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    GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT HONG KONG

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    GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT HONG KONG

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    5 views218 pages

    Direct Shear and Triaxal Testing of A Hong Kong Soil

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    Nima Fazel
    GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT HONG KONG

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    DIRECT SHEAR AND TRIAXIAL TESTING OF A HONG KONG SOIL UNDER SATURATED AND UNSATURATED CONDITIONS GEO REPORT No. 46 J.K.M. Gan & D.G. Fredlund GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT HONG KONG DIRECT SHEAR AND TRIAXIAL TESTING OF A HONG KONG SOIL UNDER SATURATED AND UNSATURATED CONDITIONS GEO REPORT No. 46 J.K.M. Gan & D.G. Fredlund This report was originally produced in September 1994 under Consultancy Agreement CE 26/91 © Hong Kong Government First published, June 1996 Prepared by: Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering Department, Civil Engineering Building, 101 Princess Margaret Road, Homantin, Kowloon, Hong Kong. This publication is available from: Government Publications Centre, Ground Floor, Low Block, Queensway Government Offices, 66 Queensway, Hong Kong. Overseas orders should be placed with: Publications (Sales) Office, Information Services Department, 28th Floor, Siu On Centre, 188 Lockhart Road, Wan Chai, Hong Kong. Price in Hong Kong: HKS65 Price overseas: US$12.5 (including surface postage) ‘An additional bank charge of HKS$0 or USS6.50 is required per cheque made in currencies other than Hong Kong dollars. Cheques, bank drafts or money orders must be made payable to HONG KONG GOVERNMENT PREFACE In keeping with our policy of releasing information of general technical interest, we make available some of ur internal reports in a series of publications termed the GEO Report series. The reports in this series, of which this is one, are selected from a wide range of reports produced by the staff of the Office and our consultants. Copies of GEO Reports have previously been made available free of charge in limited numbers. ‘The demand for the reports in this series has increased greatly, necessitating new arrangements for supply. A charge is therefore made to cover the cost of printing. ‘The Geotechnical Engineering Office also publishes guidance documents and presents the results of research work of general interest in GEO Publications. These publications and the GEO Reports may be obtained from the Government's Information Services Department. Information on how to purchase these publications is given on the last page of this report. Qalel, A.W. Malone Principal Government Geotechnical Engineer June 1996 FOREWORD This report presents the results of research into the effects of matric suction on the shear strength of a coarse- grained saprolitic soil by carrying out direct shear and triaxial tests on saturated as well as unsaturated specimens. The soil tested was a completely decomposed granite from Shouson Hill, Hong Kong ‘The study was carried out by Professor D.G. Fredlund and Dr J.K. Gan at the University of Saskatchewan, as consultants to the Geotechnical Engineering Office (GEO) of the Civil Engineering Department. It forms part of the GEO research programme on the shear strength of Hong Kong soils. The draft report was reviewed by Mr W.K, Pun. Dr TY, Irfan supervised sampling on site and provided the sample descriptions, Namen IB. Massey Government Geotechnical Engineer/Development June 1996 tS CONTENTS Tile Page PREFACE FOREWORD CONTENTS INTRODUCTION SOIL THE TESTING PROGRAM 3.1 Saturated Direct Shear Tests 3.2. Saturated Triaxial Tests 3.3. Unsaturated Direct Shear Tests 3.4 Unsaturated Triaxial Tests SPECIMEN PREPARATION FOR DIRECT SHEAR AND TRIAXIAL TESTS SHEARING RATE EQUIPMENT TEST PROCEDURES 7.1 Direct Shear Tests 7.2. Triaxial Tests 7.2.1 Specimen Saturation Procedure for the Triaxial Test PROBLEM OF DIFFUSED AIR THEORY OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS WITH MATRIC SUCTIONS 9.1. Shear Strength Equation 9.2. Extended Mobr-Coulomb Failure Envelope 9.3. Character of the Failure Envelope for Soils with Matric Suction 9.4 Nature of the Water Content versus Matric Suction Curve (i.c., Soil-Water Characteristic Curve) 10 10 u i 12 12 12 13 13 14 15 16 16 wy 19 2 10. iL 12. 13. 14. 