KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering (2008) 12(4):281-288 Water Engineering

DOI 10.1007/s12205-008-0281-z
www.springer.com/12205

Analysis of Urban Development of Haridwar, India, Using Entropy Approach

Ramakar Jha*, Vijay P. Singh**, and V. Vatsa***
Received January 25, 2008/Accepted March 18, 2008

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Abstract

Urban development is a complex process, which should be observed at various levels and in many aspects for full understanding.
The pervasive problems generated by urban development have prompted, in the present work, to study the spatial extent of
urbanization in Haridwar, India, and patterns of periodic changes in urban development (systematic/random) in order to develop
future plans for (i) urbanization promotion areas, and (ii) urbanization control areas. Remote Sensing, using Indian Remote Sensing
(IRS) satellite data, was used to map the spatial extent of urbanization for the 1989, 1998, 2000 and 2002 years. Geographical
Information System (GIS) and Entropy approach, which makes use of mathematical notions related to thermodynamics and is the
disorder of organization or randomness of organization of a system, were used to study the pattern of urban development (systematic
or random) in Haridwar, India during 1989-2002. The distributed entropy and relative mean entropy values were evaluated
considering two location factors: (i) urban development at peripheries of 1000 m each from the centre of the city (Har Ki Pauri), (ii)
urban development at peripheries of 1000 m each from the highway along the upper Ganga canal. The results obtained indicate
significant periodic urban development in Haridwar during 1989-2002, specifically after the 1998 year. However, urban
developments were found to be random in nature, as the distributed relative entropy values formed a zig-zag pattern for the location
factor from the centre of the town. The application of entropy is found to be a better alternative to conventional technique.
Keywords: entropy, urban development, land use change, nonpoint source pollution, point source pollution, pollution
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1. Introduction include runoff and/or infiltration of water from roads, industrial

The ability to develop the land in an urban area heavily
influences economic activity and the quality of life in cities
(Turkstra, 1996). One direct implication of such an urban sprawl
is the change in land use and land cover. Due to increasing
population and high economic growth in selected landscapes,
rapid urban development and land use changes have occurred in
India during recent years. Further, urban development has both
direct and indirect impacts on water resources. Some impacts
result from the direct modification or destruction of streams,
lakes and wetlands. Other impacts occur primarily offsite due to
changes in the quality and quantity of runoff from urban
development and construction activities (Dreher and Price,
1992). Urban areas generate both nonpoint and point sources of
contaminants. Point sources that have an impact on surface water
include industrial and municipal waste discharges; those that
affect groundwater quality include leaky underground storage
facilities, as well as miscellaneous accidental spills of organic or
inorganic contaminants. Groundwater contamination by volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) is more common in urban settings
due to the heavy use of solvents and fuels. Nonpoint sources
areas, and golf courses. Contaminants include metals, industrial
organic chemicals, nutrients, and pesticides. Keeping this in
view, evaluation of periodic changes in spatial extent and pattern
of urban development in different years is essential for planning
(i) urbanization promotion areas, and (ii) urbanization control
areas. Remote sensing techniques have been utilized in
numerous studies to map land use changes and spatial extent of
urban development during different time periods (Howarth,
1986; Fung and LeDerw, 1987; Eastman and Fulk, 1993; Jensen
et al., 1993, 1995; Li and Yeh, 1988). These techniques include
image differencing (Toll, 1980), image rationing (Nelson, 1983),
post-classification comparison (Howarth and Wickware, 1981),
masking method (Pilon et al., 1988), nearest neighborhood and
principal component analysis (Fung and LeDrew, 1987; Li and
Yeh, 1988). Most of the techniques have limited capability in
capturing the characteristics of urban sprawl as these have been
developed in the context of image analysis or fractal theory
(Webster, 1995; Batty and Longley, 1994).
In addition to remote sensing approach, it was found that
entropy approach can provide information on the pattern of
periodic changes in urban development (systematic/random).

