Industrial Pipes and Benchwork Notes 2019 2020 Revised

MODULE CODE: REN 104
DEPARTMENT: RENEWABLE ENERGY

MODULE TITLE: INDUSTRIAL PIPE AND BENCH
WORKS
LEVEL: 1
SEMESTER: 2
CREDITS: 10
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2019-2020
MODULE FACILITATORS:
1. HABANABAKIZE Théophile
2. MUTABAZI Paul
Learning objectives
1. Organize the workplace and Select the tools, materials and equipment useful in
benchwork
2. Perform sheet metal works
3. Perform Housekeeping
4. Identify materials used in piping system
5. Joining pipes
6. Test the work done
Learning outcomes
Having successfully completed the module, students will be able to:
1. Organize the workplace and Select the tools, materials and equipment useful in
benchworks
2. Perform sheet metal works
3. Perform Housekeeping
4. Identify materials used in piping system
5. Joining pipes and
6. Test the work done
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RP, IPRC TUMBA: INDUSTRIAL PIPES AND BENCHWORKS (REN104)
Module description
This module entitled the Industrial Pipes and Benchworks is mainly composed of two
parts which also includes different learning units as shown here below:
 BENCH WORK
 Organize the workplace and Select the tools, materials and equipment : Wor
kplace layout, Sheet metal shapes (Profiles and Sheets), Sheet metal working mac
hines (Welding machine, Rolling machine, Roll forming machine, Bending mach
ines, Shear machines, Folding machine, Riveting machine, Drilling machine, Pre
ssing machine), tools (Drawing die and punch, Blanking die and punch ).
 Perform sheet metal work : assemble the equipment ,Current setting and timing
,Setting pressure and adjustment, Surface development (Parallel line developmen
t method, Radial line development method, Triangular line development method,
Cutting operations (Punching, Shearing, Notching, Filing, Grinding, Blanking, Tr
imming, Perforating), Forming operations (Bending, Hemming, Flanging, Seami
ng, Curling, Spinning, Rolling, Embossing, Necking, Bulging, Drawing, Joining o
peration (Riveting, Welding, Soldering, Bolting, Seaming, Brazing).
 Perform Housekeeping: Cleaning tools and equipment (Brush, Cloth rug, Mop,
Soapy water, Compressed air), Methods of cleaning (Dusting, Removal of dirt, C
hemical spraying), Care and storage procedures of tools, equipment and materials
.
 INDUSTRIAL PIPE
 Identify materials: Different pipe according the weight and their color code
(Light, Medium, Heavy), Different pipe according to their color code (Brown,
Blue or Yellow ,Red or Green), Select gas pipes according to (Size, Pressure and
function),Different types of fittings (Coupling ,Cap, Elbows, Reducer, Nipple,
Tee-joint, Double Tee(cross), Union, Socket, Valves, Blow gun and Plug ), Tools
and equipment (Hummer, Pipe wrenches, Hack saw, Pipe cutter, Adjustable
spanner, Dies, Pipe vice, Tape measure, Materials, Coupling, Cap, Elbows,
Reducer, Nipple, Tee-joint, Double tee(cross), Union, Socket, Valves, Blow gun,
Plug, Gas pipes).
 Joint gas pipes: cutting (Pipe cutter, Hack saw, File, Angle grinder machine),
Threading (Dies, Power threading machine), Different methods of joining copper
pipes (Compression joints, Capillary joints, Brazing joints), Different method of
bending by using (Heat, Spring, Bending machine ), Different methods of joining
copper pipes (Compression joints, Capillary joints, Brazing joints), Methods of
joining cast ductile iron (Flange joints in above ground, ring push-on (Socket and
spigot), Caulked joint ), Methods of joining stainless steel (Coupling joint, Arc
Welding ).
 Test the work done: types of tests (Water pressure, Air compressor), Rearrange,
Remove the remains, metals chips and dust from the working place.
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Contents
Learning objectives .......................................................................................................... 2
Learning outcomes ........................................................................................................... 2
Module description .......................................................................................................... 3
PART I: BENCHWORK ................................................................................................ 6
UNIT 1: ORGANIZE THE WORKPLACE AND SELECT THE TOOLS,
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT ............................................................................ 6
1.1. Workshop Safety Rules ..................................................................................... 6
1.2. Benchwork and Layout Operations ................................................................. 8
1.3. The bench work tools and their uses ................................................................ 8
UNIT 2: PERFORM SHEET METAL WORKS .................................................... 45
2.1. Metal forming and cutting machines ............................................................. 45
2.3. Drilling machine .............................................................................................. 49
2.4. Shearing machine ............................................................................................ 53
2.6. Rolling machine ............................................................................................... 60
UNIT 3: TYPES OF METALS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS .......................... 64
3.1. Ferrous Metals. ................................................................................................ 64
3.2. Non-Ferrous metal and their applications .................................................... 69
UNITY 4: HOUSEKEEPING ................................................................................... 77
4.1. Introduction to housekeeping ......................................................................... 77
4.2. Process and Responsibilities ........................................................................... 77
4.3. Benefits of a good Housekeeping .................................................................... 78
PART II: INDUSTRIAL PIPES ................................................................................... 80
UNIT 5: IDENTIFY MATERIALS USED IN PIPING SYSTEM ........................ 80
5.1. Understanding piping system ......................................................................... 81
5.2. Piping components and their access requirements ....................................... 81
5.3. Tools and equipment used in piping .............................................................. 88
5.4. Pipe Fittings...................................................................................................... 88
5.5. Pipe Fittings Types & Their Functions.......................................................... 88
5.6. How connecting pipe fittings to pipes ............................................................ 94
5.7. Selection criteria for pipe fittings: ................................................................. 94
5.7. Pipe Color Code Standard .............................................................................. 96
5.8. Different pipes Cutting tools and equipment .............................................. 101
5.9. Different method of bending pipes ............................................................... 103
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UNIT 6: DIFFERENT METHODS OF JOINING PIPES ................................... 111
6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 111
6.2. Different methods of joining pipes ............................................................... 111
a) Threaded Joint in Pipe .................................................................................. 111
b) Brazed Joint in Pipe ...................................................................................... 112
c) Soldered Joint in Pipe ................................................................................... 112
d) Butt Welded Joint in Pipe ............................................................................. 113
e) Socket Welded Joint in Pipe ......................................................................... 114
f) Flanged Joint in Pipe..................................................................................... 114
g) Compression Joint in Pipe ............................................................................ 115
h) Grooved Joint in Pipe ................................................................................... 116
6.3. Different types of pipes.................................................................................. 116
UNIT 7: TEST PIPING SYSTEM .......................................................................... 132
1. Test leakages and maintenance on the work done............................................. 132
7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 132
7.2. Hydrostatic Testing ....................................................................................... 132
7.3. Pneumatic Testing ......................................................................................... 133
7.4. How to pressure-test piping system ............................................................. 133
7.5. Water-Testing Existing Plumbing ................................................................ 134
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 136
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PART I: BENCHWORK
UNIT 1: ORGANIZE THE WORKPLACE AND SELECT THE TOOLS,

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
Having successfully completed this unit, students will be able to:
1. To work safely in workshop

2. Prepare the workplace
3. Arrange the workplace
4. Identify the tools, materials and equipment used in benchwork.
1.1. Workshop Safety Rules

Before you can use equipment and machines or attempt practical work in a workshop
you must understand basic safety rules. These rules will help keep you and others safe in
the workshop.
Definition of Safety: Safety in its simplest form is a state of being at little or no risk of
injury resulting from a harmful external impact, inhalation, or contact. It is a holistic
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approach to a state of wellbeing that requires people to feel they are free from being
harmed in addition to actually being safe. To be safe in any work environment, you
must think about the nature of your job and plan ahead to avert hazards that could be
associated with it.
In the field of safety, it is generally recognized that consequences are only negative
and therefore the management of safety risk is focused on prevention and mitigation of
harm. 3-step approach to safety at workplaces A person having control of the workplace
or a person having control of access to the workplace must, as far as practicable employ
the three step approach to safety at work. This approach involves three steps as
follows:
Step 1 Recognition: Identify hazards to which a person at the workplace is likely to be

exposed;
Step 2 Evaluation: Assess the risk of injury or harm to a person resulting from
each hazard if any is identified in step 1; and
Step 3 Control: Consider the means by which the risk may be reduced. Note: It takes
effort to recognize, evaluate, and control hazards. If you do not recognize, evaluate, and
control hazards, you may be injured or killed by machinery, electricity, electrical fires, or
falls. If you use the safety model to recognize, evaluate, and control hazards, you will be
much safer.
1. Always listen carefully to the teacher and follow instructions.

2. Do not run in the workshop, you could ‘bump’ into another student and cause an
accident.
3. Know where the emergency stop buttons are positioned in the workshop. If you
see an accident at the other side of the workshop you can use the emergency stop
button to turn off all electrical power to machines.
4. Always wear an apron as it will protect your clothes and hold loose clothing such
as ties in place.
5. Wear good strong shoes.
6. When attempting practical work all stools should be put away.
7. Bags should not be brought into a workshop as people can trip over them.
8. When learning how to use a machine, listen very carefully to all the instructions
given by the teacher. Ask questions, especially if you do not fully understand.
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9. Do not use a machine if you have not been shown how to operate it safely by the
teacher.
10. Always be patient, never rush in the workshop.
11. Always use a guard when working on a machine.
12. Keep hands away from moving/rotating machinery.
13. Use hand tools carefully, keeping both hands behind the cutting edge.
14. Report any damage to machines/equipment as this could cause an accident.
1.2. Benchwork and Layout Operations
Benchwork and Layout Operations" provides a detailed overview of the various

benchwork and layout processes that operators often need to perform during manual
machining. Layout is the process of marking a workpiece prior to cutting in order to have
a visual guideline during cutting operations. Benchwork includes various cutting
processes that machinists complete by hand rather than on a machine when creating part
features that require less power and force. Common benchwork operations include hand
tapping, hand reaming, hand filing, and engraving. Manually machined workpieces often
require benchwork and layout operations. As a result, benchwork and layout are essential
skills to have for any manual mill operator. A knowledge of not just how, but also when
and why to perform benchwork and layout operations is key to becoming a skilled manual
machinist and producing precise, accurate manually cut parts.
1.3. The bench work tools and their uses

1. Introduction
Bench work has its own essential position in all engineering works. In the mechanized
workshops, where most of the work is carried out on an automatic machine, while bench
work has its own importance. The jobs can be finished to a fairly good degree of accuracy
through machining operation; they often require the hand operations to be done on them
to finish to the desired accuracy. A fitter’s work is unavoidable when different parts are
to be assembled in position after they have been finished. Alignment of machine parts,
bearings, engine slide valves and similar other works call for a fitter’s work.
Reconditioning and refitting of machines and machine parts cannot be done without a
skilled fitter. All the above types of works require the use of a large number of hand tools
and a fitter must have good working knowledge of all these tools and instruments.
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2. Holding Tools
a) Filter’s vices
Vices are the most suitable and widely used tools for gripping different jobs in position
during various operations carried out in a fitting shop.
There are a fairly good number of different types of vices such as parallel jaw vice,
machine vice, hand vice and pipe vice.
From these, the parallel jaw vice is the most commonly used in general fitting work. These
vices are available in different trade sizes and the selection of a suitable size will depend
upon the maximum size of the work. The width of the jaws determines the size of the vice.
In fixing it on the fitter’s bench it is held with the help of bolts passing through the planks
of the bench. The bolts are tightened by means of nuts and the vice is held firmly on the
bench. The jaws of the vice are usually kept overhanging the edge of the bench.
b) Bench vice
It is the most commonly used vice sometimes also known as parallel jaw vice. It essentially
consists of a cast steel body, a movable jaw, a fixed jaw, both made of cast steel, a handle,
a square threaded screw and a nut all made of mild steel. A separate cast steel plates known
as jaw plates with teeth are fixed to the jaws by means of set screws and they can be
replaced when worn. The movement of the vice is caused by the screw which passes
through the nut fixed under the movable jaw. The screw is provided with a collar inside
to prevent it from coming out and handle at the outer end. The width of the jaws suitable
for common work varies from 80 to 140 mm and the maximum opening being 95 to 180
mm.
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Fig.1. Bench vice
c) Surface Plate
Its specific use is in testing the trueness of a finished surface, testing a try square, providing
adequate bearing surface for V-block and angle plates, etc., in scribing work.
It is a cast iron plate having a square or rectangular top perfectly planed true and square
with adjacent machined faces. The top is finished true by means of grinding and scrapping.
This plate carries a cast iron base under it and the bottom surface of the base is also
machined true to keep the top surface of the plate in a perfect horizontal plane.
Fig. 2. Surface plate

