Composite Materials

Introduction
Composite materials are extending the horizons of designers in all branches of
engineering. The eye does not see beyond the glossy exterior or the race performance
of a GRP yacht or it senses the complexity of the structure of a composite helicopter
rotor blade or of a modern CFRP tennis racket. Nevertheless, this family of synthesized
materials offers the possibility of exciting new solutions to difficult engineering problems.
Composite materials are composed of two or more materials, they are combined in such
a way as to enable us to make better use of their virtues while minimizing to some
extent the effects of their deficiencies. Here engineers now can make use of tougher
and lighter materials, which is prerequisite for some particular design requirements.
Because of the ease with which complex shapes can be manufactured, the complete
rethinking of an established design in terms of composites can often lead to both
cheaper and better solutions.
The composite concept is not a human invention, but at first the nature introduced
the composites. Wood is a natural composite material consisting of one species of
polymer; cellulose fibers with good strength and stiffness in a resinous matrix of another
polymer known as lignin. Nature makes a much better job of design and manufacture
than we do. Although man was able to recognize that the way of overcoming two major
disadvantages of natural wood that of size (a tree has a limited transverse dimension)
and that of anisotropy (properties are markedly different in the axial and radial directions
was to make the composite material that we call plywood. Bone and teeth are other
natural composites, combining hard ceramic reinforcing phases in natural organic
polymer matrices. Man was aware, even from the earliest times, of the concept that
combining materials could be advantageous. But it is only in the last half century that
the science and technology of composite materials have developed to provide the
engineer with a novel class of materials and the necessary tools to enable him to use
them advantageously.
Now, the simple term „composite‟ gives little indication of the vast range of
individual combinations that are included in this class of materials. In Figure 1, a clear
idea of the scope for ingenuity which is available to the Materials Scientist and his
customers, the Design Engineer. First, within each group of materials; metallic, ceramic
and polymeric there are already certain familiar materials which can be described as
composites. Many members of the commonest and largest group of engineering
materials, the family of steels, consist of combinations of particles of hard ceramic
compounds in a softer metallic matrix. These particles are sometimes plate-like,
sometimes needle-shaped, and sometimes spherical or polygonal.

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 Metallic Metal and Ceramic
Metal-filled Materials Composites
Plastics
Ceramics &
Polymeric Glasses
Materials
Fiber-reinforced
Plastics

Figure 1: Possibility of various combinations of composite materials.

Composites are often two-phased, consisting of a matrix of one polymer with

distributions of harder or softer particles contained within it; wood is a perfect example
of this, as we have seen. Concrete is a classic example of a ceramic/ceramic
composite, with particles of sand and aggregate of graded sizes in a matrix of hydrated
Portland cement. These materials have been well known for many years and Materials
Scientists have learned to control their properties by controlling their microstructures,
the quantity, form and distribution of reinforcing phases. The idea of mixing components
across the materials class boundaries is a natural extension of this idea. Making
additions of hard or fire-resistant or simply cheap, ceramic powders to plastics to make
filled polymers and making additions of very hard or abrasive or thermally stable
ceramic particles to metals to make the class of materials known as cermets to produce
machine tool tips capable of cutting hard metals at high speeds or high temperatures;
are only two examples of important developments in our exploitation of these materials.
But even more significant is the extension of this principle to incorporate filamentary
metals, ceramics and polymers into the bulk forms of any of these three classes of
materials to make fiber composites reinforced plastics, like CFRP and GRP, metal-
matrix composites (MMCs) like silicon-carbide-fiber-reinforced aluminium and ceramic-
matrix composites (CMCs) like carbon fiber-reinforced glass. Ideally, the properties of
engineering materials should be reproducible and accurately known. Since satisfactory
exploitation of the composite principle depends on the design flexibility that results from
tailoring the properties of a combination of materials to suit a particular requirement, we
also need to be able to predict those properties successfully. At the present time some
of the more important engineering properties of composites can be well predicted on the
basis of mathematical models, but many cannot.

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Limitations of Conventional Materials
It is difficult to draw up a table of materials characteristics in order to assess the
relative strengths and weaknesses of metals, plastics and ceramics because each of
these terms covers whole families of materials within which the range of properties is
often as broad as the differences between the three classes. A comparison in general
terms, however, can identify some of the more obvious advantages and disadvantages
of the different types of material.

Plastics
Plastics are of low density. They have good short-term chemical resistance but
they lack thermal stability and have only moderate resistance to environmental
degradation (especially that caused by the photo-chemical effects of sunlight). They
have poor mechanical properties, but are easily fabricated and joined.

Ceramic Materials
Ceramics may be of low density (although some are very dense). They have
great thermal stability and are resistant to most forms of attack (abrasion, wear,
corrosion). Although intrinsically very rigid and strong because of their chemical
bonding, they are all brittle and can be formed and shaped only with difficulty.

Metallic Materials
Metals are mostly of medium to high density- only magnesium, aluminium and
beryllium can compete with plastics in this respect. Many have good thermal stability
and may be made corrosion resistance by alloying, moderately easy to shape and join.
It is largely a consequence of their ductility and resistance to cracking that metals, as a
class, became (and still remain themselves) the most preferred engineering materials.
On the basis of the above comparison, even though superficial, it can be seen
that each class has certain intrinsic advantages and weaknesses, although metals pose
fewer problems for the designer than either plastics or ceramics.

