. See also 383–386, 692
production of, 658–659, 659f Regular connective tissue Female reproductive system; Male changes in, 385–386, 385f
sickle-shaped, 657, 657f dense, 125–126 reproductive system characteristics responsible for, 385t
structure of, 654 dense collagenous, 127t cystic fibrosis and, 867 definition of, 28
Red blood count (RBC), 671 dense elastic, 126, 127t, 128t diabetes mellitus and, 645 depolarization of, 385–386, 385f
Red bone marrow, 133, 133t, 654, 793f Regulatory genes, 87 and osteoporosis, 197t establishment of, 383–385, 384f
in adults, 181 Regulatory substances, in plasma, 652t, 653 prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t, gated ion channels and, 287, 289f
in children, 181 Regulatory T cells, in adaptive 1099–1101, 1100f graded potentials and, 386–387, 387f
in intramembranous ossification, 183 immunity, 799 Reproductive technologies, artificial, 1088 hyperpolarization of, 385–386, 385f
in long bones, 180–182, 181f, 182t Rehydration, 914 Research, biomedical, 9 measurement of, 285, 287f, 384, 384f
Red hair, 160 Rejection, of grafts, 807 Residual volume, 846 in smooth muscle, 310
Red nucleus, 448f, 449 Relative erythrocytosis, 673 aging and, 863 slow waves of depolarization in,
functions of, 449 Relative refractory period, 695 Resistance (R), in blood flow, 753, 756 310, 310f
in rubrospinal tract, 495, 495f of action potentials, 390, 390f Resolution, 112 Resting stage, in hair, 158
Red pulp, of spleen, 788–789, 790f Relaxation phase, of muscle twitch, 295, of male orgasm, 1048 RET gene, 878
Red-green color blindness, 101t 296f, 296t Resorption, of bone, 176 Rete testis, 1034, 1035f
Reduction, 34 Relaxin, 640, 641t Respiration, 825. See also Ventilation Reticular activating system (RAS),
Reduction division, 1038 Releasing hormones, 612 abdominal muscles in, 839 498, 499f
Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs), 934, 936 REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 502, 505 aerobic, 303, 942–945, 942f, 943f drugs and, 498
Referred pain, 488, 489f Remodeling, bone, 178, 180, 191 anaerobic, 303, 306, 941–942, 941f Reticular cells, 129, 786, 790f
Reflection, of light, 529 in long bones, 191, 191f digestive system and, 875t Reticular fibers, 129, 129t, 786
Reflex(es), 415–420 Renal arteries, 729f, 736t, 963f, 964f, exercise and, 863 in extracellular matrix of connective
aging and, 507 969, 969f muscles of, 838–839, 838f tissue, 123
aortic arch, 766 left, 735f, 737f spinal cord injury and, 838 in red bone marrow, 133
autonomic, 416, 576–578, 576f right, 737f Respiratory acidosis, 1025–1026, 1025t structure of, 123
baroreceptor, 706f, 707, 708f Renal blood flow rate, 970 Respiratory alkalosis, 1025–1026, 1025t Reticular formation, 449
in blood pressure regulation, calculation of, 971t Respiratory areas, in brainstem, brainstem and, 498, 499
765–766, 766f, 767f Renal capsule, 962, 963f, 964f 856–858, 858f functions of, 444t
brainstem, 445, 470–471, 498–500 Renal columns, 962, 964f, 969f Respiratory bronchioles, 834, 834f, 835 structure of, 449
carotid sinus, 766 Renal corpuscle, 965f, 966, 967f, 968f Respiratory distress syndrome, 844, 864 Reticular layer, of dermis, 151t,
chemoreceptor, 706f, 708–710, 709f Renal failure, 997 in premature infants, 1104 152f, 157
aortic body, 709–710 acute, 997, 998 Respiratory frequency. See Respiratory rate Reticular tissue, 129
in blood pressure regulation, 769, chronic, 997 Respiratory groups functions of, 129t
769f, 770f in diabetic nephropathy, 986 dorsal, 856–858, 858f location of, 129, 129t
carotid body, 709–710 Renal fascia, 962, 963f ventral, 856–858, 858f structure of, 129, 129t
conditioned (Pavlovian), 503–504 Renal fraction, of cardiac output, 970 Respiratory membrane, 835f, 836 Reticulocytes, 655f, 659
cough, 841 Renal papillae, 962, 964f, 965f diffusion coefficient of, 849–850 Reticuloendothelial system, 797
defecation, 910–911, 911f Renal pathologies, 997 diffusion of gases through, 849–850 Reticulospinal tract, 492f, 492t–493t, 494f,
definition of, 416 Renal pelvis, 963, 964f partial pressure differences and, 850 495–496, 495f
duodenocolic, 910 Renal plasma flow rate, 970 surface area of, 850 Retina, 526–528, 526f, 527f, 531f
enterogastric, 892 calculation of, 971t thickness of, 849 focusing of images on, 529–531, 530f
eye movements as, 448 Renal pyramid, 962, 964f, 965f, 969f Respiratory muscles, 342–343, 343f, functions of, 531–537
functions of, 416 Renal sinus, 962, 964f 344f, 345f inner layers of, 536
gastrocolic, 910 Renal surface, of spleen, 790f Respiratory rate, 848 innervation of, 531f
Golgi tendon, 418, 418f Renal system, and acid–base balance, 1022f, Respiratory system, 825, 826f neural layer of, 526, 531, 531f
head movements as, 448 1024–1026, 1024f, 1027f and acid–base balance, 1022f, ophthalmoscopic examination of, 527,
knee-jerk (patellar), 417, 420 Renal veins, 746t, 963f, 964f, 969, 969f 1023–1024, 1023f 528, 528f
local, 578, 878 left, 747f, 749f acute renal failure and, 999 pigmented layer of, 526, 531, 531f
of digestive tract, 878 right, 747f, 749f aging and, 863 rod and cone distribution in, 536
mastication, 883 Renin anatomy of, 826–841 sensory receptor cells of, 532f
micturition, 994–996, 996f aging and, 643 burn injuries and, 169t structure of, 531–537
monosynaptic, 416 and blood pressure, 771 components of, 7f Retin-A, 166
parasympathetic, 576f and urine regulation, 983 cystic fibrosis and, 867 Retinaculum
polysynaptic, 416 Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism diabetes mellitus and, 645 of ankle, 325f
sneeze, 841 in blood pressure regulation, 771, diarrhea and, 921 of wrist (flexor retinaculum), 325f,
somatic, 416 772f, 774f disorders of, 864–865 354, 358f
sound attenuation, 549 and extracellular fluid volume regulation, functions of, 7f, 826 Retinal, 532–535, 533f
spinal cord pathways and, 421, 421f 1009f, 1010, 1010f histology of, 826–841 11-cis-Retinal, 532–534, 533f
stretch, 416–417, 417f and sodium excretion, 1013t infections of, 865 all-trans-Retinal, 533f, 534
with reciprocal innervation, 420 and urine regulation, 983–986 leiomyomas and, 1074 Retinal detachment, 540

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-36
Retinal vessels, 528f Right atrium, 680f, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f, Sacral plexus, 422f, 423, 433–438, 433f, 571f Scapular nerve, dorsal, 427f
Retinitis pigmentosa, 538 688f, 743f Sacral promontory, 225f, 232, 232f, 241f, 244f Scapular notch, 236f
Retinol. See Vitamin A prenatal development of, 1097f Sacral region, 15f Scapular region, 15f
Retinopathy, diabetic, 541, 541f, 556, 575 Right lobe, of liver, 899, 899f Sacral splanchnic nerves, 571f Scapular spine, 235
Retraction, 262, 262f Right ventricle, 680f, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f, Sacral vertebrae, 232, 232f Scar, 140–141
Retromandibular vein, 741f, 742f 688f, 690f Sacroiliac joint, 241, 241f Scarlet fever, 166
Retroperitoneal organs, 18, 19f, 880 prenatal development of, 1097f Sacrum, 204t, 205f, 225, 225f, 232, 232f, Schlemm, canal of. See Canal,
Reverse transcriptase, and HIV Rigor mortis, 302–303 241f, 360f of Schlemm
infections, 817 Ringworm, 167 male vs. female, 244t Schwann cells, 381, 381f
Reverse transcriptase inhibitors, for HIV Risorius muscle, 329, 330t, 331f, 332f Sagittal plane, 15, 17f in myelin sheaths, 378f, 381, 381f
infections, 817 RMP. See Resting membrane potential Sagittal sinuses in peripheral nerves, 421–422, 421f
Reversible reactions, 33 RNA. See Ribonucleic acid inferior, 741f, 741t Sciatic nerve, 433f, 436
Reye syndrome, 504 Rod(s), 526, 532–535, 532t superior, 456, 459, 460f, 740f, 741f, 741t damage to, 438
Rh blood group, 669–670 distribution of, 536 Sagittal suture, 206, 207f, 208f, 253, 253t, 254f Sciatic neuritis, 439
Rheumatic endocarditis, 712 Rod cell, 531f Saliva, 884–886 Sciatic notch
Rheumatic fever, 710 hyperpolarization of, 534–535, 534f functions of, 885t greater, 241–242, 242f, 436
Rheumatic heart disease, 712 Rod-cone dystrophy, 538 Salivary amylase, 884, 912 lesser, 242f
Rheumatoid arthritis, 273, 274f Roentgen, Wilhelm, 4 functions of, 885t Sciatica, 439
joint replacement for, 265 Root(s) Salivary duct, 884f SCID. See Severe combined
juvenile, 273 of hair, 158, 159f Salivary glands, 7f, 874f, 883–886, 884f immunodeficiency disease
Rheumatoid factor, 273 of lungs, 836, 840f ANS and, 573t Sclera, 522f, 525, 526f, 527f
Rh0(D) immune globulin (RhoGAM), 670 of nail, 163, 163f Salivatory nuclei Scleral venous sinus, 527f, 528
Rhodopsin, 532–535, 532t, 533f, 534f of penis, 1042, 1043f inferior, 447f Sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral, 492
Rhombencephalon, 445, 446f, 446t of plexus, 422–423 superior, 447f Scoliosis, 225, 225f
Rhomboidal muscle, 322, 323f of spinal cord, 413f, 414f, 415, 424f Salpingopharyngeus muscle, 337t, Scopolamine, for motion sickness, 557
Rhomboideus major muscle, 346, 346t, of tongue, 519f 338, 338f Scrotum, 1033–1034, 1033f, 1036f, 1041f
347f, 349f of tooth, 882, 883f Salt(s), 38 prenatal development of, 1100
Rhomboideus minor muscle, 346, 346t, Root canal, 882, 883, 883f taste of, 518, 520f Scurvy, 190
347f, 349f Root sheath Saltatory conduction, 393, 393f Sebaceous glands, 150f, 162, 162f
Rhythm method of birth control, dermal, 158, 159f Saphenous veins Sebum, 162, 523
1068, 1068t epithelial, 158, 159f great, 740f, 750, 750f, 751f, 751t in acne, 166
Rhythmic ventilation, 858 Rotation, 261, 261f small, 740f, 750, 750f, 751f, 751t Second heart sound, 701t, 702
generation of, 858 lateral, 261, 261f Sarcolemma, 280, 281f, 282f, 290f, Secondary amenorrhea, 1066
Rib(s), 7f, 205f, 233 medial, 261, 261f 292f, 690f Secondary bronchi, 832, 833f, 837f
defects in, 233 Rotator cuff, 266 in excitation–contraction coupling, Secondary erythrocytosis, 673
false, 233, 234f injury, 350 292, 293f Secondary follicle, 1051f, 1053, 1054f
floating, 224 muscles of, 347f, 348t, 349f, 350, 350f structure of, 292 Secondary lymphatic organs, 800
movement of, and thoracic volume, Rotatores muscle, 341t, 342f Sarcoma, definition of, 142 Secondary lymphatic tissues, 800
839, 839f Rough endoplasmic reticulum, 56f, 79–80 Sarcomeres, 282, 283–284, 283f, 284f, 690f Secondary lymphedema, 791
number of, 204t functions of, 57t in muscle contraction, 285, 286f, 293f, 294f Secondary neurons
separated, 233 structure of, 57t, 79–80, 80f in muscle relaxation, 285, 286f of dorsal-column/medial-lemniscal system,
true, 233, 234f Round ligament, 1050f, 1055, 1109 structure of, 282f, 283–284, 284f 485, 485f
tubercle of, 233, 234f at birth, 1108f Sarcoplasm, 281 of posterior spinocerebellar tract, 486f
vertebral articular facets and, 230 of liver, 899f of smooth muscle, 308, 308f of spinothalamic tract, 484, 484f
vertebrochondral, 233 Round window, 543f, 544f, 545f, 546, 550f Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 690, 690f Secondary oocyte, 1052, 1052f
Rib cage. See Thoracic cage rRNA. See Ribosomal ribonucleic acid in cardiac muscle, 690, 690f in ovulation, 1052
Riboflavin. See Vitamin B2 RU486, 1070 in skeletal muscle, 282f, 292, 292f, 293f, Secondary palate, 1094
Ribonuclease, 906 Rubella. See German measles 295, 298–299 Secondary receptors, 481f, 482
functions of, 885t Rubrospinal tract, 492f, 492t–493t, 494f, in smooth muscle, 308 Secondary response, in antibody
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 78 495, 495f Sartorius muscle, 7f, 325f, 360f, 361f, production, 811–812, 811f
composition of, 48 Ruffini end organs, 479f 362, 363t aging and, 819
functions of, 47 functions of, 479f, 479t, 480 innervation of, 435, 435f Secondary spermatocytes, 1037, 1040f
messenger. See Messenger ribonucleic structure of, 479t Satellite cells, 381, 381f Secondary teeth, 882
acid (mRNA) Ruffled border, 176 Satiety center, 634 Second-degree burns, 160, 161f
mobility of, 78 Rugae Saturated fats, sources in diet, 931 Secretin, 892, 892t
ribosomal. See Ribosomal of stomach, 888–890, 889f Saturated fatty acids, 42, 43f and bile secretion, 903, 903f
ribonucleic acid of vagina, 1055 Saturation, in mediated transport, Secretion(s)
structure of, 48 Rule of nines, 160, 160f 69, 70f in digestive system, 874–875, 885t
transfer. See Transfer ribonucleic acid Ruptured intervertebral disks, 228, 228f Scab, in tissue repair, 140, 141f of esophagus, 885t
and translation, 89–91, 90f Ruptured spleen, 789 Scala media, 546 gastric, 885t, 892
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) polymerase, in Scala tympani, 545f, 546, 550f of large intestine, 910
transcription, 88 Scala vestibuli, 545f, 546, 550f of liver, 885t
Ribose, 40 S phase of cell cycle, 91f, 92 Scalene muscles, 342, 838 of male reproductive system, 1045
in ATP, 50f SA node. See Sinoatrial node anterior, 342t, 343f of oral cavity, 871t
structure of, 48f Saccharides, sources in diet, 930 medial, 342t, 343f of pancreas, 885t, 906, 907, 907f
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA), 78 Saccular macula, 553f posterior, 342t, 343f of small intestine, 885t, 898
in ribosomes, 79 Saccule, 553, 553f in respiration, 838f of stomach, 890–894, 891–894, 893f
structure of, 78 Sachs, Bernard, 507 Scalp hair in urine production, 970, 970f,
and translation, 89 Sacral arteries growth of, 159 978–979, 980f
Ribosomes, 56f, 77f, 79 lateral, 736t, 738f length of, 159 Secretory phase, of menstrual cycle, 1060,
in endoplasmic reticulum, 79–80, 80f median, 735f, 736t, 737f, 738f loss of, 158–159 1060f, 1061t, 1064f
free, 79 Sacral bone. See Sacrum Scanning electron microscopes (SEM), Secretory vesicles, 56f, 80–82
functions of, 57t Sacral canal, 232f 58, 112 in exocytosis, 74, 74f
production of, 79, 79f Sacral crest, median, 232, 232f Scaphoid bone, 238, 239f functions of, 57t
in protein synthesis, 79 Sacral foramina, 232, 232f, 422 Scapula, 15f, 204t, 205f, 235, 235f, 236f from Golgi apparatus, 80, 81f
structure of, 57t, 79 Sacral hiatus, 232, 232f movements of, 262f regulation of, 82
Rickets, 190 Sacral nerves, 422, 422f muscles of, 346–348, 346t, 347f, 350 structure of, 57t
Ridges, on bones, 206t functions of, 423f spine of, 236f, 352f Segmental arteries, 964f, 969, 969f
Right, 13, 13f, 14t nomenclature for, 422 structure of, 235 Segmental bronchi. See Tertiary bronchi

