B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE 1. Definitions Fuel is composed of chemical elements which, in rapid chemical union with oxygen, produce combustion. ‘Combustion ~ is that rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element whose exothermic heat of reaction is sufficiently great and whose rate of reaction is sufficiently fast that useful quantities of heat are liberated at elevated temperatures, 2. Classification of Fuels 24 including coal, coke, peat, briquettes, wood, charcoal, and waste products 22 cll leum and its derivatives, syntheti fuels manufactured from natural gas and coal, ale oil, coal by-products (including tars and light oil), and alcohols 23 including gas, manufactured and industrial by-product gases, and the propane and butane or, uefied petroleum (LP) gases that are stored and delivered as liquids under pressure but used in gaseous form. 3. Coal Classi 31 jegree of metamorphism, or progressive alteration, in the natural series from lignite to racite (lignite, subbituminous, semibitumninous, bituminous, semianthracite, anthracite, superanthracite). Probably the most universally applicable method of classification in which coals are arranged according to fixed carbon content and calorific value, in Btu, calculated on the mineral-matter-free basis. 3 = quality determined by size designation, calorific value, ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur. The size designation is given first in accordance with the standard screen analysis method followed lorific value, and symbols representing ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur. 33 — determined by nature of the original plant material and subsequent thereof. 4, Burners for Pulverized Coal 4.1 Vertical firing — with all the secondary air admitted around the burner nozzle so that it mixes quickly mixture from the burner nozzle. ~a form of vertical firing, consists of burners located in an arch low in the furnace or in the side walls and directed toward the furnace door, with high velocities of both primary and secondary alr. This type of lusively in wet-bottom or slagging type. ‘employs a turbulent burner, which consists ofa circular nozzle within a housing provided with ble valves, the unit being located in the front or rear wall ing ~ is characterized by burners located in each corner of the furnace and directed tangent to a horizontal, imaginary circle in the middle of the furnace, thereby making the furnace the burner in effect, since turbulence and intensive mixing occur where the streams met. coal c Coke - is the solid, infusible, cellular residue left after fusible bituminous coals are heated, in the absence of air, above temperatures at which active thermal decomposition ofthe coal occurs. {Pitshycoke or petroleum coke— are obtained by similar heating of coa-tar pitch and petroleum residues esse is made from coal at temperature ranging from 815 C to 1093 C. ~ Is formed at temperatures below 704 C. The residue, if made from a non-cooking coal, is known as char.10. 11 2 B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE Charcoal Charcoal - is produced by partial combustion of wood at about 400 C and with limited air. Liquid Fuels Fuel Oil is defined as any liquid or liquefiable petroleum products burned for the generation of heat in a furnace of firebox, of the generation of power in an engine, exclusive of oils with a flash point below 37.7 C. Four Classes of Fuel Oils in common uses ‘a. Residual oils - which are topped crude petroleum’ or viscous residuum obtained in refinery operations. b. Distillate fuel oils — which are distillates derived directly or indirectly from crude petroleum, . Crude petroleum’s and weathered crude petroleum’s of relatively low commercial value. d. Blended fuels - which are mixture of two or more of the preceding classes. Commercial Fuel Oil Specifications a. Grade no, 1 —a distillate oil intended for vaporizing pot-type burners and other burners requiring this grade of fuel. b. Grade no. 2~a distillate oil for general purpose domestic heating in burners not requiring no. 1 fuel cil ©. Grade no, 4~an oil for burner installation not equipped with pre-heating facilities. d. Grade no, 5 ~a residual type oil for burner installation equipped with pre-heating facilites. e. Grade no. 6 ~an oil for burners equipped with pre-heaters permitting a high-viscosity fuel Gasoline Gasoline ~is defined as a refined petroleum naphtha which by its composition is suitable for use as a carburetant in internal combustion engines. Motor Gasoline — is a mixture of hydrocarbons distilling in the range of 37.7 C to 204.4 C by the standard method of test. Kerosene Kerosene ~ is defined as a petroleum distillate having a flash point not below 22.8 C as determined by the Abel tester and suitable as an illuminant when burned in a wick lamp, Coal Tar Coal Tar ~ is a product of the destructive distillation of bituminous coal carried out at high temperature. Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) — are mixtures of hydrocarbons liquefied under pressure for efficient transportation, storage, and use. They are generally composed of ethylene, propane, propylene, butane, isobutene, and butylenes. Commercial, they are classed as propane, propane-butane mixtures, and butane. They are odorless, colorless, and non-toxic. Diesel Fuel Oils Refiners grade fuels classified according to methods of production. a. Distillate fuels ~ are produced by distillation of crudes. b. Residual fuels ~ are those left after the distillation process. . Blended fuels — are mixtures of straight distillate fuels with cracked fuel stocks.2B, 14, 15. B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE Cracked stocks ~ are residual of fuels which have been treated thermally or catalytically to obtain yields of lighter- grade fuels or gasoline, Lightest grade distillates — classed as kerosene or No. 1 fuel oil, may have an initial boiling point of 176.6 C and end point of 260.C. Heaviest grades of distillates — classed as No. 3 of 4 fuel oil, may have an initial boiling point of 232 C to 260 C and end point of 343 C to 371 C. Residual fuels, No. 4 or No. 5—are suitable only for the slower-speed diesel Gaseous Fuels Gaseous fuels ~ are commonly used in industry, whether distributed by public utilities or produced in isolated plants, are composed of one or more simple gases in varying proportions. Diese! Lubricating Oils Crude oils ~ are frequently described as “paraffinic”, “napththenic”, or “mixed based” according to the physical characteristics of the crude. Two broad types of oil a. “Straight” oils ~ are produced entirely from the crudes chosen through elimination of undesired constituents by suitable refining processes. b. “Additive” oils - are produced by adding to straight mineral oils certain oil-soluble compounds that enhance the lubricating oll properties for use in a diesel engine. ‘Additives ~ are used principally to inhibit or slow down oxidation, to increase film strength, to keep solids in finely divided state and to hold them in suspension, to improve the viscosity index, to lower the pour point, to decrease friction and wear under extreme pressure conditions, to reduce foaming, and as rust or corrosion inhibitors. SAE Three Types of Lubricating Oils, a. Regular type — suitable for moderate operating conditions. b. Premium type — having oxidation stability and bearing corrosion preventive properties making it generally suitable for more severe service than regular duty type. c. Heavy duty type ~ has oxidation stability, being corrosion-preventive properties, and detergent-dispersant characteristics for use under heavy-duty service conditions. SAE Numbers - are a means of coordinating and standardizing the products of oil companies and the recommendations by the oil companies. The system of SAE motor classification is a system based entirely on viscosity and is totally unrelated the other qualities of a lubricating oil Specific Gravity Specific Gravity ~ a dimensionless parameter, it is the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of fuel to the mass of the same volume of a standard substance at a specified temperature. density of liquid fuel density of water _ density of gaseous fuel “density of air 5G16. B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE In reporting SG data the 15.6 C or 60 F standard is common, that is, the oil is at 15.6 C or 60 F and is referred to the density of water taken at 15.6 C or 60 F. Specific gravity at other temperature with correction factor, SG, =5G,q.,.-[1-0.0007(t -15.6)] in SI units 56, =56,,,,[1=0.0004(t—60)] in English units ‘American Petroleum Institute Gravity Unit, “API Is the accepted standard by the petroleum and oil industry, it was drawn up to correct vales measured by incorrectly calibrated hydrometers. Ls aS sis SG at15.6°C Baume Gravity Unit, °Baume’ or °Be’ - Another standard commonly associated with brine. 