9.5. Effect of Shear Disturbances on the Shear Strength of Soil PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 10.1 Direct Shear Test on Saturated Specimens 10.2 Direct Shear Test with Applied Matric Suctions 10.3 Direct Shear Test on Completely Remolded, Recompacted Specimens of Decomposed Granite 10.4 Triaxial Test on Saturated Specimens 10.5 Triaxial Test on Specimens Subjected also to Applied Matric Suctions 10.6 Pressure Plate Tests 10.7 Consolidation Tests 10.8 Grain Size Distribution 10.9 Specific Gravity, Atterberg Limits and Water Content DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 11.1 Saturated Direct Shear Tests 11.2 Unsaturated Direct Shear Tests 11.2.1 Interpretation No. 1 11.2.2 Interpretation No. 2 11.3 Saturated Triaxial Tests 11.4 Unsaturated Triaxial Tests 11.5 Relationship Between Shear Strength versus Matric Suction Envelope and Soil-Water Characteristic Curve CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES APPENDIX A : RESULTS OF DIRECT SHEAR TESTS ON SATURATED SPECIMENS OF THE, DECOMPOSED GRANITE Page 25 28 29 29 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 32 33 35 37 37 41 42 4B 45 48 120 APPENDIX B : APPENDIX C : APPENDIX D : APPENDIX E : APPENDIX F : RESULTS OF MODIFIED DIRECT SHEAR TESTS ON UNSATURATED SPECIMENS OF THE DECOMPOSED GRANITE RESULTS OF DIRECT SHEAR TESTS ON REMOLDED, SATURATED SPECIMENS OF THE DECOMPOSED GRANITE RESULTS OF CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED ‘TRIAXIAL TESTS ON SATURATED SPECIMENS. OF THE DECOMPOSED GRANITE RESULTS OF MODIFIED, DRAINED TRIAXIAL TESTS ON UNSATURATED SPECIMENS OF THE DECOMPOSED GRANITE RESULTS OF CONSOLIDATION TESTS ON SATURATED SPECIMENS OF THE DECOMPOSED GRANITE Page No. 135 158 71 212 1. INTRODUCTION ‘This is the second phase of a research project which was initiated by the Geotechnical Control Office (GCO), now the Geotechnical Engineering Office (GEO) of the Civil Engineering Department, Government of Hong Kong. The objective of the research program is to quantify the effects of matric suction on the shear strength ‘of a saprolitic soil from. Hong Kong Ina letter dated 20 February, 1989, Dr. A.W. Malone of the Geotechnical Control Office, Government of Hong Kong requested that Professor D.G. Fredlund of the Geotechnical Group at the University of Saskatchewan submit a research proposal for the laboratory quantification of the effects of matric suction on the shear strength of a sclected saprolitic soil from Hong Kong. After some deliberations and discussions by correspondence, the final proposal was submitted to GCO on April 13, 1989 and the work on Phase I of the research program was commenced in November, 1989, The material selected for testing in Phase I of the program, was a fine ash wif obtained from the slopes of Tai Sbung Tok Hill, west of Junk Bay, a new town in the New Territories, Hong Kong. The laboratory equipment selected for the testing program were a conventional direct shear apparatus for tests on saturated specimens and a modified direct shear apparatus for tests on specimens subjected also to an applied matric suction. The modified direct shear apparatus was developed at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. The modified direct shear apparatus is capable of independently controlling the air pressure and the water pressure in the specimen during shear. Specimens measuring 50 mm by 50 mm by 21.4 mm were used for both the saturated tests and the unsaturated tests in Phase I In addition to the laboratory program, an extensive literature review was conducted on the shear strength of unsaturated soils. ‘The literature review and the results of the laboratory test program for Phase I were presented in the report entitled "Direct Shear Testing of a Hong Kong Soil Under Various Applied Suctions". The report was submitted to the Geotechnical Control Office in August 1990. The report has since been published by the Geotechnical Engineering Office, under the same title, as GEO Report No. 11, in their seties of research publications. Subsequent to the submission of the report, Professor D.G. Fredlund went to Hong Kong and gave a presentation of the results of the research from Phase [. One of the conclusions from the Phase I research program was that the shear strength of the fine ash tuff increased with matric suction up to a limiting value of about 70 kPa of matric suction. Beyond a matric suction of 70 kPa, the applied matric suctions did not appear to contribute further to the shear strength. In some cases, the shear strength actually decreased with matric suction, after an initial increase in the shear strength at a low applied matric suction. It was also observed that there was considerable scatter in the results of the direct shear tests. This scatter was attributed primarily to the effects of heterogeneity. These effects were further aggravated by the relatively small test specimens involved Various recommendations for further research were outlined for submission to GCO (now GEO) in the Phase I report. For Phase II of the research program, GEO decided to proceed with the proposal given as Alternative 3 in the Recommendations for Further Research in the Phase I report, with some modifications. There are two objectives in the proposed research program for Phase II. The first objective is to better quantify the effects of matric suction on the shear strength of a coarse- grained saprolitic soil from Hong Kong using a larger shear box of 100 mm by 100 mm square, with a specimen thickness of 40 mm. The second objective is to conduct comparative direct shear and triaxial tests on saturated specimens as well as unsaturated specimens. GEO had expressed the concern that they have experienced "unquantified disturbance” during saturation of saprolitic soil specimens for triaxial testing. It was anticipated that there may be less disturbance in the direct shear tests and in the unsaturated triaxial tests than in the saturated triaxial tests. 