*Scientist-E1, Environmental Hydrology Division, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee-247667, Uttarakhand, India (E-mail: rjha@nih.ernet.in)
**Professor, Dept. of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2117, USA (Corresponding Author,
E-mail: vsingh@tamu.edu)
***Research Scholar, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar, India

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 Ramakar Jha, Vijay P. Singh, and V. Vatsa
Entropy, which is a measure of disorder or randomness (Miller,
1969) has been applied to a variety of practical problems in
different fields, including physical, biological, and social sciences
(Fast, 1970; Wyatt, 1967 Morowitz, 1970, Kullback 1959,
Quilstler, 1953 and 1955, Buckley, 1968, Theil, 1967 and 1972,
Chapman, 1977 Medyedkov, 1967; and Thakur, 1972 and 1979).
Contemporary science has accepted it as one of the foundation
stones for empirical research.
In the present study, the spatial extent of urbanization and
pattern of periodic changes in urban development (systematic/
random) has been done for Haridwar, India, which is an
important city along the banks of River Ganga, to develop future
plan for (i) urbanization promotion areas, and (ii) urbanization
control areas. Remote sensing, GIS and entropy approaches were
integrated to fulfill the objectives of the present work.
2. Study Area and Data
Haridwar is a holy city in the state of Uttarakhand in northern
India. The total area of Haridwar is 1994.0 km2. The district of
Haridwar lies between 77o35' to 78o15' latitude and 30°03'
longitude (see Fig. 1). The city is situated just beneath the
Shiwalik mountain ranges and is part of west Indogangetic plain
which is composed of Pleistocene and subrecent alluvium
brought down by rivers from the Himalayan region. The
alluvium is made up of sand, silt, clay, Kankar and gravel. There
is no void features except that the presence of rivers and nallas.
Most of the rivers of Hardwar district are flowing from west to
east.
Survey of India toposheets with a scale 1:50,000 were used for
Fig. 1. Study Area, Drainage and Contour Maps of the Study Region
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preparation of the drainage map and contour map of the study
region (see Fig. 1). Further, the soil map and other information
were collected from various state and central government
agencies. To study the land-use changes in Haridwar city satellite
data for the year 1989, 1998, 2000, and 2002 were collected and
analyzed.
3. Methodology
3.1 Mapping Spatial Extent Using Remote Sensing Tech-
nique
Remote sensing data are capable of detecting and measuring a
variety of elements relating to the morphology of cities, such as
the amount, shape, density, textural form and spread of urban
areas (Webster, 1995; Mesev et al., 1995). In this study, Indian
Remote Sensing (IRS) data for the 1989, 1998, 2000 and 2002
years were used in ERDAS-Imagine software to (i) classify
pixels that are classified as built-up area (urban area), (ii) water
bodies, (iii) agricultural area, (iv) forests, and (v) barren lands.
Separating agricultural areas from urban areas is particularly
important because past studies have demonstrated its effec-
tiveness in reducing commission errors in classified imageries
(Griffiths, 1988; Masek et al., 2000). Vegetation can be indicated
by the simple normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
using multi-spectral data. For Haridwar NDVI was computed
using the equation (Justice, 1986):
( Rnir – Rred )
NDVI = -------------------------- (1)
( Rnir + Rred )
where Rnir and Rred are the reflectance in near infra-red and red
KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
 Analysis of Urban Development of Haridwar, India, Using Entropy Approach
frequency bands.
Now, to detect the urban sprawl in land use/land cover changes
in the study area, the Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
image enhancement technique was adopted. PCA is a powerful
technique for the analysis of correlated multi dimensional data.
The n-channel multi spectral data can be considered as n-
dimensional data. The PCA builds up a new set of axes, which
are orthogonal to each other, i.e., non-correlated. The entire data
set can be represented in terms of these new axes. The data along
the first principal component (PC) have a great variance or
dynamic range than the data plotted against either of the original
axes. The data along the second PC have far less variance. This
is the characteristics of all principal components. The principal
component images can be analyzed as separate black and white
images or any three component images may be combined to
form a color composite. These techniques are particularly
appropriate where little apriori information concerning a given
scene is available.
Fig. 2. PCA Modeling Algorithm
Fig. 3. Creation of Polygon Buffer Zones (i) from the Centre of the City (Har Ki Pauri), and (ii) from the Highway Along the Upper Ganga
Canal
Vol. 12, No. 4 / July 2008
3.2 Systematic/Random Pattern Analysis Entropy Appro-
ach Integrated with GIS
3.2.1 Geographical Information System (GIS) Approach
The maps of spatial extent obtained from PCA in ERDAS-
Imagine software were input to the ILWIS-GIS software domain
for performing spatial operations. It is accepted that the urban
development is affected by some primary location factors, i.e.,
the distance to urban centers and roads. In the present work, the
density of urban development has been evaluated in GIS con-
sidering two location factors, viz., (i) urban development at
peripheries of 1000 m each from the centre of the city (Har Ki
Pauri), (ii) urban development at peripheries of 1000 m each
from the highway along the upper Ganga canal. The thematic
layers of buffer zones were created using the buffer functions of
GIS and the width of each buffer was considered to be 1000 m.
In spatial information systems, a buffer zone or simply buffer, is
a polygon enclosing an area within a specified distance from a
point, line or polygon. Accordingly, there are point buffers, line
buffers and polygon buffers. The town of Haridwar had 15
polygon buffer zones for distance from the center of the town
(Har ki Pauri) and 8 polygon buffer zones for the distance from
the road along the upper Ganga canal. The buffer zones created
for both the location factors are shown in Figure 3. The spatial
extent maps for the 1989, 1998, 2000 and 2002 years of the study
area were overlaid onto the buffer zone maps in order to evaluate
the density of urban development in each buffer zone of 1000 m
considering both the location factors as discussed above. Density