d) ‘V’ –Block
A ‘V” block serves as a very useful support to the work in marking. It usually works in
conjunction with a U-clamp.
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Round bar is placed longitudinally in the block and the screw in the clamp tightened. Its
specific use is in holding the round bars during marking and center drilling their end faces,
which are to be held between centers on the lathe. Also it is very suitable for holding round
bars in drilling operations when the axis of the drill is to be kept normal to the axis of the
bar.
Fig.3. V-Block
e) Work Bench
Work carried out at a bench in a laboratory or workshop
Figure.4. Work bench
f) Pipe Vice
The pipe vice is used for holding round section metal, tubes, pipes, etc. It grips the work
at four points on its surface
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Pipe vices can be either fitted onto a workbench, or used with a specialized, mobile
tripod stand outside the workshop
3. Marking Tools
a) Simple Scribing Block
It is principal marking tool in a fitting shop and is made in various forms and sizes. It
consists of a cast iron sliding base fitted with a vertical steel rod. The marker is fitted into
an adjustable device carrying a knurled nut at one end. By means of the nut the marker
can be loosened or tightened to set it at any desired inclination, moved to and fro inside
the hole accommodating it or adjust its height along the vertical pillar. Normally it is used
in conjunction with either a surface plate or marking table. Its specific use is in locating
centers of round rods held in V-block, describing straight lines on work held firmly in its
position by means of a suitable device like angle plate and also in drawing a number of
lines parallel to a true surface.
b) Universal Surface Gauge
It consists of a cast base, perfectly planed at the top, bottom and all sides. Two guide pins
are provided at the rear end of the base which can be pressed down to project below the
base. These pins can be used against the edge of the surface plate or any other finished
surface for guiding the instrument during scribing.
A swivel bolt is provided at the top of the base in which the spindle is fitted. This spindle
can be swung and locked in any desired position by means of the adjusting screw. The
scriber is fitted in an adjustable screw on the spindle and is capable of being adjusted at
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any inclination and height along the spindle. A rocker is provided at the top of the base
and it carries an adjusting screw at its rear end.
Fig.4. Simple scribing block and universal surface gauge
c) Try Square
It is better known as engineer’s try square and is a very common tool used for scribing
straight lines at right angles to a true surface or testing the trueness of mutually normal
surfaces. They are made in different sizes from the steel pieces.
13
Fig.5 Try square
It consists of a steel blade fitted into a steel stock of rectangular cross-section. They are
well hardened and tempered to suit the need. Both inner and outer surface of the blade are
kept truly at right angles to the corresponding surfaces of the stock.
d) Bevel Gauge
Whenever angles other than right angles are required to be tested or set and marked sliding
bevel square or bevel gauge is used.
It consists of a steel stock of rectangular cross-section carrying a slotted steel blade at its
end. This blade can be made to slide, set at any desired angle and secured in that position
by means of a screw.
e) Scriber:
A scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces.
14
d) Dot punch:
This is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and to
provide a small center mark for divider point, etc. For this purpose, the punch is
ground to a conical point having 60 degrees included angle.
e) Centre punch
This is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point having 90
degrees included angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.
d) Divider
It has two straight legs sharpened at one end, hinged at other end.
This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out perpendicular
lines, bisecting lines, etc.
e) Caliper
A caliper is used to transfer and compare dimensions from one
object to another or from a part to a scale.
i) Inside Caliper
These are also of two types ordinary, spring type. It has two steel
legs, which are bent outward. These are used to set internal
dimensions, to transfer them to work.
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ii) Outside Caliper
These are also of two types ordinary, spring type. It has
two steel legs that are bent inward. These are used to
measure the outside dimensions of round objects.
4. Measuring instruments
 vernier height gauge
Vernier height gauge is em ploye d for measuring the height of parts and
in pr e c i si o n marking
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 precision instruments
 Vernier caliper
Is a precision measuring instrument that can be used to measure accurately the internal
diameter, external diameter, length and depth of the object?
 Main parts of Vernier caliper
Instructions on use
 The Vernier caliper is an extremely precise measuring instrument; the reading

error is 1/20 mm = 0.05 mm.
 Close the jaws lightly on the object to be measured.
 If you are measuring something with a round cross section, make sure that the axis
of the object is perpendicular to the caliper. This is necessary to ensure that you
are measuring the full diameter.
 Ignore the top scale, which is calibrated in inches.
 Use the bottom scale, which is in metric units.
 Notice that there is a fixed scale and a sliding scale.
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 The tick marks on the fixed scale between the boldface numbers are millimeters.
 There are ten tick marks on the sliding scale. The left-most tick mark on the sliding
scale will let you read from the fixed scale the number of whole millimeters that
the jaws are opened.
o
 In the example above, the leftmost tick mark on the sliding scale is between 21
mm and 22 mm, so the number of whole millimeters is 21.
 Next we find the tenths of millimeters. Notice that the ten tick marks on the sliding
scale are the same width as nine ticks marks on the fixed scale. This means that at
most one of the tick marks on the sliding scale will align with a tick mark on the
fixed scale; the others will miss.
 The number of the aligned tick mark on the sliding scale tells you the number of
tenths of millimeters. In the example above, the 3rd tick mark on the sliding scale
is in coincidence with the one above it, so the caliper reading is (21.30 ± 0.05) mm.
 If two adjacent tick marks on the sliding scale look equally aligned with their
counterparts on the fixed scale, then the reading is half way between the two
marks. In the example above, if the 3rd and 4th tick marks on the sliding scale
looked to be equally aligned, then the reading would be (21.35 ± 0.05) mm.
EXAMPLE 1:
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 Vernier scale ratio
The vernier scale doesn’t relate always to a ratio of 1:10 of the main scale. The ratio can
also be 1:20 or 1:50. A vernier scale of the ratio 1:20 has 20 gauge marks in a distance of
0.95 mm, a vernier scale of the ratio of 1:50 has 50 gauge marks with a distance of 0.98
mm from mark to mark. The basic principle of measuring stays always the same. You only
have to consider that in case of a vernier scale with the ratio 1:20 the measured value is a
multiple of 0.05 mm which is shown with a distance of 3 gauge marks. In this case 3 gauge
marks on the vernier scale add to the sum of 3x 0.05 mm= 0.15 mm. Three gauge marks
on a 1:50 ratio vernier scale would give 3x 0.02 mm= 0.06 mm. The precision of
measurement is impressing here, but with the normal human eye a limit is reached here
by just being able to read these intricacies without special lenses. For this reason a high
quality digital instrument instead of a slide gauge is much easier to read because of the
LCD (liquid crystal display).
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 Micrometer
A precision measuring instrument which measures small distances or thicknesses

between its two faces, one of which can be moved away from or towards the other by
turning a screw with a fine thread.
M
s
20
Objects to be measured are placed between the measuring
faces; the anvil and the spindle.
The anvil is the stationary measuring face against which

parts are held until the spindle makes contact with the
work.
The threaded spindle is the moving measuring face of the

micrometer.
Micrometer sleeve scale
The scale on the sleeve of the micrometer is the instrument's

primary measuring scale.
Together with the thimble scale, the sleeve scale displays

the measurement taken.
The first significant figure of a measurement is taken from

this scale. This part of the measurement is the first value
immediately to the left of the thimble.
Micrometer thimble scale
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The secondary measuring scale, the thimble scale, provides
the two remaining significant figures of a measurement.
This part of the measurement is the value on the scale that

aligns with the index line on the sleeve scale.
Micrometer index line
The index line, which runs along the sleeve of the

micrometer, is used to indicate the value shown on the
thimble scale.
Micrometer thimble
When the thimble is turned, the spindle rotates and alters

the distance between the measuring faces of the
micrometer.
Some micrometer thimbles incorporate a friction drive.

This allows for a more accurate reading particularly when
used by the inexperienced user.
Micrometer ratchet speeder
The ratchet speeder increases the speed at which the spindle

rotates, so the space between the anvil and the spindle is
reduced more quickly than it would be if the thimble were
used.
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Using the ratchet speeder reduces the time it takes to use the
micrometer.
The ratchet incorporates a slipping clutch mechanism that

prevents over tightening and aids the user to apply a
constant measuring force to the spindle, helping to ensure
reliable measurements.
Micrometer locking device
The locking device secures the spindle and preserves the

measurement so that the micrometer can be removed from
the work piece before taking the reading.
Some micrometers have a lock nut (as shown), whilst others

may have a locking lever (see image below).
Micrometer frame
The u-shaped frame is designed to be rigid and stable. It

supports the anvil and the sleeve of the micrometer.
The frame is held by the user whilst measurements are

taken.
 How to read a Micrometer
A quick guide on how to read a micrometer screw gauge. Similar to the way a vernier
caliper is read, a micrometer reading contains two parts:
 the first part is contributed by the main scale on the sleeve

 the second part is contributed by the rotating vernier scale on the thimble
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The above image shows a typical micrometer screw gauge and how to read it. Steps:
 To obtain the first part of the measurement: Look at the image above, you will see
a number 5 to the immediate left of the thimble. This means 5.0 mm. Notice that
there is an extra line below the datum line, this represents an additional 0.5 mm. So
the first part of the measurement is 5.0+0.5=5.5
 To obtain the second part of the measurement: Look at the image above, the number
28 on the rotating vernier scale coincides with the datum line on the sleeve. Hence,
0.28 mm is the second part of the measurement.
You just have to add the first part and second part of the measurement to obtain the
micrometer reading: 5.5+0.28=5.785.5+0.28=5.78 mm.
To ensure that you understand the steps above, here’s one more example:
First part of the measurement: 2.5 mm
Second part of the measurement: 0.38 mm

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Final measurement: 2.88 mm
The reading on the bottom is the measurement obtained and the reading at the top is the
zero error. Find the actual measurement. (Meaning: get rid of the zero error in the
measurement or take into account the zero error)
Measurement with zero error: 1.76 mm
Zero error: + 0.01 mm (positive because the zero marking on the thimble is below the
datum line)
Measurement without zero error: 1.76–(+0.01) =1.751.76–(+0.01) =1.75 m
25
5. Cutting Tools
a) Files
Files of different types are the principal hand tools used by a fitter. All the files,
irrespective of their shape, size and grade, essentially consist of two main parts,
viz., a toothed blade and a pointed tang, which is fitted in a handle. Files are
generally forged out of high carbon steel, followed by cutting of teeth, hardening
and tempering etc. Common shapes of the files available are flat, hand, square,
pillar, round, half round, triangular, knife edge, etc.
These files are manufactured in different varieties and their classification is

governed by the following factors: effective length- i.e. excluding the length of
tang, shape or form of the cross-section, depth, spacing and cut of teeth
Length of the files varies according to the need but the most commonly used lengths
range from 10 cm to 30 cm and they cover almost all sorts of filing work done by
hand.
Length between 10 cm and 15 cm are generally used for fine work, between 15 cm
and 25 cm for medium sized work and above 25 cm for all general and large sized
jobs.
Square file which carried double cut teeth on all the four faces and is normally made
tapered for about one-third of its length near the end opposite to the tang.
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Triangular file which normally carries single cut teeth on all the faces and is made
tapered towards the end for about two-third of its length near the tip. The cross-
section is an equilateral triangle.
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Fig.6 Types of files
Teeth of the files may single cut or double cut. Single teeth are parallel and at
angle of 60ºto the center line of the file. Double cut files have two sets of teeth,
the overcut teeth are cut at angle of 60º and the uppercut at 75º to 80º to the centre
line. Files are also further classified according to the coarseness or spacing
between the rows of teeth.
1. Rough (R) with 10 to 4.5 cuts per 10 mm length

2. Bastard (B) with 18 to 6 cuts per 10 mm length
3. Second cut (SC) with 21 to 11 cuts per 10 mm length
4. Smooth (S) with 30 to 15 cuts per 10 mm length
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5. Dead smooth (DS) with 35 to 28 cuts per 10 mm length
6. Super smooth (SS) with 63 to 40 cuts per 10 mm length
b) Scrapers
Scraping is a very important hand operation in bench work employed for obtaining
a fine surface finish on the work, particularly for removing convex spots from
machined surfaces, and the tools used for doing this operation are known as
scrapers.
They vary in shape and size, depending upon the specific work for which they are
employed.
They are usually made from rejected old files. Such files are heated and bent to the
desired shape. They are fitted with a wooden handle.
c) Chisels
There are many verities of chisels used for chipping work by a fitter. Some very
commonly used forms are Flat, Cross-cut, Round nose and Diamond point.
All the chisels are forged from bar stock of carbon steel, to the desired shape and
the cutting edge ground to the correct angle.
The forging operation is followed by annealing, hardening and tempering to make

chisel body tough and obtain a sharp cutting edge.
Full length of the chisel is never hardened, only a small length about the cutting
edge (say about 20 to 30 mm) is hardened.
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The included angle at the cutting edge varies between 40 and 70, depending upon
the material on which it is to be used. Approximate values of cutting angles for
common materials are as follows:
Brass and copper 40
Wrought iron 50
Cast iron and general cutting work 60
Steel (cast) 70
A flat chisel is a general purpose chisel which is most widely used in cutting work,
chipping large surface, cutting metal sheets, rods, bar stocks and similar other
purposes. Since it cuts the metal in cold state it is also frequently known as cold
chisel.
A round nose chisel is used for drawing the eccentric hold back to correct centre
which has run off-centre during drilling operation. Another specific use of this type
of chisel is in cutting oil grooves and channels in bearings and pulley bushes and
cleaning small round corners.
A cross cut is a comparatively narrow chisel having its cutting edge slightly broader
than the blade. It is made to keep the blade free when the chisel is used to cut deep
groove into the metal. Normal widths of the cutting edge vary from 3 mm to 12
mm. This chisel is used to cut parallel grooves on large surfaces, before chipping
by means of a flat chisel, cutting key ways, etc.
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A diamond point chisel is a special purpose chisel used for chipping rough plates
and cutting cast iron pipes, cutting ‘V’ grooves, chipping sharp corners, squaring
up corners of previously cut slots and cleaning angles.
Fig.7. Types of chisel
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d) Hack-Saw
Desired lengths of bar stocks, rods, tubes, iron flats and metal sheets, etc. are always
required to be cut in fitting shop. Hack-saw is a common tool used for this purpose.
It consists of a metal frame, fitted with a wooden handle, carrying metal clips with
wing-nut at its end to hold. The clip carrying the wing nut is threaded so as to stretch
the blade to the desired extent. The frame can be either of fixed type, which can
accommodate the same length of blades or adjustable type which is capable of
accommodating different lengths of blades.
Hack saw blades are made of high carbon steel or low alloy steel. Hack saw blade
is the main part. Push type blades, those which cut in forward stroke only, are
generally used. In these, the teeth always point away from the operator. The blades
in common use are generally 0.7 mm thick, 12.7 mm wide and 20 cm to 30 long.
About 5 to 7 teeth per cm length of blade from the course group and 8 to 12 teeth
per cm from the fine group of teeth.
Fig. 2.9 Different parts of a hack saw
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e) Drill
A drill is a tool for making holes in a metal. It usually consists