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-37 Index
Segmental contractions, in small intestine, in skin, 477, 479f inferior, 342t Sildenafil (Viagra), 1049
874, 876f, 898 structure of, 479t superior, 342t Simple columnar epithelial tissue
Segregation errors, 100 types of, 477, 479t Sertoli cells, 1035f, 1037 cells of, 109f, 114t
Selective estrogen receptor modulators Sensory nerve tracts, 482–486 Serum, in blood clots, 666–667 functions of, 114t, 118t
(SERMs), and bone loss, 197 ascending, 482–486, 482t–483t, 483f Serum hepatitis. See Hepatitis B location of, 114t, 118t
Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors descending, 486 Serum prothrombin conversion accelerator, structure of, 114t
(SNRIs), 400t Sensory (afferent) neurons, 376f, 565 in coagulation, 664t Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors aging and, 506–507 Serum sickness, 806 functions of, 114t, 118t
(SSRIs), 399f, 399t, 400t in autonomic nerve plexuses, 570 Sesamoid bones, 240 location of, 114t, 118t
Selenium cranial, 462, 463t Set point, 9, 9f structure of, 114t
characteristics of, 24t definition of, 375 Set point theory, of weight control, 955 Simple epithelial tissue
deficiency of, 935t functions of, 375, 378 Severe combined immunodeficiency disease cells of, zonula occludens in, 120
percent in body, 24t in Golgi tendon reflex, 418, 418f (SCID), 101t, 807 functions of, 116–118
uses in body, 935t in integumentary system, 150, 164 Sex act structure of, 112, 116–118
Self-antigens, 798, 801f location of, 375 female, 1065 Simple exocrine glands, 120, 121f
Sella turcica, 207t, 214, 214f, 218f in reflex arc, 416, 416f male, 1048–1049 Simple fracture. See Closed fracture
SEM. See Scanning electron microscopes in spinal cord, 415, 415f Sex cells. See Gametes Simple squamous epithelial tissue
Semen, 1045 in stretch reflex, 416–417, 417f Sex chromosomes, 96 cells of, 113t, 118
sperm cell count of, 1045, 1047 structure of, 415 abnormalities of, 101 functions of, 113t, 118, 118t
Semicircular canals, 543f, 544f, 545–546, in withdrawal reflex, 418, 419f, 420f Sex drive, postmenopausal, 1071t location of, 113t, 118t
545f, 554, 555f, 556f Sensory nuclei, in brainstem, 447f Sex hormones structure of, 113t, 118
Semilunar notch. See Trochlear notch Sensory receptor(s), 376f, 477–482. See also and bone growth, 190 Sinemet, 496
Semilunar valves, 687 specific types secretion of, in males, 1045–1047, 1046f Sinoatrial (SA) node, 691–692, 691f
aortic, 685f, 686f, 687, 687f, 688f, 690f, 702f location of, 375 Sex organs, ANS and, 573t action potentials in, 693–694, 694f
pulmonary, 686f, 687, 688f, 690f, 702f prenatal development of, 1095 Sex steroids, 628t aging and, 711
Semimembranosus muscle, 326f, 362f, primary, 481–482, 481f and intracellular receptors, 605t block of, 696t
363t, 364 responses of, 481–482 Sex-linked traits, 98–99 Sinus(es). See also specific types
innervation of, 436f secondary, 481f, 482 Sexual behavior bone structure around, 206
Semimembranosus tendon, 364 stimulation of, vs. sensation, 477 female, 1065, 1071t definition of, 206t
Seminal vesicles, 8f, 1033f, 1041f, 1042, types of, 477–481, 478f, 478t male, 1048–1049 in flat bones, 182
1043f, 1044 of unipolar neurons, 379, 379f Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), in irregular bones, 182
and ejaculation, 1045 Sensory receptor cells, of retina, 532f 1072–1073 Sinus arrhythmia, 696t
prenatal development of, 1100f Sensory relay center, of brain, 449 Shaft, of hair, 158 Sinus venosus, 1098
secretions of, 1045 Sensory speech area. See Wernicke’s area Sharpey’s fibers. See Perforating fibers Sinusitis, 828
Seminiferous tubules, 1034, 1035f Sensory stimuli Shingles, 439 Sinusoid(s), 722–723, 747
at puberty, 1037 accommodation to, 482 Shinsplints, 364 Sinusoidal capillaries, 722–723, 723f
Semispinalis capitis muscle, 327t, 328f, awareness of, 477 Shivering, 307 Skeletal muscle(s), 320–370, 320f, 325f–326f.
329f, 341f Sensory trigeminal nuclei, 447f Shock, 775 See also specific muscles
Semispinalis cervicis muscle, 329f, 340t, 341f Sentinel lymph nodes, 789 anaphylactic, 775 of abdominal wall, 343–344, 344f, 344t
Semispinalis thoracis muscle, 340t, 341f Septa, 1034, 1035f cardiogenic, 775 action of, 321
Semitendinosus muscle, 326f, 362f, 363t, 364 Septa pellucida, 458 circulatory, 771, 775 action potentials of, 291f, 293f,
innervation of, 436f Septal cartilage, 212f circulatory system, 1016 298–299, 693f
tendon of, 364f Septal defects, 712 compensated, 775 aging and, 312
Semitendinosus tendon, 364 Septal nucleus, 456f emotional, 775 agonist, 321
Sensation, 477–490 Septic shock, 775 hemorrhagic, 775 anabolic steroids and, 307
definition of, 477 Septicemia, 674, 791 irreversible, 775 anatomy of, 320–370
in integumentary system, 164 Septum primum, prenatal development of, neurogenic, 775 ANS and, 573t
steps involved in, 477 1097f, 1098 plasma loss, 775 antagonist, 321
Senses Septum secundum, prenatal development of, progressive, 775 of arm movement, 348–351,
classification of, 477, 478f, 478t 1097f, 1098 septic, 775 348f–349f, 348t
definition of, 477 SERMs. See Selective estrogen receptor spinal, 912 atrophy of, 307, 312
general, 477 modulators treatment of, 576 attachments of, 321, 321f
somatic, 477, 478f, 478t Serosa, 1050f Short bones, structure of, 180, 180f, 182 belly of, 321, 321f
special, 477, 478f, 478t, 514, 556–559 of digestive tract, 877, 877f Short-term memory, 502–503, 504 blood supply to, 281, 281f
prenatal development of, 1096 of large intestine, 909f Shoulder bone attachment of, 281, 282f
visceral, 477, 478f, 478t of stomach, 888, 889f arteries of, 734f cells, 135t
Sensible perspiration. See Sweat of uterine tube, 1053 movements of, 350t regeneration of, 140
Sensitization Serotonin, 399t–400t pain in, 351 characteristics of, 134, 134t, 279, 280t
central, 489 and anxiety disorders, 400t point of, 15f circular, 322, 322f
in chronic pain, 489 in cancer treatment, 878 veins of, 744f, 745f connective tissue, 280–281, 281f
peripheral, 489 and depression, 399f, 399t Shoulder blade. See Scapula contractions. See Skeletal muscle
Sensorineural deafness, 558 functions of, 399t Shoulder girdle. See Pectoral girdle contractions
Sensory action potentials hallucinogens and, 400t Shoulder joint, 264–266, 265f control of, 490–497
and female sexual behavior, 1065 location of, 399t bursitis of, 266 elasticity of, 285
in male sex act, 1048 structure of, 399t dislocation of, 266 extensibility of, 285
Sensory areas (cortexes), 486–487 Serous fluid, 138 ligaments of, 265f, 266, 266t of facial expression, 329–332, 330t,
primary, 486 functions of, 138 muscles of, 265f, 266, 348–350, 348t 331f, 332f
primary somatic, 454, 486–487, Serous layer, of uterus, 1055 tears in, 266 fatigue, 301–303
487f, 490f Serous membranes, 16–18, 138, 878 separation of, 266 fibers. See Skeletal muscle fibers
Sensory association area, somatic, 487, 487f functions of, 138 tendons of, tears in, 266 fixator, 321
Sensory cutaneous innervation, inflammation of, 18 Shunt of forearm movement, 351–354, 351t,
trigeminal nerve in, 463–469 location of, 16, 19f, 138, 138f anatomic, 850 353f–355f
Sensory division, of peripheral nervous parietal, 16, 19f physiologic, 850 functional groups of, 321
system, 375–376, 376f structure of, 16, 19f, 138 Sickle-cell disease, 101t, 110, 657, 657f functions of, 134, 134t, 135t, 279
Sensory memory, 502, 504 visceral, 16, 19f Sickle-cell trait, 657 glucagon and, 635t
Sensory nerve endings Serous pericardium, 681, 681f SIDS. See Sudden infant death syndrome of hand movement, 354–359, 356t,
classification of, 477 Serratus anterior muscles, 325f, 344f, 346, Sigmoid colon, 908, 908f 357t, 358f
functions of, 477, 479t 346t, 347f, 348, 348f, 349f, 353f Sigmoid mesocolon, 880 of head, 327–340, 327t
in muscle spindles, 481f Serratus posterior muscles Sigmoid sinus, 741f, 741t of hip movement, 363t