Filler Materials for Composites

The materials used to reinforce the matrix are called filler, fiber or reinforcing
materials. Now the question is: what should be the quality of filler materials? In general,
especially for structural application, relatively soft and ductile matrix is reinforced by
higher strength fibers. However, high strength is not always preferred.
The engineer who uses materials for structural or load-bearing purposes is very
aware of an important feature of engineering solids, which is that they are never as
strong as we would expect. The reason for this is that all materials contain defects of
various kinds which can never be entirely eliminated in practical manufacturing
operations. For example, the strength of bulk glass and other ceramics is determined

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not by their strong covalent or ionic bonds. The most highly polished and dense bulk
ceramic will rarely have a strength that exceeds one thousandth of the theoretically
predicted strength. Similarly, metals contain faults in the stacking of atoms in their
crystalline arrays and the most damaging of these imperfections, dislocations, etc cause
an unbelievably lower strength than that of the theoretically calculated one.
The strength of any sample of a glass or ceramic is actually determined by the
size of the largest defect or crack, which it contains. Roughly, the strength is
proportional to the inverse square root of the length of the largest flaw, a relationship
developed in a thermodynamic argument by Griffith in the 1920s. The relationship in its
simplest form is:

Where, σmax is the strength of the material, E is its elastic stiffness (Young's
modulus), F is the work required to fracture the sample and a is the flaw size.
So, it is practically not necessary to seek materials with the strongest materials.
An appreciation of the nature and magnitude of chemical bonding leads us to scan the
Periodic Table for elements in which there is a high density of covalent or mixed
covalent/ionic bonds and we naturally alight on the area containing light elements with
directional bonds. The elements most likely to provide what we seek are those like
carbon, boron and silicon. As a result, they are most frequently used as filler materials
composite manufacturing. Some most important filler materials are discussed below.

Glass Fibers
Glass fibers are manufactured by drawing molten glass into very fine threads and
then immediately protecting them from contact with the atmosphere or with hard
surfaces in order to preserve the defect free structure. Glass fibers are as strong as any
of the newer inorganic fibers but they lack rigidity on account of their molecular
structure. Some glass fibers are shown in Figure 2. The properties of glasses can be
modified to a limited extent by changing the chemical composition of the glass, but the
only glass used to any great extent in composite materials is ordinary borosilicate glass,
known as E-glass. The largest volume usage of composite materials involves E-glass
as the reinforcement. S-glass has somewhat better properties than E-glass, including
higher thermal stability, but its higher cost has limited the extent of its use.

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 Figure 2: Glass fibers of various shapes.

Carbon Fibers
By oxidizing and pyrolyzing a highly drawn textile fiber such as polyacrylonitrile
(PAN), preventing it from shrinking in the early stages of the degradation process and
subsequently hot-stretching it, it is possible to convert it to a carbon filament. The
influence of strength limiting defects is considerable and clean-room methods of
production can result in substantial increases in the tensile strength of commercial
materials. Prior to sale, fibers are usually surface-treated by chemical or electrolytic
oxidation methods in order to improve the quality of adhesion between the fiber and the
matrix in a composite. Carbon fibers (Figure 3) with a wide range of forms and
mechanical properties can be obtained. So, they can therefore be chosen from this
range to give the desired composite properties.

Figure 3: Carbon fibers of various shapes.

Silicon Carbide
Continuous SiC monofilaments were first produced by pyrolytic decomposition of
gaseous silanes onto fine filaments of carbon or tungsten, which continue to be of major
interest to manufacturers of metal and ceramic matrix composites. It has a rough
surface, making for good fiber/matrix adhesion, but is somewhat reactive towards
oxygen. It is well wetted by molten metals and is reasonably stable as reinforcement for
MMCs based on aluminium and copper although it lacks long-term thermal stability.
Figure 4 shows some silicon carbide fibers.

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 Figure 4: Silicon carbide fibers of various shapes.

Alumina and Alumina/silica Compounds

The earliest work involving Al2O3 as a reinforcement for composite materials was
the use of tiny crystals, known as „whiskers‟. Like SiC, this fiber also had a rough
surface and was potentially well-suited for the reinforcement of metals such as
aluminium and magnesium. Many of the oxide-based reinforcing filaments available at
present are compounds of alumina and silica, Figure 5.

Figure 4: Various types of alumina fibers.

Organic Fibers
Bulk polymers have elastic moduli no greater than 100MPa, but if the polymer is
spun into fibers and cold drawn so as to develop a high degree of molecular orientation,
substantial improvements in both strength and rigidity can be achieved. Such fibers
have high strengths and their elastic moduli are similar to those of glass and aluminium.
Apart from their excellent mechanical properties such fibers have the important
advantage over inorganic fibers that they are not brittle. The other major development in
organic fibers over the last three decades are polyamide fibers, collectively known as
aramids, of which the best known for many years in the composites industry has been
Kevlar-49 (Figure 6). Having properties intermediate between those of carbon and
glass, aramids offer an extra degree of flexibility in composite design. Kevlar/resin
composites are noted for their extremely high levels of toughness and resistance to
impact damage. One disadvantage of aramids, by comparison with carbon fibers, for

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example, is that they are sensitive to moisture. Properties of some common fiber
materials are listed in Table 1

Figure 5: Various types of aramid fibers.