of two cutting edges set at an angle with the axis. For rapid
and accurate work twist drills are now universally adapted.
There are two types of twist drill - (i) parallel shank drill (ii)
tapered shank drill. Drilling is the operation of producing
circular holes in a metal piece.
The following are the part of the drill bit:
1. Length,
2. Neck,
3. Shank,
4. Lip,
5. Lip angle,
6. Heel
f) Tap
A tap is a screw-like tool, which has
threads like bolt, and three or four
thread flutes cut across the thread. It is
used to cut threads on the inside of a
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hole, as in a nut. Hand taps are usually
made in sets of three (i) Rougher (ii)
Intermediate and (iii) Finisher
respectively.
The end of the Rougher tap (1) has about six threads
tapered. This is used to start the thread so that the threads are
formed gradually as the tap is turned into the hole.
The intermediate (2) is tapered back from the edge

about three or four threads. This is used after the rougher has
been used and to cut thread as far as possible.
The finisher (3) has full threads for whole of its
length and used to finish the work by the other two taps.
g) Dies
The die is a cutting tool used to cut external threads on cylindrical
parts.
It is a circular disc of hardened tool steel having a threaded hole and
flutes which forms cutting edges
Types of Dies
1. Solid die
2. Adjustable split die
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3. Adjustable two-plate die
g) Reamer
After drilling a hole, Reamer is used to finish the drilled hole.
It consists of Body and Shank
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36
6. Striking Tools
Hammers
The hammer is one of the most widely used fitter’s tools. It is used for striking chisels in chipping
and cutting and the punch in marking.
All the hammers used in a fitting shop are similar in construction to the smith’s hand hammers,
such as ball peen, cross peen, straight peen, etc. The only difference lies in weight. Hammers used
in fitting work are comparatively lighter in weight than the smith’s hand hammers. They normally
weigh from 0.45 kg to 0.7 kg.
Ball peen hammer is the most commonly used hammer. The peen is ball shaped. It is used for
riveting, chipping, drawing and laying out. The weight of the hammer varies from 0.11 to 0.91 kg
(as per IS standards)..
Fig. 2.8 Hammers
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Cross peen hammer resembles the ball peen hammer in shape except that its peen is in wedge
shape and at right angles to the eye. This hammer is used for bending and hammering in the
corners.
Straight peen hammer has a peen in line with the handle and is used for peening or stretching the
metal.
Vocabulary Term Definition
The wearing away or gradual removal of material from an object’s

abrasion
surface. Abrasion can create a smooth or refined surface.
adjustable hand A type of hand reamer that expands and contracts slightly to sizes within
reamer a small range. Adjustable reamers are often used for oddly sized holes.
A figure formed by the intersection of two lines. Angles are also used to
angle
measure distances around a circle.
Any system, machine, tool, or device that does not require human
automated intervention. Automated engraving machines are often used for
engraving complex symbols and high volume production.
A type of hammer with a round end and a flat end used to tap the prick
ball peen hammer punch into the workpiece. Ball peen hammers are also known as
machinists’ hammers.
Any additional process performed on a workpiece before or after it is

benchwork
machined. Benchwork operations are generally manual, such as hand
operations
tapping and hand reaming.
A hole that begins on one side of a workpiece and ends inside the
blind hole workpiece. Blind holes do not extend through the entire thickness of a
workpiece, so they only have one opening.
A document containing all the instructions necessary to manufacture a

blueprint
part. A blueprint includes a part drawing, dimensions, and notes.
A type of hand tap that has 1 to 1 1/2 tapered threads. Bottoming taps are
bottoming tap
the last tap used when hand tapping blind holes.
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A hardened steel tube that guides drills, reamers, and other cutting tools.
bushing
Bushings ensure a cutting tool enters a drilled hole at the correct angle.
A measuring instrument with a pair of expandable jaws on one end and a

caliper rule beam containing a marked scale of unit divisions. Caliper rules can
measure both internal and external features.
A type of steel designed with improved wear resistance, toughness, and

carbon tool steel
strength. Hand reamers are commonly made of carbon tool steel.
A process in which a rigid drill precisely locates a hole in the center of a

center drilling
workpiece. Center drilling establishes a hole’s true centerline diameter.
A component of a combination set used for layout. Center heads allow

center head
machinists to find the center of round or cylindrical workpieces.
A tool used to mark small, sharp points along layout lines. Center
center punch punches create small indentations that indicate the centers of holes when
preparing for drilling operations.
An angled surface that eliminates a sharp corner, removes burrs, and/or

chamfer aids in assembly. Chamfers generally replace a 90° angled surface with a
45° angled surface.
A type of benchwork operation that involves manually removing a sharp

Chamfering corner or edge from a workpiece by creating an angled surface.
Chamfering generally turns a 90° angle into a 45° angle.
A multi-faceted measuring device that allows operators to lay out any

Combination set size angle. A combination set consists of a protractor head, square head,
and center head on a steel rule.
CNC. A combination of software and hardware that directs the operation

Computer numerical
of a machine. Computer numerical control uses mathematical data to
control
direct machine movements.
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A fluid used during cutting operations to reduce heat and friction

Cutting fluid between the cutting tool and the workpiece. Cutting fluids used in manual
machining are often oil-based.
A measurement of space, especially length, width, and height.

Dimensions
Dimensions of a part are indicated on the blueprint.
A layout tool with two sharp-pointed legs used for spacing distances and
Dividers scribing circles. Dividers have a spring-loaded adjusting screw that
allows operators to expand or contract the legs.
A machining tool that penetrates the surface of a workpiece and makes a

Drill press round hole. Drill presses can be used for a variety of holemaking
operations.
A machining tool that uses a drill to penetrate the surface of a workpiece

Drill press and make a round hole. Drill presses can be used for a variety of
holemaking operations.
A type of hand reamer that expands slightly with a screw. Expansion

Expansion reamer reamers only expand and do not contract; the diameter expansion is
permanent.
A flat metal cutting tool with a large number of very small teeth. Files
File
wear away workpiece material through abrasion.
A tool that machinists use to manually remove chips from a hand file.
File card File cards prevent chips caught in a hand file from scratching a
workpiece surface.
A type of benchwork operation that involves manually removing small

amounts of workpiece material with a tool that has small, sharp teeth.
filing
Filing can smooth workpiece surfaces, remove sharp edges, and add a
chamfer.
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A helical recess that winds up the length of the body of a drill, end mill,
Flutes and tap. Flutes allow for the removal of chips and the entrance of cutting
fluids.
A manual cutting tool that smooths or enlarges existing holes. Hand

Hand reamer reamers have a straight shank and a square tang, or peg, that can be
gripped with a tap wrench.
A type of benchwork operation that involves manually removing small

Hand reaming amounts of workpiece material to enlarge an existing hole. Hand reaming
is performed on holes that require tight tolerances.
A manual cutting tool that cuts internal threads into a drilled hole. Hand
Hand tap
taps are typically held and driven into a hole by a tap wrench.
A type of benchwork operation that involves manually cutting an internal

Hand tapping
thread. Hand tapping is performed without the use of a machine tool.
Helical-fluted hand A type of hand reamer with spiral-shaped flutes. Helical-fluted hand
reamer reamers are often used to ream holes with keyways or interruptions.
HSS. A common cutting tool material that is relatively inexpensive and

High-speed steel offers excellent toughness. High-speed steel tools are often heat treated
and coated.
A substance used to reduce friction between components or objects.

Lubricant Machinist use lubricant to lengthen tool life and prevent marring of a
workpiece surface.
Two lines or axes that are equidistant from each other at all points along
Parallel
their length. Parallel workpiece surfaces never touch.
Meeting at a 90 angle. Perpendicular workpiece surfaces are considered

Perpendicular
square to one another.
A type of tapered tap that adds an internal thread to a pipe or tube. Pipe
Pipe tap taps create tapered threads that improve the sealing capabilities of a
tapped hole.
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A layout tool with two sides that form a 90° angle. Precision steel
Precision steel square
squares check the squareness of two surfaces to each other.
A component of a combination set used for layout. Protractor heads

Protractor head allow machinists to mark or measure any size angle between 0 to 180
degrees.
A pen-like layout tool. Scribers create fine lines on the surface of a

Scriber
workpiece.
A type of screw with a rounded or cone-shaped end designed to fit into a

Set screw
matching recess. A set screw is used to expand an expansion reamer.
A component of a combination set used for layout. Square heads allow

Square head
machinists to measure and scribe 45° and 90° angles.
A thin metal tool that has a raised mirror image of a letter, number, or
Stamps symbol at one end. Stamps generally come in sets, so any desired
combination of markings can be impressed into a workpiece surface.
A simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip with

Steel rule
a marked scale of unit divisions. Steel rules can be rigid or flexible.
Straight-fluted hand A type of hand reamer with straight flutes. Straight-fluted reamers are the
reamer most common types of hand reamers.
Drill dimensions that are required to create a specific threaded hole. Tap
Tap drill size
drill size is the size of the drilled hole before it is tapped.
A tool that grabs the flutes of a broken tap to remove it from inside a
Tap extractor
hole. Tap extractors are held and turned by a tap wrench.
A manual tool that holds a hand tap’s square end and allows a machinist
Tap wrench
to turn the hand tap. Tap wrenches can also be used with hand reamers.
A type of hand tap that has 8 to 10 tapered threads. Taper taps are the
Taper tap first tap used when hand tapping blind holes, and they are also often used
to tap through holes.
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Gradually decreasing in size from one end of the object to the other.
Tapered
Tapered taps create a conical shape at the bottom of a hole to fit screws.
A type of tap wrench that is shaped like a “T” and often used to hold
T-handle tap wrench smaller-diameter taps. T-handle tap wrenches require more force to
manually rotate than other tap wrenches.
A hardened, cylindrical ‘Go/No Go’ gage used to inspect the fit of

Thread plug gage
threads in a hole. Thread plug gages are available in standardized sizes.
A long, spiraling groove that may appear on a workpiece or tool surface.

Threads Threads help fasteners, such as screws, grip material and hold
components together.
A hole that passes through the entire thickness of a workpiece. Through

Through hole holes have no bottom because they pass through both sides of a
workpiece.
A blueprint specification indicating an unwanted but acceptable deviation

Tolerances from a given dimension. Tolerances state the allowable difference
between a part and its intended design.
The length of time a cutting tool is expected to be operational before it

must be replaced. Tool life can be extended through optimized
Tool life
implementation, including using the proper tool geometry or cutting with
cutting fluids.
A small, movable, graduated scale used for measuring a fractional

Vernier division of the fixed scale. Vernier scales appear on both manual calipers
and micrometers.
A workholding device with two jaws that grip and hold a workpiece in
Vise place. Vises used in benchwork operations have one fixed and one
movable jaw.
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A flat structure, similar to a table that is used to perform manual cutting

Work bench operations. Workbenches provide the surface and support for performing
benchwork operations.
The machine component that supports the workpiece and any work
Work table holding devices during machining. Worktables may provide the surface
and support for performing benchwork operations.
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UNIT 2: PERFORM SHEET METAL WORKS
1. Explain sheet metal works

2. Use metal forming machines
3. Perform sheet metal forming and cutting
4. Use hacksaws and other cutting machines/equipment
2.1. Metal forming and cutting machines

