CIB World Building Congress, April 2001, Wellington, New Zealand Page 1 of 11

Paper: NOV 05

DETERMINATION OF CHANGES IN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDING

MATERIALS IN THE CONDITIONS OF A FIRE

JAN TOMAN, ROBERT ČERNÝ

Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Civil Engineering

Thákurova 7, 16629 Prague 6, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT

A method for estimating the fire-resistance properties of building materials is proposed which
employs the dependencies of thermophysical parameters such as thermal conductivity, specific heat
and linear thermal expansion coefficient on temperature and moisture. The method is illustrated on
two typical building materials, namely the heat-insulating and fire protecting fiber cement material
Dekalit P and cement mortar. The measured results indicate that both thermal diffusivity and thermal
conductivity increase significantly in the high-temperature region which is a negative information
concerning the fire-protecting abilities of a material because the heat transfer is accelerated. Also, a
very marked effect of moisture evaporation on the heat conduction process in the temperature interval
of 1000C to 10000C is observed, resulting in a decrease of the value of the generalized thermal
conductivity within the range of several tens of per cent compared to the Fourier’s thermal
conductivity. On the other hand, it is shown that the increase of the linear thermal expansion
coefficient with temperature is for the investigated materials not a very significant effect, and
therefore the resulting thermal stress is not much higher than as calculated from the room temperature
data.

KEYWORDS:

Fire, building materials, thermal properties.

INTRODUCTION

In the determination of fire resistance of building structures, the time period when the structure is
capable of performing its heat-insulating function and protecting the other parts of the building from
a fast temperature increase is one of the most important parameters. Duration of this period depends
primarily on the external conditions such as the temperature of the fire. On the other hand, the
influence of thermal material parameters of the fire-protecting structures is also very significant.
Among these parameters, the thermal conductivity and the specific heat are of greatest importance. In
the conditions of a fire, load-bearing structures undergo significant thermal stress which can result in
a damage of the particular structure. The linear thermal expansion coefficient is also an important
material parameter making possible to calculate the thermal stresses in the high-temperature range.

Generally, all the above-mentioned material parameters are commonly measured at room temperature
only, and the high-temperature range is usually not very interesting for the engineers and designers.
This may lead to bad mistakes in the evaluation of the structure’s response to a fire because for
instance, thermal expansion coefficient of many materials increases significantly with temperature
and the resulting thermal stress is higher than expected from the room temperature data. Also,
thermal conductivity of many materials can increase with temperature in the high temperature region
which is a negative effect.

In this paper, a method for estimating the fire-resistance properties of building materials is proposed
which employs the dependencies of thermophysical parameters such as thermal conductivity, specific
heat, thermal diffusivity, linear thermal expansion coefficient on temperature and moisture.
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Paper: NOV 05

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDING

MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES

In the classical theory of linear irreversible thermodynamics (see, e.g., de Groot and Mazur, 1962,
Prigogine, 1955, Kvasnica, 1965), the conduction of heat in absence of cross effects can be
expressed by the Fourier's Law

q = −λ ⋅ grad T (1)

where q is the heat flux, λ is the thermal conductivity and T the temperature, and consequently by the
heat-conduction equation

∂T
ρc = div(λ ⋅ grad T ) (2)
∂t

where ρ is the density and c is the specific heat, t is the time.

This relation is frequently used in the most thermal calculations in the practice, and it is certainly a
good approximation for materials which do not contain moisture and do not undergo structural,
chemical or phase changes.

In the case of materials containing moisture, the analysis of the heat transfer processes is more
complicated since the heat conduction is combined with the moisture transfer. An analysis using the
methods of linear irreversible thermodynamics (see Kvasnica, 1965, for details) leads to the
replacement of the classical thermal conductivity λ for "pure" heat conduction by the common
thermal conductivity λ+

 ∂µ ρ  ∂µ ∂µ ∂u 
λ+ = λ + ρδ Θ −T +  (3)
 ∂u ρ d  ∂T ∂u ∂T 

where u is the moisture content by mass,

m m − md
u= ,
md

mm is the mass of the moist sample, md is the mass of the dried sample, ρd is the partial density of the
porous matrix, µ the chemical potential, δ the Soret's thermodiffusion coefficient, Θ the
thermodiffusion ratio,

δT
Θ= ,
D

D is the diffusion coefficient.