Table 1: Properties of some common fiber materials.

Material Trade name Density E (GPa) TS (GPa)

High-carbon steel wire Piano wire 7.8 210 2.8

Short fibres:
α-Al2O3 Saffil 3.96 450 20
δ-Al2O3 + SiO2 2.1 280 1.5

Continuous fibres:(inorganic)
α-Al2O3 FP 3.9 385 1.8
224 2.3
Al2O3 + SiO2 + B2O3 (Mullite) Nextel480 3.05 210 2.0
Al2O3 + SiO2 Altex 3.3 410 4.0
Boron VMC 2.6 230 3.5
Carbon PAN 1.8 190 2.5-3.3
SiC Precursor 2.5 70 1.5-2.0
Silica (E glass) Nicalon 2.5
Continuous fibres (organic)
Aromatic polyamide Kevlar 49 1.5 130 3.6
Polyethylen) Spectra 1000 0.97 175 3.0

Functions of Matrix
Matrix materials must have some basic properties for manufacturing good quality
composites, which are discussed below.

A. The matrix binds the fibers together, holding them aligned in the important stressed
directions. Loads applied to the composite are then transferred into the fibers, the
principal load-bearing component, through the matrix, enabling the composite to
withstand compression, flexural and shear forces as well as tensile loads. The ability of
composites reinforced with short fibers to support loads of any kind is dependent on the
presence of the matrix as the load-transfer medium and the efficiency of this load
transfer is directly related to the quality of the fiber/matrix bond.

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B. The matrix must also isolate the fibers from each other so that they can act as
separate entities. Many reinforcing fibers are brittle solids with highly variable strengths.
When such materials are used in the form of fine fibers, tough matrix enables the
composites not to fail catastrophically. Moreover, the fiber bundle strength is less
variable than that of a monolithic rod of equivalent load-bearing ability. But these
advantages of the fiber aggregate can only be realized if the matrix separates the fibers
from each other so that cracks are unable to pass unimpeded through sequences of
fiber in contact, which would result in completely brittle composites.

C. The matrix should protect the reinforcing filaments from mechanical damage (e.g.
abrasion) and from environmental attack. Since many of the resins which are used as
matrices for glass fibers permit diffusion of water, this function is often not fulfilled in
many GRP materials and the environmental damage that results is aggravated by
stress. In cement the alkaline nature of the matrix itself is damaging to ordinary glass
fibers and alkali-resistant glasses containing zirconium have been developed in an effort
to counter this. For composites like MMCs or CMCs operating at elevated temperature,
the matrix would need to protect the fibers from oxidative attack.

D. A ductile matrix will provide a means of slowing down or stopping cracks that might
have originated at broken fibers.

Metal Matrix
Metals owe their versatility as engineering materials to the fact that they can be
plastically deformed and can be strengthened by a variety of methods. Metals are also
ductile in nature. So, materials scientist can adjust the properties of a metal or alloy
system to suit specific requirements. There are limitations also as increases in strength
can usually be achieved only at the expense of the capacity for plastic deformation, with
the consequence that the strongest alloys often lack tolerance of defects or other
stress-concentrators.
Many conventional metallic materials are relatively heavy. For land-based
engineering projects this may be of no consequence. However, economic arguments
relating to loads (civil aircraft) and tactical arguments relating to manoeuvrability
(military aircraft) have always been a powerful incentive for the use of low-density
materials in aerospace engineering. For structural applications involving compression or
flexural rather than tensile loads, the relevant structural stiffness index is not simply
Young's modulus, E, or the modulus/density ratio, E/ρ. For aerospace applications
modifications to materials that result in lowered density may therefore be more
profitable than attempts simply to improve their strength or stiffness. These features
show why it is worthwhile to attempt to use light, strong, stable fibers to reinforce some

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of the lighter engineering metals and alloys. As a result, in MMC light metal, e.g. Al, Mg
and Ti or their alloys are mostly used as matrix materials.

Polymer Matrix
Few polymers are thermally stable by comparison with metals or ceramics. Even
the most stable polymers, like the polyimides, or poly(ether ether ketone; known as
PEEK) are degraded by exposure to temperatures above about 300°C (Table 2 given
below). The fall in strength and increase in time-dependent (creep or visco-elastic)
deformation, can be delayed by fiber reinforcement. A more serious problem in
polymers is their very low mechanical strength and stiffness in bulk form and like
metals, the weakest plastics tend to be ductile but the strongest tend to be brittle. Most
polymers are already low-density materials and the addition of fibers confers no density
advantage. It is in the reinforcing of polymers that most developments have been made
so far and it is likely that there is still scope for improvement.

Table 2: Thermal properties of some common polymers.