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-38
hyoid, 332, 333t, 334f–335f exercise and, 306–307 Sleep SOD. See Superoxide dismutase
hypertrophy, 280, 307 fast-twitch (low-oxidative), 305–306, 306t aging and, 507 Sodium
innervation of, 281, 281f, 288–292, 290f physiology of, 285–295 brain waves and, 502 abnormal levels of, 1014, 1014t
insertion of, 321, 321f, 322 slow-twitch (high-oxidative), 305, 306t and memory, 505 in body fluid compartments, 1005t
insulin and, 635t structure of, 279–285, 280, 280f, rapid eye movement (REM), 502, 505 characteristics of, 24t
of leg movement, 362–364, 365t, 366f–367f 281f, 282f slow-wave, 505 chemical symbol for, 25
length of, vs. tension, 301, 302f Skeletal system, 173–248 stages of, 502 concentration differences across plasma
location of, 134, 135t acute renal failure and, 999 Sleep–wake cycle, reticular activating system membrane, 382, 382t
of lower limb, 359–369 aging and, 198 and, 498 concentrations in body, 971t, 1005t
of mastication, 332, 333t, 334f anatomy of, 203–248 Sliding filament model, of muscle deficiency of, 935t
motor units, 296–297, 297f burn injuries and, 169t contraction, 285, 286f in digestive system, 918
movements by, 322–324, 324f components of, 7f Slow block to polyspermy, 1083 in extracellular fluid, regulation of,
nomenclature for, 322 cystic fibrosis and, 867 Slow channels. See Voltage-gated calcium 1012–1014, 1013t
origin (head) of, 321, 321f, 322 functions of, 7f, 174 channels formation of, 27, 27f
vs. other muscle types, 134t leiomyomas and, 1074 Slow-twitch (high-oxidative) muscle fibers, functions of, 27t
pain, caused by exercise, 301, 370 muscular dystrophy and, 314t 305, 306t percent in body, 24t
paralysis of prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t, 1095 blood supply to, 305 in plasma, 652t
flaccid, 295 systemic lupus erythematosus and, 820 distribution of, 306 plasma membrane permeability to, 386
spastic, 295 Skeleton, 205f Slow-wave sleep (SWS), 505 and resting membrane potential,
of pelvic floor, 344–346, 345t, 346f appendicular, 204t, 205f, 233–248 Small cardiac vein, 683, 684f, 685f, 740f 384–385, 386
pennate, 321, 322f axial, 204t, 205f, 206–233 Small intestine, 6f, 7f, 873f, 874, 874f, 879f, in secondary active transport, 71
of perineum, 344–346, 345t, 346f derivation of term, 173 896–899, 896f uses in body, 935t
physiologic contracture, 302–303 functions of, 203 anatomy of, 896–898 Sodium channels, 383f
prime mover, 321 number of bones in, 204, 204t calcium uptake in, PTH regulation of, 195 acetylcholine in, 63, 63f, 383
relaxation of Skin, 7f, 150–157 functions of, 875t gated, during action potentials, 287, 289f
between contractions, 298 accessory structures of, 158–163 histology of, 896–898 ligand-gated, 383
energy requirement for, 295 aging and, 144, 165–166, 167f movement in, 898–899 specificity of, 285
physiology of, 295 bacterial infections of, 166 secretions of, 885t, 898 and vision, 532–535, 533f
shapes of, 321–322, 323f as barrier, 111 Small saphenous veins, 740f, 750, 750f, voltage-gated, 625, 693
of shoulder joint, 265f, 266 blood vessels in, 150f, 164, 165f 751f, 751t during action potentials, 388,
straight, 321, 322f burns and, 160–161, 168–169 Small veins, 725 389f, 692
striations of, 135t, 280, 280f, 282f cancer of, 154 Smell, sense of. See Olfaction activation gates of, 388–390, 389f
structure of, 134, 134t, 135t, 279–285, excretion by, 150, 165 Smell survey, of National Geographic in cardiac action potential, 692
281f, 321 functions of, 151t, 163–165 Society, 517 inactivation gates of, 388–390, 389f
of swallowing, 336–338, 337t, 338f fungal infections of, 167 Smoking Sodium chloride
synergist, 321 glands in, 161–162, 162f and emphysema, 836 as compound vs. molecule, 29
tears in, 266, 370 and innate immunity, 792 and heart disease, 713 dissociation of, 31, 31f
tendon attachment with, 281, 282f, medications administered through, 164 and prenatal development, 1096 formation of, 38
321, 321f necrosis, 167 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, 56f, in sweat glands, 162
tension, 295 nerves in, 150f, 477, 479f 79–80, 80f ion bonding in, 27, 27f
vs. length, 301, 302f of penis, 1042 functions of, 57t Sodium fast channels. See Sodium channels,
in multiple-wave summation, pigmentation of, 155–156 structure of, 57t voltage-gated
298–299, 298f postmenopausal, 1071t Smooth muscle(s), 307–311 Sodium fluoride, slow-releasing, 197
of thigh movement, 359–362, 359t, prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t, 1095 actin-myosin cross-bridge cycling in, Sodium glycocholate, functions of, 885t
360f–362f, 363t protection provided by, 150, 163–164 308, 309f Sodium ion reabsorption inhibitors, 988
thoracic, 342t, 343, 343f regeneration of, 160–161 of blood vessels, 724f, 726f Sodium taurocholate, functions of, 885t
tone of, 300 sensory nerve endings in, 477, 479f caveolae in, 308 Sodium/potassium ATP-ase, in active
of tongue, 332–336, 336f, 336t structure of, 150–157, 150f, 151t cells, 136t, 307–308, 308f, 311 transport, 71
of trunk, 340–346 and testosterone, 1047 regeneration of, 140 Sodium–potassium exchange pump,
of upper limb, 346–359, 348f–349f, 355f thick vs. thin, 154–155 characteristics of, 134, 134t, 279, 280t 382, 913
for vertebral column movement, 340–342, viral infections of, 167 contractile proteins in, 308, 308f during action potentials, 390
340t–341t, 341f, 342f in vitamin D production, 150 contraction, 308, 308f, 309f in active transport, 382
Skeletal muscle contractions wound repair in, 141, 141f regulation of, 375 secondary, 71, 73f
action potentials and, 285, wrinkles in, 166, 167f dense bodies of, 307–308, 308f effects of, 71
292–293, 293f Skin grafts, 161 electrical properties of, 310–311 functions of, 385
all-or-none law of, 296 with artificial skin, 161 functional properties of, 311 mechanism of, 72f, 382
concentric, 300, 300t with laboratory-grown skin, 161 functions of, 134, 134t, 136t, 279 and resting membrane potential, 385
eccentric, 300, 300t split, 161 gap junctions in, 120 Soft palate, 216, 827f, 828, 880, 881f
energy requirements for, 294–295 Skull, 7f, 205f, 206–224 histology of, 307–308, 308f functions of, 216
energy sources for, 294–295, 294f, 303–305 anterior view of, 210–213, 210f innervation of, 310, 311 muscles of, 337t, 338, 338f
excitation–contraction coupling in, base of, 15f intermediate filaments of, 307–308, 308f Soft spots. See Fontanels
292–293 bones of, 204t, 216–224, 217f–224f location of, 134, 136t Soft tissue, x-rays of, 29
graded, 297 canals of, 215t metabolism in, 311 Sole, 15f
heat production in, 307 features of, 207t, 215t multiunit, 310 Soleus muscle, 325f, 326f, 365, 365t,
isometric, 299–300, 300t fetal, 254f. See also Fontanels vs. other muscle types, 134t 366f, 367f
isotonic, 299–300, 300t fissures of, 215t pacemaker cells in, 310 innervation of, 436f
measurement of, 295 foramina of, 215t regulation of, 311, 375 Solitary nucleus, 447f
power stroke in, 294f, 295 fractures, and cerebrospinal fluid, 459 relaxation, 308, 309f, 310 Solubility, 31–32
recovery stroke in, 294f, 295 functions of, 206 sarcoplasmic reticulum in, 308 Solubility coefficient, 849
regulation of, 375 hyoid bone and, 224 structure of, 134, 134t, 136t Solutes, 37, 65
relaxation between, 298 inferior view of, 214–216, 216f tone of, 311 concentrations of, 971t
sliding filament model of, 285 intramembranous ossification in, 183, 184f types of, 309–310 in extracellular fluid, regulation of, 1011f
stimulus frequency and, 298–299, lateral view of, 208–209, 209f visceral (unitary), 309–310, 311 in intracellular fluid, regulation of, 1011f
298f, 299f openings in, 215t Smooth sarcoplasmic reticulum, in cardiac Solutions
stimulus strength and, 296–297, 298f posterior view of, 206–208, 208f muscle, 690, 690f acidic, 38
types of, 299–303, 300t processes on, 207t Sneeze reflex, 841 alkaline, 38
Skeletal muscle fibers, 135t, 278f, 280f, superior view of, 206, 207f Snoring, 338 concentrations of, 37
281–284, 282f sutures of, 253, 253t, 254f SNRIs. See Selective norepinephrine reuptake definition of, 37
development of, 280 SLE. See Systemic lupus erythematosus inhibitors neutral, 38

