2ndmeet

ing
BI
ONUTRYFORFEEDANDFOOD
(
By:
Uswat
unH.
,Sy
afwanP.
,Sal
waR)
I
ndi
cat
or
Thr
oughl
ear
ningBi
onut
ri
ent
sforFeedandFood,
student
sar
eexpect
edt
obeabl
eto:
1.Abl
etoexpl
ainaboutmacr
oandmi
croel
ement
sinf
ood
2.Abl
etoexpl
aini
mpor
tantv
itami
nsi
nli
fesuppor
t
3.Beabl
etoexpl
aint
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
henut
ri
entcy
cleandt
heav
ail
abi
l
ity
ofnut
ri
ent
sinnat
ure

A.I
ntr
oduct
ion
Oneoft
hebasi
cneedsofl
i
vingt
hingsi
sthef
ulf
il
lmentofnut
ri
ti
onalneedsi
n
t
hei
rbodi
es.Thi
swi
l
lbecl
osel
yrel
atedt
otheacqui
sit
ionofener
gyt
hatwi
l
lbeused
f
ort
heact
ivi
ti
esofl
i
ving t
hings,f
rom t
heor
gani
sm l
evelt
othecel
l
ularl
evel
.
Nut
ri
ent
sar
enut
ri
ent
sandot
hersubst
ancesr
elat
edt
oheal
thanddi
sease,
incl
udi
ng
t
heov
eral
lpr
ocessesi
nthehumanbodyt
orecei
vef
oodormat
eri
alsf
rom t
he
env
ironmentanduset
hesemat
eri
alsf
ori
mpor
tantact
ivi
ti
esi
nthebodyandexcr
ete
t
her
est
.Nut
ri
ti
oni
ngener
ali
sachemi
calbondt
hatt
hebodyneedssot
hatt
he
f
unct
ionofor
gansorsy
stemsi
nthebodycanr
unnor
mal
l
y.
Humansneedcar
bohy
drat
esi
nthegr
eat
estamount
.Cur
rent
ly,exper
tsf
rom
TheUni
tedSt
atesDepar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
e(USDA)r
ecommendt
hatadul
tsneedt
o
get45-
65% oft
hei
rdai
l
ycal
ori
eint
akef
rom car
bohy
drat
es.Forpr
otei
n,t
hei
ntake
neededi
s10%–35%ofdai
l
ycal
ori
es.Forf
at,20%–35%ofcal
ori
esshoul
dcome
f
rom f
at.Pr
otei
n,car
bohy
drat
es,andf
atsar
eneededbyt
hebodyev
erydaybot
hto
suppor
tdai
l
yact
ivi
ti
esandf
ort
hosewhor
unbodybui
l
dingpr
ogr
amsordi
ets.
Mi
cronut
ri
ent
sar
esonamedbecauset
hebodyneedst
hem i
nsmal
l
eramount
sthan
macr
onut
ri
ent
s.Mi
cronut
ri
ent
sar
eusual
l
ymeasur
edi
nmi
crogr
amsormi
l
li
grams,
whi
l
emacr
onut
ri
ent
sar
eusual
l
ymeasur
edi
ngr
ams.Mi
cronut
ri
ent
sar
esubst
ances
such as v
itami
ns and mi
ner
alst
hat ar
e essent
ialf
or heal
thy gr
owt
h and
dev
elopment
. Al
though mi
cronut
ri
ent
s ar
e onl
y needed i
n smal
l amount
s,
mi
cronut
ri
ent def
ici
enci
es can al
so cause ser
ious pr
obl
ems. Exampl
es of
mi
cronut
ri
ent
sincl
udev
itami
nA,f
oli
caci
d,i
odi
ne,i
ronandzi
nc.Lackoft
hese
nut
ri
ent
scanhav
eser
iousconsequencesf
orchi
l
dren,pr
egnantwomenandwomen
ofchi
l
dbear
ingage.
B.Car
bohy
drat
es
Car
bohy
drat
espl
ayani
mpor
tantr
olei
nnat
urebecauset
heyar
ethemai
n
sour
ce of ener
gy f
or humans and ani
mal
s whi
ch ar
erel
ati
vel
y cheap.Al
l
car
bohy
drat
escomef
rom pl
ant
s.Thr
oughphot
osy
nthesi
s,pl
antchl
orophy
llwi
tht
he
hel
pofsunl
i
ghti
sabl
etof
orm car
bohy
drat
esf
rom car
bondi
oxi
de(
CO2)f
rom t
heai
r
andwat
er(
H2O)f
rom t
hesoi
l
.Ther
esul
ti
ngcar
bohy
drat
eist
hesi
mpl
ecar
bohy
drat
e
gl
ucose.I
naddi
ti
on,oxy
gen(
O2)i
srel
easedi
ntheai
r.I
ngener
al,t
hedef
ini
ti
onof
car
bohy
drat
es i
s or
gani
c compounds cont
aini
ng car
bon,hy
drogen and oxy
gen
at
oms,and i
n gener
alt
he el
ement
s hy
drogen and oxy
gen i
nthe composi
ti
on
pr
oduceH2O.I
nthebody
,car
bohy
drat
escanbef
ormedf
rom sev
eralami
noaci
ds
andsomef
rom f
atgl
ycer
ol.
I
n gener
al, car
bohy
drat
es ar
e cl
assi
fi
ed i
nto 3 gr
oups, namel
y:
monosacchar
idesandt
hei
rder
ivat
ives,ol
i
gosacchar
idesandpol
ysacchar
ides.Each
gr
oup has adv
ant
ages and uni
que f
unct
ions i
nfood.The hy
groscopi
cit
y of
car
bohy
drat
es v
ari
es and depends on t
he st
ruct
ure,i
somer
ism and pur
it
y.
Meanwhi
l
e,t
hesol
ubi
l
ityofcar
bohy
drat
eswi
l
ldecr
easei
fcar
bohy
drat
esst
ickt
o
each ot
her
. Monosacchar
ides and ol
i
gosacchar
ides ar
e wat
er sol
ubl
e.
Monosacchar
idesar
eal
sosol
ubl
einet
hanolbuti
nsol
ubl
einor
gani
csol
vent
s(et
her
,
chl
orof
orm,benzene)
.Monosacchar
idesandol
i
gosacchar
idesandsugaral
cohol
s
hav
e a sweet t
ast
e.– D Mannose has a sweet and bi
tt
er t
ast
e.Some
ol
i
gosacchar
ides,
suchasgent
iobi
ose,
hav
eabi
tt
ert
ast
e.Sweet
ener
sthatar
eof
ten
used ar
e sucr
ose,st
arch sy
rup (
a mi
xtur
e of gl
ucose,mal
tose and mal
to
ol
i
gosacchar
ides)
,gl
ucose,
inv
ertsugar
,