Polymer Type Crystallinity Tg,°C Max Use Temp,°C
Thermosets:
Polyester no 80 -100 50
Epoxy no 120-180 150
Phenolic no 130-180 200
Bismaleimide no 180-200 220
Polyimide no 300-330 280
Thermoplasts:
Polyamide (Nylon) yes 80 125
Poly(phenylene sulphide) yes 100 260
Poly(ether ether ketone) yes 143 250
Polycarbonate no 145 125
Polysulphone no 190 150
Poly(ether imide) no 210 170
Poly(ether sulphone) no 230 180
Thermoplastic polyimide no 270 240

Ceramic and Glass Matrices

Glasses have high chemical stability, but many lose their mechanical strength at
relatively low temperatures as they pass through the glass transition. The principal
problem with glassy materials is that they are always brittle and their measured
strengths are very variable at ordinary temperatures. They are not able to relieve stress
concentrations at crack tips by plastic deformation and they are not, therefore, fail-safe.
A constant disadvantage, aggravated by low thermal conductivity, is that glass usually
has poor thermal shock resistance. Many of these difficulties can be overcome by
reinforcement with fibers like carbon and with the added bonus of a saving in weight.
Most ceramics suffer from the same defects as glasses, although they are
potentially high strength solids. They are also brittle and notch-sensitive. Most ceramics
retain their strength to very high temperatures, however, several ceramic materials have

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good resistance to thermal shock. Improving toughness and reducing notch sensitivity
are the main reasons for attempting to reinforce ceramics since their stiffness values
are not very different from those of the best reinforcing fibers.

Carbon Matrix
Carbon is a unique material with many attractive engineering qualities. It is
valuable for its lubricating, electrical and nuclear properties. The opportunity to improve
the mechanical properties of such an important material and reduce its brittleness
somewhat has been the driving force for the development of an invaluable material,
carbon-fiber-reinforced carbon that has been used for rocket nozzles, aerospace
components (including the ablative shields of space vehicles) and surgical implants.
Many composite materials are composed of just two phases; one is termed the
matrix, which is continuous and surrounds the other phase, often called the dispersed
phase. The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the constituent
phases, their relative amounts, shape, size, geometry, distribution and orientation of
reinforcing phases, Figure 7.

Figure 7: Reinforcing materials with various geometries and orientations.

Depending on the geometry, shape and orientation of the reinforcing phases,

composites might have several groups and subgroups as sown below:

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Particle Reinforced Composites
Large-particle and dispersion-strengthened composites are the two sub-
classifications of particle-reinforced composites. The term “large” is used to indicate that
particle-matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular level. For most
of these composites, the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix. The
matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the
load. The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on
strong bonding at the matrix–particle interface. For dispersion-strengthened composites,
particles are normally much smaller, with diameters between 10 and 100 nm. Particle-
matrix interactions that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular level, the
small dispersed particles result higher yield and tensile strengths as well as hardness.

Large Particle Composites

Some polymeric materials to which fillers have been added are really large-
particle composites. Again, the fillers modify or improve the properties of the material
and/or replace some of the polymer volume with a less expensive filler material. A
familiar large-particle composite is concrete, which is composed of cement (matrix) and
sand and gravel (particulates). Particles can have quite a variety of geometries. For
effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and evenly distributed throughout
the matrix. Furthermore, the volume fraction of the two phases influences the behaviour,
modulus on the volume fraction of the constituent phases for a two-phase composite.
These rules of mixtures equations predict that the elastic modulus should fall between
an upper (u) and lower (l) bounds are represented by:

In these expressions E and V denote the elastic modulus and volume fraction,
respectively, whereas the subscripts c, m, and p represent composite, matrix and
particulate phases. Figure 8 plots the upper and lower bound versus curves for a copper
tungsten composite, in which tungsten is the particulate phase. The experimental data
points fall between the two curves.

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 Figure 8: Plots showing the upper and lower bound values of a typical fiber
reinforced composites.
Dispersion-Strengthened Composites
Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened and hardened by the uniform
dispersion of several volume percent of fine particles of a very hard and inert material.
The dispersed phase may be metallic or nonmetallic; oxide materials are often used.
The dispersion strengthening effect is not very pronounced, however, the strengthening
is retained at elevated temperatures and for extended time periods because the
dispersed particles are chosen to be non-reactive with the matrix phase. The high-
temperature strength of nickel alloys may be enhanced significantly by the addition of
about 3 vol% of thoria (ThO2) as finely dispersed particles; this material is known as
thoria-dispersed (or TD) nickel. The same effect is produced in the aluminum–aluminum
oxide system. Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the
dispersed phase is in the form of a fiber. Design goals of fiber-reinforced composites
often include high strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis. Fiber-reinforced
composites with exceptionally high specific strengths and moduli have been produced
that utilize low-density fiber and matrix materials.

Influence of Fiber Length on Load Bearing Capability of Composites

The mechanical characteristics of a fiber-reinforced composite depend not only
on the properties of the fiber, but also on the degree to which an applied load is
transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase. Important to the extent of this load
transmittance is the magnitude of the interfacial bond between the fiber and matrix
phases. Under an applied stress, this fiber-matrix bond ceases at the fiber ends,
yielding a matrix deformation pattern as shown schematically in Figure 9. Here it is
important to mention that there is no load transmittance from the matrix at each fiber
end. As a result, some critical fiber length is necessary for effective strengthening and
stiffening of the composite material. This critical length lc is dependent on the fiber

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diameter d and its ultimate (or tensile) strength *f and on the fiber-matrix bond strength
or the shear yield strength of the matrix c (whichever is smaller) according to:

Figure 9: Deformation pattern of a fiber reinforced composites.