140 SG at 15.6°C “Baume 130 Viscosity Viscosity ~ is measure of resistance to flow. Absolute Viscosity — is defined as that unit force required to move one layer of a fluid at unit relative velocity to another layer of the fluid which is at unit distance from the first. Kinematic Viscosity ~ is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity divided by density. Units of viscosity: Absolute viscosity, 4 Treyn = 1 kb-sec / in” 1 poise ~ 1 dyne-se/em? = 0.1 Pa-sec Kinematic Viscosity, v 1 stoke = 1 cm’/sec = 0.0001 m/sec Centipoises and centistokes are more commonly used, Saybolt viscosimeter — measures the time required for a given quantity of oil at standard temperature to flow through a specified tube. SU (Saybolt Second Universal) ~ is obtained by timing the interval required for 60 cc of oil to flow through tube or pass through a standard orifice. For 30 to 45 SSU at 37.8 C, Centistokes = 0.308(SSU - 26) or v=0.225SU-25° centistokes 58U SSF (Saybolt Second Furol) ~ unit used for very viscous liquids using a relatively large orifice. 62 SSF = 600 SSUB. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE 17. Other Properties Flash point ~ is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns temporarily when ignited. Flash point ~ is the temperature to which oil must be heated to give off sufficient vapor to form an inflammable mixture with air. Flash point ~ is the temperature at which ignition of the fuel vapors rising above the heated oil will occur when exposed to an open flame, Fire point — is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns continuously when ignited. Pour point —is the temperature at which oil will no longer pour freely or the temperature at which oil will solidify. Dropping point ~ is the temperature at which grease melts. Cloud point is the temperature at which the paraffin elements separate from oil. Conradson number (carbon residue) - is the carbonaceous residue remaining after destructive distillation, expressed in percentage by weight of the original sample Viscosity index ~ indicates the relative change in viscosity of an oil for a given temperature change. Octane number — the ignition quality rating of gasoline, which is the percentage by volume of iso-octane ina mixture of iso-octane and heptanes that matches the gasoline in anti-knock quality. Cetane number the ignition quality rating of diesel, which is the percent of cetane in the standard fuel Aniline point — is that temperature where equal parts if oil and aniline will dissolve in each other. Volatility ~ is the ability of a liquid fuel to change into vapor which is manifested in the temperature range at which various portions of the fuel are vaporized. 18. Composition of Fuels, a. Paraffins, CnH2n+2 — saturated hydrocarbons, very stable in characters b. Olefins, CnH2n ~ unsaturated hydrocarbons, characterized by the presence of a double bond between carbon atoms ¢._ Diiolefins, CnH2n-2 — less saturated than olefins, characterized by the presence of two double bonds. 19. Analysis of Composition 19.1 Proximate analysis - is made by heating the coal until it decomposes successively into three of the four complex items of proximate analysis. The fourth is found by the difference. A typical proximate analysis of coal determines the percentage of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash, a Moisture — is determined by subjecting a 1-g sample of the coal to a temperature of 220 F to 230 F for a period of exactly 1 hr. b. Volatile matter — consists of hydrogen and certain hydrogen-carbon compounds that can be removed from the coal merely by heating it. Ash ~ is performed by heating the sample of coal used in the moisture determination to a temperature of 1290 F to 1380 F in an uncovered crucible, with good air circulation, until the coal is completely burned.B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE d. Fixed Carbon ~ is the difference between 100 % and the sum of the percentages of moisture, ash, and volatile matter. 