C.Pr
otei
n
Pr
otei
nsar
ecompl
excompoundsconsi
sti
ngofv
ari
ousami
noaci
dsl
i
nkedt
o
eachot
herbypept
idebonds.Theseami
noaci
dsconsi
stofacar
bonchai
n(R
r
adi
cal
),ahy
drogenat
om (
H),
acar
boxy
li
cgr
oup(
COOH)andanami
nogr
oup(
NH2)
,
andsomet
imescont
ainahy
droxy
lgr
oup(
OH)andsul
fur(
S).
Ami
noaci
dst
hatmakeuppr
otei
ncanbedi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreegr
oupsbasedon
whet
herornott
heycanbesy
nthesi
zedbyt
hebody
,namel
yessent
ialami
noaci
ds
(
whi
ch cannotbesy
nthesi
zed)
,semi
-essent
ialand non-
essent
ial(
whi
ch can be
sy
nthesi
zedbyt
hebody
).Forpr
otei
nsy
nthesi
sint
hebodyt
orunsmoot
hly(
for
exampl
etoensur
egr
owt
hinchi
l
dren)ort
omai
ntai
nni
tr
ogenbal
ancei
ntheadul
t
body
,essent
ialami
noaci
dsmustbepr
esenti
nfood,becauset
hebodycannot
sy
nthesi
zet
hem.I
fnon-
essent
ialami
noaci
dsar
enotf
oundi
nfood,non-
essent
ial
ami
noaci
dscanbecr
eat
edbyt
hebody(
asl
ongast
her
ear
esuf
fi
cientbasi
c
i
ngr
edi
ent
s),
namel
yfat
tyaci
dsandni
tr
ogensour
ces.
Thebenef
it
sofconsumi
ngpr
otei
nincl
ude:
1.Sour
ceofener
gyt
hati
sneededf
ort
hedev
elopmentoft
hebody
.
2.For
mat
ionofcel
l
sandt
issuesatt
hesamet
imecanr
epai
rdamagedcel
l
sand
t
issues.
3.Asasy
nthet
ichor
mone,
enz
ymeandant
ibody
.
4.Regul
ati
ngt
hebal
anceofaci
d-basel
evel
sincel
l
s.
Accor
dingt
othesour
ceofpr
otei
nisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo,namel
yani
malpr
otei
n
andv
eget
abl
epr
otei
n.