If a tensile stress equal to *f is applied to a fiber having just this critical length,
the stress–position profile will be like that shown in Figure 10, where the maximum fiber
load is achieved at the axial center of the fiber. As fiber length l increases further, the
fiber reinforcement becomes more effective by absorbing the maximum stress to some
extent and this is demonstrated in Figure 11, a stress-axial position profile for when the
applied stress is equal to the fiber strength. Figure 12 shows the stress-position profile
of fibers for which l<lc. This type of fiber, in general, is called discontinuous or short
fibers have lengths shorter than this. In the cases of fibers l lc are termed as
continuous fibers. In general, for continuous fibers l 15lc.

Figure 10: Stress distribution over a fiber in fiber reinforced composites.

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 Figure 11: Stress distribution along a fiber in fiber reinforced composites, where fiber
is longer than the critical length.

Figure 12: Stress distribution along a fiber in fiber reinforced composites,

where fiber is shorter than the critical length.

Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration

The orientation of the fibers relative to one another, the fiber concentration and
the distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and other properties of
fiber-reinforced composites. With respect to orientation, two extremes are possible: (1)
a parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of the fibers in a single direction and (2) a
totally random alignment. Continuous fibers are normally aligned (Figure 13a), whereas
discontinuous fibers may be aligned (Figure 13b), randomly oriented (Figure 13c) or
partially oriented. Better overall composite properties are realized when the fiber
distribution is uniform.

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 (a) (b) (c)
Figure 13: Orientations of fibers in composites (a) continuous fiber, (b) discontinuous
aligned fiber and randomly oriented fiber.

Continuous and Aligned Fiber Composites

Tensile Stress–Strain Behavior-Longitudinal Loading
Mechanical responses of this type of composite depend on several factors to
include the stress-strain behaviors of fiber and matrix phases, the phase volume
fractions and, in addition, the direction in which the stress or load is applied.
Furthermore, the properties of a composite having its fibers aligned are highly
anisotropic, i.e. dependent on the direction in which they are measured. Let us first
consider the stress-strain behavior for the situation wherein the stress is applied along
the direction of alignment, the longitudinal direction. To begin, assume the stress versus
strain behaviors for fiber as brittle and matrix phase as ductile that are represented
schematically in Figure 14.

Figure 14: Stress-strain curves of a strong and brittle fiber and a relatively soft and
ductile matrix.
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In this treatment we consider the fiber to be totally brittle and the matrix phase to be
reasonably ductile. Also indicated in this figure are fracture strengths in tension for fiber
and matrix, *f and *m, respectively, and their corresponding fracture strains are, *f
and *m. Furthermore, it is assumed that *m *f, which is normally the case.

Figure 15: Stress-strain curves of a strong and brittle fiber, a relatively soft and ductile
matrix and their composite.

A fiber-reinforced composite consisting of these fiber and matrix materials will

exhibit the uniaxial stress-strain response illustrated in Figure 15. In the initial Stage I
region, both fibers and matrix deform elastically; normally this portion of the curve is
linear. In stage II, the matrix yields and deforms plastically, while the fibers continue to
stretch elastically, in as much as the tensile strength of the fibers is higher than the yield
strength of the matrix. Furthermore, in passing from Stage I to Stage II, the proportion of
the applied load that is borne by the fibers increases.
The onset of composite failure begins as the fibers start to fracture, which
corresponds to a strain of approximately *f as noted in Figure 16a. Composite failure is
not catastrophic for a couple of reasons. First, not all fibers fracture at the same time,
since there will always be considerable variations in the fracture strength of brittle fiber
materials. In addition, even after fiber failure, the matrix is still intact and it continues to

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plastically deform. Then matrix failure will starts leading to final fracture by fiber pull out,
Figure 16b.

(a) (b)

Figure 16: Fracture modes of brittle fiber reinforced composite (a) fiber cracking and
(b) fiber pull out after complete fracture.

Longitudinal Tensile Strength

We now consider the strength characteristics of continuous and aligned fiber
reinforced composites that are loaded in the longitudinal direction. Under these
circumstances, strength is normally taken as the maximum stress on the stress–strain
curve, Figure 15. Often this point corresponds to fiber fracture and marks the onset of
composite failure. Table 3 presented below provides typical longitudinal tensile strength
values for three common fiber reinforced composites. Failure of this type of composite
material is a relatively complex process and several different failure modes are possible.
The mode that operates for a specific composite will depend on fiber and matrix
properties and the nature and strength of the fiber–matrix interfacial bond. If we assume
that fibers will fail before the matrix, once the fibers have fractured, the majority of the
load that was borne by the fibers is now transferred to the matrix, which will also fail
ultimately because of over load.
Table 3: Tensile strengths of three different composite materials.
Material Longitudinal Tensile Transverse Tensile
Strength, MPa Strength (GPa)
Glass–polyester 700 20

Carbon (high modulus)–epoxy 10001200 35

Kevlar™–epoxy 35 20

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Transverse Tensile Strength
The strengths of continuous and unidirectional fiber reinforced composites are
highly anisotropic and such composites are normally designed to be loaded along the
high strength longitudinal direction. However, during in-service applications transverse
tensile loads may also be present. Under these circumstances, premature failure may
result inasmuch as transverse strength is usually extremely low. Thus, in actual fact, the
reinforcing effect of the fibers is a negative one. Typical transverse tensile strengths for
three unidirectional composites are contained in above Table 3.
Although, the longitudinal strength is dominated by fiber strength, a variety of
factors will have a significant influence on the transverse strength. These factors include
properties of both fiber and matrix, the fiber-matrix bond strength and the presence of
voids. Measures that have been employed to improve the transverse strength of these
composites usually involve modifying properties of the matrix and modification of
surface property of fibers for better matrix-fiber bonding.