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-39 Index
Solvents, 37, 65 Spermatogonia, 1035f, 1037, 1040f Spinalis cervicis muscle, 340t Squamous epithelial cells, shape of, 118
Soma. See Neuron cell body Spermatozoon. See Sperm cell(s) Spinalis muscles, 340, 340t Squamous epithelial tissue
Somatic cells Spermicidal agents, 1068, 1068t Spinalis thoracis muscle, 340t, 341f simple, 113t, 118, 118t
chromosomes of, 96 Spermicidal douche, 1068 Spindle(s), muscle, 481f stratified, 115t, 118, 119t
definition of, 96 Spermicidal foam, 1068t, 1069f functions of, 479t, 481 Squamous portion, of temporal bone,
Somatic motor neurons, 565 Spermicidal jelly, 1069f in stretch reflex, 416–417, 417f 214f, 217f
cranial, 462, 463t Spermiogenesis, 1037 structure of, 416, 417f, 479t, 480, 481f Squamous suture, 208, 209f, 253t, 254f
in spinal cord, 415, 415f Sphenoid bone, 204t Spindle fibers, 85, 1039f SSRIs. See Selective serotonin reuptake
Somatic nervous system, 376f anterior view of, 210f functions of, 57t inhibitors
vs. autonomic nervous system, 565, 566t in cranial cavity, 214f in mitosis, 94f St. Vitus’ dance. See Sydenham chorea
functions of, 376 features of, 207t structure of, 57t Stable cells, 140
organization of, 565f greater wing of, 209, 209f, 210f, 211f, 214f, Spine Staghorn kidney stones, 994
Somatic plexuses, 423 216f, 218f definition of, 206t Stains, for light microscopes, 112
Somatic reflex, 416 inferior view of, 216f of scapula, 236f, 352f Stapedius muscle, 543, 544f, 549
Somatic senses, 477, 478f, 478t intramembranous ossification of, 184f Spinocerebellar tract, 485–486 Stapes, 204t, 543f, 544f, 550f
Somatic sensory association area, 487, 487f lateral view of, 209f anterior, 482t–483t, 483f, 485 Staphylococcus aureus, 166, 192
Somatic sensory cortex, primary, 454, lesser wing of, 211f, 214f, 218f lateral, 482t–483t Starches
486–487, 487f in nasal cavity, 211t, 212f posterior, 483f, 485, 486f as energy source, 41
topography of, 487, 490f openings in, 215t Spinocerebellum, 497 energy storage in, 41
Somatomedins, 617 in orbit, 211f, 211t Spinomesencephalic tract, sources in diet, 930
Somatostatin. See Growth hormone- posterior view of, 218f 482t–483t, 483f structure of, 41
inhibiting hormone (GHIH) superior view of, 218f Spinoolivary tract, 482t–483t, 486 uses in body, 930
Somatotropin. See Growth hormone (GH) Sphenoidal fontanel, 254f Spinoreticular tract, 482t–483t, Starling’s law of the heart, 705
Somites, 445f Sphenoidal sinus, 212f, 213f, 827f 483f, 484 Start codon, 89
formation of, 1090f, 1091, 1092f Sphenooccipital synchondrosis, 253t Spinotectal tract, 482t–483t, 486 Starvation, 947
Somitomeres, 1091 Sphenopalatine foramen, 215t Spinothalamic tract, 482t–483t, Static labyrinth, 553
Sonogram, 4, 4f, 1103 Sphincter of Oddi. See Hepatopancreatic 483–484, 483f, 484f Statins, and bone loss, 197
Sound attenuation reflex, 549 ampullar sphincter anterior, 483 Stationary night blindness, 541
Sound waves, 547, 549f Sphincter pupillae, 526, 527f in brainstem, 498 Stellate fracture, 195
and basilar membrane, 549–552, 551f Sphygmomanometer, for blood functions of, 484 Stem cell(s), 655f, 1085
and cochlea, 550f pressure measurement, 752 lateral, 483 adult, 1085
Sour taste, 518, 520f Spina bifida, 227, 227f, 1096, 1096f primary neurons of, 484, 484f blood, 1085
Space sickness, 555 Spinal anesthesia, 413 secondary neurons of, 484, 484f bone cells derived from, 176
Spasm, vascular, 662 Spinal artery, anterior, 731t tertiary neurons of, 484, 484f and cancer therapy, 654, 1085
Spasmodic torticollis, 329 Spinal cord, 6f, 8f, 376f, 412–415 Spinous processes, 226f, 226t, 227, 342f definition of, 122
Spastic paralysis, 295 and autonomic reflexes, 577, 577f bifid, 228 embryonic, 110, 1085
Spatial summation, 404, 405f cauda equina of, 227f, 412, 412f, 422f of cervical vertebrae, 228, 229f and formed elements of blood, 654
Special senses, 477, 478f, 478t, 514 in central nervous system, 375, 375f of lumbar vertebrae, 225f, 230, 231f functions of, 122
aging and, 556–559 cervical enlargement of, 412, 412f of sacral vertebrae, 232 mitosis in, 111
prenatal development of, 1096 conus medullaris of, 412, 412f, 422f surface anatomy of, 228 transplantation of, 654
Specific heat, 37 cross section of, 414–415, 414f, 421f of thoracic vertebrae, 230, 230f Stem cell research, 1085
Specificity development of, 445, 445f, 446f Spiral arteries, 1055 Stenosed heart valves, 703, 710, 712
of adaptive immunity, 792 functions of, 412, 423f in uterine cycle, 1063, 1064f Stents, for blocked coronary arteries, 689
of carrier proteins, 65 injury to, 425 Spiral fracture, 195, 195f Stereocilia, 118, 546, 546f, 547, 553, 553f, 1042
in endocytosis, 72–73 and ANS functions, 578 Spiral ganglion, 467t, 547 Sterilization, 1068t, 1070
of enzymes, 47 and defecation, 912 Spiral glands, 1063 with radiation, 29
of ligands, 595, 595f and respiration, 838 Spiral lamina, 544f, 545f, 546 Sternal angle, 233, 234f
in mediated transport, 69, 69f ipsilateral of, 484 Spiral ligament, 544f, 545f, 546 Sternal region, 15f
of potassium channels, 285 lesion of, 495 Spiral organ, 545f, 546, 550f Sternal symphyses, 256f
of sodium channels, 285 lumbosacral enlargement of, 412, 412f Spirometer, 846 Sternocleidomastoid muscles, 325f, 326f, 327,
Speech meninges of, 412–413, 413f Spirometry, 846 327t, 328f, 329, 331f, 334f, 335f, 349f
brain activity in, 500 neuron organization in, 415 Splanchnic nerves, 567f, 568, 569, 571f innervation of, 426f, 468t
hearing impairments and, 548 reflexes and, 416–420 greater, 571f in respiration, 838f
Speech aphasia, 500 regeneration in, 425 lesser, 571f Sternocostal synchondrosis, 253t, 255, 256f
Speech area regions of, 422f lumbar, 571f Sternohyoid muscle, 333t, 334f, 335f
motor, 487f, 500 in spina bifida, 227f pelvic, 568f, 569, 570, 571f Sternothyroid muscle, 333t, 334f, 335f
sensory, 487f, 500 structure of, 412, 412f roots of, 424f Sternum, 7f, 204t, 205f, 233, 234f, 335f
Sperm cell(s), 1033, 1035f, 1037, 1040f tumor of, 484 sacral, 571f movement of, and thoracic volume,
abnormal structure of, 1047 Spinal curvatures, abnormal, 225 Spleen, 6f, 7f, 783f, 788–789, 900f, 963f 839, 839f
capacitation of, 1066 Spinal nerves, 375, 375f, 376f, 412f, 414f, functions of, 789, 793f surface anatomy of, 233, 234f
chromosomes of, 96 415f, 422–439, 422f, 565, 567f, 568 removal of, 789 Steroids. See also specific types
in epididymis, 1041–1042 branches of, 422f, 423f reticular tissue in, 129t anabolic, 307
in fertilization, 1082–1083, 1082f dermatomal map for, 422, 423f ruptured, 789 chemistry of, 43–44
flagella of, 86 disorders of, 439 structure of, 788–789, 790f structure of, 43, 44f, 589f
formation of, 1037 epineurium of, 413f Splenectomy, 789 Stimulating agents, and autonomic
movement of, 1065, 1066f functions of, 423f Splenic artery, 729f, 736t, 737f, 789, 790f nervous system, 574
nucleus of, 1035f motor axons in, 415 Splenic cords, 789, 790f Stimulating immunity, 808
Sperm cell count, 1045, 1047 nomenclature of, 422 Splenic flexure, 908f Stimulus
Spermatic cord, 1041f, 1042 organization of, 415 Splenic vein, 740f, 747, 747t, 748f, 749f, frequency of, and muscle contraction,
coverings of, 1041f, 1042 plexuses of, 422f, 423, 425–438 789, 790f 298–299, 298f, 299f
Spermatic fascia roots of, 376f, 412f Splenius capitis muscle, 326f, 327, 327t, 328f, maximal, 297, 298f, 391, 391f
external, 1041f, 1042 sensory axons in, 415 329f, 341f sensory
internal, 1041f, 1042 structure of, 415 Splenius cervicis muscle, 328f, 340t accommodation to, 482
Spermatids, 1035f, 1037, 1040f and sympathetic axons, 569–570 Spliceosomes, 89 awareness of, 477
Spermatocytes, 1035f, 1040f Spinal pathways, 421, 421f Splicing, alternative, 89 strength of
primary, 1037, 1040f ascending, 482–486, 482t–483t, 483f Spongy bone. See Cancellous bone and action potentials, 288, 290f, 296–297,
secondary, 1037, 1040f descending, 491–496, 492f, 492t–493t, 494f Spongy urethra, 1041f, 1042, 1043f 391, 391f
Spermatogenesis, 1037, 1040f Spinal shock, 912 Sprue. See Malabsorption syndrome and graded potentials, 386, 387f
meiosis in, 1037, 1038, 1040f Spinal tap, 413 Squamous cell carcinoma, 142, 154, 154f and muscle contraction, 296–297, 298f

