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LOGI 2019 – Horizons of Autonomous Mobility in Europe

LOGI 2019 – Horizons of Autonomous Mobility in Europe
World Seaborne Trade with Oil: One of Main Cause for Oil Spills?
World Seaborne Trade with Oil:a*1One
Andrea Galieriková of Main
and Matúš Cause
Materna b for Oil Spills?
a
Andrea Galierikováa*1 and Matúš Maternab
Department of Water transport, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8251/1, 010 26 Žilina, SLovakia
b
Air transport department, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8251/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia
a
Department of Water transport, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8251/1, 010 26 Žilina, SLovakia
b
Air transport department, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8251/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia
Abstract

Abstract
Oil is a main driver for the growth of modern economies because of its multifaceted use in transport, energy
and manufacturing. Due to uneven distribution of petroleum products across the world, maritime transportation of
Oil is a main driver for the growth of modern economies because of its multifaceted use in transport, energy
mineral oils has increased. The main objective of the paper is to examine data on oil spills created by oil tankers for
and manufacturing. Due to uneven distribution of petroleum products across the world, maritime transportation of
the past 50 years and to examine trends in oil trading and oil spill pollution in an effort to analyse the state of
mineral oils has increased. The main objective of the paper is to examine data on oil spills created by oil tankers for
pollution in major oil disasters. The paper also considers the key factors of tanker oil spills and summarizes
the past 50 years and to examine trends in oil trading and oil spill pollution in an effort to analyse the state of
strategies and directions for the global maritime transport industry to prevent oil tanker pollution in the future.
pollution in major oil disasters. The paper also considers the key factors of tanker oil spills and summarizes
strategies and directions for the global maritime transport industry to prevent oil tanker pollution in the future.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
This
© is an
2019 open
The accessPublished
Authors. article under the CC BY-NC-ND
by Elsevier Ltd. of thelicense (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review
Peer-review line:
under Peer-review under
responsibility responsibility
of the
the scientific committeescientific
thecommittee of –the LOGI 2019 – Horizons of Autonomous
of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
LOGI 2019 Horizons of Autonomous Mobility in Europe.
This is an open
Mobility in Europeaccess article under CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review
Keywords: Oilline:
trade,Peer-review under responsibility
petroleum, maritime of the
transport, leakage, oil scientific
spills committee of the LOGI 2019 – Horizons of Autonomous
Mobility in Europe
Keywords: Oil trade, petroleum, maritime transport, leakage, oil spills
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Oil as the key resource of strategic significance affects the world's economic health political stability. Oil
exploitation both with maritime shipping have has enjoyed dynamic development as industrialised countries around
the Oil as continue
world the key resource
enhancingofutilization
strategic of
significance
rich marine affects the world's
resources). economic
Nowadays, morehealth political
than 90% of thestability.
world's Oil
oil
exploitation both with maritime shipping have has enjoyed dynamic development as industrialised countries
transportation is through oil tankers (Zhang et al., 2015). As a result, the maritime oil transportation industry around
has
the world continue
increasingly becomeenhancing utilization
crucial. Oil of rich
shipping, whilemarine resources).
bringing variousNowadays,
economic more thanto90%
benefits many of countries,
the world'salsooil
transportation is through oil tankers (Zhang et al., 2015). As a result, the maritime oil transportation
represents serious threaten. Oil spill accidents threat the crew´s life and human health and bring huge losses to industry has
increasingly
transportationbecome crucial.
enterprises andOil shipping,
cargo while
owners. bringing tanker
Moreover, variousoileconomic benefits impair
spills seriously to many countries,
marine economyalso
represents serious threaten. Oil spill accidents threat the crew´s life and human health and bring huge losses to
transportation enterprises and cargo owners. Moreover, tanker oil spills seriously impair marine economy

* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 421/41/513 35 50

E-mail address: andrea.galierikova@fpedas.uniza.sk
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 421/41/513 35 50
E-mail address:
2352-1465 andrea.galierikova@fpedas.uniza.sk
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
2352-1465 ©line:
Peer-review 2019 The Authors.
Peer-review Published
under by Elsevier
responsibility of theLtd.
scientific committee of the LOGI 2019 – Horizons of Autonomous Mobility in Europe
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review line: Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the LOGI 2019 – Horizons of Autonomous Mobility in Europe

2352-1465  2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the LOGI 2019 – Horizons of Autonomous Mobility in Europe.
10.1016/j.trpro.2020.02.039
298 Andrea Galieriková et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 44 (2020) 297–304
2 Andrea Galieriková and Matúš Materna / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

development (fishery, tourism), damages the marine ecosystems with significant damages of marine ecological
resources (Harayama, 1991). Even though the technological advances substantially improved the safety conditions
and the monitoring and prevention capacities of the authorities (Sulgan, 2016), oil transportation continues to be a
very risky business, both for the actors involved in its production and for the rest of society. We can assume that the
rapid demand for oil, together with increased oil trade volume result in oil spill accidents as a major risk factor. The
main purpose of the paper is to analyse the idea of world seaborne trade as main spill influencing factor, according
to the most serious oil spill accidents, occurred in last 50 year worldwide.

2. World oil trade

Strengthening of economic growth given rise to the demand for mineral oils around the world and boost the
volume of the oil trade. Oil inventories are primarily concentrated in the Middle East and the former Soviet Union,
while oil consumption is mainly concentrated in the Asia-Pacific, North America and Europe. So, the imbalance in
the distribution of oil resources along with the uneven supply and demand have both led to continuous development
of oil seaborne trade (Chen et al., 2018). Seaborne trade (measured in ton-miles) in 2017 amounted 58,098 billion
tons (Figure 1).

16000
13809
14000 11993 12657
13216
11831 11657 11659
12000 11 211 11255 11420
10654 10984 10981 10679
9405 9614
10000
7821
8000 6487

6000
4000
2000
0

Fig. 1. World seaborne oil trade – billions of ton-miles (1970-2018)

Source: Compiled by authors from UNCTAD

Based on data of global oil seatrade for the past 50 years, total volume of the world´s oil trade has grown.
However, it faced sharp fluctuations before the 1990s, with the maximum oil trade volume exceedingly circa 9,000
billion ton-miles per year and the minimum registering 4,007 billion ton-miles. After the 1990s, the volume
stabilised, and the average oil trade volume was around 10,000 ton-miles per year.
Majority of the growth was driven by crude oil and coal shipments, which have greatly benefited the shipping
industry. Tanker trade ton-miles (including crude oil and refined petroleum products) rose by 4.4%. In 2017 the
world oil trade was supported by increasing exports from the United States, rising global refining activities and
declining oil inventories and steady oil shipments from Western Asia. Oil trade also benefited from the growth of
export originating in the Atlantic basin and destined to Asia (most remarkably China), where growing refinery
capacity and rising demand from independent refiners boosted demand growth. The overview of the biggest global
players in the oil2 sector (2017) is presented in Figure 2.

2
Oil includes crude oil, shale oil, oil sands and natural gas liquids.
 Andrea Galieriková
Andrea and Matúš Materna
Galieriková / TransportationResearch
et al. / Transportation ResearchProcedia
Procedia4400 (2019)
(2020) 000–000
297–304 2993

40
34 35
35

30

25 23
19
20
15 15
15
10 10 9 9 9
10
4 4 4
5

0
Western Asia North Transition Developing Africa Asia and Europe
America economies America Pacific
world oil production world oil consumption

Fig. 2. Major producers and consumers of oil – world market share in percentage (2017)
Source: Compiled by authors from UNCTAD

China, with the main suppliers as Angola, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Bolivarian
Republic of Venezuela and the Russian Federation is obviously a leading importer of mineral and crude oil. China
as a significant exporter of oil products has doubled its export volumes between 2013 and 2016. (Clarkson’s
Research, 2019). Also, exports from China increased by 6.3% in 2017, driven by the ongoing oversupply of oil
products in that country.

