Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters 5.1 INTRODUCTION A fluid is a substance which when in static equilibrium cannot sustain tangential or shear forces. This property of action under stress distinguishes it from the ‘solid’ state of the matter. Fluids are commonly divided into two substances; liquids and gases. A liquid occupies a definite volume, independent of the dimensions of its container, while a gas tends to expand to fill any container in which it is contained. A vapour differs from a gas by being readily condensable to a liquid on cooling. Strictly speaking all fluids are compressible. However, gases are frequently regarded as compressible while liquids are as incompressible as the latter undergoes small changes in the properties under compression. Ambient air is treated as incompressible fluid as its density changes insignificantly with minor changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature, However, compressed air is treated as a compressible fluid. Ina pump, a fan or a compressor, mechanical work is transformed into fluid energy. A turbine or an expander is a machine for transforming fluid energy into mechanical work at the rotating shaft. The word ‘pump’ is normally used for a machine handling liquid. In a fan, the density change is so small, due to relatively low pressure difference, that the gas is regarded as incompressible for evaluation. In a compressor, the density change is appreciable. This chapter deals with fluids, its transportation through various moving devices and various flow measuring instruments. 5.2 PROCESS DESIGN OF PIPING Design of piping system incorporates all major disciplines of engineering like chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, instrumentation and control engineering, electrical engineering, etc. Process design of pipe is a balance between size or diameter of pipe and pressure drop in the pipe. For a given flow rate of fluid if larger size of pipe is selected then it gives lesser pressure drop. Larger size of pipe increases the fixed cost of pipe andProcess Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters > 81. lesser pressure drop means lesser power consumption or lesser operating cost of pipe. Lesser pressure drop in pipe may reduce the size of flow moving device like pump and thereby it may reduce the fixed cost of pump. Thus capital cost of pipe increases with diameter, whereas pumping or compression cost decrease with increasing diameter. Ideally one should find the pipe size which gives the sum of amortized capital cost plus operating cost a minimum or one should find the optimum pipe size. 5.2.1 Optimum Pipe Size Several equations and nomographs are available in literature to estimate the optimum pipe diameter. But these equations or nomographs are not reliable as optimum pipe diameter depends on the current cost of material, cost of power, rate of interest at particular place and at particular time. It changes with place and time. For example, optimum pipe diameter equation, derived in USA, cannot be used to find the same in India. One such equation! derived for carbon steel pipe and turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid is doy, = 293 nih? p03? 6.1) opt where, d,), = Optimum pipe size, mm m= Flow rate, kg/s p = Density of fluid, kg/m? This equation was developed by the Institution of Chemical Engineers, UK based on cost data of 1987, updated to mid 1992. 5.2.2 Recommended Fluid Velocities in Pipe ‘The velocities, recommended in Table 5.1, are only for approximate calculations of pipe diameter which can be used for the quick calculation of short distance pipe line or for estimating pipe size as a starting point for pressure drop calculations. Table 5.1 Recommended Fluid Velocities Fluid Recommended velocity, m/s Water Pump suction line 0.3 to 15 Pump discharge line 2103 Average service 1102.5 Gravity flow OSto1 Steam 0 to 2 atm g, saturated 20 to 30 2to 10 atm g, saturated 30 to SO Supetheated below 10 atm g 20t0 50 Supetheated above 10 atm g 30 to 75 ‘Vacuum lines 100 to 125 Air Oto2amg 20 >2atmg 30 Ammonia/ Liquid 18 refrigerant Gas 30 (Contd)82 4 __ Introduction to Process Engineering and Design Table $.1_(Contd) Fluid ‘Recommended velocity, m/s Organic liquids and oils 18102 Natural gas 