2.1.1. Folding machine
Principle of Folding: Sheet Metal Folding Process is performed on sheet metat folding machine.
The machine consists of a clamping beam that holds down the sheet ,….metal work, and a
folding beam that performs the folding operation to produce desired angle and edge.
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2.2. Grinding machine
Grinding is the process of removing metal by the application of abrasives which are bonded to
form a rotating wheel. When the moving abrasive particles contact the workpiece, they act as tiny
cutting tools, each particle cutting a tiny chip from the workpiece. It is a common error to believe
that grinding abrasive wheels remove material by a rubbing action; actually, the process is as much
a cutting action as drilling, milling, and lathe turning.
The grinding machine supports and rotates the grinding abrasive wheel and often supports and
positions the workpiece in proper relation to the wheel.
The grinding machine is used for roughing and finishing flat, cylindrical, and conical surfaces;
finishing internal cylinders or bores; forming and sharpening cutting tools; snagging or removing
rough projections from castings and stampings; and cleaning, polishing, and buffing surfaces.
Once strictly a finishing machine, modem production grinding machines are used for complete
roughing and finishing of certain classes of work.
Grinding machines are used daily in a machine shop. To avoid injuries follow the safety
precautions listed below.
1. Wear goggles for all grinding machine operations.
2. Check grinding wheels for cracks before mounting.
3. Never operate grinding wheels at speeds in excess of the recommended speed.
4. Never adjust the workpiece or work mounting devices when the machine is operating.
5. Do not exceed recommended depth of cut for the grinding wheel or machine.
6. Remove workpiece from grinding wheel before turning machine off.
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7. Use proper wheel guards on all grinding machines.
8. On bench grinders, adjust tool rest 1/16 to 1/8 inch from the wheel.
Principle of grinding: The work piece is fed against a constantly rotating abrasive wheel so that
a thin layer of material is removed from it.
Horizontal grinding machine
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Generally, grinding machines are classified as the following:
i) Bench Grinding Machine
ii) Surface Grinding Machine
iii) Cylindrical Grinding Machine
iv) Centerless Grinding Machine
v) Internal Grinding Machine and
vi) Special Purpose Grinding Machine.
2.3. Drilling machine
Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the job by
cutting tool called drill.
2.3.1. Construction of drilling machine
In drilling machine the drill is rotated and fed along its axis of rotation in the stationary
workpiece. Different parts of a drilling machine are shown in Fig. 1 and are discussed below: (i)
The head containing electric motor, V-pulleys and V-belt which transmit rotary motion to the
drill spindle at a number of speeds. (ii) Spindle is made up of alloy steel. It rotates as well as
49
moves up and down in a sleeve. A pinion engages a rack fixed onto the sleeve to provide vertical
up and down motion of the spindle and hence the drill so that the same can be fed into the
workpiece or withdrawn from it while drilling. Spindle speed or the drill speed is changed with
the help of V-belt and V-step-pulleys. Larger drilling machines are having gear boxes for the
said purpose. (iii) Drill chuck is held at the end of the drill spindle and in turn it holds the drill
bit. (iv) Adjustable work piece table is supported on the column of the drilling machine. It can be
moved both vertically and horizontally. Tables are generally having slots so that the vice or the
workpiece can be securely held on it. (v) Base table is a heavy casting and it supports the drill
press structure. The base supports the column, which in turn, supports the table, head etc. (vi)
Column is a vertical round or box section which rests on the base and supports the head and the
table. The round column may have rack teeth cut on it so that the table can be raised or lowered
depending upon the workpiece requirements. This machine consists of following main parts:
(i) Base; (ii) Pillar; (iii) Main drive; (iv) Drill spindle; (v) Feed handle and (vi) Work table.
Construction of drilling machine

2.3.2. Types of drilling machine
Drilling machines are classified on the basis of their constructional features, or the type of work
they can handle. The various types of drilling machines are: (1) Portable drilling machine (2)
Sensitive drilling machine or Bench drilling machine(a) Bench mounting (b) Floor mounting (3)
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Upright drilling machine (a) Round column section (b) Box column section machine (4) Radial
drilling machine (a) Plain (b) Semi-universal (c) Universal (5) Gang drilling machine (6)
Multiple spindle drilling machine (7) Automatic drilling machine (8) Deep hole drilling machine
(a) Vertical (b) Horizontal Few commonly used drilling machines are described as under.
1. Portable Drilling Machine (or portable electric drill)
A portable drilling machine is a small compact unit and used for drilling holes in workpieces in
any position, which cannot be drilled in a standard drilling machine. It may be used for drilling
small diameter holes in large castings or weldments at that place itself where they are lying.
Portable drilling machines are fitted with small electric motors, which may be driven by both
A.C. and D.C. power supply. These drilling machines operate at fairly high speeds and
accommodate drills up to 12 mm in diameter.
Portable Drilling Machine (or portable electric drill)

2. Sensitive Drilling Machine
It is a small machine used for drilling small holes in light jobs. In this drilling machine, the
workpiece is mounted on the table and drill is fed into the work by purely hand control. High
rotating speed of the drill and hand feed are the major features of sensitive drilling machine. As
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the operator senses the drilling action in the workpiece, at any instant, it is called sensitive
drilling machine. A sensitive drilling machine consists of a horizontal table, a vertical column, a
head supporting the motor and driving mechanism, and a vertical spindle.
Drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm can be rotated in the spindle of sensitive drilling
machine. Depending on the mounting of base of the machine, it may be classified into following
types: (i) Bench mounted drilling machine, and (ii) Floor mounted drilling machine
3. Upright Drilling Machine
The upright drilling machine is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine. It is designed
for handling medium sized workpieces and is supplied with power feed arrangement. In this
machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be available for drilling different types
of work. Upright drilling machines are available in various sizes and with various drilling
capacities (ranging up to 75 mm diameter drills). The table of the machine also has different
types of adjustments. Based on the construction, there are two general types of upright drilling
machine: (i) Round column section or pillar drilling machine and (ii) Box column section.
The round column section upright drilling machine consists of a round column whereas the
upright drilling machine has box column section. The other constructional features of both are
same. Box column machines possess more machine strength and rigidity as compared to those
having round section column.
4. Radial Drilling Machine
The radial drilling machine consists of a heavy, round vertical column supporting a horizontal
arm that carries the drill head. Arm can be raised or lowered on the column and can also be
swung around to any position over the work and can be locked in any position. The drill head
containing mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted on a radial arm and can be
moved horizontally on the guide-ways and clamped at any desired position. These adjustments of
arm and drilling head permit the operator to locate the drill quickly over any point on the work.
The table of radial drilling machine may also be rotated through 360 deg. The maximum size of
hole that the machine can drill is not more than 50 mm. Powerful drive motors are geared
directly into the head of the machine and a wide range of power feeds are available as well as
sensitive and geared manual feeds. The radial drilling machine is used primarily for drilling
medium to large and heavy workpieces. Depending on the different movements of horizontal
arm, table and drill head, the upright drilling machine may be classified into following types:
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1. Plain radial drilling machine
2. Semi universal drilling machine, and
3. Universal drilling machine.
Radial drilling machine
2.4. Shearing machine

The Shearing process involves cutting sheet metal into individual pieces by subjecting it to shear
stresses in the thickness direction, typically using a punch and die, similar to the action of a paper
punch.
53
Important variables of shearing are shown below:
The Force required for shearing is:

F = S*t*L
Where;
S: shear strength of the sheet metal
t: sheet thickness
L: length of the cut edge
The Shear strength (S) can be estimated by:
S = 0.7 * UTS; where
UTS: the Ultimate Tensile Strength
The above formula does not consider other factors such as friction.
Examples of shearing operations:
In punching, the slug is considered scrap, while in blanking it is the product
54
2.5. Bending operations
Bending is defined as the straining of metal around a straight axis. During this process, the metal
on the inside of the neutral axis is compressed, while the metal on the outside of the neutral axis
is stretched.
α = bend angle
w = width of sheet
R = bend radius
t = sheet thickness
α′ = 180° - α, “included” angle
Two common bending methods are:
– V-bending
– Edge or wipe bending.
In V-bending the sheet metal blank is bent between a V-shaped punch and die. The figure below
shows a front view and isometric view of a V-bending setup with the arrows indicating the
direction of the applied force:
55
Edge or wipe bending (conducted in lab) involves cantilever loading of the material. A pressure
pad is used to apply a Force to hold the blank against the die, while the punch forces the workpiece
to yield and bend over the edge of the die. The figure below clearly illustrates the edge (wipe)-
bending setup with the arrows indicating the direction of the applied force (on the punch):
When the bending stress is removed at the end of the deformation process, elastic energy remains
in the bent part causing it to partially recover to its original shape. In bending, this elastic
recovery is called springback. It increases with decreasing the modulus of elasticity, E, and
increasing the yield strength, Y, of a material.
Springback is defined as the increase in included angle of the bent part relative to the included
angle of the forming tool after the tool is removed.
After springback:
• The bend angle will decrease (the included angle will increase)
• The bend radius will increase
Following is a schematic illustration of springback in bending:
αi: bend angle before springback
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αf: bend angle after springback
Ri: bend radius before springback
Rf: bend radius after springback
Note: Ri and Rf are internal radii
In order to estimate springback, the following formula can be used:
Where:
Ri, Rf: initial and final bend radii respectively
Y: Yield strength
E: Young’s modulus
t: Sheet thickness
When over bending is used in V-bending (for example), the punch angle and radius are
fabricated slightly smaller than the specified angle and radius of the final part. This way the
material can “spring back” to the desired value.
Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the end of the stroke, thus plastically deforming it in
the bend region.
Young's Modulus - Tensile Modulus, Modulus of Elasticity - E
Young's modulus can be expressed as
E = stress / strain
= σ/ε
= (F / A) / (dL / L)
Yield strength - σy
Yield strength is defined in engineering as the amount of stress (Yield point) that a material can
undergo before moving from elastic deformation into plastic deformation.
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Ultimate Tensile Strength - σu
The Ultimate Tensile Strength - UTS - of a material is the limit stress at which the material
actually breaks, with a sudden release of the stored elastic energy.
Other bending operations include:

 Flanging is a bending operation in which the edge of a sheet metal is bent at a 90° angle
to form a rim or flange. It is often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal. The flange
can be straight, or it can involve stretching or shrinking as shown in the figure below:
(a) Straight flanging (b) Stretch flanging and (c) Shrink flanging
In stretch flanging the curvature of the bending line is concave and the metal is circumferentially
stretched, i.e., A > B. The flange undergoes thinning in stretch flanging.
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In shrink flanging the curvature of the bending line is convex and the material is
circumferentially compressed, i.e., A < B. The material undergoes thickening in shrink flanging.
 Hemming involves bending the edge of the sheet over onto itself in more than one
bending step. This process is used to eliminate sharp edges, increase stiffness, and
improve appearance, such as the edges in car doors.
 Seaming is a bending operation in which two sheet metal edges are joined together.
 Curling (or beading) forms the edges of the part into a roll. Curling is also used for
safety, strength, and aesthetics.
(a) Hemming, (b) Seaming and (c) Curling
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2.6. Rolling machine
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UNIT 3: TYPES OF METALS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
1. Identify different types of metals

2. Give applications of metals
Generally metals are classified into two main groups,
1. Ferrous.
2. Non-Ferrous.
3.1. Ferrous Metals.

Ferrous metals are metals that consist mostly of iron and small amounts of other
elements. Ferrous metals are prone to rusting if exposed to moisture. Ferrous
metals can also be picked up by a magnet. The rusting and magnetic properties in
ferrous metals are both down due to the iron. Typical ferrous metals include mild
steel, cast iron and steel.
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Examples:
i. Mild Steel.
b. Cast Iron.
c. High Carbon Steel.
d. High Speed Steel.
e. Stainless Steel
a. Ferrous Metals and their applications
65
66
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Homework: Question I
1) What are the properties of a ferrous metal?
2.) What is cast iron used for?
3.) Why is it good to make hammers out of high carbon steel?
4.) Why is it good to make cutlery out of stainless steel?
5.) List one application and one property of the following alloy steels:
(i) Stainless Steel;
(ii) High Speed Steel.
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3.2. Non-Ferrous metal and their applications
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Homework: Question II
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UNITY 4: HOUSEKEEPING
i. Give Benefits of a good Housekeeping

4.1. Introduction to housekeeping
Housekeeping refers to day-to-day cleanliness, tidiness and good order in all parts
of the workplace. Good housekeeping provides a clean and pleasant working
environment. It also helps prevent accidents in the workplace and aids the efficient
operation of the workplace. Good housekeeping can usually be achieved by routine
cleaning of the premises, proper storage of materials, periodic disposal of rubbish,
regular maintenance of facilities and full staff co-operation.
4.2. Process and Responsibilities

Good housekeeping is the responsibility of all live personnel. It is important that work areas are
kept clean and organised at all times. It is vital you do not ignore poor housekeeping, always
ensure:
1. Walkways are kept free from debris and any trip hazards.
2. Benches are kept clean and orderly (this will assist with good ergonomics (people's
efficiency in their working environmen) and manual handling practises).
3. Emergency access and egress areas are free from debris.