3. Review of oil spill accidents at sea

The majority (about 90%) of the world's oil movements is carried by the sea (Zhang, et al., 2015). In the last 50
years, world oil seaborne trade has reached a significant increase. Maritime organisations and agencies have paid
increased attention to the oil transportation by the sea. This step ensures a considerable reduction in the number of
oil spill accidents to the lowest acceptable level (only six in 2017).
Even though technological advances considerably improved the safety conditions, oil transportation continues to
be a highly risky activity (Onate, 2017). Oil spills from tankers constitute about 13% of all oil pollution in oceans
around the world (Board et al., 2003). Leakage from tankers is not only threaten the health and life of crew members
but also represents huge environment loss and serious damage of the environment and ecosystems. (Galieriková,
2016). Once the oil leaks to the sea, spreads and drifts with the ocean currents and wind, contaminating beaches and
it also generates the dangerous damage of the environment, especially the coastal tourism areas with the fatal impact
on the sea ecosystems.
The worldwide transportation of oil by the sea and the oil spill treatment have undergone huge changes since the
supertanker Torrey Canyon sank in the British waters in 1967. This large oil spill accident was considered to be the
one of the world´s most serious spillage. The supertanker SS Torey Canyon, one of the first supertankers, ran
aground on a reef off the south-west coast of the United Kingdom. spilling an estimated 119,328 tonnes of crude oil.
However, since there was lack of technical and compensatory measures to deal with oil spill incidents in 1967, the
accident resulted in meaningful environment and economic losses for both Britain and France - about 190 km of
Cornish coast and 80 km of French and contaminated (Loughborough University).
This spill accident driven up to serious changes in oil spill responses. In the past 50 years, with the increasing
attention to oil spill accident by marine agencies around the world as well as the continuous advancement of tanker
transportation technologies, total number of oil spill incidents and oil spillage have decreased.
300 Andrea Galieriková et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 44 (2020) 297–304
4 Andrea Galieriková and Matúš Materna / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

After the 1990s, while the increasing trend of oil trade, the number of oil spillage has stabilised, remaining at
relatively low level, falling down year by year. Although the oil trade volume is on a rise overall, that increases the
risk3 of oil leakage, the global tanker oil spillage is declining.

Fig. 3. Global oil spill trend. Source: ITOPF

Seven serious oil spill accidents happened in 1970s, with one million tonnes of oil spilled to the ocean. The first
one occurred in 1972, when the South Korean supertanker, Sea Star, collided with a Brazilian tanker Horta Barbosa,
off the coast of Oman. The vessels caught fire after collision and the crew abandoned ship. The Horta Barbosa was
extinguished within a day, the Sea Star after a series of explosions sank 5 days after the collision. The incident
resulted in the spillage of approximately 115,000 tonnes of crude oil (ITOPF, 2019). The second incident occurred
in 1978. The oil tanker Amoco Cadiz ran aground 5 kilometres from the coast of Brittany, due to failure of the
steering mechanism. The entire cargo of 223,000 tonnes, spilled into the sea. A slick 30 kilometres wide and 145
kilometres long polluted approximately 370 kilometres of Brittany coastline. split in three parts and sank, together
resulting in the largest oil spill of its kind in history to that date. (ITOPF, 2019).
The third accident involves 2 very large crude carriers – the Atlantic Empress and Eagean Captain. In 1979 two
fully loaded tankers collided during a tropical rainstorm. Both vessels began leaking oil after collision and both
caught fire. Several crewmen lost their lives. It is estimated that 287,000 tonnes of oil were spilled from the Atlantic
Empress to Caribbean Sea, that represents the largest ship-source spill ever recorded (Chen et al., 2019).
In 1980s, six significant oil spill accident occurred with a total of 661,000 tonnes of oil spilled. The third world
biggest oil spill accident happened in 1983. Vessel Named Castillo de Bellver, carrying 252,000 tonnes of crude oil,
was sailing through an environmentally sensitive area known for its seabird rookeries and fishing grounds. The ship
caught fire about 120 kilometres of Cape Town and broke apart after drifting offshore. Onshore impacts were
considered negligible as the slick travelled seaward. The impact on both the fishing grounds and the fish stocks was
also considered to be negligible. Another spill accident of this decade involves the collision of the Liberian tanker
Odyssey, almost fully loaded with the crude oil of 132 tonnes. As a result of a huge storm (ship had to overcome
waves of 7.6 metres and 80-kilometre-per-hour winds), an explosion occurred on board, causing the ship to break
into two parts and begin sinking. All 27 crew members are presumed to have died during the incident (Chen et al.,
2019). The oil spill covered an area of 5 x 16 kilometres (ITOPF, 2019). By the way of comparison, 4.3 times as
much oil was spilled by the Odyssey as from the much more famous Exxon Valdez.
The 1990s with six huge accidents, 702,000 tonnes of oil spilled into ocean. The second biggest oil spillage in the
history occurred in 1991, when the oil tanker ABT Summer, fully loaded with crude oil, unexplained explode and