1.Pr
otei
ncl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Basi
cal
l
ypr
otei
nsar
ecl
assi
fi
edbasedont
hei
rmol
ecul
arst
ruct
ure,sol
ubi
l
ity
andnut
ri
ti
onal
val
ue(
biol
ogi
cal
val
ue)
.
Basedont
hemol
ecul
arst
ruct
ure,
thet
ypesofpr
otei
nsar
edi
vi
dedi
nto2,
namel
y:
a.Fi
brousPr
otei
ns(
fi
brous,
fibr
ousandf
ibr
ous)
Fi
brouspr
otei
nsar
einsol
ubl
eindi
l
utesol
vent
s,bei
tsal
t,aci
d,baseoral
cohol
sol
uti
ons.Thel
engt
htoaxi
alr
ati
o(wi
dth)oft
hispr
otei
nmol
ecul
eismor
ethan
10andi
schar
act
eri
zedbypol
ypept
idechai
nst
hatar
ecoi
l
edi
naspi
ralorhel
i
x,
andar
eli
nkedbydi
sul
fi
debondsandhy
drogenbonds.Thi
spr
otei
nmai
nly
f
unct
ionst
ofor
mti
ssuest
ruct
ures,
forexampl
ecol
l
ageni
ncar
ti
lage,
myosi
nis
t
hemai
ncont
ract
il
epr
otei
ninmuscl
es,andker
ati
nist
hemai
npr
otei
ninhai
r,
ski
nandwool
,andf
ibr
ini
sapr
otei
ninbl
oodt
hatcl
ots.
b.Gl
obul
arPr
otei
n(r
oundl
i
keabal
l
)
Theax
ialr
ati
oofgl
obul
arpr
otei
nsi
slesst
han10,
buti
sgener
all
ymor
ethan3
t
o4andi
schar
act
eri
zedbymul
ti
ple,conv
olut
edpol
ypept
idechai
ns.Gl
obur
al
pr
otei
nsar
esol
ubl
einaqueoussol
uti
onsofsal
tsandaci
dsandar
eal
somor
e
suscept
ibl
etochangesduet
osal
tconcent
rat
ion,
temper
atur
eef
fect
s,andaci
d
andal
kal
i
nesol
vent
s,compar
edt
ofi
brouspr
otei
ns.I
naddi
ti
on,pr
otei
nsar
e
easi
l
ydenat
ured,namel
ychangesi
nthecomposi
ti
onofpr
otei
nmol
ecul
es
whi
ch ar
ethen f
oll
owed by changes i
nthei
rphy
sicaland phy
siol
ogi
cal
 pr
oper
ti
es.

Tabl
e1.Ty
pesofPr
otei
nsandexampl
es
Pr
otei
n
Cl
ass Sol
ubi
l
ityandot
herPhy
sical
Proper
ti
es Exampl
e
Al
bumi
n Sol
ubl
ein wat
er and sal
t sol
uti
on, Egg al
bumi
n,bl
ood ser
um
coagul
atedbyheat al
bumi
n,l
act
albumi
n(mi
l
k)
Gl
obul
i
ns I
nsol
ubl
einwat
er,coagul
atedbyheat
, My
osi
nogen (
muscl
e),
sol
ubl
eindi
l
utesal
t,pr
eci
pit
atesi
nhi
gh ov
albumi
n (
egg y
olk)
,
concent
rat
ionofsal
t(sal
ti
ngout
) l
egumes(
beans)
Gl
utel
i
n I
nsol
ubl
einneut
ralsol
vent
s,sol
ubl
ein Gl
utel
i
n (
wheat
), or
izeni
n
di
l
uteaci
dsandbases (
ri
ce)
Pr
olami
n Sol
ubl
ein70-
80% al
cohol
,insol
ubl
ein Gl
i
adi
n (
wheat
), zei
n
(
gli
adi
n) wat
erorabsol
uteal
cohol (
mai
ze)
,hor
dai
n(bar
ley
)
hi
stone Sol
ubl
ein wat
erand sol
ubl
ein sal
t, Gl
obi
n(hemogl
obi
n)
i
nsol
ubl
eindi
l
uteammoni
a.Hi
stones
coagul
atedbyheatar
esol
ubl
eindi
l
ute
aci
d
Pr
otami
ne Sol
ubl
einet
hanol70-
80%,i
nsol
ubl
ein Sal
min (
Sal
mon)
, kl
upei
n
wat
er and absol
ute et
hanol
, not (
Her
ri
ng)
, scr
ombi
n
coagul
atedbyheat
,ri
chi
nar
gini
ne (
Macker
el)