In addition, it is necessary to include one generalized thermodynamic force more, the moisture
gradient, in the relation for the heat flux,

q = −λ+ ⋅ grad T − β ⋅ grad u , (4)

where β is the Dufour's coefficient.

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Paper: NOV 05

The heat conduction equation can then be written only in a combination with the moisture conduction
equation:

∂T
ρc
∂t
( )
= div λ+ ⋅ grad T + div(β ⋅ grad u ) (5)

∂u
= div(D ⋅ grad u ) + div(δ ⋅ grad T ) . (6)
∂t

In the case that also phase change processes and chemical reactions occur in the material, the analysis
is a little more complicated since new thermodynamic forces and fluxes arise and new balance
equations are necessary (see de Groot and Mazur, 1962). The heat balance is then modified by an
addition of the terms describing the heat sources or sinks due to this phenomena and can be
schematically expressed as

∂T
ρc
∂t
( )
= div λ+ ⋅ grad T + div(β ⋅ grad u ) + S p + S r (7)

where Sp is the volume source, resp. sink term expressing the influence of phase changes, Sr the
corresponding term for chemical reactions. The terms Sp , Sr can be replaced using "intensities" Ip , Ir

S p = div I p

S r = div I r

where Ip , Ir have the meaning of heat fluxes due to phase changes and chemical reactions.

Thus, Ip , Ir can be formally included into the value of the generalized thermal conductivity λ* which
leads to the heat balance equation formally identical with the Fourier's heat conduction equation. In
the case of one-dimensional heat transfer we obtain:

∂T ∂  ∂T 
ρc =  λ*  (8)
∂t ∂x  ∂x 

with

 ∂µ ρ  ∂µ ∂µ ∂u  ∂u I p I
λ+ = λ + ρδ Θ −T +  + β + + r . (9)
 ∂u ρ d  ∂T ∂u ∂T  ∂T ∂T ∂T
∂x ∂x

MEASURING METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THERMAL PROPERTIES IN

THE HIGH-TEMPERATURE RANGE

Generalized thermal conductivity

The relation (9) for the generalized thermal conductivity λ* is rather complicated and its direct
calculation would be probably not very easy for example due to the difficulties in the determination of
the chemical potential and the Soret's and Dufour's coefficients. Therefore, the most convenient way
how to determine it is an experiment. Taking the advantage of the formal agreement of the newly
formulated heat conduction equation with the classical Fourier's Law, we can employ some of the
dynamic methods based on the analysis of the temperature field. The basic principle of these methods
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Paper: NOV 05

consists in measuring temperature fields in the sample at one-sided heating and the subsequent
solution of the inverse heat conduction problem (see, e.g., Cerny and Toman, 1997a,b for details). As
it has been shown in a numerical analysis by Cerny and Toman (1997b), the most stable and reliable
method among those employing the direct solution of the inverse problem of heat conduction was
found the double integration method. We will introduce the basic idea of the method here, for the
convenience of the reader. The details can be found in Cerny and Toman (1995).

We suppose T(t) and T(x) to be monotonic functions and choose a constant value of temperature,
τ=T(x,t). Then, there must exist one-to-one parametrizations x=x0(τ,t), t=t0(τ,x) where both x0 and t0
are monotonic functions. Considering this fact, an integration of heat conduction equation by x and t
leads to

t 2 x0 (τ ,t )
∂T ∂T
2 t 2 t

∫ ∫
t1 0
ρc
∂t
( x, t )dxdt =λ (τ ) ∫
t1
∂x
( x0 (τ , t ), t )dt + ∫ j q (0, t )dt ,
t1
(10)

where the heat flux at x=0, jq(0,t), reads

∂T
j q (0, t ) = −λ (T ) (0, t ) . (11)
∂x

The left-hand side (LS) of Eq. (10) can be modified by accounting for the shape of the integration
area:

t 2 x0 (τ ,t ) x0 (τ ,t1 ) t 2 x (τ ,t )
∂T ∂T ∂T
0 2 2 t

LS = ∫ ∫ ρc ( x, t )dxdt = ∫ ∫t ∂t
ρ c ( x , t ) dtdx + ∫ ∫ ρc ( x, t )dtdx . (12)
t1 0
∂t 0 1 x 0 (τ , t )
1 0 t (τ , x )
∂t