2, SOIL: The soil used in the research program was supplied to the University of Saskatchewan by the Geotechnical Control Office, Government of Hong Kong. The soil was described as a dense, completely decomposed granite from Shouson Hill, Hong Kong Island (Irfan, 1991). Eight block samples, each measuring 350 mm by 350 mm by 350 mm were delivered to the Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. Details on the soil can be found in the report by Irfan (1991). 3. THE TESTING PROGRAM The testing program was extensive, involving direct shear tests and triaxial tests on oth saturated specimens and unsaturated specimens. Both saturated direct shear tests and unsaturated direct shear tests were conducted on 100 mm by 100 mm by 40 mm height specimens. The saturated triaxial tests were conducted on 2.8 inch (71 mm) diameter by 6 inch (150 mm) height specimens. The triaxial tests with applied matric suction were conducted on 3.3 inch (84 mm) diameter by 6 inch (150 mm) height specimens. The saturated direct shear tests and the saturated triaxial tests were proposed for the determination of the effective shear strength parameters (i.e., c’ and ¢'), ‘The unsaturated tests were proposed for quantifying the effect of matric suction on the shear strength of the decomposed granite. Both direct shear tests and triaxial tests were proposed for the purpose of conducting a comparative study on the shear strength parameters obtained from two different test procedures. To aid in the interpretation of the results of the shear strength tests on soil with matric suction, pressure plate tests were also performed to determine the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve of the decomposed granite. Consolidations tests were also conducted to provide information on the load deformation characteristics of the decomposed granite. 3.1 Saturated Direct Shear Tests ‘Twelve saturated direct shear tests were proposed, The normal stresses to be applied to the specimens, ranged from 10 kPa to 800 kPa. ‘The proposed normal stresses are presented in Table 1. Some tests were conducted in duplicate. Considerable scatter was anticipated in the data due to the heterogeneity of the saprolitic soil. Tests on duplicate - 10 - specimens would help in the interpretation of the data. 3.2 Saturated Triaxial Tests Twelve saturated triaxial tests were proposed. The confining pressures for the saturated triaxial (ests are summarized in Table 2. Some tests were conducted in duplicate to aid in the interpretation of the data. 3.3 Unsaturated Direct Tests Two series of direct shear tests on specimens subjected to applied matric suctions, as well as a constant net normal stress, were proposed. Due to the highly heterogeneous nature of the soil, it is difficult to obtain ‘identical’ specimens for proper comparison of shear strength data, Consequently, it was proposed to conduct two-stage shearing for each specimen in both series of direct shear tests. The goal was to minimize the effect of variability in the soil through the proposed two-stage shearing procedure. The details related to the net normal stresses and the applied matric suctions for each specimen are presented in Tables 3 and 4. In both series, the net normal stress was maintained constant at 20 kPa. In the first series of direct shear tests with applied matric suction (see Table 3), all specimens were subjected to a common first stage shear at a constant matric suction of 10 kPa. The idea of a common first stage was to provide a common first stage shear strength as a reference for comparison purpose. It was anticipated that the shear strength results would show scatter. It was reasoned, however, that the increase in shear strength with suction would not be as variable as the actual shear strength values of the soil. ‘The scatter in the shear strength in the first stage shear would be an indication of the heterogeneity of the soil. The heterogeneity could be due to variations in the grain size distribution, the extent of cementation and the different extent of the relict structures of the soil. ‘The increase in the shear strength can be assumed to be the result of the increase in matric suction alone, ‘The amount of cementation remaining in the specimen prior to shear testing is dependent on the extent of sample disturbance and the effect of stress relief. After the soil has been through one stage of shear, it is likely that the cementation remaining along the shear plane will be minimal. The contribution of cementation to the shear strength of the decomposed granite specimens in the second stage of shear is expected to be negligible. It is assumed that the contribution of matric suction to shear strength is a frictional phenomenon (See Section 9.3 on Character of the Failure Envelope for Soils with Matric Suction). That is, the shear resistance of the soil increases due to an increase in the normal stresses between soil particles as a result of matric suction. It is recognised that there is generally an increase in the dilatancy of the soil during shear when matric suction increases. The dilatancy during shear increases the measured shear strength. However, in the general formulation of the shear strength equation (i.c., Eq. 