19.2 Ultimate analysis ~ analysis of composition of fuel which gives, on mass basis, the relative amounts of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash, and moisture, 20. Basis of Reporting Analysis a. Asreceived or as fired b. Dry or moisture free Moisture and ash free or combustible d. Moisture, ash, and sulfur free 21, Heating Values of Fuels or Calorific Value a. Higher heating value (gross calorific value), HHV — is the heating value obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the liquid state. b. Lower heating value (net calorific value), LHV — is the heating value obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the vapor state. 22. Methods of Determining Heating Values 22.1 Laboratory experiment 22.1.1 Bomb calorimeter for solid and liquid fuels 22.1.2 Gas calorimeter for gaseous fuels 22.2 Empirical formulas 22.2.1 Dulong’s formula for solid fuels of known ultimate analysis. Huv=33,8204144.212 n-2) +9,3005 ki/kg a) ry =14,600+-62,000{ 1-2) 4050s Btu/lb a) 22.2.2 ASME Formula for petroleum products Hiv =41120--139.6( API) ky/kg HAV =17,680+60(° API)Btu/Ib 22.2.3. Bureau of Standard formula HH =51,716-8,793,8(S6) ki/kg HHV =22,230 -3780(SG)" Btu/Ib Difference between higher and lower heating values, HHV—LHV = 9H4(2442) in SI units HHV- LHV = 9H,(2050) in English units Where: 3H, = Ibs or kg of water formed per Ib or kg of fuel burned. 2442 ki/kg or 1050 Btu/lb latent heat of vaporization of water Also Hz = 26-15(SG), percent by weight. 23, Fuel Production Process a. Fractional distillation ~ the primary method of crude oil refining. 624, 25. 26. B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE b. Thermal cracking ~ changing heavy oil into gasoline by means of high pressure, high temperature and longer exposure time. c. Catalytic cracking ~ subjects oil to high pressure and high temperature in the presence of a catalyst; permit accurate control of the compounds formed and produces a gasoline of higher octane number than the one produced in thermal cracking, d. Hydrogenation — process of catalytic cracking in a hydrogen atmosphere; obtained are more saturated products than those from cracking process alone. e. Isomerization — process by which the atoms of carbon and hydrogen in normal hydrocarbons are rearranged to produce a more complex structure of higher anti-knock value. Polymerization ~ makes use of high pressure, high temperature and a catalyst to combine light and volatile gases into gasoline. 8. Alkylation ~ process of combining an isoparaffin usually iso-butane, with an olefin, usually butane or propane, to form a large isoparaffin molecule, usually iso-octane or iso-heptane, having a very high octane number. h. Reforming -used to obtain fuels with substantially higher than 100 octane number; currently used to process about forty percent of motor gasoline. i. Hydrodesulfurization — process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons and reducing the sulfur content of the resulting fuel oil. Combustion Combustion a chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen (air) which is accompanied by heat and light. Composition of Air and Molecular Weights a. Composition by weight 76.8 % nitrogen, 23.2 % oxygen Or 76.8 / 23.2 = 3.3 Ib of nitrogen per Ib of oxygen b. Composition by volume 79.0 % nitrogen, 21.0 % oxygen Or 79.0/21.0 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen per moles of oxygen . Molecular weights Air = 28.97 kg/kgmole C= 12 kg/kgmole Ha =2 ke/kgmole 0, = 32 ke/kgmole N,= 28 kg/kgmole S=32 kg/kgmole Air Fuel Ratio Theoretical air-fuel ratio, W.,— is the exact theoretical amount, as determined from the combustion reaction, of air needed to burn a unit amount of fuel, kg air per kg fuel or Ib air per Ib fuel 2,498 w, isco where: Wrg= theoretical air, Ib per Ib fuel C= carbon, Ib per Ib fuel +H, = hydrogen, Ib per Ib fuel (02= oxygen, Ib per Ib fuel = sulfur, Ib per Ib fuelB. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE Actual air-fuel ratio, Woe is determined by the presence of excess air which is defined as the amount of air supplied cover and above the theoretical air. w, =(0+ eM, Way — Wr e W, where eis the excess air in decimal. 27. Typical Combustion Reaction Fuel + Air = Product of Combustion C,H +(0-+0.25m)0, +3.76(n+0.25m)N, —>nCO, +0.5mH,0+3.76(n-+0.25m)Ny (n-+0.25m)(32+3.76%28) _137.28(n+0.25m) L2n+m 12n=m 28. Classification of combustion reaction ‘a. Combustion reaction with chemically-correct or stoichiometric condition general chemical formula of the fuel is GH b. Combustion reaction with greater amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-lean mixture. ¢. Combustion reaction with lesser amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-rich mixture. 