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-40
submaximal, 297, 298f, 391, 391f Stroke, 508–509, 733 location of, 402t Supine position, 13
subthreshold, 297, 298f, 391, 391f adenosine production during, 402t and pain, 402t Supporting cells
supramaximal, 297, 298f, 391, 391f damage from, 402t, 508f structure of, 402t of cochlea, 545f
threshold, 288, 297, 298f, 387, 387f, effects on other systems, 509t Substantia nigra, 448f, 449, 455, 455f of macula, 553f
391, 391f and glutamate, 401t, 402t Subthalamic nuclei, 451, 455, 455f in olfactory cell, 515f
Stomach, 6f, 7f, 874, 874f, 879f, hemorrhagic, 508, 733 Subthalamus, 451, 451f Supporting ligaments, of female
888–896, 896f ischemic, 508 functions of, 444t, 451 reproductive system, 1050f
anatomy of, 888, 889f risk factors for, 508 structure of, 451 Suppressor T cells
ANS and, 573t symptoms of, 508–509 Subthreshold stimulus, 297, 298f, activation of, 808
emptying of, 894–895 Stroke volume (SV), 704, 765 391, 391f in adaptive immunity, 796t, 799
regulation of, 895 Structural genes, 87 Suckling, 1111 Suppurative arthritis, 274
filling of, 894 Strychnine poisoning, 401t Sucrase, functions of, 885t Supraclavicular nerves, 426f
functions of, 875t Stuart factor, in coagulation, 664t Sucrose Supracondylar ridge
histology of, 888–890, 889f Stuart-Prower factor, in coagulation, 664t formation of, 40, 41f lateral, 237f
hydrochloric acid in, 890, 891f Student’s elbow, 267 sources in diet, 930 medial, 237f
lining of, simple columnar epithelial tissue Sty, 523 Sudden infant death syndrome Supraglenoid tubercle, 236f
in, 114t Styloglossus muscle, 336f, 336t, 338f (SIDS), 865 Suprahyoid muscles, 333t, 336
mixing of contents, 894 Stylohyoid ligament, 338f Sudoriferous glands. See Sweat glands Supramaximal stimulus, 297, 298f,
movements of, 894–895, 895f Stylohyoid muscle, 333t, 334f, 335f, 336f Suffixes, 12 391, 391f
pH of, at birth, 1109 Stylohyoid syndesmosis, 253t Sugar Supraoptic nucleus, 451f
secretions of, 890–894 Styloid process, 336f blood, regulation of, 1 Supraorbital foramen, 209f, 210f, 211f,
regulation of, 891–894, 893f intramembranous ossification and, 184f in diabetes, 1 215t, 218f
Stop codon, 89 of radius, 237, 238f in glycolysis, 939f, 940 Supraorbital margin, 209f, 210f, 218f
Strabismus, 540 of temporal bone, 207t, 209f, 215, 216f, 217f sources in diet, 930 Suprapatellar bursa, 268f, 269f, 270
Straight muscles, 321, 322f of ulna, 237, 238f uses in body, 930 Suprarenal arteries, 735f, 736t
Straight sinus, 741f, 741t Stylomandibular syndesmosis, 253t Sulcus (pl., sulci). See also specific types left, 737f
Stratified columnar epithelial tissue Stylomastoid foramen, 215t, 216f, 217f definition of, 206t right, 737f
functions of, 116t, 119t facial nerve and, 466t Sulfur Suprarenal glands. See Adrenal glands
location of, 116t, 119t Stylopharyngeus muscle, 337t, 338f characteristics of, 24t Suprarenal veins, 746t
structure of, 116t Subacromial bursa, 264, 265f deficiency of, 935t left, 747f, 749f
Stratified cuboidal epithelial tissue Subacromial bursitis, 351 in hard keratin, 158 right, 749f
functions of, 115t, 119t Subarachnoid space, 413, 413f, 457, 457f percent in body, 24t Suprascapular nerve, 427f
location of, 115t, 119t blood vessels in, 461 uses in body, 935t Supraspinatus muscle, 348t, 349f,
structure of, 115t cerebrospinal fluid flow in, 459, 460f Summation 350, 350f
Stratified epithelial tissue introduction of needles into, 413 of graded potentials, 386, 404, 405f Supraspinatus tendon, 347f
functions of, 118 Subatomic particles, 25 multiple motor unit, 297, 298f, 300t Supraspinous fossa, 235, 236f
structure of, 112, 118 Subclavian arteries, 729f, 730f, 731t, 733, multiple-wave, 298–299, 298f, 300t Sural nerve, 437
Stratified squamous epithelial tissue 733t, 734f spatial, 404, 405f Sural region, 15f
epidermis as, 150 left, 730, 732f, 733t, 735f temporal, 404, 405f Surface anatomy, definition of, 2
functions of, 115t, 119t right, 730, 732f, 733t, 735f Sunlight Surface chemicals, and innate
keratinized, 113–116, 114t, 116 Subclavian nerve, 427f and skin, 166, 167f immunity, 794t
location of, 115t, 119t Subclavian trunk, 784 and skin cancer, 154 Surface mucous cells, of stomach,
moist, 113–116, 114t left, 785f Sunscreens, 160 889f, 890
nonkeratinized, 113–116 right, 785f Superficial, 14, 14t Surfactant, 844
structure of, 113t, 115t Subclavian veins, 740f, 742, 742f, 743, 743t, Superficial fascia. See also Hypodermis in premature infants, 1104
Stratum basale, 151–152, 151t, 152f, 744f, 745f of penis, 1043f Surgical neck, of humerus, 235, 237f
153f, 159f left, 743f, 785f Superficial fibular (peroneal) nerve, Suspension, definition of, 37
in psoriasis, 167 right, 743f, 785f 437, 437f Suspensory ligaments, 526, 526f, 527f,
Stratum corneum, 151t, 152f, 153, 153f Subclavius muscle, 346t, 347f Superficial inguinal rings, 1037, 1041f 1050f, 1051
and nails, 163 Subcutaneous infrapatellar bursa, 270, 271 Superficial lymph node, 787 Sustentacular cells, 1035f, 1037
in psoriasis, 167 Subcutaneous injections, 158 Superficial pain, 488 Sutural bones, 206
and skin color, 155 Subcutaneous prepatellar bursa, 269f, Superficial palmar arch, 733, 734f Sutures, 253, 253t, 254f
Stratum granulosum, 151t, 152–153, 270, 271 Superficial palmar arch artery, 733t ossification of, 23
152f, 153f Subcutaneous tissue. See Hypodermis Superficial palmar venous arch, 743t, SV. See Stroke volume
Stratum lucidum, 151t, 152f, 153, 153f Subdural hematoma, 458 744f, 745f Swallowing, 874, 875t, 886–888, 887f
Stratum spinosum, 151t, 152, 152f, 153f chronic, 458 Superficial temporal artery, 730f, 731t muscles of, 336–338, 337t, 338f
Strawberry birthmarks, 167 Subdural space, 413, 413f, 457, 457f in pulse monitoring, 759 Swallowing center, 886
Strep throat, 865 Sublingual duct, 115t, 884, 884f Superficial temporal vein, 742f Sweat, 162, 1007
Streptococcus pyogenes, 166, 865 Sublingual gland, 883, 884, 884f Superficial veins, 741 composition of, 1007, 1007t
Streptokinase, 689 Submandibular duct, 115t, 881f, 884, 884f Superior, 13, 13f, 14t emotional, 162
Stress Submandibular ganglion, 465t, 571f Superior colliculus, 447f, 448, 448f, 537f, and sodium excretion, 1012
adrenal glands and, 633 and parasympathetic axons, 570 538, 553 waste products in, 165
and aging, 1113 Submandibular gland, 883, 884, 884f Superior concha, 827f Sweat glands, 150f, 162
and duodenal ulcers, 898 Submaximal stimulus, 297, 298f, 391, 391f Superior ganglion, 467t ANS and, 573t
and heart disease, 713 Submucosa Superior ligament, of malleus, 544f apocrine, 162, 162f, 573t
and immune system, 807 of digestive tract, 876–877, 877f Superior lobe, of lungs, 837f merocrine, 162, 162f, 573t
lines of, within bone, 178–179, 178f of large intestine, 909f Superior meatus, 827f Sweat pores, 162, 162f
mechanical, and bone strength, 191 of stomach, 889f Superior palpebra, 522f Sweat-chloride test, 867
and peptic ulcers, 894 Submucosal plexus, of digestive tract, Superior vena cava, 8f, 680f, 682, 684f, 685f, Sweet taste, 518, 520f
Stress-relaxation response, in blood pressure 876–877, 877f 686f, 688f, 739, 740f, 742f, 743f, 745t, SWS. See Slow-wave sleep
regulation, 773–776 Subpubic angle, 241f 746f, 785f Sydenham chorea, 496
Stretch marks, 157 male vs. female, 244f, 244t at birth, 1107f, 1108f Sympathectomy, 581
Stretch reflex, 416–417, 417f Subscapular artery, 733t, 734f Superior vestibule, of oral cavity, 881f Sympathetic action potentials
with reciprocal innervation, 420 Subscapular bursa, 264 Superoxide, 492 and emission, 1049
Striae. See Stretch marks Subscapular fossa, 235, 236f Superoxide dismutase (SOD), 492 and erection, 1049
Striated muscle Subscapular sinus, of lymph node, 788f Supination, 261, 261f Sympathetic chain ganglion, 424f, 566, 566f,
cardiac, 135t, 690f Subscapularis muscle, 347f, 348t, 349f, 350f Supinator muscle, 351t, 354, 355f 567f, 571f
skeletal, 135t, 280, 280f, 282f Substance P, 402t innervation of, 429f Sympathetic innervation, of heart, 706–707
structure of, 134 functions of, 402t Supine, 261 Sympathetic nerves, 567f, 568, 571f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-41 Index
Sympathetic nervous system, 565, 566–568, Systolic pressure, 700t, 752, 753f, 756t Tectorial membrane, 545f, 547, 550f Tension lines. See Cleavage lines
566f, 567f, 569t Tectospinal tract, 492f, 492t–493t Tension pneumothorax, 844
distribution of nerve fibers in, 569–570 Tectum, 448, 448f Tensor fasciae latae muscle, 325f, 359, 359t,
effects of, 573t T3. See Triiodothyronine Teeth, 882–883, 882f 360f, 361f
general vs. localized, 580 T4. See Tetraiodothyronine aging and, 921 Tensor tympani muscle, 543, 544f, 549
functions of, 376 T cell(s), 661, 786, 793f. See also decay of, 883 Tensor veli palatini muscle, 338f, 338t
at rest vs. activity, 580–581 specific T cells Tegmentum, 448–449, 448f Tentorium cerebelli, 456
insulin and, 637 in adaptive immunity, 796t, 799 Telencephalon, 445, 446f, 446t Teratogens, 1110
receptors in, 572f aging and, 818–819 Telophase, 93, 94f Teres major muscle, 326f, 347f, 348t,
Sympathetic reflex, 576f in cell-mediated immunity, 812 Telophase I, 1038, 1039f 349f, 353f
Sympathetic stimulation, of kidneys, 973 effects of, 813f Telophase II, 1039f Teres minor muscle, 326f, 347f, 348t,
Sympathomimetic agents, 574 in lymphocyte development, 799–800 TEM. See Transmission electron 349f, 350f
Symphysis, 253t, 255, 256f origin of, 800f microscopes innervation of, 428f
Symphysis pubis, 241f, 242, 242f, 244f, 255, processing of, 800f Temperature. See also Body Terminal boutons. See Presynaptic terminals
256f, 345f, 1034f, 1050f stimulation of, 813f temperature Terminal bronchioles, 832, 833f, 834f
hormones affecting, 255 T4 cells, 802 and chemical reactions, 35 Terminal bronchus, 834f
movement of, 253t, 255 T8 cells, 802 and diffusion rates, 66 Terminal cisternae, 292, 292f
Symport movement, 61 T lymphocytes. See T cell(s) of food, 518 Terminal ganglia, 568f, 569
Symporters, 61 T tubules, 282f, 292, 292f and hemoglobin and oxygen Terminal hairs, 158
Synapse(s), 288–292, 290f, 394–404 T wave, 695, 697f, 700t, 701t transport, 854–855 Terminal sulcus, 519f, 881
in action potential propagation, 292, 394 Tabes dorsalis, 504 and pain receptors, 478 Terminator, 88
axoaxonic, 403, 403f Tachycardia, 696t Temperature control center, burns Terminology, 12–18
chemical, 396–404, 397f, 399t–402t paroxysmal atrial, 696t and, 168 Tertiary bronchi, 832, 833f, 837f
definition of, 289, 376, 394 ventricular, 696t Temporal, definition of, 208 Tertiary bronchus, 833f
electrical, 394–396, 396f Tactile corpuscles. See Meissner corpuscles Temporal artery, superficial, 730f, 731t Tertiary neurons
function of, 290–292, 291f Tactile disks. See Merkel disks in pulse monitoring, 759 of dorsal-column/medial-lemniscal system,
receptor molecules in, 397–398 Tadafil (Cialis), 1049 Temporal bone, 204t, 543f 485, 485f
in skeletal muscle, 281, 281f, 288–292 Tagamet, 892 in cranial cavity, 214f of spinothalamic tract, 484, 484f
motor unit of, 297f Tail features of, 207t Testes, 8f, 586f, 1033f, 1034–1037, 1035f,
structure of, 289–290, 290f of epididymis, 1041f, 1042 frontal view of, 210f 1036f, 1041f
Synapsis, 1038 hydrophobic, of lipid bilayer, 58, 59f inferior view of, 216f descent of, 1034–1037, 1036f
Synaptic cleft, 289, 290f, 396, 397f of pancreas, 905, 905f intramembranous ossification histology of, 1034, 1035f
removal of neurotransmitters from, of sperm, 1035f of, 184f hormones of, 641t
397, 398f of spermatid, 1037 lateral view of, 208, 209f, 217f prenatal development of, 1100f
Synaptic fatigue, 301 Tailbone. See Coccyx medial view of, 217f prepubescent, 1037
Synaptic vesicles, 289–290, 290f Tailor’s muscle, 362 name of, 208 secretions of, 1045, 1046–1047
neurotransmitters in, 396, 396f Talocrural joint. See Ankle joint openings in, 215t and sex hormone secretion, 1045
Synchondrosis, 253t, 254–255, 256f Talofibular ligament, anterior, 272, 272f, 272t petrous portion of, 207t, 214f, 217f and spermatogenesis, 1038
sphenooccipital, 253t Talus, 246, 248f, 270f posterior view of, 208f undescended, 1100
sternocostal, 253t, 255, 256f Talus region, 15f squamous portion of, 214f, 217f Testicular arteries, 736t, 1041f
Syncytiotrophoblast, 1085, 1086f, 1088f Tanning, of leather, 150 zygomatic process of, 209f, 216f, 217f Testicular nerves, 1041f
Syndesmosis, 253–254, 253t Target cells, hormone concentrations at, Temporal lines, 207t Testicular veins, 746t, 1041f
radioulnar, 253t, 254, 255f 594, 594f inferior, 207f, 208, 209f, 217f Testosterone, 640, 641t, 1032t, 1034,
stylohyoid, 253t Target tissues, 586 size of, 208 1046–1048
stylomandibular, 253t of anterior pituitary gland, 611f superior, 207f, 208, 209f, 217f and acne, 166
tibiofibular, 253t of glucagon, 634–635, 635t Temporal lobe, 453f vs. anabolic steroids, 307
Syndrome, definition of, 100 of glucocorticoids, 630t functions of, 454 blood levels of, 1048
Synergist muscles, 321 hormone concentrations at, 594, 594f Temporal process, of zygomatic bone, 209f, and bone growth, 190
Synostosis, 253 hormone interactions with, 595–597, 596f 216f, 219f chemical structure of, 589f
Synovial fluid, 256–257, 257f of hypothalamus, 611f, 613f Temporal summation, 404, 405f effects of, 1047–1048
hyaluronic acid in, 138 of insulin, 634–635, 635t Temporal vein, superficial, 742f and intracellular receptors, 605t
Synovial joints, 253, 255–259, 257f of posterior pituitary gland, 613f Temporalis muscles, 7f, 331f, 333t, 334f, 883 and male sexual behavior, 1048
aging and, 272 Tarsal bones, 204t, 205f, 240f, 246, 248f Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), and muscle hypertrophy, 307
Synovial membranes, 138 Tarsal gland, 522f, 523 263–264, 264f and osteoporosis, 196
functions of, 138 Tarsal plate, 522f, 523 disorders of, 264 and pattern baldness, 159
location of, 138, 138f Tastants, 518, 520f Tendinitis, biceps, 351 and sperm cell development, 1037
structure of, 138 Taste, 518–521, 875t Tendinous intersections, 343, 344f structure of, 44f
of synovial joint, 255–256, 257f aging and, 556 Tendon(s), 257, 257f. See also specific tendons Tetanus, 300t
Synthesis reactions, 32, 32f, 33f function of, 518–519 dense regular connective tissue in, complete, 298
Synthetic androgens, and muscle link with olfaction, 518 126, 127t incomplete, 298
mass, 1048 neuronal pathways for, 519–521, 521f functions of, 121 Tetany, 393
Synthetic gonadotropin-releasing Taste area, 447f, 487, 487f, 521f vs. ligaments, 126 Tetrad, 1038, 1039f
hormone, 1046 Taste buds, 518, 519f skeletal muscle attachment to, 281, 282f, Tetraiodothyronine (T4), 620t, 621
Synvisc, for arthritis, 273 histology of, 518 321, 321f chemical structure of, 589f
Syphilis, 1073 Taste cells, 518, 519f structure of, 126 effects of, 622
Syringomyelia, 484 Taste pore, 518, 519f Tendon sheaths, 257, 257f mechanism of action of, 622
System, definition of, 2 τ (tau) protein, 504 Tendonitis secretion of, 623f
Systemic anatomy, definition of, 2 Tay, Warren, 507 degenerative, 351 transport in blood, 621–622
Systemic circulation, 678, 679f Tay-Sachs disease, 101t, 507 of shoulder joint, 266 Texture, of food, 518
arteries in, 728–738, 729f etiology of, 507 Teniae coli, 908, 908f, 909f TF. See Tissue factor
physiology of, 755–760 late-onset, 507 Tennis elbow, 354 Thalamic nucleus, anterior, 456f
veins in, 739–750, 740f TB. See Tuberculosis Tension, muscle, 295 Thalamus, 444f, 447f, 449
Systemic inflammation, 798 TBG. See Thyroxine-binding globulin active, 301, 302f functions of, 444t, 449, 553
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), T-cell receptors, 800–801, 800f, in multiple-wave summation, 298–299, 298f structure of, 449, 451f
819–820, 819f 803f, 805f vs. muscle length, 301, 302f and taste, 521f
Systemic physiology, definition of, 2 Tears passive, 301 Thalassemia, 89, 101t, 673
Systemic vessels, 721 muscle, 266, 370 in smooth muscle, 311 beta, 98
Systole, 697, 698f, 699f tendon, 266 total, 301 major, 98
ventricular, 697, 700–702, 700t Tears (secretion of lacrimal gland), 523 Tension headaches, 505 minor, 98