1 in Section 9), the dilatancy of the soil during shear is not quantified. Instead, the (otal change in the shear strength is measured, and the change in the shear strength is attributed to the change in the stress state of the soil (in this case, the matric suction). This is in keeping with the practice in saturated soils where the increase in the shear strength of a saturated dense soil due to dilatancy during shear is -l- reflected in an increase in the friction angle, $' If it is assumed that the cementation has largely been obliterated during shear, it is then possible to determine the contribution of matric suction to shear strength (i.e., the change in shear strength from the end of the first stage of shear to the second stage of shear can be attributed to the change in matric suction from the first stage of shear to the second stage of shear). In the second series of direct shear test on specimens subjected to applied matric suctions and a constant net normal stress of 20 kPa (See Table 4), the specimens were subjected to a first stage of applied matric suction varying from 10 kPa to 50 kPa._In the second stage of shear, the applied matric suction was raised by a constant value of 50 kPa. From this second serics of tests, it is possible to track the increase in shear strength with matric suction from one specimen to the next, over a range of matric suction from 0 to 100 kPa. 3.4 Unsaturated Triaxial Tests One series of triaxial test on specimens subjected to applied matric suctions was proposed. In this series, the net confining pressure was maintained at 20 kPa for all specimens, Each specimen in this series was subjected to two stages of shear. During the first stage shear, each specimen was subjected to an applied matric suction ranging from 10 kPa to 50 kPa. During the second stage shear, the applied matric suction for each test was raised by 50 kPa. More detailed information on the proposed applied stresses are presented in Table 5 4. SI EN PREPARATIO} DIRECT SHEAR AND TRIAXL TS, ‘The direct shear specimens were obtained by trimming specimens to fit a 100 mm by 100 mm by 40 mm transparent mould fabricated out of Lexane (Lexane is the tradename for a transparent plastic material). The mould was pressed down under pressure into the soil The soil around the perimeter of the mould was trimmed as the mould was slowly advanced. The material was coarse-grained and large particles were often encountered. Large particles which prevented the mould from advancing into the soil were carefully removed. The trimmed specimen had irregular sides but conformed reasonably well to the shape of the mould. The triaxial specimens were trimmed with the aid of a cylindrical aluminium mould whose inside dimension was the same as that required for the specimen. The trimming mould was pressed down vertically into the sample and the soil around the perimeter of the mould ‘was trimmed to enable the mould to advance into the soil. Large particles encountered along the edge of the trimming mould were carefully removed using a scalpel blade. ‘The soil contained numerous discontinuities and all the trimmed specimens contained discontinuities to varying extent, It was impossible to map these discontinuities in the specimens. The material was fragile and did not permit post-testing photographs to be taken. tHigee 5. SHEARING RATE For the saturated direct shear tests and the unsaturated direct shear tests, a shearing rate of 0.005 mm per minute was used, For the saturated consolidated undrained triaxial tests, a shearing rate of 0.033 percent strain per minute was used. A shearing rate of approximately 0.006 percent strain per minute was used in the unsaturated triaxial tests. 6. EK ENT Four pieces of equipment were used for the testing program. A conventional direct shear box apparatus was used for the direct shear tests on saturated specimens. For the purpose of this program (i.e., Phase II), a new direct shear box was built to accommodate 100 mm by 100 mm by 40 mm specimens. The new direct shear box, mounted on to the direct shear apparatus is shown in Fig, 1a. A closer view of the new, large direct shear box is presented in Fig. 1b. The load-cell for monitoring shear stress, and the displacement transducer (i.e., LVDT gauge) for monitoring the vertical deformation, are visible in Fig. 1a ‘The displacement transducer for monitoring horizontal displacement is hidden from view. A new direct shear box to accommodate the 100 mm by 100 mm by 40 mm specimens in the modified direct shear apparatus was also fabricated as part of this testing program. The new direct shear box was built to fit the existing pressure chamber that was used in Phase I (Gan and Fredlund, 1992). It was necessary to extend the height of the chamber in order to accommodate the increased height of specimen. This was accomplished by means of spacer rings added to the existing chamber. The new direct shear box and the associated accessories are shown in Fig. 2. The assembled equipment, with the necessary attachments for the measurements of water flow from the specimens during matric suction equalization, are shown in Fig. 3 The triaxial tests on saturated specimens were conducted using the triaxial equipment