SQL Basics Cheat Sheet

SQL FILTERING THE OUTPUT QUERYING MULTIPLE TABLES

SQL, or Structured Query Language, is a language to talk to COMPARISON OPERATORS INNER JOIN FULL JOIN
databases. It allows you to select specific data and to build
Fetch names of cities that have a rating above 3: JOIN (or explicitly INNER JOIN) returns rows that have FULL JOIN (or explicitly FULL OUTER JOIN) returns all rows
complex reports. Today, SQL is a universal language of data. It is
matching values in both tables. from both tables – if there's no matching row in the second
used in practically all technologies that process data. SELECT name table, NULL s are returned.
FROM city
SELECT city.name, country.name
SAMPLE DATA WHERE rating > 3; SELECT city.name, country.name
FROM city FROM city
COUNTRY [INNER] JOIN country FULL [OUTER] JOIN country
id name population area ON city.country_id = country.id; ON city.country_id = country.id;
1 France 66600000 640680 Fetch names of cities that are neither Berlin nor Madrid:
2 Germany 80700000 357000 CITY COUNTRY
SELECT name
... ... ... ... CITY COUNTRY id name country_id id name
FROM city id name country_id id name 1 Paris 1 1 France
CITY WHERE name != 'Berlin' 1 Paris 1 1 France 2 Berlin 2 2 Germany
id name country_id population rating AND name != 'Madrid'; 2 Berlin 2 2 Germany 3 Warsaw 4 NULL NULL
1 Paris 1 2243000 5 3 Warsaw 4 3 Iceland NULL NULL NULL 3 Iceland
2 Berlin 2 3460000 3
... ... ... ... ...
TEXT OPERATORS
Fetch names of cities that start with a 'P' or end with an 's':
QUERYING SINGLE TABLE
SELECT name LEFT JOIN CROSS JOIN
Fetch all columns from the country table:
FROM city LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table with CROSS JOIN returns all possible combinations of rows from
SELECT * WHERE name LIKE 'P%' corresponding rows from the right table. If there's no both tables. There are two syntaxes available.
FROM country; OR name LIKE '%s'; matching row, NULL s are returned as values from the second SELECT city.name, country.name
table. FROM city
Fetch id and name columns from the city table: CROSS JOIN country;
SELECT city.name, country.name
SELECT id, name Fetch names of cities that start with any letter followed by FROM city
FROM city; 'ublin' (like Dublin in Ireland or Lublin in Poland): SELECT city.name, country.name
LEFT JOIN country FROM city, country;
Fetch city names sorted by the rating column SELECT name ON city.country_id = country.id; CITY COUNTRY
in the default ASCending order: FROM city CITY COUNTRY id name country_id id name
WHERE name LIKE '_ublin'; id name country_id id name 1 Paris 1 1 France
SELECT name 1 Paris 1 1 France 1 Paris 1 2 Germany
FROM city 2 Berlin 2 2 Germany 2 Berlin 2 1 France
ORDER BY rating [ASC]; 3 Warsaw 4 NULL NULL 2 Berlin 2 2 Germany
OTHER OPERATORS
Fetch city names sorted by the rating column Fetch names of cities that have a population between
in the DESCending order: 500K and 5M:
SELECT name SELECT name
FROM city FROM city RIGHT JOIN NATURAL JOIN
ORDER BY rating DESC; WHERE population BETWEEN 500000 AND 5000000; NATURAL JOIN will join tables by all columns with the same
RIGHT JOIN returns all rows from the right table with
name.
corresponding rows from the left table. If there's no
ALIASES Fetch names of cities that don't miss a rating value:
matching row, NULL s are returned as values from the left
table.
SELECT city.name, country.name
FROM city
COLUMNS SELECT name NATURAL JOIN country;
SELECT city.name, country.name
SELECT name AS city_name FROM city CITY COUNTRY
FROM city
FROM city; WHERE rating IS NOT NULL; country_id id name name id
RIGHT JOIN country
6 6 San Marino San Marino 6
ON city.country_id = country.id;
TABLES 7 7 Vatican City Vatican City 7
5 9 Greece Greece 9
SELECT co.name, ci.name Fetch names of cities that are in countries with IDs 1, 4, 7, or 8: CITY COUNTRY
10 11 Monaco Monaco 10
id name country_id id name
FROM city AS ci SELECT name NATURAL JOIN used these columns to match rows:
1 Paris 1 1 France
JOIN country AS co FROM city 2 Berlin 2 2 Germany city.id, city.name, country.id, country.name
ON ci.country_id = co.id; WHERE country_id IN (1, 4, 7, 8); NULL NULL NULL 3 Iceland NATURAL JOIN is very rarely used in practice.