Discontinuous and Aligned Fiber Composites

Even though reinforcement efficiency is lower for discontinuous than that of
continuous fibers, discontinuous and aligned fiber composites (Figure 13b) are
becoming increasingly more important in the commercial market. Chopped glass fibers
are used most extensively; however, carbon and aramid discontinuous fibers are also
employed. These short fiber composites can be produced having moduli of elasticity
and tensile strengths that approach 90% and 50%, respectively, of their continuous fiber
counterparts.

Discontinuous and Randomly Oriented Fiber Composites

Normally, when the fiber orientation is random, short and discontinuous fibers are
used. Reinforcement of this type is schematically demonstrated in Figure 13c. (1) Under
these circumstances, a “rule-of-mixtures” expression for the elastic modulus may be
utilized.
Table 4: Effect of volume fraction of glass fibers in polycarbonate matrix composites.
Fiber Reinforcement (Vol%)
Material Unreinforced
20 30 40
Specific gravity 1.19–1.22 1.35 1.43 1.52

Tensile strength (MPa) 59–62 110 131 159

Modulus of elasticity 2.24–2.345 5.93 8.62 11.6

Elongation (%) 90–115 4–6 3–5 3–5

Impact strength, 12–16 2.0 2.0 2.5

notched Izod (lbf/in.)

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 Thus, for random fiber reinforcement (as with oriented), the modulus increases in
some proportion of the volume fraction of fiber. Table 4 gives some of the mechanical
properties of unreinforced and reinforced polycarbonates for discontinuous and
randomly oriented glass fibers, provides an idea of the magnitude of the reinforcement
that is possible. By way of summary, then, aligned fibrous composites are inherently
anisotropic, in that the maximum strength and reinforcement are achieved along the
alignment (longitudinal) direction. In the transverse direction, fiber reinforcement is
virtually nonexistent: fracture usually occurs at relatively low tensile stresses. For other
stress orientations, composite strength lies between these extremes. The efficiency of
fiber reinforcement for several situations is presented in Table 5 presented below.

Table 5: Efficiency of fiber orientation on tensile strength of composites.

Fiber Orientation Stress Direction Reinforcement

Efficiency
All fibers parallel Parallel to fibers 1
Perpendicular to fibers 0

Fibers randomly and uniformly Any direction in the 3/8

distributed within a specific plane plane of the fibers

Fibers randomly and uniformly Any direction 1/5

distributed within three
dimensions in space

Polymer-Matrix Composites
Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) consist of a polymer resin as the matrix, with
fibers as the reinforcement medium. These materials are used in the greatest diversity
of composite applications, as well as in the largest quantities, in light of their room-
temperature properties, ease of fabrication and cost. In this section the various
classifications of PMCs are discussed according to reinforcement type (i.e., glass,
carbon and aramid), along with their applications and the various polymer resins that
are employed.

Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites

Fiberglass is simply a composite consisting of glass fibers, either continuous or
discontinuous, contained within a polymer matrix. This type of composite is produced in
the largest quantities. The composition of the glass that is most commonly drawn into
fibers (sometimes referred to as E-glass). Here fiber diameters are normally have range
between 3 and 20 m. Glass is popular as a fiber reinforcement material for several
reasons:

1. It is easily drawn into high-strength fibers from the molten state.

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2. It is readily available and may be fabricated into a glass-reinforced plastic
economically using a wide variety of composite-manufacturing techniques.
3. As a fiber it is relatively strong and when embedded in a plastic matrix, it produces a
composite having a very high specific strength.
4. When coupled with the various plastics, it possesses a chemical inertness that
renders the composite useful in a variety of corrosive environments.

The surface characteristics of glass fibers are extremely important because even
minute surface flaws can deleteriously affect the tensile properties. Surface flaws are
easily introduced by rubbing or abrading the surface with another hard material. Also,
glass surfaces that have been exposed to the normal atmosphere for even short time
periods generally have a weakened surface layer that interferes with bonding to the
matrix. Newly drawn fibers are normally coated during drawing with a thin layer of a
substance that protects the fiber surface from damage and undesirable environmental
interactions. There are several limitations to this group of materials. In spite of having
high strengths, they are not very stiff and do not display the rigidity that is necessary for
some applications (e.g., as structural members for airplanes and bridges). Most
fiberglass materials are limited to service temperatures below 200oC. Service
temperatures may be extended to approximately 300oC by using high-purity fused silica
for the fibers and high-temperature polymers such as the polyimide resins. Many
fiberglass applications are familiar: automotive and marine bodies, plastic pipes, storage
containers and industrial floorings. The transportation industries are utilizing increasing
amounts of glass fiber-reinforced plastics (Figure 17) in an effort to decrease vehicle
weight and boost fuel efficiencies.

Boeing A350 with 53% plastic materials Plastic at various locations of a car body

Figure 17: Huge amount of glass fiber reinforced composites are being used
in automobiles to reduce their weights.