shown in Fig. 4. Triaxial tests on specimens subjected to applied matric suctions required some modifications to the conventional equipment. The modifications were necessary for the independent control of the pore-air pressure and the pore-water pressure. ‘The modifications involved a high air entry ceramic disk with an air entry value of 200 kPa, which was mounted into the base of the pedestal. The high air entry ceramic disk allows the pore-water within the specimen to be controlled by maintaining a water pressure in the chamber below the disk The high air entry ceramic bases constructed for two existing pieces of triaxial equipment, are shown in Fig. 5. Also shown are two trimming moulds for triaxial specimens. The air pressure was controlled independently by means of a coarse corundum stone placed on the top of the specimen. A schematic diagram of the modified triaxial equipment is shown in Fig. 6. 1. | PROCED( The procedures for conducting the direct shear tests and the triaxial tests on saturated specimens and on unsaturated specimens are presented in the following sections. 3 - 7.1 Direct Shear Tests ‘The procedure for direct shear testing of saturated soils is well known and is not presented herein. ‘The direct shear testing of soils under applied matric suctions is not a standard test and the procedure is as follows. It is first necessary to ensure that the high entry disk which is built into the base of the direct shear box, is saturated. This is accomplished by flooding the base of the shear box with de-aired water and subsequently pressurizing the air chamber to force the de-aired water through the ceramic disk. The air pressure used should be smaller than the air entry value of the disk. ‘The procedure should be repeated several times. When the process is complete, the shear box base is again flooded with de-aired water to prevent a drying out of the high air entry disk through evaporation. The upper box is assembled onto the lower box, using a thin layer of vacuum grease to seal the two halves of the shear box. It is important to ensure that the grease does not ‘come in contact with the surface of the high air entry disk. Grease on the surface of the high air entry disk will interfere with the passage of water through the disk. ‘The trimmed soil specimen is mounted onto the assembled shear box. A porous corundum stone is placed on the specimen. Ample water is applied to the specimen and the specimen is left to soak overnight. Upon saturation, excess water above the porous stone is removed and the loading cap is installed. The predetermined axial load and the air pressure are applied in this sequence. The water pressure was maintained at atmospheric pressure condition for all specimens in this program. Throughout the equilibration process, readings are taken of the i.) time, i.) vertical deflection, and ifi.) water movement from the specimen. Equalization was assured when the flow of water essentially ceased. After matric suction equalization was attained, the specimen was sheared. When the peak shear stress was approached, shearing was terminated and the shear stress was released by displacing the shear box in the opposite direction. The next air pressure increment corresponding to the required matric suetion for the second stage, together with the load adjustments necessary to offset the uplift due to the increased air pressure on the vertical loading piston, were applied. The specimen was left to equilibrate overnight before the next stage of shearing was conducted. 7.2 Triaxial Tests In the saturated series of tests, one-stage of shearing was conducted. Shearing was continued until a "critical state" or the limit of travel of the loading system was reached. In the series of triaxial tests involving specimens subjected also to applied matric suctions, two stages of shearing were conducted. Loading during Stage 1 was continued until the shear stress approached a peak value. The specimen was then unloaded to zero shear stress. ‘The specimen was then consolidated to the desired stresses for Stage 2. Shearing in the second stage was continued until the “critical state” or the limit of travel of the loading system was reached. 14 - Prior to the testing of each specimen under an applied suction, it is essential to saturate the high air entry disk located in the pedestal. The procedure for saturating the high air entry disk is similar to that described above for the modified direct shear box. 7.21 Specimen Saturation Procedure for the Triaxial Test ‘The wetting procedure for attaining saturation is an important factor when dealing with undisturbed saprolitic soils in the triaxial test. The wetting procedure could result in substantial disturbance to the cemented, fairly open structure of saprolitic soils, particularly when a high back pressure is used to achieve saturation. To facilitate the saturation process, the triaxial equipment was modified such that water flows into the specimen from the base and exits through the top of the specimen. The one- way flow of water from the base is more efficient in removing air from the specimen. The degree of saturation attained is usually assessed on the basis of the value of the B pore pressure parameter