4. Leads are kept off the floor where possible or moved to a safe location.
5. Bins are emptied on a regular basis (daily as a minimum).
6. Floor areas are swept on a regular basis to remove debris and dust.
7. Perishable items and hazardous substances such as paints, coolants etc are stored away
correctly when not in use (in steel cabinets).
8. Tools and equipment are returned to the stores or placed in designated areas when not in
use.
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4.3. Benefits of a good Housekeeping
1. Reduce fire hazard
Poor housekeeping accelerates the outbreak and spread of fire. For any fire prevention
programme to succeeds, housekeeping must be an integral part of the programme.
2. Higher employee morals
Clean surroundings and freedom from injury improve employee attitudes, which make
for production.
3. Reduction in operation costs
The start of a clean-up of a department usually requires much efforts and time to
establish. However, once a department is clean and a good housekeeping system has been
established, less time and effort are requires normally involve money, hence a reduction
in their areas implies a reduction in overall operation costs of the organization.
4. Increase in production
Good housekeeping ensures that probable obstruction to production such as excess
materials, tools scraps are removed and arranged and disposed of adequately. When
production lines are free of such obstructions orderly and business like methods can then
function without undue interference or delay. Thus definitely will guarantee increase in
production.
5. Improvement in production control
When materials and parts do not get lost or mixed up, the checking of operation and
recording of data are easier. If operating parameters of machine are just right, the quality
of products will meet specifications. Good housekeeping will ensure this.
6. It also ensures conservation of materials and parts
Hence materials will be conserved and optimum use will be made of them.
7. Save production time
When there is good housekeeping, materials are orderly arranged in their designated
positions under such circumstances, there will be no need to search for tools/parts of
materials, thereby making judicious use of time, which lead to increase in production.
8. Better use of floor space
Orderly arrangement of materials allow for more items to be accommodated in a given
space. This makes it possible for the available floor space to be put into optimum use.
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9. Open and clear aisles
Good housekeeping ensures that materials are not kept on passages either temporarily or
for some considerable length of time. Also, materials are not stored in such a manner as
to make them protrude into passages. Open aisles permit traffic with fewer collisions.
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PART II: INDUSTRIAL PIPES
UNIT 5: IDENTIFY MATERIALS USED IN PIPING SYSTEM
i. Identify pipes and accessories

ii. Select tools, materials and equipment for pipes
iii. Apply methods of joining pipes
iv. Apply methods of joining copper pipes, cast ductile iron pipes and stainless steel tubes
v. Check leakages in piping system.
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5.1. Understanding piping system
A pipe is a tubular item made of metal, plastic, glass etc. meant for conveying liquid, gas or
anything that flows. It is a very important component for any industrial plant and it plays a major
part in overall engineering of a plant.
A Piping System is an assembly of various components put together with a proper method of
joints, functionally to transport fluid from its source to destination. The different components put
together are defined as piping components.
5.2. Piping components and their access requirements
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5.3. Tools and equipment used in piping
The following tools and equipment are very important in piping system:
Hummer, Pipe wrenches, Hack saw, Pipe cutter, pipe threading machine, Adjustable spanner,
Dies, Pipe vice, Tape measure, Coupling, Cap, Elbows, Reducer, Nipple, Tee-joint, Double
tee(cross), Union, Socket, Valves, Blow gun, Plug, pipes, etc.
5.4. Pipe Fittings
Pipe fittings are widely demanded for any piping and plumbing systems used in industrial and
commercial applications. Fittings allow pipes to be joined or installed in the appropriate place
and terminated or closed where necessary. Fittings are available in various shapes and sizes.
They can be expensive, require time, and different materials and tools to install. They are an
essential part of piping and plumbing systems. There are thousands of specialized fittings
manufactured. Each type of pipe or tube requires its own type of fitting, but usually all pipe
fittings share some common features. Pipe fittings are available everywhere where plumbing
materials are sold.
5.5. Pipe Fittings Types & Their Functions
a) What is Pipe Fittings?
Pipe Fittings are piping component that helps in Changes the direction of the flow such as elbows,
tees. Changes the size of the pipe such as reducers, reducing tees. Connect different components
such as couplings and stop the flows such as Caps.
1. Elbows: Such pipe fittings are used to change the direction of the flow. They are majorly
available in two standard types - 90 and 45 degree angles owing to their high demand in
plumbing. The 90 degree elbow is primarily used to connect hoses to water pumps, valves, and
deck drains, while the 45 degree elbow is mostly used in water supply facilities, electronic and
chemical industrial pipeline networks, food, air-conditioning pipelines, garden production,
agriculture, and solar-energy facility.
Available in: Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS plastic), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chrome-
plated brass, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), stainless steel, malleable (galvanized and
black), and copper.
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2. Couplings: A coupling is a pipe
fitting used to stop leakages in broken
or damaged pipes. The pipes to be
connected should be of the same
diameter. The two kinds of couplings
used in plumbing are regular coupling
and slip coupling. The regular
coupling is arranged between the two
pipes to prevent further leakages with
the help of rubber seals or gaskets on the both sides. The slip coupling itself contains two pipes
to repair the damaged lengthy pipes.
Available in: ABS, brass, copper, chrome-plated brass, CPVC, PVC, malleable (galvanized and
black), and stainless steel.
3. Union: This type of pipe fitting is almost similar to coupling in terms of functions, but just
with a difference, i.e. a union can be removed easily any time while the coupling cannot. A
variety of dielectric unions are used to join pipes made of different materials to avoid any kind of
galvanic corrosion between them. These pipe fittings comprise of a nut, female and male ended
threads.
Available in: Brass, copper, chrome-plated brass, malleable (galvanized and black), PVC,
CPVC, and stainless steel.
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4. Adapters: Adapters are connected
to pipes to either increase their
lengths or if pipes do not have
appropriate ends. These pipe fittings
make the ends of the pipe either male
or female threaded as per the need.
This permits unlike pipes to be
connected without any need of
extensive setup. They are mostly used
for PVC and copper pipes.
Available in: ABS, CPVC, copper, malleable (galvanized and black), PVC, brass, and stainless
steel.
5. Nipple: Nipples are a short stub of

pipe, male-threaded at each end,that
are used to connect straight pipe runs.
Close nipples are threaded from each
end along their whole length for
particularly tight connections
Available in: Brass, chrome-plated brass, malleable (galvanized and black), PVC, copper, and
stainless steel.
6. Reducer: This pipe setting is used to reduce the flow size of the pipe from the bigger to
smaller one. There are two kinds of
reducers- concentric reducer and
eccentric reducer. The former one is
in the shape of a cone used for
gradual reducing of the size of the
pipe. The latter one has its one edge
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facing the mouth of the connecting pipe reducing the chances of air accumulation.
7. Tee: This T-shaped pipe fitting

used in the plumbing system has one
inlet and two outlets arranged at an
angle of 90 degrees to the main pipe.
This kind of fitting is used to connect
the two pipes and make their flow
direction as one. If all the three sides
of this fitting are same in size, it is
called equal tee, otherwise
unequal tee.
Available in: ABS, copper,

CPVC, PVC, brass, chrome-plated
brass, malleable (galvanized and
black), and stainless steel.
8. Cross: This type of pipe fitting

contains four openings in all the four
major directions. This fitting is
adjoined to four pipes meeting at
common point. There is either one
inlet and three outlets or vice-versa to
flow water or any other liquid in four
different directions. These kinds of
pipe fittings are commonly used in
fire sprinkler systems.
Available in: PVC, brass, malleable (galvanized and black), and stainless steel.
9. Flanges: A flange is another pipe fitting used to connect pipes, pumps, valves, and other
components to form a full-fledged piping system. They come with a flexibility of easily cleaning
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or inspecting the whole system from within. They are fixed to the pipes using welding, threading
or screwing techniques and then finally sealed with the help of bolts. They are used in residential
pump systems and majorly for industrial purposes.
Available in: Brass, copper, malleable (galvanized and black), and PVC.
10. Caps & Plugs: Both these pipe

fittings are used to close the ends of
the pipe either temporarily or
permanently. The plugs are fitted
inside the pipe and threaded to keep
the pipe for future use. There are a
good number of ways a cap can be
applied to the pipe like soldering,
glue, or threading depending on the material of the pipe.
Available in: ABS, brass, copper, chrome-plated brass, malleable (galvanized and black),
CPVC, PVC, and stainless steel.
11. Bushings: These pipe fittings are

used to combine pipes of different
sizes together by decreasing the size
of the larger fitting to the size of the
smaller pipe. Bushings are not always
threaded inside out and occupy very
little space in comparison to a union
or coupling used for the same
purpose.
Available in: ABS, chrome-plated brass, copper, brass, CPVC, PVC, stainless steel, and
malleable (galvanized and black).
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12. Wyes: Such type of pipe fittings
are used in drainage systems and have
a branch line at 45 degrees to keep the
flow of water smooth. When the
sanitary tees fail to work in a
horizontal connection, such cases
needs a wye.
Available in: Brass, ABS, and PVC.
13. Valves: Valves are used in the

plumbing system to stop the flow of
gases or liquids. There are of three
types – throttling, isolation, and non-
return. The isolation valves are used
to disconnect a part of the piping
system temporarily for maintenance
or repair. The throttling valves are
used to regulate the amount of pressure of a liquid in a pipe; they can also withstand the stress
caused by this process.
14. Barb: A barb is another useful

pipe fitting used in the plumbing
system that connects flexible tubing
to pipes. It has a male-threaded end
on one side that connects with the
female threads, and the other end has
a single or a multi-barbed tube that is
inserted in the flexible tubing.
Available in: Brass for hot water uses and plastic for cold water.
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15. Diverter tee: This kind of a tee-shaped pipe
fitting is commonly used in the pressurized
hydronic heating systems to redirect a part of
the flow from the main line to the side branch
connected to a heat exchanger.
16. Olet: These fittings are used when the standard size of the fittings fails to serve the purpose.
5.6. How connecting pipe fittings to pipes

Pipe fittings are either male fittings or female fittings. In threaded pipe fittings, female threads
are on the inside while male threads are on the outside. Pipe fittings that have one female end
and one male end are called street fittings. Pipe fittings are used to connect pipes or tubes in two
ways:
 By threading: Threaded pipes screw together to connect or join. Generally metal pipes
are threaded and they have threaded fittings.
 By slip fit: Slip fit pipes use sleeves that slip into one another. The plastic pipes are either
threaded or slip fit.
c) Accordingly pipe fittings are organized as follows:
 Male threaded: Exterior threads. Are screwed into the inside of pipe end of a larger
diameter with internal threading.
 Female threaded: Interior threads. Receive male threaded pipe fittings.
 Male slip fit: There are no threads. Made to slip into slightly larger
 Female slip fit: Female slip fit: There are no threads. Receive a narrower
5.7. Selection criteria for pipe fittings:

Pipe fittings are to be chosen considering certain factors. They are as follows:
 Connection types: When purchasing pipe fittings, you should be aware of the fact that a
fitting can have two different connector types. One end of the fitting might be female
threaded while the other female threaded. One end might be male slip while the other end
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is threaded, in the case of plastic fittings. They can also have matching ends which can
accommodate any requirement.
 Materials of construction: As a rule, the pipe fitting should be of the same material as
the material used in the making of the pipe in which it is to be fitted. However, in some
cases, materials conforming to certain codes or standards can also be used in pipes of
another material.
 Check for flow: To keep the flow consistent, the ends of pipe fittings should be slightly
larger than the rest of the pipe so that they can accommodate connections without
narrowing the inner diameter (ID) of the pipe.
 Type of fitting: Besides pipe materials, pipe fittings are identified by the type of fitting
— threaded or slip, male or female.
 Size: When measuring the size of pipe fittings, it is to be noted that the male threaded
fittings are measured to the outside edge or outer diameter (OD), while female fittings are
measured to the inside edge of the inlet or ID.
 Thickness: Just as pipes are available in a number of different thicknesses or
"schedules", so also the pipe fittings.
 Design: Each pipe or tube is designed to carry certain specific types of fluids, liquids,
gases, chemicals under varying conditions. Accordingly, the pipe fittings are also
available in variety of designs.
 Standards and codes: There are certain standards and codes set by various organizations
by which the different pipe fittings are graded. For example, ASTM, ASME, BSP etc. are
certain standards assigned to pipe fittings and those standards dictate their use.
 Pipe Fittings are based on Purposes: Depending on the purposes served, pipe fittings
can be categorized as under:
 Pipe fittings to extend or terminate pipe runs: For example, Couplings, Adapters,
Unions, Caps and Plugs Pipe.
 Fittings to change a pipe's direction: For example , Elbows, tee, cross
 Pipe fittings to connect two or more pipes: For example: Tees, Cross, Side-inlet
Elbows, Wyes
 Pipe fittings to change pipe size: For example, Reducers, Bushings, Couplings
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 Pipe fittings to manage or regulate flow: For example, Valves
5.7. Pipe Color Code Standard

Well, why have codes in the first place?
Piping codes, like the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and National Electric Code have evolved
over time in response to the need to continuously improve safety.
There are many different piping codes in use throughout the world. These codes may be divided
into the following basic groups:
1. Plumbing codes, intended to protect the public against unsanitary conditions.
2. Gas codes, intended to protect the public from hazardous fumes, fires, and explosions.
3. Industrial codes, intended to protect facilities and those working in them from catastrophic
failures.
Color coding of pipeline and piping materials are standard industry practices. Color marking
will make identification easier for raw material and fluid that being transport by the pipe. There
are various national and international Pipe Color Code Standards
1. ASME/ANSI A13.1 – Scheme for the Identification of Piping Systems