2510 35 Chlorine Liquid 15 Gas 100 25, Hydrochloric acid Liquid (aqueous) 1s Gas 10 Inorganic liquids 12018 Gas and vapours 15 1030 5.2.3 Pressure Drop in Pipe Relation between pressure drop and pipe diameter is given by Fanning or Darcy ‘equation, It is derived for steady flow in uniform circular pipes running full of liquid under isothermal conditions. dp 2S vip 32h ri (5.2) Lo gD, wpg.D> For SI units, g, = Newton's law conversion factor = 1 where, Ap = Pressure drop, Pa L = Length of pipe, m mi = Mass flow rate of fluid, kg/s p = Density of fluid, kg/m* D, = Pipe inside diameter, m v Velocity of fluid, m/s f= Fanning friction factor The Fanning friction factoris a function of the Reynolds number (Re) and the roughness of inside surface (€). Values of ¢ for various materials are given in Table 5.2. Table 5.2 Values of Surface Roughness for Various Materials Material Surface roughness ¢ mm Commercial steel or Wrought iron 0.045 72 Galvanized iron 0.152 ‘Cast iron 0.259 Concrete 0.305 - 3.05 Riveted steel 0.914-9.14 Brass, Lead, Glass, Cement, and Bituminus Linings 0.001 524 A plot of Fanning friction factor as a function of Reynolds number (Re) and relative roughness, e/D, is given as Fig. 5.1>» 83 Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters (vsn "09 4009 jIIH-mos59WV Jo uoyssiunag aya yam parnposday) 8101904 uon2iu4 Buluuos T'S YOUN splOUK / TNs § ey Seong jp Cai) 2 szo0'0 £000 000 sooo 900°0 3000 100 Stoo oz0'0 szoo F sore vont84 4 __ Introduction to Process Engineering and Design For turbulent flow in commercial steel pipe, f= 0.0394 Re®!® (63a) Above equation gives the value f on higher (safer) side. One of the more accurate relationships between f and Re for turbulent flow (Ref.: 3) Re -1.7372 In 3.8215 vf 1.964 In(Re) 6.36) ere, Re = 22P A Reymotds numb 5.4) where, Re=TE== >" Reynolds number) 6.4) = Viscosity of fluid, Pa-s or kg/(m-s) or N-s/m? From Eqs. (5.2), (5.3a) and (5.4), 0394 Re“, P&D; “0167 A 9 1277451( | ( m -| L Du) (poi) * = 0.122 9024 m6 D+" yp If G in kg/s, in kg/(m-s) or in N-s/m’, D; in m, p in kg/m’, L in m, then Ap is in Pa or in N/m’. Normally pipe diameters are expressed in mm. If D,is in mm then Ap in Pais given by ~ 1.122 9024 x 1000-14 pi DF yt O18 24.0710"! 4 O16 DAS ot (55a) If Ap is in kPa or in KN/m’, then Po 4.0710" ml MUD p (5.56) Example 5.1 Estimate the optimum pipe diameter for a flow of dry chlorine gas of 10 000 kg/h at 6 atm a and 20°C through carbon steel pipe using Eq. (5.1). Solution For carbon steel pipe, optimum pipe diameter doy, = 293 m°* prO* 6.1) ri = 10 000 kg/h = 2.7778 kg/s _ pM _ pM _ 6x71 273 PRET “pV, @13+20) @x22.414) p=17.71 kg/m?Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters > 85 oye = 293(2.7778) SAT-TY = 173.855 mm Use next heigher size of standard pipe, i.e., 200 mm (8 in) NB standard pipe. 5.2.4 Standard Pipes Standard pipes are available from 3 mm (1/8 in) to 600 mm (24 in) size. Standard pipes are specified with three different diameters, namely inside diameter, outside diameter and nominal diameter. For standard pipes having diameter more than 300 mm (12 in), nominal diameters are equal to the actual outside diameter but for smaller pipe there is no relation between nominal diameter and inside diameter or outside diameter. ‘The wall thickness of standard pipe is indicated by the schedule number as per the US standards. Py X 1000 Schedule Number, SCH = —*—— 6.6) where, _p,y= Safe working pressure, N/mm” G, = Safe allowable stress, N/mm” Standard pipes are available with variety of schedule numbers; 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160. With carbon steel pipe, schedule 40 up to 150 mm (6 in) and with stainless steel pipe, schedule 10 are used for general purposes. Thickness of standard pipe increases with increases in schedule number. Seamless standard pipes do not have welding joint. Fabricated pipes are fabricated by rolling the plates followed by joining the ends of plate by welding which are also known as Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) pipes. In matric system (including those specified in Indian Standards), thickness of a pipe is specified in mm. Thickness of pipe, subjected to internal pressure, is determined by equation, Pr ow Pre ~ GE-06p ~GE+04p_ 6D where, = Thickness of pipe, mm