3
Risk is defined as the probability of occurrence of a hazardous event in given period (Materna et al. 2018)
 Andrea Galieriková et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 44 (2020) 297–304 301
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later sank near the Angolan coast. Five crew members were killed, four of whom were reported as missing. Due to
260,000 tonnes of oil was lost, a slick 32 kilometres long and 7 kilometres wide formed. Attempts to locate the
wreck after the incident proven unsuccessful. The same year, another large oil accident happened when very large
crude carrier named Haven, carrying 144,000 tonnes of heavy crude oil onboard exploded due to an electrical spark
during tank cleaning. The accident resulted in the loss of six crew members. The vessel broke into three parts as
a result of the explosions, the main section of the ship sank approximately 2,8 kilometre offshore following further
explosions (ITOPF, 2019). The data (ITOPF) indicates, that most oil spill accidents occurred before 2000 – only 3
significant incidents happened after 2000 (2000-2018). The most serious oil spill incident of 2000s occurred in
2002. The oil tanker „Prestige“ sank off the coast of Galicia while carrying a cargo of 77,000 tonnes of heavy
bunker oil. The spill polluted thousands of kilometres of Spanish, French and Portuguese coast and oiled seabirds
were retrieved from beaches. The curiosity of this oil spill disaster lies in the decision taken by Spanish authorities
that decided to tow the damaged vessel to deeper offshore waters. This step has been described as a criminal act and
represents the reason of a large area affected. Another major oil spill disaster with ongoing environmental and
economic effects occurred in 2007. A crane barge, towed by a tug, collided with anchored crude carrier Hebei Spirit,
carrying 209,000 tonnes of four different crude oils. The barge was floating free after the cable linking it to the tug
snapped, puncturing three port-side cargo tanks. Although no casualties were reported, the collision resulted in the
leaking of 11,000 tonnes of oil (ITOPF, 2019).
In 2010s, the total oil spillage is significantly decreasing. The downwards trend is demonstrated by the progress
made in the field of prevention and treatment of major oil spill accidents. However, accident continue to occur. For
example, the „Sanchi“ accident in 2018 caused huge losses, including fatalities and significant damage of marine
ecosystems. Oil tanker named Sanchi, with a full natural-gas condensate cargo of 136,000 tonnes has collided with
the cargo ship about 300 kilometres from Shanghai. Sanchi caught fire shortly after the collision, after burning and
drifting for over a week, it finally sank. None of its 32 crew members survived (ITOPF, 2019). The attention was
once again attracted of the worlds maritime sector and the treatment of oil spills was urged. A summary of the top
significant oil spills that have occurred since the Torrey Canyon is given in Table 1. Based on the data it is obvious
that 19 of the 20 largest oil spills occurred before the year 2000. Sanchi, the latest addition to the top 20 significant
oil ship accidents is the only dominant spill and it resulted in significantly low environmental impacts compared to
some oil spill accidents listed. A number of the oil spill accidents in Table 1, despite their big size, necessitated
little or no response as the oil was spilt some distance offshore and did not impact coastlines. Therefore, some of the
names listed may be unfamiliar. Exxon Valdez and Hebei Spirit are included for comparison although these
accidents are further down the list. Prestige is also included for comparison.