Pr
otei
nthati
s easi
l
y di
gest
ed (
hydr
oly
zed)by di
gest
ive enzy
mes,and
cont
ainsacompl
etev
ari
etyofessent
ialami
noaci
dsandi
nabal
ancedamount
(
accor
dingt
othebody
'sneeds)
,isapr
otei
nwi
thhi
ghnut
ri
ti
onalv
alue.I
ngener
al,
t
his ani
malpr
otei
nis a pr
otei
n wi
th hi
gh nut
ri
ti
onalv
alue,exceptf
orgel
ati
n.
Veget
abl
epr
otei
nsgener
all
ylackone(
somet
imest
woki
nds)ofessent
ialami
no
aci
ds,f
orexampl
eser
ialpr
otei
ngener
all
ylacksl
ysi
ne,whi
l
elegumepr
otei
nsl
ack
t
hesul
furami
noaci
d(met
hioni
ne)
.
Accor
dingt
othei
rsol
ubi
l
ity
,gl
obul
arpr
otei
nsar
edi
vi
dedi
ntosev
eralgr
oups,
namel
y:al
bumi
ns,
globul
i
ns,
glut
en,
prol
ami
ns,
hist
ones,
andpr
otei
ns.
1.Al
bumi
n,sol
ubl
einwat
erandcoagul
atedbyheat
.Forexampl
eeggal
bumi
n,
ser
um al
bumi
n,l
act
albumi
ninmi
l
k.
2.Gl
obul
i
nsar
einsol
ubl
einwat
erbecauset
heyar
efatsol
ubl
eandbel
ongt
oa
 gl
obul
arst
ruct
ureofaspher
icalshape,coagul
atedbyheat
,sol
ubl
eindi
l
ute
sal
tsol
uti
ons,andpr
eci
pit
atedi
nhi
ghconcent
rat
ionsofsal
tsol
uti
on(
sal
ti
ng
out
).Exampl
esofgl
obul
i
ns:my
osi
nogeni
nmuscl
e,ov
ogl
obul
i
nineggy
olk,
amandi
nfr
om al
monds,
legumesi
nnut
s.
3.Gl
utei
n,i
nsol
ubl
einneut
ralsol
vent
sbutsol
ubl
einal
kal
i
nesol
vent
s/di
l
ute
aci
ds.Forexampl
e:gl
uteni
nwheat
,oror
izeni
ninr
ice.
4.Pr
olami
n orgl
i
adi
n,sol
ubl
ein al
cohol70-
80% and i
nsol
ubl
ein wat
eror
absol
uteal
cohol
.Exampl
esi
ncl
udegl
i
adi
ninwheat
,hor
dai
nei
nbar
ley
,and
zei
nincor
n.
5.Hi
stones,sol
ubl
einwat
erandi
nsol
ubl
eindi
l
uteammoni
a.Hi
stonescan
pr
eci
pit
atei
not
herpr
otei
nsol
vent
s.Thehi
stonescoagul
atedbyheat
ingcan
di
ssol
veagai
nindi
l
uteaci
dsol
uti
ons.Forexampl
e,gl
obi
ninhemogl
obi
n
6.Pr
otami
ne,i
sthesi
mpl
estpr
otei
ncompar
ed t
o ot
herpr
otei
ns,butmor
e
compl
ext
hanpept
onesorpept
ides.Thi
spr
otei
nissol
ubl
einwat
erandi
snot
coagul
atedbyheat
.Di
l
utepr
otami
nesol
uti
onscanpr
eci
pit
ateot
herpr
otei
ns,
ar
est
rongbases,andwi
thst
rongaci
dsf
orm st
rongsal
ts.Forexampl
e,
sal
moni
nsal
mon,kl
upei
ninher
ri
ng,scombr
in(
scombr
in)i
nmacker
el,and
cy
pri
nin(
cypr
ini
n)i
ncar
p.

Pr
otei
nst
hatcont
ainot
hernon-
prot
eincompoundsar
ecal
l
edconj
ugat
ed
pr
otei
ns.Whi
l
epr
otei
nst
hatdo notcont
ain non-
prot
ein compoundsar
ecal
l
ed
si
mpl
epr
otei
ns.
Exampl
esofconj
ugat
edpr
otei
nsi
ncl
ude:
1.Phosphopr
otei
n
2.Li
popr
otei
n
3.Nucl
eopr
otei
n

2.Qual
i
tyofpr
otei
nasaf
oodi
ngr
edi
ent
a.Foodpr
otei
nqual
i
ty
The cont
entofessent
ialami
no aci
ds i
n pr
otei
ns can di
sti
ngui
sh t
he
cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofpr
otei
ns.
1.Per
fectpr
otei
n,i
sapr
otei
nthatcont
ainsal
ltheessent
ial
ami
noaci
ds.Per
fect
pr
otei
ncanbeobt
ainedf
rom ani
mal
foods,
eggsandmi
l
k.
2.I
mper
fectpr
otei
nsar
epr
otei
nst
hatdonotcont
ainal
ltheessent
ialami
no
 aci
ds.Thesour
cecomesf
rom pl
antf
oods,
forexampl
e.

