ETHICAL THEORIES
The Goal of Ethical Theory
 Generally: provide a systematic answer to
the question of how we should behave
Ethical theories
Divine Command Ethics
- Divine being has set down a finite series of
rules that adherents claim can provide
guidance to most, if not all, moral decisions.
- Example: Ten Commandments, The four
Noble truths (Buddhism), Eight-fold path
(Buddhism)
- Disadvantage:
- Critism:
o Assume belief in either divine or
exemplary individuals
Moral Relativism
- What is morally right or wrong depends on
the prevailing view in the society or culture
we happen to be dealing with
- Often presented as a tolerant view: “If
moral relativism is true, no one has a right
to force his moral views on others”
- Superior > inferior; what is believed by
many is right.
Subjectivism
- What is morally right or wrong for you
depends on your
Conventionalism
- What is morally right or wrong depends on
what society
- A bad argument for moral relativism
o The cultural difference argument
o Claim: there are huge differences in moral
beliefs from culture to culture
PJMB
o Weak? Because there is controversy
regarding disagreement about morality
there really is.
Moral Objectivism
- Simply needs to be discovered
- What is morally right or wrong doesn’t
depende on what anyone thinks is right or
wrong. ‘Moral facts’ are like ‘physical’ facts
in that what the facts are does not depend
on what anyone thinks the are.
- Suppose for the moments that objectivism
is true. What are the objective facts of
morality?
- Main candidates:
o Consequentialism
 Sometimes call teleological theories
 The action is right or wrong depends on its
consequence.
 Good:
 Isn’t very informative unless its combined
with a theory unless its combined with a
theory about what the best consequences
are
 Consequentialism + Utilitarianism!!
o Deontological theories
o Principilism
Teological Theory
- AKA: CONSEQUENTIALISM/ Consequence-
oriented theory
- Most common form og consequentialism
- Basis for right or wrong? Morally thing to do
= best consequence
- Utilitarianism:
o The greatest good for the greatest number
o The Basis of Utilitarianism: ask
what has intrinsic valueand
assess the consequences of an action in
terms of intrinsically valuable things.
o Decision is based on the amount of
pleasure or utility.
o Jeremy bentham and John Stuart Mill
o TAMA SIYA BASTA MASAYA KAYO.
 Instrumental value: happiness that is
subjective! A thing has only instrumental
value if its only valuable for what it may get
you.
 Intrinsic value: happiness that is objective.
A thing has intrinsic value if you value it for
yourself.
 ACT OF UTILITARINISM: Benefit the most
people, regardless of personal feelings.
RULE:
1
 Considers the law and is concerned with
fairness
 Seekstobenefitthemostpeoplebutthroughth
efairestandmostjustmeansavailable.
1. Actions that produce the greatest good for
the greatest number is desirable
2. Consequences that result from following
rules or priciplesnot from consequences from
individual acts is the one that matter
 PRINCIPLES OF UTILITY:
 Recognizes the fundamental role of pain
and pleasure in human life.
 Approves or disapproves of an action based
on the amount of pain or pleasure brought
about(“consequences”).
 ETHICAL THEORIES
 Equates the food with the pleasurable and
evil with pain.
 Asserts that pleasure and pain are capable
of “quantification” – and hence of measure.
 Equal consideration of Interest: individual is
not allowed to increase his share of
happiness at the expense of another.
 Each happiness must be considered equally.
So sabi, wag nalang pumili! Haha.
 7 categories and attendant questions for
determining level of utility
a. How intense was the pleasure?
b. How long does the pleasure last?
c. How certain are you that pleasure will
occur?
d. How soon will the pleasure be
experienced?
e. How many pleasures will happen as a
result of this one?
f. How free from pain in this pleasure?
g. How many will experience the
pleasure?
 Describe the problem -> list solutions ->
compare solutions with utlity
 Criticisms:
 Impossible to calculate possible
consequences of actions
 Maybe sanctioned
DEONTOLOGY
- AKA: Duty oriented theory
- Deonotologist deny that what ulitimately
matters is an action’s consequences
- They claim that what matters is the kind of
action it is. What matters is doing our duty.
PJMB
- BASIS OF RIGHT OR WRONG? Based on:
Universal standards of behavior (Religious
commandments, Professional COE or Rules
of Civil or Criminal law)
 IMMANUEL KANT: Immanuel kant (1724-
1804) is the most influential deontologist
 Categorical Imperative (3 characteristics)
 “act according to the maxim whereby you
can, at the same time, will that it should
become a universal law
 Unconditional
 DISADVANTAGE: it’s too RIGID
 REJECTING CONSEQUENTIALISM: “a good
will is good not because of what it effects or
accomplishes.” Even if by bad luck a good
person never accomplishes anything much,
the good will would “like a jewel, still shine
by its own light as something which has its
full value in itself.”
 CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
 Kant claims that all our actions should be
judged according to a rule he call
“categorical imperative”
 FIRST VERSION:
o act according to maxim whereby you can
at the same time will that it become a
universal law
 SECOND VERSION:
o Act in such a way that you treat
humanity, whether in your own person or
in the person of another, always at the
same time as an end and never simply as
a mean.
o Important to treat people as autonomous
agents
- Describe problem -> list solution
-> compare solutions with
principles
o One complaint alt: correct answer
o Several complaint answers: select among
choices
o Conflicting principle: rank principle
PRINCIPLISM
- Attempts to have it both ways
- Popularized by BEAUCHAMP and CHILDRESS
o PRINCIPLES OF BIOMEDICAL ETHICS
o THE GEORGETOWN MANTRA
o 4 principles:
a. Autonomy: right to information and self
determination
o Free and informed consent
o Free will and accord – intentional
2
participation in tx
b. Benefice: do only wthat which benefits
the patient.
o Patient’s welfare as the first consideration
o Stands for the duty to prevent harm to
others to remove harm rom other and
promote good
c. Non-maleficence: do no harms
o Prederve sanctity of life
d. Justice: actions are consistent and
transparent
 a&d are deontological
 b&c are consequentialist
VIRTUE OF ETHICS
ARETOLOGY
- arete: excellence, strength, virtue
- Aristotle’s Ethics
 ETHICAL THEORIES PJMB

o The Nicomachean Ethics:

o CONTINENT:
- The primary focus of VE is the heart of the
moral agent making the decision rather
than reasoning to a right action.
o TEMPERATE
- Do what is right because they want tol the
more holistic person
VIRTUE ETHICS
-
Intellectual Virtues
- Wisdom, understanding, prudence
- Taught through instructions
MORAL Virtues

Strength of virtues
- Importance of the person, motive, heart, co 3