Table 1. The biggest oil spills since 19674

Spill size
Position Shipname Year Location
(tonnes)
1 Atlantic Empress 1979 Off Tobago, West Indies 287,000
2 ABT Summer 1991 700 NM off Angola 260,000
3 Castillo de Bellver 1983 Off Saldanha Bay, South Africa 252,000
4 Amoco Cadiz 1978 Off Brittany, France 223,000
5 Haven 1991 Geoa, Italy 144,000
6 Odyssey 1988 700 NM off Nova Scotia, Canada 132,000
7 Torrey Canyon 1967 Scilly Isles, UK 119,000
8 Sea Star 1972 Gulf of Oman 115,000
9 Sanchi 2018 Off Shanghai, China 113,000
10 Irenes Serenade 1980 Navarino Bay, Greece 100,000
11 Urquiola 1976 La Coruna, Spain 100,000
12 Hawaiian Patriot 1977 300 NM off Honolulu 95,000
13 Independenta 1979 Bosphorus, Turkey 95,000
14 Jakob Maersk 1975 Oporto, Portugal 88,000
15 Braer 1993 Shetland Islands, UK 85,000
16 Aegean Sea 1992 La Coruna, Spain 74,000

4
quantities have been rounded to nearest thousand
 302 Andrea Galieriková et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 44 (2020) 297–304
6 Andrea Galieriková and Matúš Materna / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

17 Sea Empress 1996 Milford Haven, UK 72,000

18 Khark 5 1989 129 NM off Atlantic coast of Morocco 70,000
19 Nova 1985 Off Kharg Island, Gulf of Iran 70,000
20 Katina P 1992 Off Maputo, Mozambique 67,000
21 Prestige 2002 Off Galicia, Spain 63,000
36 Exxon Valdez 1989 Alaska, USA 37,000
132 Hebei Spirit 2007 South Korea 11,000
Source: Compiled by authors from ITOPF

The majority of oil spills occurred in waters off the west of Europe. As shown in Figure 4, oil spill accidents
happened in the Atlantic Ocean to the west of Europe, accounting for 57% of all significant oil tanker accidents and
the total oil spillage reached 1.4 million tonnes. In the American waters, three major oil spill accidents occurred,
accounting for 13% of all significant oil tanker accidents with the total oil spillage 419 thousand tonnes. Asian
waters saw four oil spill accidents, accounting for 17% of all significant oil tanker incidents with the total oil
spillage amounted to 309,000 tonnes. Finally, the waters off the south Africa represents 13% of total number of the
major world oil spill accidents at sea, with the total spillage of 579,000 thousand tonnes.

Fig. 4. Location of top 20 major spills. Source: Compiled by authors from ITOPF

Table 2. Distribution of waters with major oil spill accidents (from 1967 to 2018)
Number of Total oil spillage Share of number of
Area
accidents (thousand tonnes) accidents
Waters off the west of Europe 13 1.365 57%
American waters 3 419 13%
Asian waters 4 309 17%
Waters off the south of Africa 3 579 13%
Compiled by authors from ITOPF

The analysis demonstrates that the Atlantic Ocean waters off the west of Europe, which have crowded shipping
routes and complex water situations are more prone to occurring of the significant oil spill accidents than other
waters. This output is confirmed by the finding that seaborne oil routes are the densest in the waters west off Europe
(Figure 5 – seaborne oil trade movement shown through the main shipping routes). Thus, more oil (crude, mineral,
etc) oil is transported through this area than through American or African waters. Consequently, there is a
significant dependence between the quantity of transported (exported) oil cargo (crude oil) and the amount of oil
spill accidents generated.
 Andrea Galieriková et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 44 (2020) 297–304 303
Andrea Galieriková and Matúš Materna / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000 7