3.Pr
otei
ndenat
urat
ion
Pr
otei
ndenat
urat
ioni
sacondi
ti
oni
nwhi
cht
hepr
otei
nunder
goesachangeor
dest
ruct
ionofi
tssecondar
y,t
ert
iar
yandquat
ernar
yst
ruct
ure.Denat
urat
ioncanal
so
bei
nter
pret
edasapr
ocessofbr
eaki
nghy
drogenbonds,hy
drophobi
cint
eract
ions,
sal
tbonds,andt
hef
ormat
ionoff
oldsormol
ecul
arf
olds.Thi
sdenat
urat
ioncanbe
causedbysev
eralf
act
orsi
ncl
udi
ngheat
ing,ext
remeaci
doral
kal
i
necondi
ti
ons,
heav
ymet
alcat
ionsandt
headdi
ti
onofsat
urat
edsal
ts.
Accor
ding t
o Pel
czar and Chan (
1988)
,ther
e ar
e sev
eral t
ypes of
mi
crobi
ologi
caldamagebasedont
hesubst
ancesr
eleasedi
ncommer
cial
l
ycanned
f
ood,
namel
y:
a.Aci
d-f
latdamage.Thi
sdamagei
scausedbyt
hef
ormat
ionofaci
ds.Thedamage
i
s especi
all
ythe case wi
thl
ess aci
dicf
oods such as peas orcor
n.Aci
dic
f
oodst
uff
s such as t
omat
oes can be damaged by t
he gr
owt
h ofBaci
l
lus
coagul
ans,
whi
chpr
oducesmor
eaci
d.
b.ATdamage.Thi
sty
peofdamagei
scausedbyt
her
mophi
l
icanaer
obeshencet
he
name '
AT'
.The AT bact
eri
um i
s Cl
ost
ri
dium t
her
mosacchar
oly
ticum.These
bact
eri
afer
mentsugar
s,pr
oduci
ngaci
dsandgases;af
tersomet
imet
hegas
causest
hecant
oswel
lwi
thbul
gingedges.Thi
ski
ndofdamagei
smostcommon
i
nfoodswi
thl
owaci
dcont
entsuchaspeas,cor
n,beans,meat
,fi
sh,poul
tr
y,and
i
nfoods wi
th moder
ate aci
dlev
els such as spi
nach,aspar
agus,beet
s,and
pumpki
n.
c.Sul
fi
de damage. Thi
s t
ype of damage i
s caused by t
he bact
eri
um
Desul
fot
omacul
um ni
gri
fi
cans(
for
mer
lycal
l
edCl
ost
ri
dium ni
gri
fi
cans)
,especi
all
y
i
nfoodswi
thl
owaci
dlev
els.Dur
ingt
hei
rgr
owt
handmet
abol
i
sm,t
hesebact
eri
a
pr
oducehy
drogensul
fi
de.Thesmel
loft
hisgasi
mmedi
atel
ysmel
l
swheny
ou
openadamagedf
oodcan.Thesebact
eri
aar
eobl
i
gat
ether
mophi
l
es,t
her
efor
e,i
f
t
hef
oodt
hati
str
eat
edwi
thheati
snoti
mmedi
atel
ycool
ed,t
heset
her
mophi
l
es
wi
l
lgr
ow.
Thepr
ocessoff
oodspoi
l
agecanbedescr
ibedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngequat
ion:
Pr
oteases
Pr
otei
n———————————–àammoni
aandH2
Eggpr
otei
nisdi
vi
dedi
ntowhi
teandy
olk.Eggwhi
tepr
otei
nconsi
stsofat
l
east8di
ff
erentt
ypesofpr
otei
nswi
tht
hei
rownspeci
alpr
oper
ti
es(
Tabl
e2)
.

Tabl
e2.Ty
pesofpr
otei
nfoundi
neggwhi
tes
Pr
otei
nTy
pe Amount SpecialTr
ait
s
(
%)
Ov
albumi
n 54 Easi
l
ydenat
ured,
cont
ainssul
fhy
dry
l(SS)
Konal
bumi
n 13 Fe-
cont
aini
ngpr
otei
n,ant
imi
crobi
al
Ov
omucoi
d 11 I
nhi
bit
stheact
ivi
tyoft
het
rypsi
nenzy
me
Ly
sozy
me 3.
5 Ant
i-
micr
obi
al
Ov
omusi
n 1.
5 Thi
ck,
richi
nsi
ali
caci
d,r
eact
stov
iruses
Fl
avopr
otei
ns, 0.
8 Canbi
ndt
ori
bof
lav
in(
vit
ami
nB2)
apopr
otei
ns
Ov
o-i
nhi
bit
or 0.
1 I
nhi
bit
stheact
ivi
tyofpr
oteaseenzy
mes
Av
idi
n 0.
05 Canbi
ndbi
oti
n,ant
i-
micr
obi
al
Meatpr
otei
nconsi
stsofst
ruct
uralpr
otei
n(about70%)andwat
er-
sol
ubl
e
pr
otei
n(30%)
.St
ruct
ural
prot
eins(
fi
bri
l
s)cont
ainabout32-
38%my
osi
n,13-
17%act
in,
7%t
ropomy
osi
nand6%pl
asmapr
otei
ns.

Tabl
e3.Ty
pesofprot
einf
oundineggy
olks
Type of Amount(%) Speci
alTrai
ts
pr
otei
n

Li
vet
in 5 Cont
ainsenzy
mes

Fosv
iti
n 7 Cont
ainsphosphor
us(
about10%)

Li
popr
otei
n 21 Cont
ainsl
i
pids,
emul
si
fi
ers

Eggwhi
tescont
ainabout10-
11% pr
otei
nbywetwei
ght(
about83% bydr
y
wei
ght
).Eggy
olkpr
otei
ncont
ainsanumberofl
i
pidst
hatbi
ndasl
i
popr
otei
ns(
eg
l
eci
thi
n).Thi
sli
popr
otei
nisagoodemul
sif
ier
,soeggy
olksar
ewi
del
yusedi
nfood
pr
ocessi
ng.
Fat
I
nsci
ent
if
icl
i
ter
atur
e,f
atsar
ecommonl
yref
err
edt
oasl
i
pids,whi
chmeans
f
atsoroi
l
sorf
at-
li
keel
ement
sthatar
eobt
ainedi
nfoodandusedbyt
hebody
.
Howev
er,t
het
ermf
ati
smor
epopul
art
hanl
i
pid.I
ngener
al,f
atsar
epr
oducedby
bot
hpl
ant
sandani
mal
s.Li
kecar
bohy
drat
es,f
atsar
efor
medbycar
bon,hy
drogen
andoxy
gen,buti
ndi
ff
erentcomposi
ti
onsandr
ati
os.Accor
dingt
oHar
per
,Deat
on,
andDr
iskel
,fatcont
ainsmor
ecar
bonandl
essoxy
gen,andt
her
efor
ehasmor
e
ener
gyv
alue.
1. Nat
ural
fatf
ormat
ion
Al
mostal
lfoodst
uff
scont
ainal
otoff
atandoi
l
,especi
all
yfoodsofani
mal
ori
gin.
Fati
nani
mal
tissuei
sfoundi
nadi
poset
issue
I
npl
ant
s,f
atsar
esy
nthesi
zedf
rom onemol
ecul
eofgl
ycer
olwi
tht
hreemol
ecul
esof
f
att
yaci
dst
hatar
efor
medf
rom t
hecont
inuedoxi
dat
ionofcar
bohy
drat
esi
nthe
pr
ocessofr
espi
rat
ion
Thepr
ocessoff
atf
ormat
ioni
npl
ant
scanbedi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreest
ages,
namel
y:
-gl
ycer
olf
ormat
ion
-f
ormat
ionoff
att
yaci
dmol
ecul
es
Condensat
ionoff
att
yaci
dswi
thgl
ycer
olt
ofor
mfat
s
- Gl
ycer
olsy
nthesi
s
- Fat
tyaci
dsy
nthesi
s
- Condensat
ionoff
att
yaci
dswi
thgl
ycer
ol