nternal design pressure, N/m? inside radius of pipe, mm rr, = Outside radius of pipe, mm = Allowable stress of pipe material at design temperature, N/m” E = Joint efficiency; for seamless standard pipe, F = 1 CA = Corrosion allowance, mm 5.2.5 Pressure Drop in Fittings and Valves In addition to pipes, piping system contains fittings and valves. These fittings and valves offer the additional frictional loss or additional pressure drop. This additional frictional loss of a fitting or of a valve is expressed either as an equivalent straight pipe length (L,) or as a number of velocity heads (A), lost in pipe of same size and of same material.86 4 __ Introduction to Process Engineering and Design Equivalent Length of Pipe (L,) for Fittings and Valves Equivalent length of a valve or of a fitting is the length of straight pipe of same size creating the same friction Joss as the fitting or the valve in consideration. Nomographs for finding equivalent length of pipe for various fittings and valves are given in various books (Ref. 4, 5 and 6). Often, L, is expressed in terms of inside diameter of pipe. Then L, = —* D, where, D,= Inside diameter of pipe. Values of L,/D; for few valves and fittings are given in Table 5.3. Table 5.3 Equivalent Lengths of Fittings and Valves ZL, _ Equivalent length a eae) D, ~ Inside diameter Gate valve (fully open) 70 10 Gate valve (3/4 closed) 800 to 1100 Gate valve (1/2 closed) 190 to 290 Globe valve (fully open) 330 to 480 Angle valve (fully open) 165 to 220 Plug valve (fully open) 18 90° elbows (standard radius) 30 45° elbows (long radius) 58 45° elbows (short radius) 8.0 Return bend (medium radius) 39 0 56 Coupling of union Negligible Tee, straight through 2 Another way of calculating pressure drop through the fittings and valves is the use of factor K. “Number of velocity heads () lost in pipe” for fittings or valves is defined by equation AF _ Apip = =K (5.8) Vi2g, Vlg, 68 (5.9) or Ap= , in SI system, g. where, AF = Additional frictional loss, J/kg or N-m/kg Ap = Additional pressure drop, N/m? v= Average fluid velocity through the pipe of same size as valve or fitting, m/s Values of K for normally used fittings and valves are given in Table 5.4.Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters > 87 Table 5.4 Equivalent Velocity Heads of Fittings and Valves Equivalent number of velocity heads (K) Cena (applicable only for turbulent flow) Gate valve (open) 0.17 Globle valve, bevel seat (open) 60 Plug valve (open) 04 Diaphragm valve (open) 23 Angle valve (open) 20 Check valve (swing) 20 Foot valve 15 Coupling 0.04 90° elbows (standard) 0.75 90° elbows (long radius) 04s 45° elbows (long radius) 02 45° elbows standard 0.35 90° bend 0.75 180° bend (closed return) 1.50 Tee straight through 04 Butterfly valve (o-= 5°) 0.24 Check valve (swing type) 20 Simpson’ has given values of K for variety of other fittings, such as miter bends, different types of reducers, different bends, etc Example 5.2 Carbon dioxide is to be conveyed from the top of the stripper of ammonia plant to urea plant. Calculate the pipe size required based on following data: Flow rate of CO, = 1000 day Total length of pipe = 800 m Available pressure at inlet of pipe = 24 kPa g Discharge pressure of CO, from pipe required = atmospheric No. of 90° elbows in pipe line = 8 No. of butterfly valve = 1 No. of flow nozzle = 1 ‘Temperature of gas = 60°C Viscosity of CO, gas = 0.016 mPa s or cP Solution Density of carbon dioxide (CO,) gas at the discharge of pipe: pM. RT 1 atm, Molar mass of CO, M= 44 p= P88 4. Introduction to Process Engineering and Design 3 atm m R = 00821 2 2 p= 2734.60 = 333K (kmol- K) Lx4d 3 = "= 1.6094 kg/m P= Tosa x333 e 0x10? Mass flow rate of CO, n= 2000* 1 = 1 574 ko/s 24 x 3600 Let the velocity of gas through pipe, v = 20 m/s malp v _ 11574/1.6094 20 D,=0.677 m Selecting fabricated pipe having inside diameter, D, = 677 mm Reynolds number _ Divp _ 0.677 x 20 x 1.6094 H 0.016 x 10 = 1361955 > 10000 (.e., turbulent flow) Pressure drop in straight steel pipe for turbulent flow 2 = 4.07 x 10°! p05p 471 (65) = 0.3596 m? Re = 4.07 x 10!