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SQL Basics Cheat Sheet
AGGREGATION AND GROUPING SUBQUERIES SET OPERATIONS
GROUP BY groups together rows that have the same values in specified columns. A subquery is a query that is nested inside another query, or inside another subquery. Set operations are used to combine the results of two or more queries into a
It computes summaries (aggregates) for each unique combination of values. There are different types of subqueries. single result. The combined queries must return the same number of columns and
compatible data types. The names of the corresponding columns can be different.
CITY SINGLE VALUE
id name country_id
The simplest subquery returns exactly one column and exactly one row. It can be CYCLING SKATING
1 Paris 1
101 Marseille 1
CITY used with comparison operators =, <, <=, >, or >=. id name country id name country
country_id count 1 YK DE 1 YK DE
102 Lyon 1 This query finds cities with the same rating as Paris:
1 3 2 ZG DE 2 DF DE
2 Berlin 2
103 Hamburg 2
2 3 SELECT name FROM city 3 WT PL 3 AK PL
104 Munich 2
4 2 WHERE rating = ( ... ... ... ... ... ...
3 Warsaw 4 SELECT rating
105 Cracow 4 FROM city
WHERE name = 'Paris' UNION
); UNION combines the results of two result sets and removes duplicates.
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
UNION ALL doesn't remove duplicate rows.
•  
avg(expr) − average value for rows within the group MULTIPLE VALUES
This query displays German cyclists together with German skaters:
•  count(expr) − count of values for rows within the group A subquery can also return multiple columns or multiple rows. Such subqueries can be SELECT name
•  m ax(expr) − maximum value within the group used with operators IN, EXISTS, ALL, or ANY. FROM cycling
•  min(expr) − minimum value within the group This query finds cities in countries that have a population above 20M: WHERE country = 'DE'
•  sum(expr) − sum of values within the group SELECT name UNION / UNION ALL
FROM city SELECT name
WHERE country_id IN ( FROM skating
EXAMPLE QUERIES
SELECT country_id WHERE country = 'DE';
Find out the number of cities: FROM country
SELECT COUNT(*) WHERE population > 20000000 INTERSECT
FROM city; );
INTERSECT returns only rows that appear in both result sets.
Find out the number of cities with non-null ratings: CORRELATED This query displays German cyclists who are also German skaters at the same time:
SELECT COUNT(rating) A correlated subquery refers to the tables introduced in the outer query. A correlated SELECT name
FROM city; subquery depends on the outer query. It cannot be run independently from the outer FROM cycling
query. WHERE country = 'DE'
Find out the number of distinctive country values: INTERSECT
This query finds cities with a population greater than the average population in the
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT country_id) country: SELECT name
FROM city; FROM skating
SELECT *
WHERE country = 'DE';
FROM city main_city
Find out the smallest and the greatest country populations:
WHERE population > (
SELECT MIN(population), MAX(population) SELECT AVG(population) EXCEPT
FROM country; FROM city average_city EXCEPT returns only the rows that appear in the first result set but do not appear
WHERE average_city.country_id = main_city.country_id
Find out the total population of cities in respective countries: in the second result set.
);
SELECT country_id, SUM(population) This query displays German cyclists unless they are also German skaters at the
FROM city This query finds countries that have at least one city: same time:
GROUP BY country_id; SELECT name SELECT name
FROM country FROM cycling
Find out the average rating for cities in respective countries if the average is above 3.0: WHERE EXISTS ( WHERE country = 'DE'
SELECT country_id, AVG(rating) SELECT * EXCEPT / MINUS
FROM city FROM city SELECT name
GROUP BY country_id WHERE country_id = country.id FROM skating
HAVING AVG(rating) > 3.0; ); WHERE country = 'DE';