2.Ty
pesoff
atsandoi
l
s
Cooki
ngoi
l
But
ter
Mar
gar
ine
a.Causesoff
atbr
eakdown
Odorabsor
pti
on
Hy
drol
ysi
s
Oxi
dat
ionandr
anci
dit
y
Pr
event
ionofr
anci
dit
y
The pr
ocess ofr
anci
dit
yis st
rongl
yinf
luenced byt
he pr
esence ofpr
o-
oxi
dant
sandant
ioxi
dant
s.Pr
oox
idant
swi
l
laccel
erat
etheoccur
renceofoxi
dat
ion,
whi
l
eant
ioxi
dant
swi
l
linhi
biti
t.
Goodf
atst
oragei
sinacl
osed,
dar
kandcoolpl
ace.Thecont
aineri
sbet
termadeof
al
umi
num orst
ainl
essst
eel
,gr
easeshoul
dbeav
oidedf
rom f
err
ousmet
alorcopper
.
Thepr
esenceofant
ioxi
dant
sinf
atwi
l
lreducet
hespeedoft
heoxi
dat
ionpr
ocess.
b.Chemi
cal
composi
ti
onoff
at
Li
ke car
bohy
drat
es,f
ats ar
e composed oft
hree basi
c el
ement
s,namel
y
car
bon,hy
drogenandoxy
gen.Chemi
cal
l
y,f
atsar
epar
tofl
i
pids,whi
char
eest
ersof
f
att
yaci
dswi
thgl
ycer
ol.Gl
ycer
olhast
hreehy
droxygr
oups,t
heset
hreegr
oupsbi
nd
(
viaest
erbonds)onef
att
yaci
dmol
ecul
e,sot
hatonef
atmol
ecul
econsi
stsofone
gl
ycer
olmol
ecul
eandt
hreef
att
yaci
dmol
ecul
es.Ther
efor
e,f
atsoroi
l
sar
eref
err
ed
t
oast
ri
acy
lgl
ycer
ols(
acy
l=f
att
yaci
ds)orgener
all
yref
err
edt
oast
ri
gly
cer
ides.
Tr
iacy
lgl
ycer
olsar
eal
soknownasneut
ral
fat
s.