°(11.574)'*4(0.016 x 107%)""(677) (1.6094) = 7.8046 x 10° kPa/m = 7.8046 Pa/m Pressure drop in butterfly valve: K,p v? _ 0.24 x 1.6094 x 207 APE = 2 a = 77.25 Pa Pressure drop in 90° elbow (standard): 2 Apps = xl “ x 2 = 241.41 Pa Pressure drop in the flow nozzle is considered negligible. Total pressure drop in pipe line Ap, = 7.8046 x 800 + 77.25 + 8 x 241.41 = 8252 Pa= 8,25 kPa Available pressure is 24 kPa, Hence, to decrease the fixed cost, smaller pipe can be considered. Similar calculations for smaller pipe sizes give the following results:Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters > 89 Table 5.5 Comparison of Pressure Drop Calculations Nominal size ScheduleNo. ID of pipe, mm 4p, kPa 677 mm — 677 8.25 600 mm (24 in) 20 590.55 15.558 500 mm (20 in) 20 488.95 37.525 Select 600 mm, SCH-20 pipe size for the given duty. Example 5.3 Calculate the pipe size based on following data. Fluid flowing through pipe is carbon monoxide. Discharge pressure of carbon monoxide required from the pipe is atmospheric. Available pressure at inlet of pipe = 50 kPa g Length of pipe = 4 km Flow rate of CO = 1500 kg/h ‘Temperature of gas = 50°C No. of gate valves in pipeline No. of 45° elbows =3 No. of 90° elbows = 6 Viscosity of CO = 0.018 mPa s or cP Solution Density of carbon monoxide (CO) gas: Molar mass of CO, M = 28 PM x T, 1x 28 x 273 T "pV, Q73+50) (1x 22.414) = 1.0558 kg/m? Pressure drop in straight pipe for steel material and for turbulent region: 22 sorsal ature 65) Let v= 5 m/s which implies D, = 0.317 m, For the first trial calculations let the nominal size be 12 in NB (300 mm), SCH-40. pipe having inside D, = 304.8 mm. 18s \ Mt 407 0) (0.018 x 1079)" x 304.8) 48 x (1.0558) L 3600 = 1.2724 x 10° kPa/m = 1.2724 Palm (2) x { 1500 4m 3600 J Reynolds numbers, Re = —— = ———__—_2___ RDM 1X 0.3048 x 0.018 x 10 = 96 697 > 10 000, i.c., CO is flowing in turbulent region90 4 __ Introduction to Process Engineering and Design 1500/3600 —____ <4 mis [1.0558 x (7/4)(0,3048)"] Velocity of gas, v = For gate valve, K,pv’ _ 0.17 1.0558 x 5.4 Apr, ae DAK POSSE X 5A = 2.617 N/mm? per gate valve 0.35 x 1.0558 x 5.47 2 5.388 N/m? per 45° elbow K,pv" _ 0.15 x 1.0558 x 5.4” 2 2 = 11.545 N/m’ per 90° elbow Total pressure drop in pipe line Ap, = 1.2724 x 4000 + 2.617 x2 + 5.388 X3 + 11.545 x6 Ap, = 5180.27 Pa = 5.18 kPa = 0.0511 atm For 300 mm NB SCH-40 pipe, pressure drop in piping is very low. Hence, to reduce the fixed capital investment, smaller pipe diameter can be considered. Similar calculations of smaller pipe diameters gives the following results: Similarly for 45° elbows, App) = For 90° elbows, App; = Table 5.6 Comparison of Pressure Drop Calculations Nominal size Schedule No. ID of pipe,mm Ap, kPa__ Remarks 100 mm (4 in) SCH40 102.26 1012.38 Very high 150 mm (6 in) SCH~40 154.05 139.75 High 200 mm (8 in) SCH40 202.72 37.10 Reasonable 300 mm (12 in) SCH40 304.80 5.18 Very low Considering fixed capital investment, operating cost and safety margin in design, 200 mm (8 in) SCH-40 pipe can be selected for the given application, For this size of pipe, velocity of gas through pipe is equal to 12.23 m/s which is acceptable (refer Table 5.1). Example 5.4 100000 kg/h of water is to be transferred from canal to reservoir by gravity. Maximum height of water level above the discharge of pipe in reservoir will be 2 m. Difference between minimum level of water in canal and maximum level of water in reservoir is 6 m. Length of pipe = 3000 m Equivalent length of pipe for fittings and valves = 200 m ‘Maximum temperature of water = 40°C Density of water at 40°C = 993 kg/m’® Viscosity of water at 40°C = 0.67 mPa - s or cPProcess Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters > 91. Surface roughness for carbon steel, €= 0.0457 mm, Surface roughness for concrete, €= 1.2 mm ‘Material of pipe is carbon steel. Determine the suitable pipe size. If material of pipe is concrete, will there be any change in pipe size required? Solution ‘Maximum allowable pressure drop in pipe = 6 m WC Apa = 6m WC = 58.84 kPa = 0.58 atm Let the velocity of water through pipe v = 0.5 m/s (For first trial calculations) ralp __ (100 000)/3600 (a/4) D? 993 x (1/4) D? D, = 0.2669 m= 266.9 mm Select 300 mm NB, SCH-40 carbon steel pipe. ID of pipe, D, = 304.8 mm, ft = 0.67 x 107 kg/(m - s) 4m _ 4x (100 000/3600) v=05 m/s= Reynolds number, Re = — = 173 188 ADM xX 0.3048 x 0.67 x 10 £ _ 0.0457 Dt = 1.499 x10 i 304.8, From Fig. 5.1, f= 0.0042 Pressure