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-42
Theca, 1053 Thorax, 14 Thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG), 621 Tooth decay, 883
Theca externa, 1051f, 1053, 1054f arteries of, 732f Tibia, 7f, 204t, 205f, 240f, 244, 246f Torticollis, 329
Theca interna, 1051f, 1053, 1054f compliance of, 846 diaphysis of, 189f spasmodic, 329
Thenar eminence, 357, 358f muscles of, 342–343, 342t, 343f at foot, 248f Total lung capacity, 846
Thenar muscles, 357t surface anatomy of, 234f medial malleolus, 270f, 272 Total tension, 301
innervation of, 432, 432f veins of, 743f, 745, 745t, 746f proximal, 268f–269f, 270 Totipotent cells, 1084, 1085
Therapeutic hyperthermia, 957 Thoroughfare channel, 723, 723f Tibial arteries Toxic goiter, 624
Therapeutic hypothermia, 957 Threonine, sources in diet, 932 anterior, 729f, 738, 738f, 739f, 739t t-PA. See Tissue plasminogen activator
Thermic effect, of food, 953 Threshold membrane potential, 287, 288f posterior, 729f, 738, 738f, 739f, 739t Trabeculae, 203f
Thermoreceptors, functions of, 477 Threshold stimulus, 288, 297, 298f, 387, 387f, in pulse monitoring, 759 aging and, 198
Theta waves, 502 391, 391f Tibial nerve, 433f, 434, 436, 436f, 437 in cancellous bone, 131, 132t,
Thiamine. See Vitamin B1 Throat. See Pharynx Tibial tuberosity, 244, 246f, 247f 178–179, 178f
Thick skin, 154–155 Thrombin, in coagulation, 666 Tibial veins in intramembranous ossification,
Thigh, 15f Thrombin accelerator, in coagulation, 664t anterior, 740f, 748, 750f, 751f, 751t 183, 184f
adductor muscles of, 363t Thrombocytes. See Platelet(s) posterior, 740f, 748, 750f, 751f, 751t of lymph node, 787, 788f
anterior muscles of, 359t, 360f, 361f, Thrombocytopenia, 672, 674 Tibialis anterior muscle, 325f, 365t, 366f of spleen, 788, 790f
362, 363t Thromboplastin, 665 innervation of, 437f of thymus, 790, 792f
bones of, 243–244 in coagulation, 664t Tibialis posterior muscle, 365t, 367f in woven bone, 183
deep rotator muscles of, 359t Thrombosis innervation of, 436f Trabeculae carneae, 682, 682f
definition of, 14 coronary, 712 Tibiofibular ligaments Trabecular artery, 790f
lateral muscles of, 359t venous, 761 anterior, 270f Trabecular vein, 790f
medial muscles of, 362, 363t after burns, 169 posterior, 270f Trace minerals, 934
movements of, muscles of, 359–362, 359t, Thromboxanes, 641t, 643 Tibiofibular syndesmosis, 253t Trachea, 6f, 7f, 18f, 680f, 826f, 827f, 829f,
360f–362f, 363t aspirin and, 663 Tic douloureux. See Trigeminal 831f, 832f, 833f
muscles of, 360f functions of, 43 neuralgia membranous part of, 829f
posterior muscles of, 359t, 362, 362f, 363t in platelet release reaction, 663 Ticks, and Lyme disease, 274 pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue
Thin skin, 154–155 in vascular spasm, 662 Tidal volume, 846 in, 117t
Thinking, age and, 507–508 Thrombus, 666, 1112 exercise and, 863 in respiratory system, 831–832
Third heart sound, 701t, 702–703 Thumb Tight junctions, 119–120, 119f Tracheal cartilage, 829f
Third ventricle, 458, 459f distal phalanx of, 239f Timbre, 548 Trachealis muscle, 831–832, 831f
Third-degree burns, 161, 161f, 168, 168f proximal phalanx of, 239f Tinnitus, 559 Tracheobronchial tree, 832–836, 833f
Thirst, 1006–1007, 1006f Thymic corpuscles, 791, 792f Tip link, 547, 547f conducting zone of, 832–836
and osmolality of extracellular Thymine Tissue(s), 109–144. See also specific types respiratory zone of, 835
fluid, 1007 in DNA, 48, 49f aging and, 142–144, 1112 Tracheostomy, 832
Thoracic aorta, 728, 729f, 732f, structure of, 48, 48f blood flow control by, 761–765 Tracheotomy, 832
735f, 736t Thymosin, 641t, 642 blood flow during exercise, 768 Trachoma, and vision loss, 541
branches of, 733–736, 736t aging and, 643 classification of, 110 Tractus solitarius, and taste, 521f
Thoracic aortic plexus, 571f Thymus gland, 7f, 8f, 18f, 586f, 783f, definition of, 3, 110 Tragus, 543f
Thoracic arteries 790–791, 792f, 793f functions of, 109 Traits
internal, 730f, 733, 733t, 734f, 735f aging and, 643 inflammation of, 138–140, 139f polygenic, 98
left, 732f hormones of, 641t, 642 lymphatic. See Lymphatic tissue sex-linked, 98–99
right, 732f Thyroarytenoid muscle, 337t repair, 140–142, 141f X-linked, 98–99
lateral, 733t, 734f Thyrocervical trunk, 730f, 733t, 734f by regeneration, 140 Y-linked, 98–99
Thoracic cage, 233, 234f Thyroglobulins, 619, 621 by replacement, 140 Transamination, 948–950, 950f
functions of, 233 Thyrohyoid membrane, 829f structure of, 109 Transcription, 87f, 88–89, 88f
number of bones in, 204t Thyrohyoid muscle, 333t, 334f, 335f Tissue factor (TF), 664t, 665 definition of, 87
surface anatomy of, 233, 234f Thyroid artery, superior, 730f, 731t Tissue plasminogen activator Transcription factors, 88
Thoracic cavity, 16, 18f, 838 Thyroid cartilage, 334f, 338f, 827f, 829, (t-PA), 689 Transducin, 533f, 534, 534f
serous membranes in, 16, 19f 829f, 831f Titin, 283f, 285 Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA), 78, 88
Thoracic duct, 7f, 783f, 785–786, Thyroid gland, 8f, 334f, 586f, 619–624 Titin filament, 282f functions of, 89
785f, 793f anatomy of, 620f TMJ. See Temporomandibular joint structure of, 78
Thoracic lymph nodes, 785f disorders of, 622–624, 622t, 623t TNF. See Tumor necrosis factor and translation, 89
Thoracic muscles, 342–343, 342t, 343f histology of, 619, 620f Tocopherol. See Vitamin E Transforming growth factor beta, for
Thoracic nerve(s), 422f prenatal development of, 1096 Tocotrienols. See Vitamin E arthritis, 273
functions of, 423f Thyroid hormones, 619–624, 620t Toe, 15f Transfusion, blood, 658, 667, 671
long, 427f aging and, 643 distal phalanx of, 248f Transitional epithelial tissue
nomenclature for, 422 and basal metabolic rate, 953 middle phalanx of, 248f functions of, 117t, 119t
structure of, 424f and bone growth, 190 movements of, muscles of, 364–368 location of, 116, 117t, 119, 119t
Thoracic nerve plexuses chemical structure of, 589f proximal phalanx of, 248f structure of, 116, 117t, 119
and parasympathetic axons, 570 concentration of, 590 Tolerance, 805–808 Translation, 87f, 89–91, 90f
and sympathetic axons, 570 effects of, 622 Tongue, 336f, 338f, 519f, 827f, 881, 881f definition of, 87
Thoracic sympathetic chain ganglia, and and intracellular receptors, 605t cancer of, 881 Translocations, 100
extrinsic regulation of heart, 706 and lactation, 1110 extrinsic muscles of, 332–336, Transmission, of genes, 99–100
Thoracic veins, internal, 745 mechanisms of action of, 622 336f, 336t Transmission electron microscopes (TEM),
left, 743f secretion control of, 622–624, 623f functions of, 332 58, 112
right, 743f synthesis of, 619–621, 621f intrinsic muscles of, 332, 336f, 336t Transplantation
Thoracic vertebra, 228t transport in blood, 621–622 movements of, muscles of, 332–336, bone marrow, 654
Thoracic vertebrae, 225f, 230 Thyroid notch, superior, 829f 336f, 336t for leukemia, 1085
first, 225f, 234f, 343f Thyroid vein, superior, 742f, 742t papillae of, 518, 519f for sickle-cell disease, 657
number of, 204t, 225 Thyroidectomy, 624 removal of, 881 cornea, 525
structure of, 230, 230f Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH), 590, rolling, 336 heart, 713
twelfth, 225f, 349f 591f, 612, 612t, 622 Tongue-tied, 881 and immune system, 807
Thoracic volume, and rib and sternum Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 590, Tonic receptors, 482 stem cells, 654
movement on, 839, 839f 591f, 614t, 618, 619–621 Tonicity, 68 Transport. See also Active transport;
Thoracic wall, 838–839 and G proteins, 598t Tonsils, 7f, 338f, 783f, 786–787, 787f Diffusion
Thoracoacromial artery, 733t, 734f receptors of, 596, 596f lingual, 787, 787f, 827f, 881 definition of, 912
Thoracolumbar division, of autonomic Thyrotropin. See Thyroid-stimulating palatine, 519f, 787, 787f, 827f, 880 in digestive system, 912–920
nervous system. See Sympathetic hormone (TSH) pharyngeal, 787, 787f, 827f Transport proteins, functions of, 60t
nervous system Thyroxine. See Tetraiodothyronine (T4) Tooth. See Teeth Transport vesicle, 80, 81f