A. Vi
tami
n
Vi
tami
nsar
eagr
oupofami
neor
gani
ccompoundst
hatar
ever
yimpor
tant
andv
eryneededbyt
hebody
,becausev
itami
nsf
unct
iont
ohel
pregul
ateorpr
ocess
bodyact
ivi
ti
es(
vit
ami
nshav
eav
eryi
mpor
tantr
olei
nthebody
'smet
abol
i
sm)
,
becausev
itami
nscannotbepr
oducedbyt
hebody
.Accor
dingt
oCat
her
inePr
ice,a
sci
encej
our
nal
i
st,
thebodyact
ual
l
yhasagenet
opr
oducev
itami
nC,
butamut
ati
on
occur
sthati
nhi
bit
sthepr
ocess."
Justasmuscl
ewi
l
lshr
inki
fithasnotbeenused
f
oral
ongt
ime,
thi
smut
ati
oni
sli
kel
yduet
othel
argesuppl
yofv
itami
nCav
ail
abl
ein
f
rui
ts.Meanwhi
l
e,v
itami
nCusual
l
ycomesf
rom t
heRoseHi
pspl
ant
.
1. Ty
pesofv
itami
ns
Ther
ear
etwo t
ypesofv
itami
nsbasedont
hei
rsol
ubi
l
ity
,namel
ywat
er-
sol
ubl
evi
tami
nsandf
at-
sol
ubl
evi
tami
ns.Ther
ear
eonl
ytwowat
er-
sol
ubl
evi
tami
ns,
namel
yVi
tami
nsBandC.Asf
orv
itami
nsA,
D,E,
andK,
theyar
efat
-sol
ubl
e.
Fat
-sol
ubl
evi
tami
nsar
est
oredi
nadi
poset
issue(
fat
)andi
nthel
i
ver
.Thi
s
v
itami
nwi
l
lthenber
eleasedandci
rcul
atedt
hroughoutt
hebodywhenneeded.Some
t
ypesofv
itami
nscanonl
ybest
oredf
oraf
ewday
sint
hebody
,whi
l
eot
hert
ypesof
v
itami
nscanl
astupt
o6mont
hsi
nthebody
.
B.Nut
ri
entCy
clesi
nBi
ogeochemi
cal
Cycl
eEcosy
stems
Al
lmat
teri
scomposedofat
oms.t
heat
omsar
erot
atedbet
weent
hel
i
ving
andnon-
li
vi
ngpar
tsoft
heecosy
stem.Act
ivi
ti
esi
nvol
vedi
nat
omi
ccy
cli
ngi
ncl
ude
bi
ology
,geol
ogi
calpr
ocesses,andchemi
str
y.Ther
efor
e,nut
ri
entcy
clesar
eof
ten
cal
l
edbi
ogeochemi
calcy
cles.Someat
omst
hatoccurmor
efr
equent
lyi
nli
vi
ng
t
hingst
hanot
her
s,car
bon,
nit
rogen,
oxy
gen,
hydr
ogen,
andphosphor
usar
efoundi
n
i
mpor
tantor
gani
cmol
ecul
essuchaspr
otei
ns,DNA,car
bohy
drat
es,andf
ats,whi
ch
ar
efoundi
nal
lty
pesofl
i
vingt
hings.Or
gani
cmol
ecul
escont
ainmanycar
bonat
oms
at
tachedt
oeachot
her
.Theor
gani
cmol
ecul
esar
eor
igi
nal
l
ymadef
rom i
nor
gani
c
mol
ecul
esbyt
heact
ivi
ti
esofpr
oducer
sandt
ransf
err
edf
rom onel
i
vingor
gani
sm t
o
anot
heri
nthef
oodchai
n.Thepr
ocessesofr
espi
rat
ionanddecayul
ti
mat
elybr
eak
downt
hecompl
exor
gani
cmol
ecul
esofor
gani
smsandconv
ertt
hem t
osi
mpl
e,
i
nor
gani
cconst
it
uent
swhi
char
eret
urnedt
otheabi
oti
cenv
ironment
.Int
hissect
ion,
wewi
l
llookatt
hef
lowoft
hreet
ypesofat
omsi
nsoci
etyandbet
weent
hebi
oti
cand
abi
oti
cpar
tsofanecosy
stem:
car
bon,
nit
rogen,
andphosphor
us.

1. Car
bonCy
cle

Fi
gur
e4.Car
bondi
oxi
decy
cle

2. ni
tr
ogency
cle
Theni
tr
ogency
clei
nvol
vest
hef
low ofni
tr
ogenat
omsbet
weenabi
oti
cand
bi
oti
ccomponent
sandbet
weenor
gani
smsi
nanecosy
stem.Sev
ent
y-ei
ghtper
cent
oft
hegasi
ntheai
rwebr
eat
hei
smadeupofni
tr
ogengas(
N2)mol
ecul
es.Howev
er,
t
het
woni
tr
ogenat
omsar
ever
yti
ght
lyboundt
oeachot
her
,andv
eryf
ewor
gani
sms
canuseni
tr
ogeni
nthi
sfor
m.Si
ncepl
ant
sandot
herpr
oducer
sar
eatt
hebaseof
al
mostal
lfoodchai
ns,t
heymustmakenewni
tr
ogen-
cont
aini
ngmol
ecul
es,suchas
pr
otei
nsand DNA.Pl
ant
sand ot
herpr
oducer
scannotuset
heni
tr
ogen i
nthe
at
mospher
eandmustobt
aini
tint
hef
orm ofni
tr
ate(
NO3–)orammoni
a(NH3)
.
The r
ole ofni
tr
ogen and ni
tr
ogen bact
eri
a.Thi
s happens because t
he
at
mospher
e ofel
ement
alni
tr
ogen cannotbe di
rect
lyused bypl
ant
s,ni
tr
ogen
compoundsar
eof
teni
nshor
tsuppl
yandt
heav
ail
abi
l
ityofni
tr
ogeni
sof
tenaf
act
or
af
fect
ingpl
antgr
owt
h.Pl
ant
sgetni
tr
ogencompoundst
heycanusei
swi
tht
hehel
p
ofbact
eri
athatl
i
vei
nthesoi
l
.Bact
eri
a,cal
l
edt
hoset
hatcanconv
ertni
tr
ogengas
(
N2)t
hatent
erst
hesoi
lint
oammoni
asopl
ant
scanusei
t.Someoft
heset
ypesof
bact
eri
athatl
i
vef
reel
yint
hesoi
lar
ecal
l
edni
tr
ogenbact
eri
a.Thi
ssy
mbi
osi
sis
knownasbet
weenni
tr
ogenousbact
eri
aandcer
tai
npl
ant
sandl
i
vesi
nnodul
esi
nthe
r
oot
sofpl
ant
sknownasl
egumes(
peas,
beans,
etc.
).