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Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites
Carbon is a high-performance fiber material that is the most commonly used
reinforcement in advanced (i.e., non-fiberglass) polymer-matrix composites because of
the following reasons:

1. Carbon fibers have the highest specific modulus and strength among fiber materials.
2. They retain their high tensile modulus and strength at elevated temperatures.
3. At room temperature, carbon fibers are not affected by moisture or a wide variety of
solvents, acids and bases.
4. These fibers exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical characteristics.
5. Fiber and composite manufacturing processes have been developed that are
relatively inexpensive and cost effective.

Use of the term “carbon fiber” may seem perplexing since carbon is an element
and the stable form of crystalline carbon at ambient conditions is graphite. Carbon fibers
are not totally crystalline, but are composed of both graphitic and non-crystalline
regions. One classification scheme for carbon fibers is by tensile modulus. On this basis
the four classes are standard, intermediate, high and ultrahigh moduli. Furthermore,
fiber diameters normally range between 4 and 10 m. Both continuous and chopped
forms of carbon are fibers are available. In addition, carbon fibers are normally coated
with a protective epoxy size that also improves adhesion with the polymer matrix.

Figure 18: Some recent products of CFR polymer composites.

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 Carbon-reinforced polymer composites are currently being utilized extensively in
sports and recreational equipment (fishing rods, golf clubs), filament-wound rocket
motor cases, pressure vessels and aircraft structural components-both military and
commercial, fixed wing and helicopters (e.g., as wing, body, stabilizer, and -rudder
components). Some products of carbon fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites are
shown below in Figure 18.

Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

Aramid fibers are high-strength, high-modulus materials that were introduced in
the early 1970s. They are especially desirable for their outstanding strength to weight
ratios, which are superior to metals. Chemically, this group of materials is known as
poly(paraphenylene terephthalamide). There are a number of aramid materials; trade
names for two of the most common are Kevlar™ and Nomex™. For the former, there
are several grades (viz. Kevlar 29, 49, and 149) that have different mechanical
behaviors. Mechanically, these fibers have longitudinal tensile strengths and tensile
moduli superior to other polymeric fiber materials. However, they are relatively weak in
compression. In addition, this material is known for its toughness, impact resistance and
resistance to creep and fatigue failure. Even though the aramids are thermoplastics,
they are resistant to combustion and stable to relatively high temperatures. The
temperature range over which they retain their high mechanical properties is between
-200 and 200oC. Chemically, they are susceptible to degradation by strong acids and
bases, but they are relatively inert in other solvents and chemicals.
The aramid fibers are most often used in composites having polymer matrices.
The common matrix materials are epoxies and polyesters. Typical applications of these
aramid composites are in ballistic products (bulletproof vests and armor), sporting
goods, tires, ropes, missile cases, flywheels, pressure vessels and as a replacement for
asbestos in automotive brake and clutch linings and gaskets some of which are
presented in Figure 19. The properties of epoxy matrix glass, carbon and aramid fibers
reinforced composites are presented in Table 6.

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 Figure 19: Some useful products of aramid fiber reinforced composites.

Table 6: Comparison of different fiber reinforced epoxy composites.

Property Glass (E-glass) Carbon Aramid (Kevlar 49)
(High Strength)
Specific gravity 2.1 1.6 1.4

Tensile modulus:
Longitudinal (GPa) 45 145 76
Transverse (GPa) 12 10 5.5

Tensile Strength:
Longitudinal (GPa) 1020 1240 1380
Transverse (GPa) 40 41 30

Tensile Strain:
Longitudinal 2.3 0.9 1.8
Transverse 0.4 0.4 0.5

Metal Matrix Composites

In metal matrix composites (MMCs), the matrix is a ductile metal. These materials
may be utilized at higher service temperatures than their base metal counterparts.

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Furthermore, the reinforcement may improve specific stiffness, specific strength,
abrasion resistance, creep resistance, thermal conductivity and dimensional stability.
Some of the advantages of these materials over the polymer-matrix composites include
higher operating temperatures, non-flammability and greater resistance to degradation
by organic fluids. MMCs are much more expensive than PMCs and, therefore, their
uses are also somewhat restricted. The superalloys, as well as alloys of aluminum,
magnesium, titanium and copper are employed as matrix materials. The reinforcement
may be in the form of particulates, both continuous and discontinuous fibers.
Continuous fiber materials include carbon, silicon carbide, boron, aluminium oxide and
the refractory metals. On the other hand, discontinuous reinforcements consist primarily
of silicon carbide whiskers, chopped fibers of aluminum oxide and carbon and
particulates of silicon carbide and aluminum oxide. Table 7 shows the properties of
several common metal matrix continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced composites.
Automobile manufacturers have recently begun to use MMCs in their products.
For example, some engine components have been introduced consisting of an
aluminum-alloy matrix that is reinforced with aluminum oxide and carbon fibers. These
MMCs are light in weight and resists wear and thermal distortion. Metal-matrix
composites are also employed in drive shafts (that have higher rotational speeds and
reduced vibrational noise levels), extruded stabilizer bars and forged suspension and
transmission components. The aerospace industry also uses MMCs. Structural
applications include advanced aluminum alloy metal-matrix composites; boron fibers are
used as the reinforcement for the Space Shuttle Orbiter and continuous graphite fibers
for the Hubble Telescope. Some common products of MMCs are shown in Figure 20.