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-43 Index
Transporters. See Carrier proteins Triiodothyronine (T3), 620t, 621 of brain, 504 functions of, 137t
Transversalis fascia, 345f chemical structure of, 589f definition of, 142 location of, 137t
Transverse acetabular ligament, 267, effects of, 622 fibroid, 1074, 1074f structure of, 137t, 379, 379f
267f, 268t and intracellular receptors, 605t malignant, 142 Uniport movement, 61
Transverse arch, 248f, 272 mechanism of action of, 622 metastasis in, 142 Uniporters, 61
Transverse arytenoid muscle, 337t regulation of, 91 of spinal cord, 484 Unitary (visceral) smooth muscle,
Transverse cervical nerve, 426f secretion of, 623f Tumor control, 807 309–310, 311
Transverse colon, 879f, 908, 908f transport in blood, 621–622 Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), functions United States Department of Agriculture,
Transverse foramen, of cervical Tripeptide, 45, 916, 917 of, 803t nutrition
vertebrae, 228, 229f formation of, 45 Tumor suppressor genes, 143 recommendations of, 928
Transverse fracture, 195, 195f Triphosphate (IP3), and G proteins, 600, 602f Tunic(s), of blood vessels, 723–724 United States Department of Health and
Transverse humeral ligament, 266t Triplet codes, in DNA, 86–87 Tunica adventitia, 724, 724f, 726f Human Services, nutrition
Transverse ligament, of knee, 270t Triplets, 87 Tunica albuginea, 1034, 1035f, 1051, 1051f recommendations of, 928
Transverse mesocolon, 879f, 880 Triquetrum bone, 238, 239f Tunica intima, 724, 724f, 726f United States Preventive Services Task Force
Transverse perineal muscles Trisomy 21. See Down syndrome Tunica media, 724, 724f, 726f (USPSTF), 663
deep, 345t, 346, 346f, 1057f Tritium, 26, 26f Tunica vaginalis, 1036, 1036f Universal donor, of blood, 668
superficial, 345t, 346f tRNA. See Transfer ribonucleic acid Tunnel vision, 538 Unmyelinated axons, 381f, 382
Transverse plane, 15, 17f Trochanter, 206t Turbulent flow, of blood, 751–752, 752f action potential propagation in, 392, 392f
Transverse processes, 226f, 226t, 227, Trochlea, 236, 237f, 339f, 524f Turner syndrome, 101, 101t Unsaturated fats, sources in diet, 931
342f, 424f Trochlear (IV) nerve, 465t Twins, 1084, 1088 Unsaturated fatty acids, 42–43, 43f
of cervical vertebrae, 228, 229f functions of, 463, 463t, 465t Two-point discrimination, 480, 480f Upper esophageal sphincter, 886
of lumbar vertebrae, 225f, 230, 231f origin of, 463f Tympanic membrane, 542, 543f, 544f, 550f Upper limb, 15f
of sacral vertebrae, 232 and vision, 524 rupture of, 542 arteries of, 729f, 733, 733t, 734f
of thoracic vertebrae, 230, 230f Trochlear notch, 236, 238f Type I diabetes mellitus. See Insulin- bones of, 235–240, 235f
Transverse section, 15, 18f Trochlear nucleus, 447f dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) number of, 204t
Transverse sinus, 741f, 741t Trophoblast, 1066, 1084f, 1085, 1086f Type II diabetes mellitus. See Noninsulin- surface anatomy of, 240f
Transverse (T) tubules, 282f, 292, 292f Tropic hormones, 616–619 dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) components of, 14, 15f
Transverse tubules (T tubules), 690, 690f Tropical malabsorption, 919 Tyrosinase, in melanin production, 155 functions of, 235
Transversus abdominis muscle, 344, 344f, Tropocollagen, 123, 123f Tyrosine movement in, 235
344t, 345f Tropomyosin, 282–283, 283f in melanin production, 155 muscles of, 346–359, 348f–349f
Transversus thoracis muscle, 342t, 343, 343f in muscle contraction, 293, 293f and phenylketonuria, 97 surface anatomy of, 355f
Trapezium bone, 239, 239f Troponin, 282–283, 283f structure of, 45f structure of, 235
tubercle of, 239 in muscle contraction, 293, 294f Tyrosinemia, newborn screening for, 949t veins of, 740f, 743–745, 743t, 744f, 745f
Trapezius muscle, 322, 323f, 325f, 326f, 327, True pelvis, 243 Upper respiratory tract, 826, 826f
327t, 328f, 331f, 334f, 335f, 346, True ribs, 233, 234f diseases of, 865
346t, 347f, 348, 349f True vocal cords. See Vocal folds Ulcer(s) Up-regulation, 596f, 597
innervation of, 426f, 468t Trunk chronic inflammation and, 140 Uracil
Trapezoid bone, 239, 239f of body, 15f decubitus, 167 in RNA, 48
Treponema pallidum, 817, 1073 arteries of, 729f duodenal, 894, 898 structure of, 48, 48f
Treppe, 299, 299f, 300t muscles of, 340–346 peptic, 894 Urea
TRH. See Thyroid-releasing hormone regions of, 14, 15f Ulcerative colitis, 919 concentrations in body, 971t
Triacylglycerols. See Triglycerides veins of, 740f Ulna, 7f, 204t, 205f, 235f, 236–237, 238f, and medullary concentration
Triad, 292, 292f of brachial plexus, 426, 427f 353f, 354f gradient, 982–983
Triangular muscle, 322, 323f Trunk cavities, 16, 18f olecranon process of, 355f in plasma, 652t
Triceps brachii muscle, 326f, 349f, 351, serous membranes in, 16–18, 19f surface anatomy of, 240f Urea cycling, 982–983, 982f
351t, 353f Trypsin, 906 at wrist, 239f Ureter, 6f, 8f, 962f, 963, 963f, 964f
innervation of, 429f functions of, 885t Ulnar arteries, 729f, 733, 733t, 734f anatomy of, 992–993, 993f
lateral head of, 352f Tryptophan Ulnar collateral ligament, 266f, 267 histology of, 992–993
long head of, 352f and niacin, 934 Ulnar nerve, 427, 427f, 431, 431f male, 1033f, 1041f
Trichomonas vaginalis, 1072 sources in diet, 932 damage to, 431 prenatal development of, 1099, 1099f
Tricuspid valve, 683, 686f, 688f, TSH. See Thyroid-stimulating hormone Ulnar notch, of radius, 238f transitional epithelial tissue in, 117t,
690f, 702f Tubal ligation, 1069f, 1070 Ulnar tuberosity, 238f 992–993, 993f
stenosis of, 712 Tuber, 206t Ulnar veins, 743–745, 743t, 744f, 745f urine flow through, 994
Trigeminal ganglion, 465t, 466t, 469 Tubercle process Ultrasound, fetal, 4, 4f, 1103 Urethra, 6f, 8f, 346f, 962f, 963f, 992, 993
Trigeminal (V) nerve, 465t description of, 206t Ultraviolet radiation, and skin cancer, female, 1050f, 1056f, 1057f
disorders in, 471 significance of, 204 159, 160 male, 1033f, 1042
functions of, 463–469, 463t, 465t Tuberculosis, 865 Umami, 518, 520f membranous, 1041f, 1042, 1043f
in hearing, 549 arthritis caused by, 274 Umbilical arteries opening of, 993f
lingual branch of, 469t bone, 192 at birth, 1107f, 1108f prenatal development of, 1099, 1099f
mandibular branch of, 465t, 469 with human immunodeficiency in mature placenta, 1087f prostatic, 1041f, 1042, 1043f
maxillary branch of, 465t, 469 virus, 817 Umbilical cord, 124 spongy, 1041f, 1042, 1043f
ophthalmic branch of, 465t, 469 Tuberosity, 206t, 221f at birth, 1107f transitional epithelial tissue in, 117t
origin of, 463f Tubular glands in mature placenta, 1087f Urethral glands, 1042
structure of, 469 classification of, 120, 121f mucous connective tissue in, 125t Urethral groove, 1100
and taste, 521f structure of, 120, 121f Umbilical region, of abdomen, 14, 15f, 16f Urethral mucous glands, secretions
Trigeminal neuralgia, 471 Tubular load, 992 Umbilical vein of, 1045
Trigeminal nuclei Tubular maximum, 992, 992f at birth, 1107f Urethral orifice, 1050f
motor, 447f Tubular reabsorption, in urine production, in mature placenta, 1087f external, 1042, 1043f
sensory, 447f 970, 970f, 973–976 Umbilicus, 344f Urethral sphincter, external, 345t, 346
Trigeminothalamic tract, 485, 498 Tubular secretion, in urine production, 970, Undescended testes, 1100 Urethritis, nongonoccal, 1072
functions of, 485, 498 970f, 978–979, 980f Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells. See Stem Uric acid
Trigger zone, 378, 378f, 404 Tubules, in exocrine gland classification, 120 cell(s) concentrations in body, 971t
Triglycerides, 42–43, 913 Tubulin, 76 Unicellular glands, 120, 121f in gout, 274
composition of, 42 Tubulus rectus, 1034, 1035f Unified atomic mass unit (u), 26 in plasma, 652t
formation of, 42, 42f Tufted cells, 515f, 517 Union Urinary bladder, 6f, 8f, 879f, 962f, 963f
in plasma, 652t Tumor(s) primary, 140 anatomy of, 992–993, 993f
sources in diet, 931 benign, 142 secondary, 140, 141 ANS and, 573t
uses in body, 931 uterine, 1074, 1074f Unipennate muscle, 321, 322f automatic, 996
Trigone, 992, 993f bone, 192 Unipolar neurons, 136 cancer of, 994

CONFIRMING PAGES
Index I-44
enlarged, fetal surgery for, 1104 during fetal development, 1102, 1102f Veins. See also specific veins of central nervous system, 458, 459f
female, 1050f in menstrual cycle, 1060f of abdomen, 746–748, 746t, 749f development of, 445, 446f
histology of, 992–993 oxytocin and, 615 ANS and, 573t fourth, 458, 459f
hyperexcitable, 996 postmenopausal, 1071t blood flow in, 755f lateral, 458, 459f
male, 1033f, 1036f, 1041f, 1043f prenatal development of, 1100f blood pressure in, 756f third, 458, 459f
noncontracting, 996 prolapsed, 1055, 1104 blood volume in, 755t Ventricular contractions, premature,
prenatal development of, 1099f, 1100f removal of, 1074 deep, 741 696t, 697f
transitional epithelial tissue in, 117t, Utricle, 553, 553f thrombosis of, 761 Ventricular diastole, 697, 701t, 702
992–993, 993f Utricular macula, 553f drainage of lymph into, 784–786, 785f Ventricular fibrillation, 696t, 697f
Urinary sphincter Uvula, 337t, 338f, 338t, 827f, 828, 880, 881f draining heart, 741 Ventricular filling
external, 993, 993f functional characteristics of, 760 active, in cardiac cycle, 698f, 699f, 700,
internal, 993 of head and neck, 740f, 741–742, 742f, 701t, 702
ANS and, 573t Vaccinations, 816, 818 742t, 743f passive, in cardiac cycle, 698f, 699f, 700,
Urinary system, 961, 962f for AIDS, 817 of kidneys, 969, 969f 701t, 702
anatomy of, 963f Vagal ganglia large, 725, 726f Ventricular septal defect (VSD), 1098
burn injuries and, 169t inferior, 468t of lower limb, 740f, 748–750, 750f, Ventricular systole, 697, 700–702, 700t
components of, 3, 3f, 8f superior, 468t 751f, 751t Ventricular tachycardia, 696t
diabetes mellitus and, 645 Vagina, 8f, 346f, 1050f, 1055, 1056f, 1057f medium, 725, 726f Ventromedial nucleus, 451f
diarrhea and, 921 age-related changes in, 1073 of pelvis, 746–748, 746t, 749f, 750f Venules, 723f, 725
functions of, 8f, 962 in female sex act, 1065 of penis, 1043, 1043f blood flow in, 755f
leiomyomas and, 1074 postmenopausal, 1071t pulmonary, 728 blood pressure in, 756f
muscular dystrophy and, 314t prenatal development of, 1100f of shoulder, 744f, 745f VEP (visual evoked potential) test, 503
myocardial infarction and, 715 Vaginal artery, 736t of skeletal muscle, 281, 281f Verdenafil (Livitra), 1049
organization of, 3f Vaginal condom, 1068 in skin, 150f Vermiform appendix, 880, 908, 908f
and osteoporosis, 197t Vaginal orifice, 1050f, 1055 small, 725 Vermis, 449, 450f, 497
prenatal development of, 1094t–1095t, Vagus (X) nerves, 468t, 571f structure of, 723–725 Vernix caseosa, 1102
1099, 1099f dorsal nucleus of, 447f superficial, 741 Vertebra(e)
systemic lupus erythematosus and extrinsic regulation of heart, 705 in systemic circulation, 739–750, 740f injuries to, 233
and, 820 functions of, 463t, 468t, 470 testicular, 746t, 1041f intramembranous ossification of, 184f
Urination, 994–996, 996f left, 468t of thorax, 743f, 745, 745t, 746f number of, 204t
Urine origin of, 463f of trunk, 740f regional differences in, 228–232, 228t
calcium reabsorption from, 195 and parasympathetic axons, 570 of upper limb, 740f, 743–745, 743t, structure of, 226–228, 226f, 226t
concentration of and parasympathetic nervous 744f, 745f Vertebral arch, 226–227, 226f, 226t
formation of, 988–989 system, 569 Vellus hairs, 158 in cervical vertebrae, 229f
and juxtamedullary nephrons, 991 right, 468t Vena cava. See also Inferior vena cava; in spina bifida, 227f
regulation of, 983–991 and taste, 519, 521f Superior vena cava Vertebral arteries, 461, 730f, 731f, 731t,
dilute, formation of, 990–991 Valine, sources in diet, 932 blood flow in, 755f 733t, 734f
flow through nephrons, 994 Vallate papillae, 518, 519f blood pressure in, 756f left, 730–732, 732f
flow through ureters, 994 Valves Venous capillaries, 723, 723f right, 730–732, 732f
movement of, 992–996 in blood vessels, 725, 726f Venous return, 704 Vertebral canal, 227
production of. See Urine production heart. See Heart, valves of Venous sinuses, 723, 741, 743f, 789, 790f Vertebral column, 7f, 205f, 225–233, 225f
regulation of, 983–991 Variable(s), in homeostasis, 9 of cranial cavity, 741, 741f, 741t abnormal spinal curvatures in, 225
autoregulation, 973 Variable region, of antibody, 808 dural, 456–457, 457f, 458 development of, 225
hormonal mechanisms, 983–991 Variant, allelic, 97 scleral, 527f, 528 functions of, 226
volume of, regulation of, 983–991 Varicella-zoster virus, 167, 439 Venous thrombosis, 761 injuries to, 233
Urine concentration mechanism, Varicose veins, 725 after burns, 169 muscles moving, 340–342, 340t–341t,
979–983, 984f rectal. See Hemorrhoids Venous tone, 760 341f, 342f
Urine flow rate, calculation of, 971t Vas deferens. See Ductus deferens Ventilation, 841–846. See also Respiration number of bones in, 204t
Urine production, 970–983 Vasa recta, 969, 969f airflow in, 841 regions of, 225, 225f, 228–232, 228t
and antidiuretic hormones, 613–614 and medullary concentration into and out of alveoli, 842 Vertebral foramen, 226f, 226t, 227
filtration in, 970–973, 970f gradient, 980, 981f, 982 alveolar volume changes in, 842–846 of cervical vertebrae, 228, 229f
filtration barrier in, 970–971 Vasa vasorum, 724f, 727 cerebral control of, 859–860 of lumbar vertebrae, 231f
filtration pressure in, 972–973, 972f Vascular compliance, 754–755 chemical control of, 860–861 of thoracic vertebrae, 230f
reabsorption in, 970f, 973–976 Vascular layer, 525–526 exercise and, 862 Vertebral prominens, 228
secretion in, 970, 970f, 978–979, 980f Vascular spasm, 662 limbic system control of, 859–860 Vertebral region, 15f
and water loss, 1007 Vasectomy, 1069f, 1070 pressure differences in, 841 Vertebral ribs. See Floating ribs
Urogenital diaphragm, 346 Vasoconstriction, 724 pressure in, 841–842 Vertebrochondral ribs, 233
Urogenital triangle, 346, 1034, 1034f Vasodilation, 724 and pulmonary capillary perfusion, 850 Vertebrosternal ribs. See True ribs
Urokinase, 689 Vasodilator substances, 761–763 regulation of, 856–863, 859f Vertical plate
Urorectal septum, 1099, 1099f Vasomotion, 763 rhythmic, 858 of palatine bone, 212f, 222f
USPSTF. See United States Preventive Vasomotor center, 764 volume in, 841–842 of vomer, 223f
Services Task Force Vasomotor instability, Ventral, 13, 13f, 14t Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL),
Uterine artery, 736t postmenopausal, 1071t Ventral anterior nucleus, 449, 451f 915–916, 916f
Uterine cancer, tissue changes in, 110 Vasomotor tone, 764 Ventral column, 414, 414f Vesalius, Andreas, 9
Uterine cavity, 1050f Vasopressin. See Antidiuretic hormone Ventral lateral nucleus, 449, 451f Vesicles, 1051f, 1053, 1054f. See also specific
Uterine contractions, positive feedback in, 12 (ADH) Ventral posterior nucleus, 449, 451f types
Uterine cycle, 1063–1065, 1064f Vasopressin (ADH) mechanism, and blood Ventral ramus, 422–423, 424f in endocytosis, 7
Uterine part, of uterine tube, 1050f, 1053 pressure regulation, 773, 773f, 774f Ventral respiratory groups, 856–858, 858f matrix, 175–176
Uterine tubes, 8f, 1050f, 1053–1055 Vasovagal syncope, 775 Ventral roots, 376f, 413f, 414f, 415, membrane transport in, 65
postmenopausal, 1071t Vastus intermedius muscle, 325f, 361f, 362 415f, 424f Vestibular folds, 827f, 829, 829f, 830f
prenatal development of, 1100f innervation of, 435f motor axons in, 415 dense regular elastic connective tissue
simple columnar epithelial cells of, 109f Vastus lateralis muscle, 325f, 361f, Ventricle(s), 682 in, 127t
Uterine tumors, benign, 1074, 1074f 362, 364f cardiac Vestibular ganglion, 467t, 556
Uterosacral ligaments, 1055 innervation of, 435f aging and, 711 Vestibular glands
Uterus, 8f, 1050f, 1055 Vastus medialis muscle, 325f, 361f, 362 left, 680f, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f, 687f, 688f, greater, 1056
during birth, positive feedback in, 12 innervation of, 435f 690f, 691f, 732f lesser, 1056
cervix of. See Cervix Vater’s ampulla. See Hepatopancreatic prenatal development of, 1097f Vestibular membrane, 545f, 546, 550f
endometrium of, 1088f ampulla right, 680f, 683, 684f, 685f, 686f, Vestibular nerve, 467t, 555f
epithelium of, 1088f Vegetarian diet, 932, 936 688f, 690f Vestibular nuclei, 447f, 494f, 495, 556