of urban development (%) is defined as the amount of urban
development divided by the land area in each buffer zone (Yeh
and Li, 1998).
The distribution of the densities over the buffers was obtained
using the cross function of ILWIS. The cross-tabulation statistics
computed were used to compare class value areas between two
thematic layers, including the number of pixels (or hectare) in
common and percentages.
3.2.2 Entropy Approach
In a classic paper Shannon (1948) developed the concept of'
entropy and proposed a discipline of communication theory
which focused on the study of information theory and entropy.
This theory makes use of a basic mathematical notion related to
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 Ramakar Jha, Vijay P. Singh, and V. Vatsa
thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics states that
thermodynamic degradation is unalterable over time, e.g., a
burnt log cannot be un-burnt and lukewarm water cannot be
separated distinctly into hot water and cold water. Numerous
applications of entropy in environmental and water resources has
been shown by Singh (2000).
The disorder, disorganization or randomness of organization of
a system is known as its entropy (Miller, 1969). So, entropy is a
measure of disorder and information is a measure of order of a
system. Since the system changes to a less organized state from a
highly organized state and to more probable states from less
probable states, entropy is maximized and the magnitude of
entropy is described by a set of probabilities.
As an alternative to conventional nearest neighbour technique
Medvedkov (1966) has related this notion to the problem of
settlement pattern analysis. He has suggested that any settlement
pattern has a uniform component and a random component.
These components can be measured by the method used for
detecting signals in the presence of noise in information theory.
Signal is analogous to the uniform component and noise to the
random component. Entropy has been used as a measure of noise
in information theory and as a measure of disorder in spatial
distributions. Medvedkov (1966) suggests that a settlement pattern
is a composite of two superimposed sub-patterns, one random
and the other uniform. Each of these sub-patterns will have its
own mean density of points, and the two densities added together
will be equal to the mean density of the composite pattern.
Likewise each sub-pattern has its own entropy value, and these
summed will be equal to the entropy value of the composite
pattern. However, the entropy value of a uniform pattern is zero
therefore the entropy value of the random component will be
equal to that of the total pattern. If the pattern is not perfectly
uniform the entropy function is density dependent and there is no
upper limit to the value of entropy. Entropies for different
patterns can be compared precisely only when the cell count data
is obtained using the same grid in the same position on the map.
Therefore, for comparative studies in time or space, the size and
form of the grid must not be altered.
Again, a major difference between entropy and traditional
indices of spatial dispersion is that its value is invariant with the
value of zones and the number of observations (n) (Thomas,
1981). In contrast, the Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve,
which have been widely used in geography to describe location
patterns, are sensitive to the size and shape of the area units
under observation. The modifiable area units may exert a
significant influence on the results of spatial analysis and lead to
the loss of detailed information (Openshaw, 1991). However,
entropy has no such problems.
3.3.3 Mathematical Formulation
Let an urban area be divided into n zones and x represent a
geographical variable to characterize these zones. Then the
degree of spatial concentration or dispersion of the geographical
variable in the i-th zone (xi) among n zones can be measured by
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Shannon's entropy E (Theil, 1967; Thomas, 1981). Entropy can
be calculated as:
n
⎛ 1⎞
E= ∑ pi log⎝ p----i⎠ (2)
i=1
n
where pi = xi ⁄ ∑ xi is the probability or the proportion of the
i=1
variable occurring in the ith zone, and xi is the observed value of
the variable in the ith zone, and n is the total number of zones.
The value of entropy ranges from zero to log(n). If the
probability distribution of the variable is maximally concentrated
in one zone, the lowest value of the entropy, zero, will be
obtained. Conversely, an evenly dispersed distribution of the
variable among zones will give a maximum entropy value of
log(n).
The relative entropy can be used to scale the entropy value into
the range from 0 to 1. The relative entropy Er is (Thomas, 1981):
n p i log ( 1 ⁄ pi )
Er = ∑ -------------------------
log ( n )
- (3)
i=1
If the probability distribution is maximally concentrated in one
region, Eq. (3) would yield the lowest E value of zero.
Conversely, Eq. (3) would yield a maximum E value of 1 for an
evenly dispersed probability distribution. Eq. (3) was utilized for
analysis in this study.
Entropy can be used to measure the distribution of a
geographical variable and thus a measure of the difference in
entropy between time (t+1) and (t) can be used to indicate the
change in the degree of dispersal of land development or urban
sprawl (Thomas, 1981). This can be expressed as:
∆E = E ( t + 1 ) – E ( t ) (4)
in which E is the change in entropy between time (t+1) and (t).
The dispersal of urban areas from a town center will lead to an
increase in the entropy value. The change of entropy can be used
to identify whether land development follows a more dispersed
or compact pattern of sprawl.
Using densities of different buffer zones computed in GIS, the
probability of urban development in each buffer zone of 1000m
was estimated. Thereafter, Eq. (3) was used to compute the
distributed entropy for different buffer zones and mean relative
entropy for the 1989, 1998, 2000, 2002 years.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Mapping Spatial Extent using Remote Sensing Tech-
nique
The IRS 1C images for the 1989, 1998, 2000 and 2002 years
were utilized to delineate the map the spatial extent of urban
development periodically. The results obtained using Principal
Component Analysis of these multi-temporal images is shown in
Figure 4. It can be seen from the figure that the area for urban
development has expanded mostly along the highway. Due to
topographical conditions, initially the development was near the
KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
 Analysis of Urban Development of Haridwar, India, Using Entropy Approach