Denoting

∂T
I T = ∫ ρc dt = ∫ ρ (T )c(T )dT ,
∂t

we obtain

x0 (τ ,t1 ) x0 (τ ,t 2 )

LS = ∫ [I
0
T (T ( x, t 2 )) −I T (T ( x, t1 ))]dx + ∫ [I
x0 (τ ,t1 )
T (T ( x, t 2 )) − I T (τ )]dx =

x0 (τ ,t 2 ) x0 (τ ,t 2 )

= ∫I
0
T (T ( x, t 2 ))dx − ∫I
0
T (T ( x, t1 ))dx − I T (τ )[ x0 (τ , t 2 ) −x0 (τ , t1 )] . (13)

Substituting (13) into (10) we arrive at

1  x0 (τ ,t2 )
λ (τ ) =  ∫ I T (T ( x, t 2 ))dx −
∂T
t2
 0
∫ ∂x ( x
t1
0 (τ , t 2 ), t )dt
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Paper: NOV 05

x0 (τ ,t 2 ) t2

− ∫0 T
I (T ( x , t 1 )) dx − I T (τ )[ x 0 (τ , t 2 ) − x 0 (τ , t 1 )] − ∫t jq (0, t )dt  . (14)
1 

Choosing a set of temperature values τ1, τ2 ,..., τn, and performing the above calculations to obtain the
respective values of λ, we obtain a pointwise given λ(T) function.

Density and specific heat

The inverse methods of heat conduction employed for the determination of thermal conductivity
which were mentioned before require, however, the knowledge of the temperature dependence of the
density and the specific heat. The density can be measured directly by a simple thermogravimetry
from the mass and the volume of the sample, the specific heat at high temperatures can be determined
for example by the nonadiabatic method by Toman and Cerny (1995). Again, we will repeat the basic
ideas of the methods here, for the convenience of the reader.

The nonadiabatic calorimeter we use has a mixing vessel with a volume of 2,5 liters. The volume of
the measuring fluid (water in this case) is about 1 liter. The maximum volume of the measured
samples is 1 liter. The amount of heat loss of the nonadiabatic system is determined using a
calibration. T he calorimeter is filled with water, whose temperature is different from the ambient air.
Then, the relation of water temperature to time, Tc(t), is measured.

The measuring method itself is based on well-known principles. The sample is heated to a
predetermined temperature Ts in a furnace and then put into the calorimeter with water. Then, the
relation of water temperature to time Tw(t) is measured, water being slowly stirred all the time, until
the temperatures of the measured sample and the calorimeter are equal. The duration of temperature
equilibration ranges from 20 minutes to 1 hour, depending on the thermal conductivity and size of the
material being measured.

The heat balance of the sample-calorimeter system can be written in the form:

mc(Ts − Te ) = (C c + mw c w )(Te − Two ) + ∆mL − Qr , (15)

where m is the mass of the sample, Ts is the temperature of the sample prior to being put into the
calorimeter, Te is the temperature of the sample-calorimeter system at the end of the test, c is the
specific heat of the sample in the temperature interval [Te, Ts], Cc is the heat capacity of the
calorimeter, mw is the mass of the water, cw is the specific heat of water, Two is the initial water
temperature, L is the latent heat of evaporation of water, Qr is the reaction heat (for instance of a
hydrolysis process), ∆m is the mass of water evaporated during the experiment.

Determining the specific heat c directly from the equation (15) we would obtain a mean value of
specific heat in the interval [Te, Ts]. However, from the physical point of view, it is more correct to
determine the value of the specific heat "pointwise", in accordance with the definition of specific
heat,

 ∂h 
c(Ti ) =   , (16)
 ∂T  Ti
where h is the specific enthalpy. Using relation (16) to determine the specific heat, we have to
specify the zero-point of the enthalpy scale, i.e., we have to ensure that all the enthalpy calculations
are related to a certain constant temperature. This reference temperature can be, for example, Tk =
0
0 C. Upon adding Q = mc0(Te-Tk), where c0 is the mean specific heat of the sample in the temperature
interval [0,Te], to both sides of equation (15), and dividing by m, we obtain the following
CIB World Building Congress, April 2001, Wellington, New Zealand Page 6 of 11
Paper: NOV 05

(C c + mw c w )(Te − Two ) + ∆mL − Q

h(Ts ) = + c 0 (Te − Tk ) . (17)
m

Performing a set of measurements for various sample temperatures Ti, we obtain a set of points [Ti,
h(Ti)]. A regression analysis of this pointwise given function results in a functional relationship for h
= h(T) and, using relation (16), also in the function c = c(T) as the first derivative of h with respect to
T.