from a pore pressure reaction test. B pore pressure values greater than 0.9 are normally required to ensure sufficient saturation for most soils. The relationship between degree of saturation and the B pore pressure parameter is a function of the stiffness of the soil. Typical B values as a function of the degree of saturation and soil stiffness have been presented by Black and Lee (1973), and are presented in Fig. 7 and Table 6. Black and Lee (1973) divided soils into four categories as follows: Soft soi soft normally-consolidated clays Medium soils: lightly overconsolidated clays compacted clays and silts Stiff soils: over consolidated stiff clays average sands Very stiff soils: very stiff clays very dense sands soils consolidated to a high effective stress compacted clays with a stiff structure soils with a cementing agent, even if only very weak By the above definitions (Black and Lee, 1973), the decomposed granite (with even weak cementation) would be considered a "very stiff soil”. For soils in the "very stiff soils” category, the B pore pressure values can be as low as 0.10 for degree of saturation greater than 90 percent (Fig. 7 and Table 6). Hence, it is difficult to assess the degree of saturation attained in the decomposed granite specimen on the basis of the B pore pressure parameter. To ensure complete saturation, the saturation procedure was continued until the pore pressure reaction tests showed no changes in the B values over three consecutive increments of confining pressure. In the triaxial tests on unsaturated specimens with applied matric suctions, it is - 15 - necessary to reduce the initial suction of the test specimens. In a two-stage shear test, the first stage of the test is usually conducted at a low matric suction and the second stage is conducted at a higher matric suction. Relaxation of the initial matric suction is usually accomplished by wetting the specimen from the top through the coarse porous disk. Previous experiences with tests on decomposed granite and decomposed rhyolite from Hong Kong have found that a procedure involving wetting from around the specimen to be satisfactory (Ho and Fredlund, 1982), ‘The specimen is first trimmed to the desired diameter and height, and then mounted onto the presaturated high air entry disk. A coarse porous disk and the loading cap are placed on top of the specimen. The specimen is then enclosed within two rubber membranes. O-rings are placed over the membranes on to the bottom pedestal. Spacers (i.¢., pieces of 3.2 mm plastic tubing) are inserted between the membranes and the loading cap to allow air within the specimen to escape while water is added around the cylindrical surface of the specimen, ‘The lucite cylinder of the triaxial cell is installed. The cell is filled with water to a level partway up the specimen. The water can either be added manually or through the air pressure line connected to the loading cap. In the second case, the air pressure line is temporarily connected to a water reservoir. ‘The specimen is left for several hours to allow the water to permeate throughout the specimen. The process is continued until air can no longer be seen escaping from the top of the specimen. At the end of the process, the soil matric suction will be essentially zero. ‘The above procedure is conducted with the Lucite cylinder in place. ‘The top of the triaxial cell is, however, detached from the Lucite cylinder to allow for the removal of the plastic spacers between the membranes. ‘The loading cap and the top O-rings around the loading cap can also be installed from the top. ‘The line connected to the loading cap is disconnected from the water reservoir and is reconnected to the air pressure control system. ‘Air pressure and water pressure corresponding to a low matric suction value can now be imposed on the specimen. Time is then allowed for equalization of the applied matric suction in the specimen. In the triaxial tests with applied matric suctions, the stresses must be applied in the following sequence; confining chamber pressure, 03, followed by the pore-air pressure, u,, and lastly, the pore-water pressure, u,. If the pore-water pressure, u,., is applied before the confining pressure, os, and the pore-air pressure, u,, the high air entry ceramic disk at the base of the pedestal may crack or become dislodged. PROBLEM OF DIFFUSED AIR ‘The high air entry ceramic disk does not allow the passage of free air at pressures below the air entry value of the disk. However, dissolved air can diffuse through the water in the high air entry disk and collects as air bubbles at the base of the disk. Air bubbles below the ceramic disk will impede the passage of water back into the specimen, if the specimen should dilate during shear. As well, the measurement of the volume of water flowing out of a specimen can be in error if it is not corrected for the volume of the diffused air. EHhighe: In both the modified direct shear apparatus and the modified triaxial apparatus, the same pore-water pressure control system and water volume change indicator are used (Fig. 8). ‘The diffused air is removed by moving a roller over the connecting tube as shown in Fig, 8a and Fig. 8b. The air is released into the air trap (Fig. 8c), displacing the water below the level mark. The air collected in the air trap is removed by opening the stopcock and allowing the water to return to the level mark. 9. THEORY OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS WITH MATRIC SUCTIONS In the report for Phase I (Gan and Frediund, 1992), the theory on the shear strength of soils with matric suctions was presented along with a literature review on the historical evelopment of the theory. In this report, the shear strength equation and the character of the failure envelope are summarized along with some recent developments on the shear strength theory for soils with matric suctions. 