3. Phosphor
usCy
cle

Fi
gur
eP5.
hP
oh
so
ps
hp
oh
ro
ur
us
s C
di
fy
f
ec
rl
e
s(S
f
rom
our
ce
t:
hht
ect
pr
a:/
/
bma
o t
e
nar
ni
al
dn.
r
ii
z
tk
r
oi
be
gio.
co
nc m/
y
cl2
e01
si6/
1
nt1
h/
edaur
mo -
sf
o
tsf
i
mpor
.
oh
rt
ml
t
ant
par
toft
hel
i
fecy
cle.Thephosphor
uscy
clei
sthesl
owestoft
hebi
ogeochemi
cal
cy
cles.Phosphor
us ent
erst
he env
ironment f
rom r
ocks and f
rom deposi
ts.
Commer
cialphosphat
erocki
sknownasapat
it
eandot
herdeposi
tsoff
ossi
l
ized
bonesorbi
rddr
oppi
ngs.Weat
her
ingofr
ocksr
eleasesphosphor
usasani
ont
hat
di
ssol
vesi
nwat
er.Ter
rest
ri
alpl
ant
srequi
rephosphat
easaf
ert
il
izeri
nthef
orm of
nut
ri
ent
s.Phosphor
usi
snotpr
esenti
ntheat
mospher
easagas.Themai
nsour
ceof
phosphor
usat
omsi
srock.
General
Biology
Team II:
-ALOI FITRIANI
-CINTA AMANDA
-KANDA BAGASKARA
 Team II

Kanda Bagaskara Cinta Amanda Aloi Fitriani

Bionutry for
feed&food
 Nutrients are substances in food. Nutrients are divided
into two, namely macro and micro.

Macronutrients are substances needed by the body in

large amounts to provide energy directly.
Examples are carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Micronutrients are additional substances that

play a role in maintaining the health of the body
that are needed in small amounts, namely
vitamins and minerals.
 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates play an important role in nature because they are the main
source of energy for humans and animals which are relatively cheap. All
carbohydrates come from plants. Through photosynthesis, plant
chlorophyll with the help of sunlight is able to form carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and water (H2O) from the soil. The
resulting carbohydrate is the simple carbohydrate glucose.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES

monosaccharide disaccharide polysaccharide

glucose maltose Not digested digested

mannose
sukrose cellulose
Starch
fructose hemicellulose
dextrin
lignin
glucose
galactose lactose pectin
 Fat
In scientific literature, fats are commonly referred to
as lipids, which means fats or oils or fat-like elements that are obtained in
food and used by the body. However, the term fat is more popular than lipid.
In general, fats are produced by both plants and animals. Like
carbohydrates, fats are formed by carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but in
different compositions and ratios. According to Harper, Deaton, and Driskel,
fat contains more carbon and less oxygen,
and therefore has more energy value.
 NATURAL FAT
FORMATION

Animal Plants

Adiposa Fat Formation

Tissue Process

Glycerol Formation
formation Condensati
of fatty on of fatty
acid acids with
molecules glycerol to
form fats
 Types Of Fats
And Oil

Good Bad Oil

Fat Fat

Monounsaturated Saturated fat Avocado oil

fatty acids

Polyunsaturated Trans fats Canola oil

fatty acids
Coconut oil

Olive oil
 Vitamin
Vitamins are a group of amine organic compounds that are very important
and very needed by the body, because vitamins function to help regulate or
process body activities (vitamins have a very important role in the body's
metabolism), because vitamins cannot be produced by the body.
 Types Of Vitamins

Water-soluble Fat-soluble

Vitamins Vitamins
B&C A, D, E & K
 Proteins
Proteins are complex compunds consisting of various amino acids linked to
each other by peptide.

Amino acid that contained by proteins can be divided into 3 groups, they are:
1. Essentials amino acids ( can’t be synthesized by the body)
2. Semi-essential amino acids
3. Non-essential amino acids (can be synthesized by the body)

The benefits of consuming protein include:

• Source of energy that is needed for the development of the body.
• Formation of cells and tissues at the same time can repair damaged cells
and tissues.
• As a synthetic hormone, enzyme and antibody.
• Regulating the balance of acid-base levels in cells.
Classifications of Proteins
 Nutrient Cycles in
Biogeochemical Cycle
Ecosystems

Nutrient cycles are often called biogeochemical cycles.

The biogeochemical cycle is the process of changing a
matter from one form to another
involves living things, water, soil, air, and rock.
1. Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon move from the
biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and Earth's atmosphere. Carbon is stored
in reservoirs. Carbon movement and carbon exchange from one reservoir to
another reservoir because of processes of chemistry, physics, geology, and
biology.
2. Nitrogen Cycle

78% of the gas in the air are made

up from nitrogen gas.
However, very few organism can
use nitrogen in this form.
Plants and other producers cannot
use the nitrogen in the atmosphere
and must obtain it in the form of
nitrate or ammonia.
Plants get nitrogen compounds they
can use is with the help of bacteria
that live in the
3. Phosphorus Cycle

The phosphorus cycle is the slowest of the biogeochemical

cycles. Phosphorus enters the environment from rocks and
from deposits.