Linear thermal expansion coefficient

In measuring the high-temperature linear thermal expansion we employed the experimental device
currently developed in our laboratory (see Toman et al., 1999). The device consists of a cylindrical,
vertically placed electric furnace with two bar samples located in the furnace. The first sample is the
measured material, the second sample is a reference material with the known dependence of the
thermal expansion coefficient on temperature. The length changes of the samples are measured
mechanically outside the furnace by thin ceramic rods which pass through the furnace cover and are
fixed on the top side of the measured sample. These ceramic rods pass by an indefinite temperature
field, therefore their elongation is not possible to be determined mathematically and a comparative
method of determining the elongation of the rod is used.

ESTIMATION OF THE FIRE PROTECTION ABILITY

For the estimation of the effect of phase changes, chemical reactions and the moisture transfer on the
heat conduction in the material, we employ a method based on the comparison of thermophysical
parameters of the samples from the new material and from the material preheated in the furnace
(where we can assume that the most of the structural, chemical and phase changes are already
finished). Both the samples undergo simultaneously one-sided heating and the temperature fields are
measured during the heating. Then, the dependencies of the specific heat and density on temperature
are measured, and finally the generalized- and Fourier’s thermal conductivity are determined as
functions of temperature. The differences between λ(T) and λ*(T) and the irregularities in the c(T)
and ρ(T) functions of both the new and the preheated material show the influence of phase changes,
structural changes, chemical reactions and moisture transport on the heat transfer in the material, and
consequently also on the fire-protecting abilities of the material. The linear thermal expansion
coefficient measured in a wide temperature range can then show how dangerous the thermal stresses
induced in the high-temperature range can be for a particular building structure.

MATERIALS AND SAMPLES

The measurements were done on two typical building materials, namely the heat-insulating and fire
protecting fiber cement material Dekalit P and cement mortar.

Dekalit P is an environmental friendly cellulose-based replacement material for the asbestos-cement

products, designated for heat-insulating external linings and for increasing the fire-protection
properties of building structures as an internal lining. It is produced by EZA Sumperk, Czech
Republic, and contains cement, organic and inorganic fibers and silicate-based additives. The dry
density of the material is 900 kg/m3, the material plates are produced in thicknesses of 6 mm to
15 mm. As samples for measuring of specific heat we used 100 x 100 x 100 mm cubes assembled
from the original boards of Dekalit P, for measuring thermal conductivity, the samples were
assembled again from the material boards dimensioned 90 x 90 x 10 mm with chromel-alumel
thermoelements placed along the longitudinal axis. All the system was held together by a steel wire
cage. For measuring thermal expansion, we used 40 x 10 x 120 mm samples.

The composition of the mixture for one charge of cement mortar was the following: Portland cement
ENV 197 - 1 CEM I 42.5 R (Kraluv Dvur, CZ) – 450 g, natural quartz sand with continuous
granulometry I, II, III (the total screen residue on 1.6 mm 2%, on 1.0 mm 35%, on 0.50 mm 66%, on
CIB World Building Congress, April 2001, Wellington, New Zealand Page 7 of 11
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0.16 mm 85%, on 0.08 mm 99.3%) - 1350 g, water – 225 g. The mortar was prepared by mixing and
compacting using mixing machine and vibrator. The dimensions of the samples were 40 x 40 x 120
mm for the thermal expansion, and 71 x 71 x 71 mm for the specific heat and the thermal
conductivity. The samples were left in moulds for the first 24 hours in a high relative humidity
environment under wetted cloth. After mould removal, the time remaining to 28 days spent the
samples in 200C water and then they were put in protected external environment (a metal-sheet shed)
with the relative humidity approximately 65%.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Density
Fig. 1a shows that the most dramatic density decrease for Dekalit P was observed in the lower
temperature range to approximately 4000C. While the first decrease in the temperature region around
1000C is apparently related to the loss of moisture contained in the material, the further decrease is
most probably due to the decomposition of organic fibers. The later density decrease due to the
decomposition of the cement binder was significantly less pronounced than the previous effects in the
temperature range of 100-4000C. On the contrary, the cement mortar does not contain any organic
substances, and therefore the most of the mass loss is due to the decomposition of the cement binder.
Fig. 1b shows that after the initial moisture induced decrease, two regions with a fast mass decrease
were observed. The first at about 5000C is clearly related to the decomposition of CA(OH)2 which
appears in all cementitious materials at 4800C. The second decrease between 600 and 7000C might be
related to the decomposition of CaCO3 which usually takes place at about 7000C (see e.g. Bazant and
Kaplan, 1996).