Fig. 5 Density of global shipping routes. Source: David, 2018

4. Oil spills versus seaborne oil trade

The crude oil seaborne trade has a significant role in the world seaborne trade. The tanker movements contain the
crude oil (80%) and the oil products (20%). Disregarding a fall in the early 1980s during the worldwide economic
recession, seaborne oil trade has stabilised from 1970s (Figure 4). While increased oil transportation might imply
increase risk, the downward trend in frequency of oil spills continues despite the significant increase of oil seaborne
trade all over the last period. By the way of comparison: seaborne oil trade at sea in 1990 was 7821 billion tonne-
kilometres with eleven accidents with more than 700 tonnes of minerals leaking into the sea and 55 incidents with
leaks of up to 700 tonnes of minerals. In 2017, the value of maritime trade in minerals increased to 13,216 tonne-
kilometres, with one accident with a leakage of minerals above 700 tonnes and three to 700 tonnes.

Fig. 6 Decline in number of oil spills vs growth in oil5 loaded (million metric tonnes). Source: ITOPF

Comparison of oil trade and oil spill pollution trend (Figure 6) shows that the oil trade volume began to grow
steadily while the oil spillage began to decline. With the improving awareness of safe tanker navigation across the
world, the safety management and technical inspection of vessels (especially oil tankers) has also strengthened,
cutting down the number of oil spill accidents at sea. Despite the positive developments of oil spill control, world oil
tanker incidents continue to occur with large room for improvement in tanker oil spill governance.

5
crude oil, petroleum and gas
304 Andrea Galieriková et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 44 (2020) 297–304
8 Andrea Galieriková and Matúš Materna / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

5. Conclusion

Maritime transport belongs to the modes of transportation which ensures intercontinental transport of passengers
and cargo between the continents. Not only it is very effective, but it also enables to carry a huge volume of cargo
(Piala, et al., 2016). Oil, as the main commodity transported worldwide by the sea, has reached a significant increase
in past several years. Marine oil shipping brings enormous economic benefits to many countries, on the other hand,
it also brings huge threats with negative impacts on health, life, property and environment. Even though
technological advances considerably improved the safety conditions, oil transportation continues to be a highly risky
activity. According to TIOPF (International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation), the number and the volume of oil
spillage from tankers have been declining “despite an overall increase in oil trading over the period” (ITOPF, 2017).
The paper provides a comprehensive overview of all major oil spill accidents, occurred at sea for the period 1970 –
2018. The main oil transportation shipping routes and the main oil producers were analysed too. The analysis shows
that the Atlantic Ocean waters off the west of Europe, that predominate shipping routes are more prone to occurring
of the major oil spill accidents than other waters. This output is confirmed by the finding that seaborne oil routes are
the densest in the waters west off Europe. Thus, more oil products are transported through this area than through
another shipping routes (American or African waters). The main objective of the paper was to find out if the
seaborne trade with oil is linked with oil spills worldwide. Based on analysis of oil spill pollution caused from 1970
to 2017 we found out that the world oil trade volume is on the rise, while, paradoxically, total number of oil spill
incidents and oil spillage is declining. The analysis results in the conclusion - the most major oil spillage happened
in the Atlantic Ocean – in waters off the west Europe, where shipping routes are crowded, and water situation is
very complicated. So, there is a significant dependence between the amount of oil spill accidents and the quantity of
oil products transported (exported). According to this conclusion, the threat of oil spillage, mostly in the area of
waters off the west Europe, there is necessity to make a reasonable decision on prevention and governance of oil
spill accidents of the world tankers by the governments, politics, oil transportation enterprises and other
stakeholders. This step ensures the reducing the risk of oil spill accident to a lower level, thereby decrease the threat
to health, life, property and the environment.

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