Table 7: Properties of some common metal matrix composites in the

longitudinal direction.
Fiber Matrix % Fiber Vol Density E (GPa) Strength (MPa)
Carbon 6061 Al 41 2.44 320 620
Boron 6061 Al 48 ---- 207 1515
SiC 6061 Al 50 2.93 230 1415
Alumina 380.0 Al 24 ---- 120 340
Carbon AZ31 Mg 38 1.80 300 510

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 Figure 20: Some automobile components of MMC.

CERAMIC-MATRIX COMPOSITES
Ceramic materials are inherently resistant to oxidation and deterioration at
elevated temperatures, which are the main attraction for their selection. However, their
fracture behaviours are very brittle, which limited their applications. Some of these
materials would be ideal candidates for use in high-temperature and severe-stress
applications, specifically for components in automobile and aircraft gas turbine engines,
if the fracture morphologies and inferior level of toughness of ceramic materials could
be modified. Fracture toughness values for ceramic materials are low and typically lie
between 1 and 5 MPa m, which is 15 to greater than 150 MPa m for metals. The main
target for making ceramic matrix composite is to improve their fracture toughness
values.
Ceramic-matrix composite materials have extended fracture toughness values
between about 6 and 20 MPa m through crack arrest technique by reinforcing
materials. Crack initiation normally occurs with the matrix phase because of its high
level of brittleness, whereas crack propagation is impeded or hindered by the particles,
fibers, or whiskers. Several techniques are utilized to retard crack propagation. One
particularly interesting and promising toughening technique employs a phase
transformation to arrest the propagation of cracks, which is generally termed
transformation toughening. Small particles of partially stabilized zirconia are dispersed
within the matrix materials of Al2O3 or ZrO2 itself. Typically CaO, MgO, Y2O3 and CeO

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are used as stabilizers. Partial stabilization allows retention of the metastable tetragonal
phase at ambient conditions rather than the stable monoclinic phase. The stress field in
front of a propagating crack causes these retained metastable tetragonal particles to
undergo transformation to the stable monoclinic phase. Accompanying this
transformation is a slight particle volume increase and the net result is that compressive
stresses are established on the crack surfaces near the crack tip that tend to pinch the
crack shut, thereby arresting its growth, Figure 21. Other recently developed toughening
techniques involve the utilization of ceramic whiskers, often SiC or Si3N4. These
whiskers may inhibit crack propagation by (1) deflecting crack tips, (2) forming bridges
across crack faces, (3) absorbing energy during pull-out as the whiskers debond from
the matrix and/or (4) causing a redistribution of stresses in regions adjacent to the crack
tips. In general, increasing fiber content improves strength and fracture toughness. In
addition, these CMCs exhibit improved high-temperature creep behavior and resistance
to thermal shock. CMCs are being used for making heavy duty aero plane engines,
turbine blades, aSome useful products of CMCs are presented in Figure 22.

Figure 21: Crack arresting by reinforcing ceramic matrix with ceramic particles.

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 Figure 22: CMC in heavy duty applications.

Figure 23: Some latest applications of carbon-carbon composites.

Carbon–Carbon Composites
One of the most advanced and promising engineering material is the carbon fiber
reinforced carbon matrix composite, often termed a carbon-carbon composite. As the
name implies, both reinforcement and matrix are carbon. These materials are relatively

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new and expensive. Therefore, they are not currently being utilized extensively. Their
desirable properties include high tensile moduli and strengths that are retained to
temperatures in excess of 2000oC, resistance to creep and relatively large fracture
toughness values. Furthermore, carbon-carbon composites have low coefficients of
thermal expansion and relatively high thermal conductivities. These characteristics,
coupled with high strengths, give rise to a relatively low susceptibility to thermal shock.
Their major drawback is the possibility of high temperature oxidation. The carbon-
carbon composites are employed in rocket motors, as friction materials in aircraft and
high performance automobiles, for hot pressing molds, in components for advanced
turbine engines and as ablative shields for re-entry vehicles, some of which are shown
in Figure 23.

Hybrid Composites
A relatively new fiber-reinforced composite is the hybrid, which is obtained by
using two or more different kinds of fibers in a single matrix. Hybrids have a better all
around combination of properties than composites containing only a single fiber type. A
variety of fiber combinations and matrix materials are used, but in the most common
system, both carbon and glass fibers are incorporated into a polymeric resin. The
carbon fibers are strong and relatively stiff and provide a low-density reinforcement;
however, they are expensive. Glass fibers are inexpensive and lack the stiffness of
carbon. The glass-carbon hybrid is stronger and tougher, has a higher impact
resistance and may be produced at a lower cost than either of the comparable all-
carbon or all-glass reinforced plastics. The fibers may all be aligned and intimately
mixed with one another or laminations may be constructed consisting of layers each of
which consists of a single fiber type, alternating one with another. In virtually all hybrids
the properties are anisotropic. When hybrid composites are stressed in tension, failure
is usually non-catastrophic (i.e. does not occur suddenly). The carbon fibers are the first
to fail, at which time the load is transferred to the glass fibers. Upon failure of the glass
fibers, the matrix phase must sustain the applied load. Eventual composite failure
concurs with that of the matrix phase. Principal applications for hybrid composites are
lightweight land, water and air transport structural components, sporting goods, and
lightweight orthopedic components.

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