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SQL JOINs Cheat Sheet
JOINING TABLES LEFT JOIN
JOIN combines data from two tables. LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table with matching rows from the right table. Rows without a match are filled
with NULLs. LEFT JOIN is also called LEFT OUTER JOIN.
TOY CAT
toy_id toy_name cat_id cat_id cat_name SELECT * toy_id toy_name cat_id cat_id cat_name
1 ball 3 1 Kitty FROM toy 5 ball 1 1 Kitty
2 spring NULL 2 Hugo LEFT JOIN cat 3 mouse 1 1 Kitty
3 mouse 1 3 Sam ON toy.cat_id = cat.cat_id; 1 ball 3 3 Sam
4 mouse 4 4 Misty 4 mouse 4 4 Misty
5 ball 1 2 spring NULL NULL NULL
whole left table

JOIN typically combines rows with equal values for the specified columns. Usually, one table contains a primary key,
which is a column or columns that uniquely identify rows in the table (the cat_id column in the cat table).
The other table has a column or columns that refer to the primary key columns in the first table (the cat_id column in RIGHT JOIN
the toy table). Such columns are foreign keys. The JOIN condition is the equality between the primary key columns in
RIGHT JOIN returns all rows from the right table with matching rows from the left table. Rows without a match are
one table and columns referring to them in the other table.
filled with NULLs. RIGHT JOIN is also called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
SELECT *
JOIN FROM toy
toy_id
5
toy_name
ball
cat_id
1
cat_id
1
cat_name
Kitty
JOIN returns all rows that match the ON condition. JOIN is also called INNER JOIN. RIGHT JOIN cat 3 mouse 1 1 Kitty
ON toy.cat_id = cat.cat_id; NULL NULL NULL 2 Hugo
SELECT * toy_id toy_name cat_id cat_id cat_name 1 ball 3 3 Sam
FROM toy 5 ball 1 1 Kitty 4 mouse 4 4 Misty
JOIN cat 3 mouse 1 1 Kitty whole right table
ON toy.cat_id = cat.cat_id; 1 ball 3 3 Sam
4 mouse 4 4 Misty
There is also another, older syntax, but it isn't recommended.
List joined tables in the FROM clause, and place the conditions in the WHERE clause. FULL JOIN
SELECT * FULL JOIN returns all rows from the left table and all rows from the right table. It fills the non-matching rows with
FROM toy, cat NULLs. FULL JOIN is also called FULL OUTER JOIN.
WHERE toy.cat_id = cat.cat_id; SELECT * toy_id toy_name cat_id cat_id cat_name
FROM toy 5 ball 1 1 Kitty
JOIN CONDITIONS FULL JOIN cat 3
NULL
mouse
NULL
1
NULL
1
2
Kitty
Hugo
ON toy.cat_id = cat.cat_id;
The JOIN condition doesn't have to be an equality – it can be any condition you want. JOIN doesn't interpret the JOIN 1 ball 3 3 Sam
condition, it only checks if the rows satisfy the given condition. 4 mouse 4 4 Misty
2 spring NULL NULL NULL
whole left table whole right table
To refer to a column in the JOIN query, you have to use the full column name: first the table name, then a dot (.) and the
column name:
ON cat.cat_id = toy.cat_id
You can omit the table name and use just the column name if the name of the column is unique within all columns in the CROSS JOIN
joined tables.
CROSS JOIN returns all possible combinations of rows from the left and right tables.
SELECT *
NATURAL JOIN FROM toy
toy_id
1
toy_name
ball
cat_id
3
cat_id
1
cat_name
Kitty
If the tables have columns with the same name, you can use CROSS JOIN cat; 2 spring NULL 1 Kitty
NATURAL JOIN instead of JOIN. cat_id toy_id toy_name cat_name 3 mouse 1 1 Kitty
1 5 ball Kitty Other syntax: 4 mouse 4 1 Kitty
SELECT * 1 3 mouse Kitty 5 ball 1 1 Kitty
SELECT *
FROM toy 3 1 ball Sam 1 ball 3 2 Hugo
FROM toy, cat;
NATURAL JOIN cat; 4 4 mouse Misty 2 spring NULL 2 Hugo
3 mouse 1 2 Hugo
The common column appears only once in the result table. 4 mouse 4 2 Hugo
Note: NATURAL JOIN is rarely used in real life. 5 ball 1 2 Hugo
1 ball 3 3 Sam
··· ··· ··· ··· ···