2. BS 1710 – Specification for Identification of Pipelines and Services
3. IS 2379 – Pipelines Identification Colour Code
4. PFI ES-22 – Recommended Practice for Color Coding of Piping Materials
5.7.1. Color Coding of Piping Material – PFI ES-22
Why color coding of piping material?
During construction and fabrication, various grades of carbon steel, alloy steel, and stainless steel
are used. To avoid mixing of this material and easy storing and retrieving in the warehouse,
piping components such as pipe, fittings, flanges, and valves are color coded.
All most all company has their own color coding system. Pipe Fabrication Institute (PFI)
Standard ES-22 provides Piping Materials color coding requirements for most commonly used
piping material grades. It also provides guidance on marking location on piping components.
Refer below images for the color band location on piping components.
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5.7.2. Color Coding of Pipeline and Piping Identification
Oil and Gas Industries, Process industries are complex installation. Piping systems are used in
these plants to transport various fluids. These pipelines transport various industrial materials
such as gases such as Air, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Hydrogen etc., liquids such as water, acids,
hydrocarbon, toxic materials etc.
Without proper pipe color code, it is extremely difficult to identify the material pipeline
transporting. To reduce the safety hazard, reduce the possibility of mistakes in identification and
accidents associated with wrong identification of pipeline during the emergency situation,
systematic color coding of pipeline and piping system is essential. Uniformity of color marking
promotes greater safety, lessens the chances of error and reduces hazards involved in the
handling of material inside the pipelines.
There are national and international standard that provides the guidelines for uniform color
coding in industries that are used to color code of pipe to identify.
 ASME A13.1 – Scheme for the Identification of Piping Systems

 BS 1710 – Specification for Identification of Pipelines and Services
 IS 2379 – Pipelines Identification Colour Code
These standard uses different color code methodology to identify the pipe material. They use a
base color, band color, letters and direction arrow to identify fluid inside the pipeline.
5.7.3. ANSI/ASME A13.1 – Scheme for the Identification of Piping Systems
The purpose of ASME/ANSI A13.1 Standard is to establish a common system that assists in the
identification of hazardous materials conveyed in piping systems and their hazards when released
into the environment.
ASME A13.1 – 2015 edition has six fixed colors and 4 users define colors that can be used to
identify the hazardous material. In this standard, following category are used;
1. Flammable – Fluids or a vapor or produce vapors that can be ignited and continue to
burn in air.
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2. Combustible – Fluids that can burn, but are not flammable.
3. Oxidizing – Oxidizing fluid is any gas or liquid that may, generally by providing oxygen,
cause or contribute to the combustion of other material more than air does.
4. Toxic and Corrosive – Fluids that are corrosive or toxic, or will produce corrosive or
toxic substances when released.
5. Fire Quenching – Fluid Such as water, foam, and CO2 used in sprinkler systems and
firefighting piping systems.
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5.7.3. Size of Label and Letters as per ASME B13.1-2015
5.7.4. BS 1710 – Specification for Identification of Pipelines and Services
BS1710 use two types of colour coding to identify the content of pipe and hazard.
1. Base colour – Base colours are used to indicate the content inside the pipe.
2. Safety colours – These colours are used as band colours that applied in conjunction with the base
pipe color code to create various service identifier.
Other than colour code, additional information regarding the nature of the contents of the pipe by
using the following systems either individually or in combination:
1. Name in full
2. Abbreviation of name
3. Chemical symbol and
4. Appropriate code indications or code colour bands
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5.7.5. IS 2379 – Pipelines Identification Colour Code
IS 2379 is Indian Standard for the colour coding requirements. It is quite comprehensive and little
complex as compared to BS and ASME standard. IS 2379 is more in line with BS 1710. It used
the ground colour, band colour and letter labeling to identify fluid content and associated hazards.
This standard cover piping systems that include pipes of any kind and in addition fittings, valves,
and pipe coverings. Supports, brackets or other accessories are excluded from this standard. This
standard is not applicable to pipelines buried underground or used for electrical services.
Refer table for the ground colour that used in pipeline marking.
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5.8. Different pipes Cutting tools and equipment
Pipes cutting tools are: Pipe cutter, Hark saw, File, Angle grinder machine
 A pipe cutter is a type of tool used by plumbers to cut pipe. Besides producing a clean cut,
the tool is often a faster, cleaner, and more convenient way of cutting pipe than using a
hacksaw, although this depends on the metal of the pipe.
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There are two types of pipe cutters. Plastic tubing cutters, which really look much like a pair of
pruning shears, may be used for thinner pipes and tubes, such as sprinkler pipe. For use on thicker
pipes, there is a pipe cutter with a sharp wheel and adjustable jaw grips. These are used by rotating
it around the pipe and repeatedly tightening it until it cuts all of the way through
 A hacksaw is a fine-toothed saw, originally and mainly made for cutting metal. The
equivalent saw for cutting wood is usually called bow saw.
Most hacksaws are hand saws with a C-shaped frame that holds a blade under tension. Such
hacksaws have a handle, usually a pistol grip, with pins for attaching a narrow disposable blade.
The frames may also be adjustable to accommodate blades of different sizes. A screw or other
mechanism is used to put the thin blade under tension.
Hacksaws will cut nearly any size pipe made out of metals and plastics. Pipe cutters, on the other
hand, are more limited. In the situations where they work, they are generally accepted to leave
cleaner cuts on the outer surface of the tube. The cut can leave a burr around the inside of the tube.
This burr should be cleaned or reamed when cutting electrical conduit to prevent stripping of the
insulating coating from the wires. In fluid handling applications, the burr should also be removed,
as it can restrict the flow and cause turbulence.
 Pipes threading
Pipes threading tools are: Dies, Power threading machine
The process of cutting or forming threads using a tap is called tapping, whereas the process using
a die is called threading.
Pipe threading Machine
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5.9. Different method of bending pipes
Pipe bending is the umbrella term for metal forming processes used to permanently form pipes
or tubing using a tool/equipment called pipe bender.
 Pipe Vice
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The pipe vice is used for holding round section metal, tubes, pipes, etc. It grips the work at four
points on its surface
Pipe vices can be either fitted onto a workbench, or used with a specialized, mobile tripod stand
outside the workshop.
What is a pipe bender?
A pipe bender is a tool used to bend piping of different materials and sizes, such as copper and
stainless steel, to form various angles and curves. There are four main categories of pipe benders:
manual, hydraulic, electric and mechanical. This section deals with manual pipe benders only.
1. Hydraulic pipe bender
2. Manual pipe bender
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Manual pipe benders are a popular choice for worksites where access to electrical power is
unavailable or in locations where mobility is needed.
Why use a bent pipe instead of a fitting?
There are a number of reasons why once you've got the hang of bending pipe it is much better than
constantly using fittings. Not only is it cheaper and quicker, but for water pipes it removes the risk
of leaking joints, a problem that can arise with fittings.
5.9.1. The types of pipe bender
 Dual pipe bender
The dual pipe bender has two differently sized formers/dies for the pipe to be bent around, which
enable the tool to bend pipe of two different sizes.
It is used manually and can bend pipe to a range of angles.
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 Mini pipe bender
The mini pipe bender only bends small sized piping no larger than 10mm (0.4") in diameter.
It works in the same way as a dual pipe bender with two handles bending the pipe.
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 Ergonomic pipe bender
The ergonomic pipe bender has curved handle ends which are ergonomically designed to
make pipe bending easier, as they require less strength.
 Free-standing pipe bender
The free-standing pipe bender is used to bend longer or thicker piping which requires more
force. It has a free-standing base and a long handle which allows more pressure to be put on
the pipe without extra force from the user.
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 How to use a free-standing pipe bender?
Step 1 - Attach former
Attach the correctly sized former, the former matching your pipe diameter, to the pipe bender.
This is done by screwing it in on the top of both legs of the bender.
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Step 2 - Insert pipe
Insert the pipe on top of the former,

securing it by clipping the holding clamp
over the end of the pipe.
Step 3 - Insert guide
Insert the matching sized guide between

the pipe and the roller within the handle
base.
Step 4 - Make bend
Pull the handle down, using two hands if

needed, until the pipe is at the required
angle.
Pull just past this angle to allow for

spring back.
Step 5 - Remove pipe
Lift the handle back to its original upright

position and remove the guide and pipe
from the former.
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Step 6 - Make another bend if
necessary
If you require further bending on the

pipe, (for example if you are creating a
saddle bend), repeat the process from step
1.
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UNIT 6: DIFFERENT METHODS OF JOINING PIPES
i. Identify pipes
ii. Identify the appropriate type of pipes joint
iii. Cut and Join steel and copper pipes
6.1. Introduction
Pipes can be joined using the following methods: (i) Threaded joint, (ii) Brazed joint, (iii)
Soldered joint, (iv) Welded joint (butt welded, socket welded), (v) Flanged joint, (vi)
Compression joint, and (vii) Grooved joint.
6.2. Different methods of joining pipes
a) Threaded Joint in Pipe
Threaded joint means, pipes are connected by screwing with the help of threads provided for
each pipe. One pipe having internal threads and the other one having threads externally. Cast
iron pipes, copper pipes, PVC and G.I pipes are available with threads.
Threaded joints are available from 6mm diameter to 300mm diameter pipes. They are preferable
for low temperature areas and low pressure flows. In the areas of high temperature, the joints
may expands and leaked due to thermal expansion. Installation of threaded joint is easy but good
maintenance required.
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Threaded Joint in Pipe
b) Brazed Joint in Pipe
Brazing is the process of jointing pipes using molten filler material at above 840 oC. Brazing is
generally used for joining copper pipes or copper alloy pipes. The filler material majorly consist
tin which has great affinity towards copper. But because of its weak property tin is added to other
materials like nickel, bismuth, silver and copper.
The melting point of parent metal should be higher than filler metal. Mechanical strength of
brazed joint is low compared to other joints. This type of joint is suitable in moderate range of
temperature areas.
Brazed Joint in Pipe
c) Soldered Joint in Pipe
Soldering is also similar to brazing but the only difference is in case of soldering the filler metal
melts at below 840oC. Soldering also used to joint copper and copper alloy pipes. Before
proceeding to soldering flux called paste is applied to pipes and fittings to prevent them from
oxidation from flame. Here also we require skilled workers for installation.
Soldered joints are suitable for low temperature areas. These are having low mechanical strength
as brazed joints.
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Soldered Joint
d) Butt Welded Joint in Pipe
When the pipes are of same diameter butt welding is to done to join the pipes. It is the most
common type of welding. Skilled workers are required to install the joint. These joints are
generally used for large commercials and industrial piping systems.
Butt weld provides good strength for the joint and it can resist high pressure because of smooth
and continuous surface inside the joint. Butt weld joints are expensive, to make it economical
sometimes internal weld backing rings are used, which joins the pipe with less amount of filler
material. But these rings may fail under heavy stress and cracks are developed.
The joints are fixed and do not opened for maintenance purposes. External smoothing of welded
portion will give good appearance to the piping system.
Butt Welded Joint in Pipe
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e) Socket Welded Joint in Pipe
Socket welded joints are used wherever there is a high chance of leakage in joints. Pipes are
connected as putting one into other as shown below and welded around the joint. Pipes having
different diameters are suitable for this type of joint.
If pipes having similar diameter, then required fittings are used. Welding cost is generally lower
than butt welding. Fatigue resistance is lower for socket welded joints when compared to butt
weld joints. However, socket welded joint give good results when compared with other
mechanical joints.
f) Flanged Joint in Pipe
Flanged joints are used for high pressure flows and for large diameter pipes. In general they are
used for plain end pipes or threaded pipes. Two flange components are connected by bolts at the
pipe joint to prevent leakage.
Generally these are made of cast iron, steel etc. these are having good strength and do not fail
against high pressure. Against high temperatures the bolts may fail under creep lost their grip so,
fixing of bolts should be done properly while installing. They are also useful for repairing
pipelines and maintenance purposes.
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g) Compression Joint in Pipe
When the pipes have plain ends they are joined by installing some fittings at their ends then that
type of joint is called compression joint. The pipe ends will be fitted with a threaded fittings or
couplings hence they are connected.
So, in this case we can connect pipes of different materials and different sizes. But the joints
should be properly fitted to resist flow pressure otherwise they may fail and leakage occurs.
Compression fittings are available in different materials and selection of fittings may depend
upon our requirement.
Compression Joint
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h) Grooved Joint in Pipe
In case of grooved joint, the pipe ends consist grooved edges which are connected by elastomer
seal and then ductile iron made grooved couplings are used as lock for elastomer seal. This
grooved couplings are connected by bolts. These joints are easy to install and economical.
Grooved joints will give good resistance against pressure and allows moderate axial movement
due to thermal expansion. But, in high temperature Areas elastomer seal may lost its strength and
torsional failure occurs. So, these are permitted to moderate temperature areas.
Grooved Joint
Grooved joints are easily removable so, for maintenance purposes of pipes these joints are
preferable.
6.3. Different types of pipes