9.1 Shear Strength Equation ‘The shear strength of a soil with matric suction can be formulated in terms of two independent stress state variables (Fredlund, Morgenstern and Widger 1978). Any two of the three possible stress state variables can be used for the shear strength equation. The stress state variables, (0 - u,) and (u, - u,), have been shown to be the most advantageous combination for practice. The shear strength equation is written as follows: Tee = 0! * (O,-u,) ¢ tand’+ (uy-u,), tang? - - . . (2) where intercept of the "extended" Mohr-coulomb failure envelope on the shear stress axis where the net normal stress and the matric suction at failure are equal to zero; it is also referred to as “effective cohesion" net normal stress state variable on the failure plane at failure pore-air pressure on the failure plane at failure angle of internal friction associated with the net normal stress state variable, (o¢ - u)r matric suction on the failure plane at failure angle indicating the rate of increase in shear strength relative to the matric suction, (u,- Uy); ‘A comparison of Eq. (1) and the equation for the shear strength for a saturated soil (i.e., Eq. 2) reveals that the shear strength equation for an unsaturated soil is an extension of the shear strength equation for a saturated soil. Tee = ct (0,-u,) tang’. 6. 2 eee (2) ‘Two stress state variables are required to describe the shear strength of an unsaturated soil, while only one stress state variable [i.e., effective normal stress, (o;- uy)d is required Hea for a saturated soil. The shear strength equation for an unsaturated soil exhibits a smooth transition to the shear strength cquation for a saturated soil. As the soil approaches saturation, the pore-water pressure, u,, approaches the pore-air pressure, u,, and the matric suction, (u, - u,), goes to zero. The matric suction component vanishes, and Eq. (1) reverts to the equation for a saturated soil (i.c., Eq. (2))- 9.2 Extended ulomb Failure Enveloy The failure envelope for a saturated soil is obtained by plotting a series of Mohr circles, corresponding to failure conditions on a two-dimensional plot, as shown in Fig, 9. The line tangent to the Mohr circles is called the failure envelope, which is defined by Equation (2). In the case of an unsaturated soil, the Mohr circles cortesponding to failure conditions can be plotted in a three-dimensional manner, as illustrated in Fig. 10. The three-dimensional plot has the shear stress, 7, as the ordinate and the two stress state variables, (6 - u,) and (u, - U,), as abscissas. ‘The frontal plane represents saturated conditions where the matric suction is zero, On the frontal plane, the (o - u,) axis reverts to the (o - u,) axis since the pore-air pressure becomes equal to the pore-water pressure at saturation. The Mohr circles for an unsaturated soil are plotted with respect to the net normal stress axis, (0 - v,), in the same manner as the Mohr circles are plotted for saturated soils with respect to the effective stress variable, (a - u,). However, the location of the Mohr circle plot in the third dimension is a function of the matric suction (Fig. 10). The surface tangent to the Mohr circles at failure is referred to as the extended Mobr-Coulomb failure envelope for unsaturated soils. The extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope defines the shear strength of an unsaturated soil. The intersection line between the extended Mohr- Coulomb failure envelope and the frontal plane is the failure envelope for the saturated condition. The extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope may be approximated as a planar surface for a limited range of matric suctions (j.e., Eq. (1)). Techniques for handling the non-linearity of the failure envelope have been presented by Fredlund, Rahardjo and Gan (1987). For simplicity, the following discussion will consider only a planar failure envelope. igure 10 shows a planar failure envelope that intersects the shear stress axis, giving a cohesion intercept, c', The envelope has slope angles of 6" and ¢° with respect to the (6 - u,) and (u, - u,) axes, respectively. Both angles are assumed to be constants. The cohesion intercept, c', and the slope angles, $' and ¢°, are the strength parameters used to relate the shear strength to the stress state variables. The shear strength parameters represent many factors which have been simulated in the test. Some of these factors are density. void ratio, degree of saturation, mineral composition, stress history, and strain rate. In other