29. Equivalence ratio for a given mass of air, ¢. | for stoichiometric mixture, 9 <1, for fuel-lean mixture. @ >1, for fuel-rich mixture. 30. Orsat Analyzer COrsat analyzer ~ is a convenient portable apparatus for determining the volumetric percentage of CO2, Oz, and CO in the dry flue gas, 81. Dry Flue Gases from Actual Combustion 4CO, +0, +700 ~x{c0, +0) Boiler test code formula corrected to account for the SO,. jp NOOO ANON. 36),55 HCO, +CO) a°|"s where: CO», 0;,CO, and N, are volumetric Orsat analysis Gasand $ are decimal fractions by weight. 32. Weight of dry refuse from the coal analysis A w=33, 34, 35, 36. B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE where: W, = dry refuse per Ib coal as fired, Ib Az ash in coal, Ib C= combustible In 1 Ib of refuse. Carbon Actually Burned where: carbon actually burned per Ib of fuel, Ib arbon in 1 1b of fuel, Ib eating value of the dry refuse, Btu per Ib Carbon burned to CO due to incomplete combustion where Cis the pounds of carbon the CO per pound of fuel burned. Air Actually Used During Combustion 2, Wag “Way +8 Hy Values of Hz, Oz, 5, and Nz are obtained from the ultimate analysis of the fuel and all values are expressed as decimals. Boiler Heat Balance Consist of percentage energy absorbed by boiler fluid, energy loss due to dry flue gases, energy loss due to moisture in fuel, energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen, energy loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon to CO, energy loss due to combustible in the refuse, and energy loss due to radiation and unaccounted for totaling to higher heating value as 100%. a. Energy absorbed by boiler fluid. The useful output of the steam generator isthe heat transferred to the fluid. a, Melta=h) Wy, in which W,,= weight of fluid flowing through the boiler during the test, Ib fh, and h,= fluid enthalpies entering and leaving the boiler, respectively, Btu per Ib W,= weight of fuel burned during test, Ib : expressed as a percentage of the higher heating value of the fuel is the boiler efficiency.B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE Energy loss due to dry flue gas. This oss is the greatest of any ofthe boiler losses for a properly operated unit 0, = 0.24 (,-t) in which 0.2 specific heat of the flue gas at constant pressure, Btu per Ib per deg F. ty = temperature of the gas leaving the boiler, F t, = temperature of the air entering the boiler, F Energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture in fuel. Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as a superheated vapor in the same way as does moisture from the combustion of hydrogen. Q,=M, (1089+0.46t, -t, ), whent, S75F where ‘moisture in fuel, Ib per Ib of fuel t;= temperature of fuel, F Energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen This loss is higher for gaseous fuels containing relatively large percentages of hydrogen than for the average low- hydrogen coal &=9H, h—hy) where: /h, = weight of hydrogen in the fuel, Ib per Ib fuel h= enthalpy of superheated vapor, Btu per Ib hhy= enthalpy of liquid at the incoming fuel temperature Q,=9H, (1089+ 0.46t, -t,),whent, S75F The proper value of H2 to be used in the equation is the amount of hydrogen in the fuel that is available for combustion. To obtain the value of H,, deduct from the value of H, in ultimate analysis one ninth of the weight of moisture from the proximate analysis. Energy loss due to incomplete combustion. Products formed by incomplete combustion may be mixed with oxygen and burned again with a further release of energy Q, =10,160¢, =10,160¢,, —©2 — stujtb 70, +0 Energy loss due to unconsumed carbon, All combustible in the refuse may be assumed to be carbon, since the other combustible parts of coal would probably be distilled out of the fuel before live embers would drop into ash pit. 10B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE Q, =14,600(C-C,,)Btu/Ib Q=W.HV, fg. Unaccounted-for and radiation loss. This loss is due to radiation, incomplete combustion resulting in hydrogen and hydrocarbons in the flue gas, and unaccounted-for losses. Q, =HHV -Q, -Q, ~Q, -Q,-Q;-Q, h. Boiler Heat Balance Tabulation Item Energy, Btu per Ib fuel Percentage Q @ Q Q Q Q & HHV 100%. - End- 1B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE 2