a) Cast Ductile Iron Pipe
Cast Ductile Iron (CDI) pipe was developed in 1948, and soon replaced cast iron pipe in pressure
applications. The metallographic structure of ductile iron is such that the graphite exists in the
form of nodules. These compact nodules do not interrupt the metallurgical matrix like the
graphite flakes in cast iron. The result is a material that is stronger and tougher than cast iron.
i) Applications
Like cast iron, ductile iron is used for sewage service. But it finds additional use in
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liquid service; especially for water, and especially potable water.
ii) Fabrication and Assembly (joining) of Cast Ductile Iron Pipe
CDI pipe may be cut using:
• Abrasive saws
• Torches
• Milling cutters
• Portable guillotine saws.
There are several common methods in use to join DI pipe. One is a bell-and-spigot joint, which,
like some cast iron pipe, uses a flexible gasket to provide the seal. Another method is the use of
flanges. Still another is the mechanical joint. “Mechanical joint” is a generic term used to
describe the joining of two pipe ends by any means other than welding, brazing, soldering, or
caulking.
In describing cast or ductile iron pipes, the term “mechanical joint” most often means a joint
other than a flanged joint that is made by bolting.
Mechanical joints are designed with a gland that compresses a gasket. In some designs, the joint
is also restrained from pulling apart.
It is worth noting that whenever a cut pipe is to be inserted into a gasketed bell and spigot joint,
the cut end must be beveled in order to prevent damaging the gasket.
In underground systems using bell and spigot joints, the same problems with thrust blocks apply
to ductile iron pipe as to cast iron pipe. Leakage through flexible gasket bell-and-spigot joints is
estimated to be approximately 1 GPH/1000 ft of pipe
at 150 psi.
iii) Manufacture of CDI Pipe
Ductile iron pipe is manufactured in the same way as cast iron pipe; that is, using a centrifugal
casting process to form the lengths of pipe.
Ductile iron pipe is available in five pressure classes, defined as the rated working pressure of the
pipe, based on a minimum yield strength of 42,000 psi and a 2.0 safety factor which is applied to
the working pressure plus a surge pressure of 100 psi.
When DI pipe was introduced, the outside diameters of the sizes between 4 and 48 in inclusive
were selected to be identical to that of cast iron pipe to make the transition to the new material
easier. Accessories and fittings were then compatible.
117
Example
Given: 12 inch diameter CDI pipe at 350 psi working pressure
100 psi surge pressure
42,000 psi yield stress
Find: Required wall thickness using a factor of safety of 2
By Barlow’s formula,
T=PD/2S
Where:
T: Wall thickness
P: Pressure
D: Outside diameter
S: Yield stress
Then,
T = (350 psi+100 psi)(13.20 in) / 2 (42,000 psi)
=0.071 in
Next we apply the safety factor
T = 2 *0.071 in =0.14 in
CDI pipe manufacturers add both a “service allowance” and a casting tolerance to this thickness
to arrive at the commercial wall thickness. The service allowance is 0.08 in. The casting tolerances
are given in Table 6.2 as 0.06 in for this diameter of pipe. Adding the calculated wall thickness to
the service allowance and the casting tolerance yields a commercial wall thickness of
t =0.14 in+0.08 in+0.06 in=0.28 in
Which is the value shown in Table below for the nominal wall thickness of a 12 in diameter
Pressure Class 350 CDI pipe.
There are 12 standard wall thickness classes for CDI pipe. These classes are analogous to
“schedules” or “weights” that are used for steel pipe. The CDI pipe classes are divided into two
categories:
1. The Pressure Class is named after the working pressure of the pipe, as shown in the example
above. It allows for a pressure surge of 100 psi above the working pressure, and includes a yield
118
stress of 42,000 psi for the CDI material, a factor of safety of 2, and also the service allowance and
casting tolerances described in the above example.
Casting tolerances for cast ductile iron pipe.

2. The other set of classes are called “Special Thickness Classes” and they are identified with the
numbers 50 through 56. These numbers are nominal identifiers and have no physical meaning
(unlike the Pressure Class names which identify the working pressure values). These Special
Thickness Classes are often specified since they permit a larger variety of wall thicknesses for an
application than would otherwise be available from the Pressure Class thicknesses.
The combination of the two classes provides a more extensive menu from which to select an
economical wall thickness. The minimum wall thickness manufactured is 0.25 in.
The outer surface of CDI pipe is normally coated with a 1 mil thick asphaltic coating in accordance
with AWWA C151. The inner surfaces are normally furnished with the standard cement lining as
specified in AWWA C104. The inside surface may also be furnished uncoated, with asphaltic
coating, coal tar epoxy (a resin and tar combination), or various proprietary coatings, depending
on the application.
The cement inner lining is by far the most common, in order to limit corrosion and improve flow
characteristics. Cement linings are adequate for water temperatures up to 212°F (100°C). If
handled roughly or stored for long periods, the cement lining may be subject to cracks, and
sometimes even looseness. Vendor literature states that this does not inhibit the effectiveness of
the lining. It is thought that exposure of the lining to water causes the cracks to close due to
swelling of the cement as the water is absorbed into the microstructure of the lining. Even so,
AWWA C104 provides a procedure for repairing damaged cement lining.
119
Cement Linings per ANSI/AWWA C104/A21.4
Example 2: Underground 12 in diameter, service weight water main operating at 100 psi.
The flow rate is 2800 GPM. Soil bearing pressure is 2500 PSF. See Figure (elbow). The
density of water is 62.4 lb/ft3.
Find: Size of thrust block required at a 90° elbow.
120
Solution: The force to be restrained is the sum of the forces created by the internal pressure in
the pipe and the velocity of the fluid impacting the elbow.
A 12 in diameter service weight pipe has an OD of 12.5 in and a wall thickness of 0.28 in. The
area over which the pressure force is applied is therefore
A = (3.14/4)*[12.5 in - 2(0.28 in)]2 = 112 in2
The velocity is
withstand the compressive force applied without shearing (reinforcing may be required). The
calculation currently makes no allowance for water hammer loads, which may increase the force
substantially. Finally, there is often very little care paid to thrust blocks during the construction
phase. Forms are rarely used. Instead, a hole is dug, a pile of concrete is poured, the hole is
covered, and the pipe very often leaks. The surface of the thrust block that bears against the soil
should be flat.
121
Any time you specify a thrust block, great care must be taken in the field to ensure that the thrust
block will satisfy the requirements. Field inspections are advisable. In lieu of this, a better choice
will be restrained joints designed to accommodate the thrust loads.
b) Stainless Steel Piping
Stainless steel piping is used whenever corrosion resistance is desired. The addition of chromium
is primarily responsible for the corrosion resistant properties of stainless steels. Even though
stainless steel exhibits excellent corrosion protection, it would be very unusual to use it in an
underground application. A more economical solution would be to use carbon steel with cathodic
protection.
Austenitic stainless steels are identified by the 300 series. These alloys contain a maximum of 0.15
percent carbon and a minimum of 16 percent chromium, along with nickel and/or manganese.
Austenitic stainless steels are nonmagnetic and have the best high-temperature strengths of all of
the stainless steels.
Ferritic stainless steels belong to the 400 series. These steels contain 14 to 27 percent chromium
and are magnetic.
Martensitic stainless steels contain 11.5 to 18 percent chromium, and are also magnetic.
They are sometimes used in valve components.
Most stainless piping is of the austenitic variety. The most common grades for piping are 304 and
316. There are also special subsets of these which contain lower carbon, making them less
susceptible to carbide precipitation. These are designated by the suffix “L.”
Stainless is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and so exposure to chlorine compounds must
be avoided.
i) Applications
Stainless steel piping is used wherever iron dissolution cannot be tolerated, as in the production of
foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals. It is often used in uninsulated industrial services to avoid
the need to paint the exterior of pipes. The added cost of stainless steel piping can often be offset
by the cost of painting and repainting the exterior of carbon steel pipes over the expected lifetime
of the installation. The cost of using stainless piping can be reduced further if one is able to take
advantage of the 5S or 10S lightweight schedules.
ii) Manufacture of Stainless Steel Pipe
122
Aside from differences in the welding procedures, stainless pipe is manufactured similarly to
carbon steel pipe.
As noted above, there are special wall thicknesses available in stainless steel piping to reduce the
material costs. (A crude rule-of-thumb is that the material cost of stainless steel is three times more
than carbon steel.) Manufacturers therefore developed lighter wall thicknesses to make stainless
steel more attractive3.
The mill tolerance of 12.5 percent must be applied to stainless steel piping as well as to carbon.
Usually, any corrosion allowance can be eliminated in the thickness calculation though, since
stainless resists corrosion under most applications.
iii) Fabrication and Assembly of Stainless Steel Piping
One technique that is applied to cutting stainless steel is “air carbon arc gouging.” This technique
can be applied to a wide range of metals, but it is often used to quickly cut through stainless steel.
An electric arc is generated between a copper-coated carbon electrode and the metal to be cut. This
is done using an electric arc welder. When the metal melts at the arc, a jet of air blows the molten
metal away. This method removes metal quickly, but it is very noisy due to the high electric current
and high-pressure air.
The resulting cut is typically very clean and does not result in carbon absorption by the surrounding
metal since the molten metal is quickly removed by the air jet. Low air flow can lead to carbon
hardening and cracking of the metal in the area of the cut.
Except for different welding procedures, stainless steel piping is fabricated and assembled in much
the same way as carbon steel piping. Refer to Table below for a summary of the various welding
procedures.
123
Summary of Electric Welding Methods
Carbide precipitation is a phenomenon that occurs when austenitic (300 series) stainless steels are
heated, as in welding. When heated, the carbides attract chromium atoms. This appears as a dark
band along the weld. The surrounding region of the stainless contains less chromium since it is
bound with the carbides. This results in a region in which the corrosion resistant properties are
deficient.
There are two ways to prevent carbide precipitation during welding. One is to use a low-carbon
grade of stainless, identified by the suffix “L” (for “low-carbon”). The other option is to stabilize
the stainless steel with the addition of columbium or titanium.
These elements have an affinity for carbon, and their carbides are also corrosion resistant.
In practice, it is more common to use the low-carbon grades of stainless.
Attachments are often welded to piping when installing pipe supports. It is impractical for these
attachments to be stainless due to the cost. In order to protect the piping from carbon precipitation,
a stainless steel “poison pad” is usually welded to the pipe as shown in Figure below. Any carbon
precipitation occurs in the pad.
124
c) Copper Tubing
Copper tubing is essentially unalloyed pure copper.
Copper is a ductile material that can easily be drawn into tubing. It resists corrosion under many
conditions, and is therefore a suitable material for potable water service. Copper pipes have been
found in ancient Egypt for conveying bath water. Like many metals, copper is a germicide.
i) Applications
Copper tubing is an excellent material for conveying both hot and cold water, so it is used primarily
for plumbing and hydronic. It frequently finds use in refrigerant piping.
Due to its ease of fabrication and corrosion resistance, it is also used for high-purity applications
such as medical gases.
In industrial settings copper is sometimes used for instrument air, vacuum, fuel oil, or fuel gas
systems.
Copper resists corrosions due to the formation of an oxide layer against the pipe. If the oxide layer
is attacked, pitting can occur. This pitting usually occurs where there is localized turbulence. The
turbulence may be created due to high velocities in combination with perturbances such as fittings.
Once the pitting begins, the turbulence increases and the pitting process accelerates. When used in
hot water recirculation (to provide hot water at the tap more quickly), most industry guidelines
recommend velocities in the 3 to 5 ft per second range. Some engineers recommend the low end
of this range to further reduce the turbulence that has been implicated in this pitting action.
ii) Manufacture of Copper Tubing