CONFIRMING PAGES
I-45 Index
Vestibule, 1056, 1056f Vitamin B2, 933t, 934 regulation of, 1006–1007, 1006f Wrist drop, 429
of ear, 543f, 544f, 545–546, 545f, 553f Vitamin B3, 933t, 934 chemistry of, 36–37 Wry neck, 470
and balance, 553, 554f Vitamin B6, 933t, 934 concentrations in body, 971t Wuchereria bancrofti, 791
in female sex act, 1065 Vitamin B12, 933t, 934 in digestive system, 918
of nose, 826, 827f and red blood cell production, 659 dissociation in, 31f, 32
of oral cavity, 880, 881f Vitamin C, 933t, 934 in extracellular fluid, regulation X chromosomes, 96
Vestibulocerebellum. See Flocculonodular and aging, 1113 of, 1011f abnormalities of, 101
lobe and bone growth, 190 functions of, 37 Xanthines, 988
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve, 467t, deficiency of, 190 hydrogen bonds in, 30, 30f, 36 Xanthomas, in familial
543f, 547 Vitamin D, 933t, 934 in intracellular fluid, regulation hypercholesterolemia, 917
and balance, 556 and bone growth, 189–190 of, 1011f Xenopsylla spp., 791
functions of, 463t, 467t, 470 and calcium regulation, 918, 1016 as mixing medium, 37 Xeroderma pigmentosum, 160
origin of, 463f in calcium uptake, 165, 195 as nutrient, 928 Xiphisternal symphysis, 253t, 265f
Vestibulospinal tract, 492f, 492t–493t, 495 deficiency of, 190 percent in body, 36 Xiphoid process, 233, 234f, 345f
Viagra, 1049 hydroxylation of, 903 in plasma, 653 X-linked traits, 98–99
Villi, of duodenum, 896, 897f and intracellular receptors, 605t polar covalent bonds in, 28f, 29 X-rays, 4, 4f
Viral infections in phosphate uptake, 165 proportion of body weight composed applications of, 4, 29
of skin, 167 production of, 934 of, 1005 mechanism of, 4, 29
treatment of, 796 PTH and, 195 as protection, 37 risks with, 5
Viral load, 817 in skin, 150, 165 specific heat of, 37
Visceral arteries, 732f supplementation, 165, 190 “Water on the knee,” 271
Visceral branches Vitamin E, 933t Water vapor pressure, 848, 849t Y chromosomes, 96
of abdominal artery, 736t and aging, 1113 Water-soluble hormones, 594–595 abnormalities of, 101
of pelvic arteries, 736t Vitamin K, 933t, 934 Water-soluble vitamins, 934 Yellow adipose tissue, 128
of thoracic aorta, 733, 736t for bleeding prevention, 666 Watson, James, 96 functions of, 128
Visceral layer, of Bowman’s capsule, 966, 967f production of, 934 WBC. See White blood count in yellow bone marrow, 133
Visceral pain, 488 Vitiligo, 167 Weight Yellow bone marrow, 133, 133t, 654
Visceral pericardium, 16, 19f, 680f, 681, Vitreous chamber, 526f, 527f, 528 definition of, 24 in adults, 181
681f, 840f Vitreous humor, 526f, 528 and lever, 322, 324f in children, 181
Visceral peritoneum, 16, 18, 19f, 878, 879f, VLDL. See Very low-density lipoproteins Weight control, set point theory of, 955 in long bones, 181, 181f, 182t
888, 889f Vocal cords Weight training Yersinia pestis, 791
of digestive tract, 877, 877f false. See Vestibular folds for bodybuilding, 370, 370f Y-linked traits, 98–99
Visceral pleura, 16, 19f, 680f, 833f, 834f, true. See Vocal folds and muscle fibers, 306 Yolk sac, 1087, 1088f, 1089f, 1091, 1092f
839–840, 840f Vocal folds, 827f, 829–830, 829f, 830f and muscle length, 301 Yolk stalk, 1092f, 1099f
Visceral senses, 477, 478f, 478t dense regular elastic connective tissue Wernicke’s aphasia, 500
Visceral sensory area, general, 447f in, 127t Wernicke’s area, 487f, 500, 501f
Visceral serous membranes, 16, 19f Vocalis muscle, 337t Wharton’s jelly. See Mucous connective Z disks, 282f, 283–284, 283f, 284f, 286f,
Visceral smooth muscle, 309–310, 311 Voice, paranasal sinuses and, 212 tissue 294f
Viscerocranium, 204t, 224 Volkmann’s canals. See Perforating canals Whiplash, 232 Zantac, 892
functions of, 224 Voltage-gated calcium channels, 290, White blood cells, 133t, 651f, 653–654, 653t, Zinc
Visceroreceptors, functions of, 477 291f, 694 655f, 656f, 660–661, 662f. See also characteristics of, 24t
Viscosity, 754 during action potentials, 396 specific types deficiency of, 935t
definition of, 66 in cardiac action potential, 692 abnormal structure of, 110 percent in body, 24t
and diffusion rates, 66 of sarcoplasmic reticulum, 292, 293f glucagon and, 635t uses in body, 935t
Visible light, 528–529, 529f Voltage-gated ion channels, 61, 287, 383 in inflammation response, 139f Zoloft, 399t
Visible spectrum, 529 during action potentials, 388, 389f in innate immunity, 796–797 Zona fasciculata, 627f, 628
Vision Voltage-gated potassium channels, 694 insulin and, 635t Zona glomerulosa, 627f, 628
binocular, 537f, 542 during action potentials, 388, 389f movement into connective tissues, 122 Zona pellucida, 1051f, 1053, 1054f,
color, 535–536, 535f in cardiac action potential, 692 White blood count (WBC), 672 1082–1083, 1082f
disorders of, 539–541 Voltage-gated sodium channels, 625, 693 differential, 672 Zona reticularis, 627f, 628
aging and, 556 during action potentials, 388, 389f, 692 White commissures, 414–415, 414f Zone of calcification, 186, 188f
far point of, 530 activation gates of, 388–390, 389f White matter, 382 Zone of hypertrophy, 186, 188f
of moving objects, 537 in cardiac action potential, 692 of spinal cord, 414, 414f Zone of proliferation, 186, 188f
near point of, 530 inactivation gates of, 388–390, 389f White pulp, of spleen, 788–789, 790f Zone of resting cartilage, 186, 188f
neuronal pathways for, 537–542, 537f Volume, 547, 549f White ramus communicans, 566, Zonula adherens, 119–120, 119f
Vision charts, 530 Voluntary movements, control of, 490 567f, 571f Zonula occludens, 119–120, 119f
Visual accommodation, 530, 530f Voluntary muscles, 134 Whooping cough, 865 ZP3, 1083
Visual association area, 487–490, 487f Voluntary phase, of swallowing, 886, 887f Window Zygomatic arch, 208f, 209, 209f, 216f, 334f
Visual cortex, 487, 487f, 538 Vomer, 204t, 210f, 215, 216f, 223f oval, 543, 543f, 544f, 545f, 550f Zygomatic bone, 204t, 209
in speech, 501f in nasal cavity, 211t, 212f, 215 round, 543f, 544f, 545f, 546, 550f anterior view of, 210f, 211f
Visual evoked potential (VEP) test, 503 Vomiting, 896 Windpipe. See Trachea inferior view of, 216f
Visual fields, 537f, 538, 542 and shock, 775 Wisdom teeth, 882, 882f intramembranous ossification of, 184f
Visual image, inversion of, 529 von Willebrand disease, 673 impacted, 882 lateral view of, 209f, 219f
Visual system, 521–542 von Willebrand factor (VWF), 663, 673 Withdrawal (flexor) reflex, 418–420, 419f openings in, 215t
Vital capacity, 846 VSD. See Ventricular septal defect with crossed extensor reflex, 420, 420f in orbit, 211f, 211t
aging and, 863 Vulva, 1056 with reciprocal innervation, temporal process of, 209f, 216f, 219f
exercise and, 863 VWF. See von Willebrand factor 418–420, 419f Zygomatic process, 218f
Vitamin(s), 932–934, 933t Work, 34 of maxilla, 221f
and bone growth, 189–190 Wound contraction, 141 of temporal bone, 209f, 216f, 217f
essential, 932–934 Wandering macrophages, 122 Wound repair, 141, 141f Zygomaticofacial foramen, 215t, 219f
fat-soluble, 44, 934 Warm receptors, 478 Woven bone, 178 Zygomaticotemporal foramen, 215t
as nutrients, 928 Warts, 167 remodeling of, 178, 183 Zygomaticus major muscle, 329, 330t,
in plasma, 652t genital, 1073 Wrinkles, in skin, 166 331f, 332f
water-soluble, 934 Waste products, in plasma, 652t, 653 Wrist, 15f Zygomaticus minor muscle, 329, 330t,
Vitamin A, 933t, 934 Water bones of, 238–239, 239f 331f, 332f
deficiency of, 166 as body fluid extensor muscles of, 326f, 354 Zygote, 1053, 1082f, 1083, 1083f
formation of, 934 intake of, 1006–1007, 1006t flexor muscles of, 325f, 354 Zymogen granules, 890
Vitamin B1, 933t, 934 loss of, 1006t, 1007 movements of, muscles of, 354, 356t Zymogenic cells. See Chief cells

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see65576_fm_i-xxii.indd i 1/5/07 1:53:15 AM

Colored SEM of simple columnar epithelial cells, with cilia, of

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110 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body

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CHAPTER 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 111

Nucleus Surface view

FIGURE 4.1 Characteristics of Epithelium

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112 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body

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CHAPTER 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 113

It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells attached to

TABLE 4.2 Simple Epithelium

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114 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body

TABLE 4.2 Simple Epithelium—Continued

(c) Simple Columnar Epithelium

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CHAPTER 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 115

TABLE 4.3 Stratified Epithelium

(b) Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

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116 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body

TABLE 4.3 Stratified Epithelium—Continued

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CHAPTER 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 117

TABLE 4.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium and Transitional Epithelium

(b) Transitional Epithelium

Transitional Urinary bladder

Tissue not stretched Transitional

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118 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body

TABLE 4.5 Function and Location of Epithelial Tissue

Capable of great stretching

cellular products (glands), and absorbs nutrients (intestines). The PREDICT 1

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CHAPTER 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 119

Stratified Stratified Stratified Pseudostratified Transitional

Skin (epidermis), corneas,

Larynx, nasal cavity, paranasal

Transitional epithelium has a rather unusual plasma membrane Free surface

Cell Connections Desmosome

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120 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body

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CHAPTER 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 121

Single gland cell

(g) Compound tubular (h) Compound acinar (i) Compound tubuloacinar

FIGURE 4.3 Structure of Exocrine Glands

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122 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body

Pinched-off portion Dying cell releases

Secretory products Cell shed into

(a) Merocrine gland (b) Apocrine gland (c) Holocrine gland

FIGURE 4.4 Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types

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CHAPTER 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 123

Protein Fibers of the Matrix

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124 PART 1 Organization of the Human Body

composed of repeating disaccharide units. It gives a very slippery