Fig. 4. Principal Component Analysis of Satellite Data of Haridwar

centre of the town (Har ki Pauri) and then it moved far away,
mostly along the highway. Further, the urban development
pattern is more clearly noticed on the urban fringes or city
peripheral agricultural areas than in the city centre.
The percentage changes in the spatial extent of urban
development were computed by counting number of pixels
indicating the urban area of Haridwar, India.
4.2 Systematic/Random Pattern Analysis Entropy Approach
Integrated with GIS
4.2.1 Geographical Information System (GIS) Approach
In the next step, the outcome of remote sensing analysis in the
form of spatial information was transferred to the ILWIS GIS
system. In the analysis, the buffer function of GIS was used to
define polygon buffers zones for calculating entropy. The buffer
zones selected corresponded to different locations in Haridwar
dominated by residential, industrial, commercial, and mixed
zone development.
Prior to the computation of density in each buffer zone of the
two location factors, it was found necessary to compare the
urban development and corresponding population density data
obtained from various sources in Haridwar. The results indicate a
significant increase in the development of the urban area during
the period 1989-2002 (Fig. 5(a)). It is found that the density of
urban development increased gradually since 1989. However,
there was exponential increase in urban development of
Haridwar during 1998-2002 due to formation of Uttarakhand as
a separate state, and enhanced industrial development and urban
settlements in the surrounding areas for both location factors. It
is interesting to see that in Fig. 5(b) there has been only a gradual
increase in population of Haridwar and no exponential increase
is noticed. Also, it is noticed that some new areas of urban