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SQL JOINs Cheat Sheet
COLUMN AND TABLE ALIASES MULTIPLE JOINS
Aliases give a temporary name to a table or a column in a table. You can join more than two tables together. First, two tables are joined, then the third table is joined to the result of the
CAT AS c OWNER AS o previous joining.
cat_id cat_name mom_id owner_id id name
1 Kitty 5 1 1 John Smith TOY AS t
2 Hugo 1 2 2 Danielle Davis toy_id toy_name cat_id
CAT AS c
OWNER AS o
3 Sam 2 2 cat_id cat_name mom_id owner_id
1 ball 3 id name
4 Misty 1 NULL 1 Kitty 5 1
2 spring NULL 1
John
2 Hugo 1 2 Smith
A column alias renames a column in the result. A table alias renames a table within the query. If you define a table alias, 3 mouse 1
3 Sam 2 2 2
Danielle
you must use it instead of the table name everywhere in the query. The AS keyword is optional in defining aliases. 4 mouse 4 Davis
4 Misty 1 NULL
5 ball 1
SELECT
o.name AS owner_name, cat_name owner_name
c.cat_name Kitty John Smith JOIN & JOIN JOIN & LEFT JOIN LEFT JOIN & LEFT JOIN
FROM cat AS c Sam Danielle Davis
SELECT SELECT SELECT
JOIN owner AS o Hugo Danielle Davis
t.toy_name, t.toy_name, t.toy_name,
ON c.owner_id = o.id; c.cat_name, c.cat_name, c.cat_name,
o.name AS owner_name o.name AS owner_name o.name AS owner_name
SELF JOIN FROM toy t
JOIN cat c
FROM toy t
JOIN cat c
FROM toy t
LEFT JOIN cat c
You can join a table to itself, for example, to show a parent-child relationship. ON t.cat_id = c.cat_id ON t.cat_id = c.cat_id ON t.cat_id = c.cat_id
CAT AS child CAT AS mom JOIN owner o LEFT JOIN owner o LEFT JOIN owner o
cat_id cat_name owner_id mom_id cat_id cat_name owner_id mom_id ON c.owner_id = o.id; ON c.owner_id = o.id; ON c.owner_id = o.id;
1 Kitty 1 5 1 Kitty 1 5 toy_name cat_name owner_name toy_name cat_name owner_name toy_name cat_name owner_name
2 Hugo 2 1 2 Hugo 2 1 ball Kitty John Smith ball Kitty John Smith ball Kitty John Smith
3 Sam 2 2 3 Sam 2 2 mouse Kitty John Smith mouse Kitty John Smith mouse Kitty John Smith
4 Misty NULL 1 4 Misty NULL 1 ball Sam Danielle Davis ball Sam Danielle Davis ball Sam Danielle Davis
mouse Misty NULL mouse Misty NULL
Each occurrence of the table must be given a different alias. Each column reference must be preceded with an spring NULL NULL
appropriate table alias.
SELECT
child.cat_name AS child_name, child_name mom_name
mom.cat_name AS mom_name Hugo Kitty
FROM cat AS child Sam Hugo JOIN WITH MULTIPLE CONDITIONS
JOIN cat AS mom Misty Kitty
You can use multiple JOIN conditions using the ON keyword once and the AND keywords as many times as you need.
ON child.mom_id = mom.cat_id;

CAT AS c OWNER AS o
NON-EQUI SELF JOIN cat_id cat_name mom_id owner_id age id name age
You can use a non-equality in the ON condition, for example, to show all different pairs of rows. 1 Kitty 5 1 17 1 John Smith 18
2 Hugo 1 2 10 2 Danielle Davis 10
TOY AS a TOY AS b 3 Sam 2 2 5
toy_id toy_name cat_id cat_id toy_id toy_name 4 Misty 1 NULL 11
3 mouse 1 1 3 mouse
5 ball 1 1 5 ball
1 ball 3 3 1 ball SELECT
4 mouse 4 4 4 mouse cat_name,
2 spring NULL NULL 2 spring o.name AS owner_name,
c.age AS cat_age, cat_name owner_name age age
SELECT cat_a_id toy_a cat_b_id toy_b o.age AS owner_age Kitty John Smith 17 18
a.toy_name AS toy_a, 1 mouse 3 ball FROM cat c Sam Danielle Davis 5 10
b.toy_name AS toy_b 1 ball 3 ball
JOIN owner o
FROM toy a 1 mouse 4 mouse
1 ball 4 mouse ON c.owner_id = o.id
JOIN toy b
3 ball 4 mouse AND c.age < o.age;
ON a.cat_id < b.cat_id;

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