drop in pipe, Ap = =" x L (5.2) 32 x 0.0042 x (100 00/3600)" x (3000 + 200) mx 993 x1 x 0.3048" Ap = 12 871.2 Pa= 12.871 kPa < Apyay Ap= For the next smaller size of pipe, i.e., for 250 mm NB, SCH-40 pipe, D, = 254.5 mm, Re =207 4173 é B= E7956 104, f= 0.0041 and Ap = 30.959 kPa < AP Select 250 mm NB SCH-40 carbon steel pipe. If pipe material is concrete, then for the same size 12 = 4* 4715x107 and Re = 207 4173 D, 2545 From Fig. 5.1, f= 0.0077 Pressure drop Ap = 58.142 kPa = AP ‘Thus calculated pressure drop is nearly equal to the maximum allowable pressure drop. For safer design, next higher size of conerete pipe, i.c., 300 mm (12 in) pipe, should be used.92 4 Introduction to Process Engineering and Design Example 5.5 An organic liquid is discharged at the rate of 5000 kg/h from areactor to a storage tank at 50°C as shown in Fig. 5.2. Reactor is under pressure at 600 kPa g. Density of the organic liquid is 930 kg/m’ and viscosity is 0.91 mPa-s or cP. Assume negligible flashing of the organic liquid across the control valve Flow Control Orifice oe Mets Valve sal >> 93 4 4x14 RDM mx 0.040 894 x 0.91 x 107 Reynolds number, Re = = 47900 (ie., turbulent flow) For the turbulent flow in commercial steel pipe 407% 10! rn 8p; pt (55) 1.84 5000 = 4.07 wo 2) (0.91 107)" x (40.894) + x (930)? .413 65 kPa/m Linear length of pipe = 50 m Table 5.7 Equivalent Lengths of Fittings and Valves Type No. PipeID,mm__L,,m (From Table 5:3) 90° Elbows 6 40.894 6G0D)= 7.36 Tees 2 40.894 2Q22D)= 18 Gate valves 4 40.894 AQLOD,) = 1.636 Total 10.796 Total pressure drop Ap, = 0.413 65 (50 + 10.796) + Pressure drop in orifice meter 413 65 (50 + 10.796) + 40 = 65.15 kPa Pressure balance: Pressure in reactor — Ap, ~ APcontrol vaive = Pressure in storage tank (600 + 101.325) — 65.15 - Ap, = 101.325 Ap. = 534.85 kPa = 5.35 bar This residual pressure drop should be offered by the control valve. Specifications of the control valve should be prepared accordingly. 5.3 PROCESS DESIGN OF FLUID MOVING DEVICES It includes process design of pump, fan, blower, and compressor. 5.3.1 Process Design of Pump Pump is a device used in flow system of liquid to increase the mechanical energy of the flowing liquid. Pumps are broadly divided into two types; (i) centrifugal pumps and (i) positive displacement pumps. The following terminologies are used with pump: 1. Capacity of pump: Flow rate (q,) of fluid created by the pump is known as capacity of pump. In SI units, capacity is expressed in m°/h or L/s. 2. Total Dynamic Head: Total dynamic head H of a pump is the difference between total discharge head h, and total suction head h,.94 4 __ Introduction to Process Engineering and Design =hy-h, (5.10) Before installation of pump it is possible to estimate the total discharge head hy by using following equation: hig = heat ha (1b where, hi, = Static discharge head = p’+ Z’ (6.12) Absolute pressure over free surface of liquid in receiver Z = Vertical distance between free surface of liquid in receiver and centerline of pump placed horizontally (For vertical pump Z’ is distance between free surface of liquid and eye of suction of impeller) =p’ +Z’, if pump is below the level of free surface of liquid in receiver and h,. =p’ —Z., if itis placed above the free surface of liquid in receiver. Jiyg = Discharge friction head = frictional loss in discharge line. During operation, total discharge head h, can be determined by following equation: hig = hgg + atm pressure + hig (5.13) where, hi, = Discharge gauge pressure measured by pressure gauge. If pressure is below atmospheric, vacuum gauge reading is used for h,, in Eq. (5.13) but with negative sign, hig = Velocity head at the point of gauge attachment in discharge line Before installation of pump, total suction head can be estimated by following equation: hy = y= hg (5.14) where, h,, = Static suction head = p +Z Absolute pressure over free surface of liquid at source Vertical distance between free surface of liquid at source and centerline of horizontal pump (or suction eye impeller for vertical pump) h,,= p + Z, if pump is going to be installed below the free surface of liquid h,, = p ~ Z, if pump is going to be installed above the free surface of liquid Jy, = Friction loss in suction line In existing installation, total suction head h, can be determined by following equation h, = atm pressure + hg, + hy, (5.15) where, h,, = suction gauge pressure, h,, = velocity head at the point of gage attachment. In the above equations, all pressure heads are in terms of liquid heads (LC), flowing in the system. 3. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH): Net positive suction head is the excess of sum of velocity head and pressure head in suction line over the vapour pressure head of liquid, When pump installation is designed, available net positive suction head (NPSH) must be equal to or greater than net positive suction head required; (NPSH),.Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters > 95 (NPSH), is normally specified by the pump supplier, while based on the installation of pump, (NPSH), should be calculated and specified by the process engineer. Theoretically, (NPSH), should be greater than zero to avoid cavitation. (NPSH), depends on properties of liquid, the total liquid head, pump speed, capacity and impeller design. Practical curves of (NPSH)x vs capacity and speed of pump are supplied by the pump manufacturer. Figures 5.3 and 5.4 can be used as a guideline to find the value of (NPSH), for centrifugal pump handling water at temperatures below 100°C and above 100°C, respectively. 0 25 2 LA 's cA _10 as E Ls 25 | 3 2 8 WoSeeun ees a Capacity, mh a “ees Fig.5.3 Net Positive Suction Head for High Pressure Centrifugal Hot-Water Pumps® (Reproduced with the Permission of the Hydraulic Institute (USA) When (NPSH), is less than (NPSH),, cavitation can take place and bubbles of vapour form in the suction line, Eventually these bubbles collapse inside the casing of the pump when pressure is exerted on them by the impeller of the pump. Such collapse of bubbles can cause severe erosion and damage to the pump. It may form minor cavities on the inside surface of the casing and of the impeller. Hence, this phenomenon is called cavitation. ‘When a pump installation is being designed, the available net positive suction head (NPSH), can be calculated by the following equation: (NPSH), = h,,— hy Py (5.16) where, Static suction head, m LC = p +Z Friction loss in suction line, m of liquid column (LC) Vapour pressure of liquid at suction temperature expressed in m of liquid column (LC) For existing installation, (NPSH), can be determined by following equation: atm pressure + hy, —p, + hy, 6.17) suction gauge pressure, m of liquid column (LC) , = Vapour pressure of liquid at suction temperature expressed in m of liquid column (LC)96 4 Introduction to Process Engineering and Design Additional (NPSH)g, m 0 100 150 200 Water Temperature, °C Fig.5.4 Temperature Correction Chart for Net Positive Suction Head Requirement for Centrifugal Hot Water Pumps* (Reproduced with the Permission of the Hydraulic Institute, USA) h,, = Velocity head at the point of gauge attachment, m of liquid column ce) ‘Asa general guide (NPSH), should preferably be above 3 m for pump capacities up to a flow rate of 100 m’/h, and 6 m above this capacity. For a given system, if (NPSH), is less than (NPSH)g, following remedial measures are recommended: (a) Change the location of the pump to improve (NPSH)q. In other words, positive suction head (h,,) may be increased. (b) Provide jacketed cooling in the suction line to decrease the vapour pressure (p,) of the liquid. (c) Reduce operating speed of the pump; thereby specific speed of the pump is reduced and its (NPSH), is less. 5.3.2 NPSH Requirement for Liquids Saturated with Dissolved Gases In many situations, the liquid to be pumped is saturated with gases, which have definite solubilities in the liquid. When a suction system for such a liquid is to be designed for a centrifugal pump, (NPSH), calculations differ from Eqs. (5.16) or (5.17)Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters > 97 Pumping of cooling water (saturated with air), pumping of condensate from a knock-out drum of a compressor, pumping of solution from an absorber, etc., can be cited as examples of such situations where the liquids are saturated with gases. Dissolved gases start desorbing when the pump is started and suction is generated at the pump eyes. Normally, a pump can tolerate 2 to 3% flashed gases at the pump eye without encountering cavitations. If the design of the suction system is made to restrict about 2.5% flash, it is considered safe for the pump operation. In Eq, (5.16) suction source pressure is the system pressure (p) minus the vapour pressure (p,) for a normal liquid having practically no dissolved gases. For a liquid saturated with dissolved gases, p, is replaced by p,, Which is called artificial liquid vapour pressure. For evaluation of p,q, following procedure is recommended: 1, Calculate molar mass of the gas mixture, dissolved in the liquid. 