Copper is melted in a furnace where the temperature is brought several hundred degrees Fahrenheit
above the melting point. Impurities are removed through various slagging techniques, with the
125
result being a pool of 99.9 percent copper. Copper cast into solid billets is pierced with a mandrel
in much the same way that seamless carbon steel pipe is produced. Hollow billets and pierced
billets are extruded, and then drawn through dies to reduce the outside diameter.
Drawing results in work-hardening. The tubes become stiff, and this as-drawn condition is one of
the two tempers available for copper tubing. Alternately, copper tubing is available in a soft
annealed condition, usually sold in coils, but also available in straight lengths.
There are six different types of copper tubing, as shown in Table 6.7. Under ASTM
B88, the wall thicknesses are described by “type” rather than “schedule.”
• Type K has the heaviest wall thickness for a given size. The next heaviest is Type
L, with Type M being the lightest.5
• Types K, L, M and DWV and Medical Gas (OXY/MED) tubes are specified by nominal
diameters, with their actual ODs always 1/8 in larger than the nominal size.
• Type ACR is designated by its actual OD.
• OXY/MED tubing is available in Types K and L, but is manufactured in accordance with ASTM
B819.
See Table 6.8 for available copper tubing sizes and wall thicknesses.
iii) Fabrication and Assembly of Copper Tubing
Copper tubing may be cut to length with a hacksaw or abrasive saw, but is usually cut with a tubing
cutter. These repeatedly score the tube with hardened wheels, displacing the soft copper until the
tube is cut all the way through. Cutters are available with small swing radii to permit field cuts in
tight quarters.
Copper tubing is joined by soldering, brazing, compression fittings, or grooved-end connections.
Fittings for soldering or brazing are available as either wrought or cast , but wrought fittings are
preferred for brazing. The term “wrought” (often misspelled as “wrot” in the trades and catalogs)
means “worked,” and these fittings are forged as opposed to being cast. Cast fittings contain
copper, tin, lead, and zinc.
iv) Soldered Connections
Also called sweat connections, solder joints are made with a variety of fittings that slip over the
OD of the adjoining tube. The small clearance provides a means of filling the annulus with solder
using capillary action. Solder can be made to flow up inside a joint.
While lead6 solder is still available, its use in potable water was banned in the United
126
States in 1988. Solder for potable water systems now contains tin and antimony.
Cleanliness of the joining surfaces is of paramount importance to forming a leak free joint. After
cleaning (with emery cloth, if required), the joint is coated with flux. While the flux promotes a
clean pool of solder, the application of excessive flux has been implicated in cold water pitting of
copper tubing. The flux also acts as a wetting agent for the solder.
Solder should not be used where temperatures will exceed 250°F (121°C).
v) Brazed Connections
Brazing is defined as the joining of two metals with a third dissimilar metal at a temperature higher
than soldering. Brazing is sometimes referred to as “silver soldering.” Brazed connections are often
required when working with ACR tubing, since they form stronger joints than soldered
connections. Brazing can accommodate operating temperatures as high as 350°F (17°C). The same
fittings are used for brazing as for soldering, although wrought fittings are preferred for brazing.
vi) Compression Fittings
Flared connections are a type of compression connection most easily made with annealed Type K
or L tubing. Types K, L, or M hard temper may also be flared after annealing the end of the tube
to be flared.
Because a flared connection is essentially a union with a metal-to-metal seal between the ends of
the tubing, it is essential for the end to be squarely cut and free of burrs. A flaring tool shapes a
cup on the tube end, and a nut behind the cup tightens into a cone shape that engages the interior
of the flare.
Another type of compression fitting is made with a ferrule that digs into the OD of the tube
whenever a compression nut is tightened around it.
vii) No-Solder Push-On Joints
Recently introduced as an alternative to soldering are a variety of fittings that join copper tubing
by inserting it into the joint. See Figure 6.7. The end of the joint contains a plastic sleeve that fits
inside the copper tubing. The fitting itself is a cast copper material that contains a ring of sharp
barbs or teeth around its ID. These teeth bite into the OD of the copper tube when inserted. Once
inserted, the tubing cannot be removed.
If a trial fit-up is required for measuring, a plastic removal sleeve is used to prevent the fitting from
permanently attaching to the tubing.
127
Push-on copper tubing couplings require no soldering skills.
The assembly of copper tubing using these fittings requires no special skills such as soldering.
This results in a potential labor savings over construction using sweat fittings.
However, the cost of these fittings is considerably more than sweat fittings. Note that the plastic
sleeve inside these fittings reduces the ID of the tubing significantly, so if many of these
connections are used in a single run, some restriction of flow may result.
6.4. Different methods of joining copper, Stainless steel and cast ductile iron pipes
i) Compression joints (fittings)
Compression fittings are used in plumbing and electrical conduit systems to join two tubes or thin-
walled pipes together.
Compression fittings are also used extensively for hot and cold water faucets (taps) and toilet stop
valves; compression fittings are well suited to this application, as these valves are usually located
in confined spaces where copper pipe would be difficult to solder without creating a fire hazard.
Also, the fittings allow easy disconnection and reconnection.
128
In small sizes, the compression fitting is composed of an outer compression nut and an inner
compression ring or ferrule (sometimes referred to as an "olive") that is typically made of brass or
copper. Ferrules vary in shape and material but are most commonly in the shape of a ring with
bevelled edges. To work properly, the ferrule must be oriented correctly—usually the ferrule is
fitted such that the longest sloping face of the ferrule faces away from the nut.
When the nut is tightened, the ferrule is compressed between the nut and the receiving fitting; the
ends of the ferrule are clamped around the pipe, and the middle of the ferrule bows away from the
pipe, making the ferrule effectively thicker. The result is that the ferrule seals the space between
the pipe, nut, and receiving fitting, thereby forming a tight joint.
ii. Capillary joints
It is a pipe joint having a socket-type end so that when the fitting is soldered to a pipe end, the
solder flows by capillarity along the annular space between the pipe exterior and the socket
within it, forming a tight fit.
Capillary joints
Capillary joints are connected to the pipe using solder. There are two types of capillary joints, end
feed is where solder is introduced to the end of the joint and capillary action sucks the solder into
129
the fitting. Integral ring fittings come with the correct amount of solder in a ring to make perfect
joints
Soldering has the same AWS definition as brazing, except that the filler metal used has a
liquidus below 840°F (450°C) and below the solidus of the base metals. Soldering can be
considered the low-temperature cousin to brazing.
What is the difference between brazing and soldering? The American Welding Society (AWS)
defines brazing as a group of joining processes that produce coalescence of materials by heating
them to the brazing temperature and by using a filler metal (solder) having a liquidus above 840°F
(450°C) and below the solidus of the base metals.
iii. Brazing joints
Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than
the adjoining metal.
6.4.1. Methods of joining cast ductile iron

(Flange joints in above ground, ring push-on (Socket and spigot),),
i. Caulked joint
A type of joint used for cast-iron pipe having hub-and-spigot ends. After the spigot-end of one
pipe is placed inside the hub-end of the other, a rope of oakum or hemp is packed into the annular
space around the spigot end until the packing is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) below the top. Then molten
lead is poured into the annular space on top of the rope. Finally, the lead is pounded farther into
the joint with a caulking iron.
130
6.4.2. Methods of joining stainless steel
i. Coupling joint
A coupling (or coupler) (used in piping or plumbing) is a very short length of pipe or tube, with a
socket at one or both ends that allows two pipes or tubes to be joined, welded (steel), brazed or
soldered (copper, brass etc.) together.
ii. Arc Welding
Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create
enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool result in a binding of the metals. It is
a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between a metal stick
("electrode") and the base material to melt the metals at the point of contact.
131
UNIT 7: TEST PIPING SYSTEM
1. Test leakages and maintenance on the work done
7.1. Introduction
After a pipe system is installed in the field, it is usually pressure tested to ensure that there are no
leaks. Once a system is in operation, it is difficult, if not impossible, to repair leaks . ASME
B31.1 has established procedures for applying pressure tests to piping systems.
There are generally two types of pressure tests applied to a piping system. One the
following reasons:
• Leaks are easier to locate.
• A hydro test will lose pressure more quickly than a pneumatic test if leaks are
present.
• Pneumatic tests are more dangerous, due to the stored pressure energy and
possibility of rapid expansion should a failure occur.
On the other hand, if a piping system cannot tolerate trace levels of the testing
medium (for instance, a medical oxygen system) then a pneumatic test is preferred.
7.2. Hydrostatic Testing
It is important to provide high point vents and low point drains in all piping
systems to be hydro tested. The high point vents are to permit the venting of air,
which if trapped during the hydro test may result in fluctuating pressure levels
during the test period.
The drains are to allow the piping to be emptied of the test medium prior to filling
with the operating fluid. (Low point drains are always a good idea though since
they facilitate cleaning and maintenance.)
A hydro test is to be held at a test pressure not less than 1.5 times the design
pressure.
132
The system should be able to hold the test pressure for at least 10 minutes, after
which the pressure may be reduced to the design pressure while the system is
examined for leaks. A test gauge should be sensitive enough to measure any loss of
pressure due to leaks, especially if portions of the system are not visible for
inspection.
The test medium for a hydro test is usually clean water, unless another fluid is
specified by the Owner. Care must be taken to select a medium that minimizes
corrosion.
7.3. Pneumatic Testing
The test medium must be non-flammable and nontoxic. It is most often compressed
air, but may also be nitrogen, especially for fuel gases or oxygen service. Note that
compressed air often contains both oil and water, so care must be exercised in
specifying an appropriate test medium.
A preliminary pneumatic test is often applied, holding the test pressure at 25 psig
to locate leaks prior to testing at the test pressure. The test pressure for pneumatic
tests is to be at least 1.2 but not more than 1.5 times the design pressure. The
pneumatic test must be held at least 10 minutes, after which time it must be
reduced to the lower of the design pressure or 100 psig (700 kPa gage) until an
inspection for leaks is conducted.
If a high degree of sensitivity is required, other tests are available such as mass
spectrometer or halide tests.
Other portions of ASME B31.1 discuss various fittings, load cases, pipe hangers,
systems specific to boiler piping, and welding requirements. We will follow-up on
some of these areas in later portions of this book.
7.4. How to pressure-test piping system
Filling pipes with pressurized air is a quick and effective way to inspect for leaks in new
installation of water pipes and drain/waste/vent systems. You can also air-pressure-test existing
pipes, but pumping the drain/waste/vent system full of pressurized air becomes impractical after
133
installation of the plumbing fixtures and connection to the sewer. It's easier and often just as
effective to do a water-pressure test instead.
Step 1
Cap all the stub-outs connected to the system you're testing. For a DWV system, this usually
means gluing a cap to each stub-out with plastic pipe cement. If you're testing a water system,
you may have to glue or solder the caps, depending on the type of pipes in your system. You'll
cut off the caps when the test is complete.
Step 2
Install or find a fitting that allows you to connect an air compressor hose and pressure gauge to
the system. In waste systems, you usually do this by screwing an adapter to a clean-out fitting
and installing a tee. For water systems, it usually works to leave one stub-out uncapped and
install a tee and adapter for the hose and gauge on that stub-out.
Step 3
Turn on the compressor and fill the pipes with air until the gauge reaches the test pressure
reading. For water systems, this reading is usually around 80 psi. For drain systems, it's much
lower -- about 5 psi.
Step 4
Turn off the compressor and leave the system pressurized for 15 minutes. Any reduction in
pressure during that time signifies the presence of a leak.
7.5. Water-Testing Existing Plumbing
Step 1
Test a water system without draining it by locating an outdoor or laundry faucet to which you
can attach a pressure gauge.
134
Step 2
Screw the gauge to the faucet spout, open the faucet all the way and turn off the main shutoff
valve for the house.
Step 3
Watch the gauge for 15 minutes. If it moves, there's a leak in a pipe or in a faucet. Check the
faucets, and if none of them are dripping, the leak is in a pipe.
135
REFERENCES
 Basic of Benchwork by Les Oldridge
 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology
 Manufacturing processes of Engineering Materials, 5thed. Kalpak JianSchmidt © 2008,
pennson Education ISBN No 0-13227271-7
 Sheet metal Design Hand Book
 Sheet metal Forming processes and Equipment Text Reference: Manufacturing
Engineering and technology “Kalpak Jian&Schmidt” 2010.
 Piping Handbook, Mohinder L. Nayyar, McGraw-Hill, Inc., ISBN 0-07-046881-8.
 Facility Piping Systems Handbook, Michael Frankel, McGraw-Hill, Inc., ISBN 0-07-
021891-9.
 Piping and Pipe Support Systems, Paul R. Smith and Thomas J. Van Laan, McGraw Hill,
Inc., ISBN 0-07-058931-3.
 National Plumbing Codes Handbook, R. Dodge Woodson, McGraw-Hill, Inc., ISBN0-
07-071769-9.
 https://hardhatengineer.com/pipe-class-piping-specifications-pipeend/pipe-schedule-chart-
nominal-pipe-sizes/ accessed on 23rd January 2020.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_fitting 14th January 2020.
136
137
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MODULE CODE: REN 104

DEPARTMENT: RENEWABLE ENERGY

UNIT 1: ORGANIZE THE WORKPLACE AND SELECT THE TOOLS,

Having successfully completed this unit, students will be able to:

1. To work safely in workshop

1.1. Workshop Safety Rules

Step 1 Recognition: Identify hazards to which a person at the workplace is likely to be

1. Always listen carefully to the teacher and follow instructions.

1.2. Benchwork and Layout Operations

Benchwork and Layout Operations" provides a detailed overview of the various

1.3. The bench work tools and their uses

Fig. 2. Surface plate

Figure.4. Work bench

a) Simple Scribing Block

b) Universal Surface Gauge

Fig.4. Simple scribing block and universal surface gauge

 Main parts of Vernier caliper

 The Vernier caliper is an extremely precise measuring instrument; the reading

A precision measuring instrument which measures small distances or thicknesses

The anvil is the stationary measuring face against which

The threaded spindle is the moving measuring face of the

Micrometer sleeve scale

The scale on the sleeve of the micrometer is the instrument's

Together with the thimble scale, the sleeve scale displays

The first significant figure of a measurement is taken from

Micrometer thimble scale

This part of the measurement is the value on the scale that

Micrometer index line

The index line, which runs along the sleeve of the

When the thimble is turned, the spindle rotates and alters

Some micrometer thimbles incorporate a friction drive.

Micrometer ratchet speeder

The ratchet speeder increases the speed at which the spindle

The ratchet incorporates a slipping clutch mechanism that

Micrometer locking device

The locking device secures the spindle and preserves the

Some micrometers have a lock nut (as shown), whilst others

The u-shaped frame is designed to be rigid and stable. It

The frame is held by the user whilst measurements are

 How to read a Micrometer

 the first part is contributed by the main scale on the sleeve

First part of the measurement: 2.5 mm

Second part of the measurement: 0.38 mm

Measurement with zero error: 1.76 mm

Measurement without zero error: 1.76–(+0.01) =1.751.76–(+0.01) =1.75 m

These files are manufactured in different varieties and their classification is

1. Rough (R) with 10 to 4.5 cuts per 10 mm length

The forging operation is followed by annealing, hardening and tempering to make

Brass and copper 40

Cast iron and general cutting work 60

Fig.7. Types of chisel

Fig. 2.9 Different parts of a hack saw

A drill is a tool for making holes in a metal. It usually consists

The intermediate (2) is tapered back from the edge

Fig. 2.8 Hammers

Vocabulary Term Definition

The wearing away or gradual removal of material from an object’s

Any additional process performed on a workpiece before or after it is

A document containing all the instructions necessary to manufacture a

A measuring instrument with a pair of expandable jaws on one end and a

A type of steel designed with improved wear resistance, toughness, and

A process in which a rigid drill precisely locates a hole in the center of a

A component of a combination set used for layout. Center heads allow

An angled surface that eliminates a sharp corner, removes burrs, and/or