Fig. 5. Urban Development at Haridwar, India, for Two Location Factors

Vol. 12, No. 4 / July 2008 − 285 −

 Ramakar Jha, Vijay P. Singh, and V. Vatsa

settlements have emerged after the 2000 year beyond a distance Table 1. Mean Relative Entropy Values for Both Location Factors
of 12 km from the center of Haridwar. Location factor
Year (a) From the centre of the (b) From the highway along
4.2.2 Entropy Approach city (Har Ki Pauri) Upper Ganga Canal
As was discussed earlier, entropy can be used to indicate the 1989 0.64 0.55
degree of urban sprawl by examining whether land development
1998 0.97 0.63
in a city is dispersed or compact. The larger value indicates the
occurrence of urban development. The buffer zones created in 2000 0.96 0.76
GIS for both the location factors and density of urban area in 2002 0.94 0.67
each buffer zone were used for computation of probability and
entropy values for each buffer zone.
The mean relative entropy in terms of urban development of calculated using Eq. (3) and are given in Table 1.
Haridwar for the 1989, 1999, 2000 and 2002 years were From Table 1, it is found that in the 1998 year entropy was

Fig. 6. Entropy Values in Different Buffer Zones of Haridwar Town

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 Analysis of Urban Development of Haridwar, India, Using Entropy Approach

highest for location factor (a) and thereafter the entropy value
started to slightly decrease, which is practically insignificant. It
indicates random development in urban areas. Further, if location
factor (b) is considered, the results substantiate the results
obtained for location factor. This also indicates that the overall
urban development in Haridwar is random.
It was found necessary to evaluate distributed relative entropy
values in each buffer zone using Eq. (3) for both location factors
(Fig. 6). From the town center Har ki Pauri, entropy was found to
follow the distance decay pattern (decresing) for the 1989 year,
whereas in the 1998, 2000 and 2002 years, it follows a zig-zag
pattern. This indicates that random development took place in
the Haridwar town and it is essential to develop future plans for
(i) urbanization promotion areas, and (ii) urbanization control
areas. Further, in the case of distance from the highway along the
upper Ganga canal, entropy followed the distance decay pattern
for all data sets. The results shown in Fig. 7 indicate that entropy
values are decreasing as we move to farther distances and people
prefer to have their industries and residences near the highway.
Comparison of entropy values for 2000 and 2002 years
indicates that due to the formation of Uttaranchal as a separate
state, the land value has increased enormously and has caused
scattered development in the 2000 year. Similarly, during the
1998 year, temporary shelters were constructed on the occasion
of holy festival Kumbh in Haridwar and the scattered urban
sprawl in terms of entropy can be easily visualized in some of the
regions beyond a distance of 5 km from the center of the town
(Fig. 7). Urban development in 1998 and 2000 indicates that the
majority of developments are towards dispersed development
rather than concentrated development.
5. Conclusions
In general, the urbanization has taken place either in a radial
direction around a well-established city or linearly along
highways. Entropy is found to be effective for analysis of urban
development patterns and for future plans for (i) urbanization
promotion areas, and (ii) urbanization control areas. It enables to

Fig. 7. Spatial and Temporal Variation of Entropy Values

Vol. 12, No. 4 / July 2008 − 287 −

 Ramakar Jha, Vijay P. Singh, and V. Vatsa
identify which town area has better spatial efficiency in land
development. The criteria used for selecting location factors
having buffer zones provide the primary basis for urban
development in a town.
The results of analysis reveal that Haridwar has experienced
random urban development at the dawn of the new millennium
with the lack of proper development control and management.
The dispersed pattern of land development identified by
calculating entropy from multi-temporal satellites images shows
a high degree of unplanned urban development and need due
attention.
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