2. Calculate mass fraction (w,) of the dissolved gas mixture. 3. Calculate psuedo-critical properties of the dissolved gas mixture, if system pressure is high 4, Calculate specific volume of the dissolved gas mixture (V;,) at the operating conditions. Steps (1) to (4) can be avoided if the solubility of the gas mixture in the liquid (such as air in water) is known from the literature. 5. Calculate volume fraction of the dissolved gas (GVP) in a hypotheoretical gas- liquid mixture. Consider one unit mass of the liquid in which the gas mixture is dissolved. If GVP is less than or equal to 2.5%, Eq. (5.16) can be safely used to calculate (NPSH), using vapour pressure (p,) of the liquid at the operating temperature. If higher than calculate volume fraction (a) of flashed gas mixture (as pressure is lowered) over the liquid, saturated with the dissolved gas mixture, using the following equation’: C2) Pol 4) (5.18) Kalen) liquid pressure at pump eye, kPa apour pressure of liquid at the operating temperature, kPa yystem pressure, kPa specific volume of the dissolved gas mixture, m’/kg [see Step (4) above] V, = specific volume of the liquid at the operating conditions, m'/kg Equation (5.18) assumes that the dissolved gas mixture follows ideal gas law, Dalton’s law and Henry’s law. 6. Calculate a for different value of p. Draw a graph of avs p. Read p corresponding to a= 0.025 which is called p,,. Alternately by trial and error, calculate p,., for a= 0.025. 7. Use Eq. (5.16) and insert p,, in place of p, and calculate (NPSH),. The above procedure is well exemplified in Example 5.10.98 4 Introduction to Process Engineering and Design 5.3.3 Power Required for Pumping Power required for pumping an incompressible fluid is given by equation: __ Hap 3.67 x10°xX where, P= Power required, kW Total dynamic head, m of liquid column qy = Capacity, m’/h Fluid density, kg/m? 1) = Efficiency of pump (5.19) Example 5.6 A centrifugal pump draws benzene from an overhead tank Operating vacuum in the tank is 700 Torr. Vertical distance between free surface of liquid in tank and centerline of pump is 12 m. Maximum operating temperature is 50°C. Vapour pressure of benzene at 50°C is 280 Torr. Density of benzene at 50°C is 870 kg/m’. Frictional loss in suction line of pump is 1 m of benzene column. Calculate the (NPSH), of centrifugal pump. Solution (NPSH), = hy, hy Py 65.16) hy =p+Z p = 760 — 700 = 60 Torr a 1 atm = 10.33 m WC 60 Density of water 60 1000 = © x 10,33 x —Pemsiy of Water 8 19.33 x OO P= 760 Density of benzene at 50°C ~ 760 ~~ =0937 mLC 280 1000 p, = «10.33 x —— = 4.37 m LC 760 870 (NPSH), =p + Z—hy, ~p, = 0.937 + 12 - 1-4.37 = 7.567 mLC Example 5.7 A centrifugal pump is drawing methanol from an underground tank, Operating pressure in the underground tank is 1 atm. Vertical distance between centreline of pump and free surface of liquid in the tank is 3 m. Maximum operating temperature is 50°C. Vapour pressure and density of methanol at 50°C are 400 Torr and 785 kg/m’, respectively. Friction loss in suction line is 1 m of liquid column, Calculate the (NPSH), of centrifugal pump. Solution (NPSH), = h,.