Specific heat
The dependence of the specific heat on temperature was measured using the nonadiabatic method by
Toman and Cerny (1995) in the range of 00C to 10000C. As the method requires initial tempering
for approximately two or three hours to achieve a constant temperature distribution within the sample
which is relatively large, in fact only the specific heat of preheated samples was determined. Fig. 2
shows the c(T) functions of Dekalit P and cement mortar, calculated "pointwise" on the basis of the
exact definition. We can see that the c(T) function of Dekalit P exhibits a fast decrease in the range of
temperatures of 200-5000C. This is apparently related to the mass decrease in this region as shown in
Fig. 1a. This feature may decrease the material's fire protecting abilities because the decomposition
of organic substances is usually accompanied by burning which results in an extra heat generated in
the material. For cement mortar, the values of c were approximately constant up to 4000C and then
the c(T) function began to increase which is an expected character for cementitious materials (see e.g.
Bazant and Kaplan, 1996).

Fig. 1a Density of Dekalit P in dependence on temperature

Fig. 1b Mass loss of cement mortar in dependence on temperature
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Fig. 2 Specific heat of Dekalit P and cement mortar in dependence on temperature

Thermal conductivity
In measuring the thermal conductivity, the samples were taken both from the new material, and from
the material preheated in the furnace at the temperature T= 8000C two hours long and then slowly
cooled. Always both the corresponding specimens, new and preheated, were put in the door of the
furnace, and sealed using a fire-resisting material. The temperature in the furnace was kept constant
within the limits ± 50C, and the temperature field in the specimens was registered until the system
reached steady-state conditions.

Figs. 3a, b show an example of measured temperatures in both new and preheated samples of Dekalit
P for fixed space points. Comparing the T (t) curves in Figs. 3a, b, significant differences between
new and preheated samples, especially in the initial parts of the curves, are apparent. A time delay
about 1000C in the curves representing temperatures in the new sample are clearly related to the
evaporation of water (in the initial state, the moisture in the new sample was u = 0.073 kg/kg).
Certain irregularities in the T (t) curves for the new sample in the region of 1000C to 4000C are most
probably related to the deterioration of cellulose fibers in this temperature interval but their character
is not very dramatic. The T(t) curves for preheated samples are relatively very smooth which leads us
to conclude that there takes place a classical heat conduction process without additional thermal
effects.

Figs. 3a, b Temperature vs. time relations for the new and preheated specimens of Dekalit P at the
furnace temperature of 10000C

Fig. 4 shows relations λ(T) for both new and preheated specimens of Dekalit P and cement mortar in
the range of 200C to 10000C. In the case of Dekalit P, the differences are very high particularly in the
higher temperature range. While the thermal conductivity for the preheated sample increases very fast
with temperature, the increase of λ with temperature for the new sample is almost linear and much
slower. For example, at the temperature of 8000C, the value of λ for the preheated sample is
approximately four times higher than the corresponding value for the new sample which is regarding
the T(t) curves in Figs. 3a, b apparently caused by the positive influence of the evaporation of water.
CIB World Building Congress, April 2001, Wellington, New Zealand Page 9 of 11
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For cement mortar, the λ(T) function decreased (as it is usual for the most of crystalline materials)
only up to 4000C, and the differences between the Fourier thermal conductivity and generalized
thermal conductivity were only approximately 30% in maximum which means that the material was
relatively well stable even after preheating. However, for the temperatures higher than 4000C we
have observed a behavior quite unusual for crystalline materials, because the λ(T) function began to
increase fast, and at 8000C it was already higher than at room temperature.

For the sake of comparison, also the measurements of thermal conductivity by classical hot wire
method at room temperature have been done. Fig. 4 shows that the high-temperature results are in a
good agreement with these independent measurements and the extrapolation of the high-temperature
values to 250C would give a very similar value as is the hot-wire measured thermal conductivity.