~ hig —py = P—Z— hy —Py (5.16) 5x10? p= 1h as 6 mic (785 x 9.81)Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters > 99 400 101.325 x 10° 760” (785x981) (NPSH), = 13.16 - 3-1 - 6.925 = 2.235 mLC = 6.925 mLC Note: Effect of vapour pressure (p,) of the fluid is significant in calculation of (NPSH),. Selection of the pump is critical. As a general guideline (NPSH), should be greater than 3 m for a centrifugal pump. Example 5.8 _ Installation of pump is to be decided for the a pump which will handle hot water at a temperature of 176.7°C and a suction pressure of 1.034 MPa g. Capacity of pump will be 10 m°/h, It is planned to use a centrifugal pump with single suction for this applications. Speed of its impeller will be 2900 rpm. Find the minimum distance that must be kept between free surface of liquid at source and centreline of horizontal centrifugal pump, Solution (NPSH), > (NPSH), From Figs 5.3 and 5.4, data for centrifugal pump having a speed of 3550 rpm are given. Assume these data to be applicable for 2900 rpm (a safer design). For 3550 rpm, 10 m’/h, 176.7°C and p < 35 bar: (NPSH), = 3.048 + 3.6576 m (additional) =6.7m (NPSH), 26.7 m p2Z-hg—p,26.7m 1.034 MPa g = 1.034x 10° Pag 1 atm = 101.325 kPa p= (1.034 x 10° + 101.325 x 10°) Paa p= 1.135 325 x 10°Paa ‘Vapour pressure of hot water at 176.7°C = 0.928 MPa P, = 0.928 x 10° Pa Density of water at 176.7°C, p = 890 kg/m? 0.207 325 x 10° pxs p—p, = 0.207 325 x 10° = _, 9.207 325 x 10° ~ 890x9.81 Select the pipe size and piping system such that hy $1 m, -Z—1 + 23.746 > 6.7 m (if pump is installed above the free surface of or ZS 16.046 m = 23.746 m WC id at source)100 4. Introduction to Process Engineering and Design Pump can be installed maximum up to an elevation 16.046 m above the free surface of liquid at source to avoid cavitation. Pump can be installed at any distance, if it is to be installed below the free surface of liquid at source. Example 5.9 _In the previous example, if hot water is saturated at 176.7°C temperature at source, what will be the minimum height that must be kept between free surface of liquid at source and centreline of selected pump? Type, speed and capacity of pump are same as that for previous example. Solution For the single suction centrifugal pump having speed 2900 rpm and capacity 10 mh, (NPSH), = 6.7m (NPSH), = (NPSH), or (NPSH), 2 6.7m Here hot water is saturated at 176.7° C at source. P=Py In this case pump must be installed below the free surface of liquid at source. (NPSH), =p + Z-hy,—p, =Z—hy, 26.7m Let the velocity of water in suction line = 1 m/s y= x (AIA)D? = 10 m*fh = 2.7778 x 10° m/s, ax 3 a _ [4X27778 X10" _ 9 59 47 m mXy mx1 From the table of standard pipe select 62.5 mm NB SCH-40 steel pipe having D,=62.71 mm _ Dp Hu p of water at 176.7°C = 890 kg/m* Velocity based on D, = 62.71 mm, v = 0.9 m/s Viscosity of water at 176.7°C and at saturation pressure, 9.08 atm a must be determined. Effect of pressure on viscosity of liquid is insignificant up to about 50 atm, For reduced temperature T, < 0.75, relation between viscosity of liquid and temperature is given by equation Re Inu, = A+ 5" Tink (5.20) +C where, C= 17.71 - 0.19 Ty, Ty is normal boiling point (ie., at 1 atm) in K For water, C= 17.71 — 0.19 (100 + 273) 16 From Appendix 14 of Ref. 10: Hal 149°C = 0.185 cP, 41, at 115.6°C = 0.242 cP or mPa s —_# [(149 + 273) — 53.16)” In (0.185) = A+ B = A+ tn 0.242) {115.6 + 273) - 53.16]Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters 101 A+ 0.0027 112 B=-1.6874, A + 0.002 981 B= -1.4188 Solving simultaneous equations, A=-43865, B=995.55 99: (176.7 + 273 H,, = 0.1532 cP or mPa - s at 176.7°C H,, = 0.1493 mPa - s at 180°C from JSME Steam Tables ~ a check In, = 0.062 71 x 0.9 x 890 Re = SOC XOOKEN = 327 876.7 (i.e. turbulent) 0.1532 x 10° For turbulent flow through commercial steel pipe = 4.07 x 102° ni! 4 p16 p-484 pt (5.5) 0 m°/h = 2.7778 x 10% m*/s ass flow rate = q, X p= 2.7778 x 10° x 890 = 2.4722 kg/s = 4.07 x 10! x (2.4722)! x (0.1532 x 107)" x (62.71) 4" x (890)? = 0.1186 kPa/m. For 6.7 m elevation, Let L = actual length of pipe = 7 m, including horizontal length for pump suction. Assuming three 90° elbows and one globe valve in the suction line. Table 5.8 Equivalent Lengths of Fitting and Valve Valve or Fitting No. L, 90° elbows (standard) 3 3G0D) =5.64m Globe valve (open) 1 350 D, = 21.95 m L27+5.64 + 21.95 = 34.59 m 4.102 x 10° Ap = 4.102 kPa = ==" in Liquid Column (ie., WC at 176.7°C) PX8 3 Ing = bp = ION 0.47 m of WC 890 x 9.81 Z> (6.7 +047) mor Z27.17m Minimum elevation required between free surface of water at source and centreline of pump = 7.17 m Example 5.10 Carbon dioxide gas (> 99.5% pure) from ammonia plant at 1,01 atm a and 40°C is washed with cooling water in a packed column before compression in urea plant. Cooling water from bottom of the column is pumped back to cooling tower. Solubility of carbon dioxide in water is