Figs. 4, 5 Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity vs. temperature relations for the new and
preheated samples of Dekalit P and cement mortar

Thermal diffusivity
The results obtained for the thermal diffusivity (see Fig. 5) are qualitatively very similar to those for
thermal conductivity, therefore, it can be concluded that the changes of thermal conductivity in the
high-temperature region dominated those of specific heat and density.

Linear thermal expansion coefficient

Fig. 6 shows that the linear thermal expansion coefficient of Dekalit P increased as it would be
expected only in the temperature range up to about 2000C, and then it began to decrease relatively
fast. This is probably the consequence of the fast mass decrease in the range to 4000C shown in Fig.
1a which apparently has led to structural damages. The thermal expansion coefficient of cement
mortar increased up to approximately 5000C where it achieved a maximum, then it began to decrease,
and finally at 10000C it achieved a value approximately equal to that at 00C. Also this curve
corresponds to the thermal analysis in Fig. 1b. The decisive factor in the case of cement mortar was
apparently the Ca(OH)2 decomposition leading to a substantial structural damage of the cement gel.
CIB World Building Congress, April 2001, Wellington, New Zealand Page 10 of 11
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Fig. 6 Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Dekalit P and cement mortar in dependence on
temperature

CONCLUSION

The measurements of the temperature dependence of thermal conductivity and specific heat of Dekalit
P have shown that there are two basic effects affecting the fire-protective ability of this material. The
deterioration of organic fibers in the temperature range of 2000C to 4000C indicated by both density
and specific heat measurements has a negative influence. On the contrary, there is also here a positive
effect of the evaporation of water shown in the T(t) curves. Comparing these two effects, the effect of
water evaporation was apparently the dominant one due to the great amount of energy spent during
this process. In the case of measurements on cement mortar, the most important factor affecting the
fire protection ability was the increase of thermal conductivity in the temperature range 400-8000C.

For the fire protection of building structures, the measured results indicate that the heat transfer in
both materials can be accelerated once temperature achieves 400-5000C which might be dangerous
because the fire-protecting ability of such a structure decreases compared to the values calculated
with data measured at lower temperatures. Using the high-temperature data in the evaluation of fire-
protecting abilities of such structures is therefore highly recommended.

On the other hand, the thermal expansion of the analyzed materials did not increase in the high-
temperature range too much, and therefore the real thermal stress would not be much higher compared
to the calculations with room temperature data which is a positive information.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research has been supported by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic, under grants No.
103/00/0021 and 103/97/K003.

REFERENCES

Bazant, Z.P., Kaplan, M.F. 1996. “Concrete at High Temperatures”. Longman, Harlow.

Černý, R., Toman, J. 1995. “Determination of Temperature- and Moisture-Dependent Thermal

Conductivity by Solving the Inverse Problem of Heat Conduction.” In Proceedings of “International
Symposium on Moisture Problems in Building Walls.” V.P. de Freitas, V. Abrantes (eds.), pp. 299-
308, University of Porto.
CIB World Building Congress, April 2001, Wellington, New Zealand Page 11 of 11
Paper: NOV 05

Černý, R., Toman, J. 1997a. “A Difference Method for Determining the Thermal Conductivity of
Porous Materials in a Wide Temperature Range.” High Temp.-High Press. 29(1), 51-57.

Černý, R., Toman, J. 1997b. “Solution of Inverse Problems of Heat Conduction in Building
Materials.” In Proceedings of “Numerical Methods in Thermal Problems,” Vol. 10, R.W. Lewis and
J.T. Cross (eds.), pp. 811-820. Pineridge Press, Swansea.

de Groot, S.R., Mazur, P. 1962. “Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics”. North-Holland, Amsterdam.

Kvasnica, J. 1965. “Thermodynamics.” (in Czech). SNTL, Prague.

Prigogine, I. 1955. “Introduction to Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes”. Charles C.

Thomas, Springfield.
Toman, J., Černý, R. 1995. “Calorimetry of Building Materials. J.” Thermal Anal. 43(1), 489-496.

Toman, J., Koudelova, P. Černý, R 1999. “A Measuring Method for the Determination of Linear
Thermal Expansion of Porous Materials at High Temperatures.” High Temp.-High Press. 31(1),
595-600.