words, these factors have been combined and expressed in the strength parameters. ‘The mechanical behaviour of an unsaturated soil is affected differently by changes in net normal stress than by changes in matric suction (Jennings and Burland, 1962). The increase in shear strength due to an increase in net normal stress is characterized by the - 18 - friction angle, $'. ‘The increase in shear strength caused by an increase in matric suction is described by the angle, 4". The value of 4° is consistently equal to or less than $', as indicated in Table 7, for soils from various geographic locations ‘The failure envelope intersects the shear stress versus matric suction plane along a line of intercepts (Fig. 11). The line of intercepts indicates an increase in strength as matric suction increases. In other words, the shear strength increases with respect to an increase in matric suction is defined by the angle, ¢°. The equation for the line of intercepts is as follows: c=oel+ (u, - u,)-tang> eae eee eet where c = intercept of the extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope with the shear stress axis at a specific matric suction, (u, - Uy), and zero net normal stress; it can be referred to as the “total cohesion intercept.” ‘The extended Mobr-Coulomb failure envelope can be presented as a horizontal projection onto the 7 versus (o- u,) plane. ‘The horizontal projection can be made for various matric suction values, (u, - u,);. The horizontal projection of the failure envelope onto the 7 versus (0 - u,) plane results in a series of contours shown in Fig. 12a. The lines have different cohesion intercepts, depending upon their corresponding matric suctions. The cohesion intercept becomes the effective cohesion, c', when the matric suction goes to zero. All lines of equal matric suction have the same slope angle, ¢', as long as the failure plane is planar, ‘The equation for these contour lines can be written as: ty = C+ (op -udetand). - es es CA) where ¢ = total cohesion intercept. Substituting Eq. (3) into Eq. (4) yields the equation for the extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope [i-e., Eq.(1)]. Equation (4) is the same as Eq. (1), and Fig. 12b is a two- dimensional representation of the extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope. The failure enyelope projection illustrates the increase in shear strength as matric suction is increased, while maintaining a specific net normal stress. The projected failure envelope is a simple, descriptive representation of the three-dimensional failure envelope. Equation (4) is also convenient to use when performing analytical studies involving unsaturated soils. The inclusion of matric suction in the definition of the cohesion intercept does not necessarily suggests that matric suction is a cohesion component of shear strength. Rather, the matric suction component (i.e., (u,- u,) tang") is lumped with effective cohesion, ¢', for the purpose of translating the three-dimensional failure envelope onto a two-dimensional, representative plot. The suction component of shear strength has also been called the apparent cohesion and when combined with the effective cohesion becomes the total cohesion. ‘A smooth transition from the unsaturated condition to the saturated condition can be demonstrated using the extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope shown in Fig. 10. As the soil becomes saturated, matric suction goes to zero and the pore-water pressure approaches - 19 - the pore-air pressure. The three-dimensional failure envelope is reduced to the two- dimensional envelope of 7 versus (0 - u,). The smooth transition can be observed in Fig. 12b. As the matric suction decreases, the failure envelope projection gradually lowers, approaching the failure envelope for the saturated condition. At saturation, the cohesion intercept, ¢, approaches the effective cohesion, c'. The extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope can also be projected horizontally onto the 7 versus (u,- u,) plane (Fig. 13). The horizontal projection is made at various net normal stresses at failure, (9; - u,); (Fig. 13a). The resulting contour lines have an ordinate intercept equal to {c' + (o;- u,); tang’} and a slope angle of $ (Fig. 13b). The horizontal projection shows that there is an increase in shear strength as the net normal stress is increased at any specific matric suction. 9,3 Character of the Failure Envelope for Soils with Matric Suctio Early results of the shear strength of sand subjected to matric suctions (by Donald, 1956) show that the contribution of matric suction to shear strength was not linear (Fig. 14). Later investigations conducted on fine-grained soils with matric suctions, appear to suggest a planar failure surface (Satija, 1978; Ho and Fredlund, 1982; Escario, 1980) More recent data by Gan, Frediund and Rahardjo (1988) and Escario and Sacz (1986) show that the shear strength versus matric suction relationship can be nonlinear. These data by Gan, Fredlund and Rahardjo (1988) and Escario and Saez (1986) are presented in Figs. 15 and 16, respectively. The ¢* versus matric suction relationship in Fig. 15 appear to resemble in shape, the Soil-Water Characteristic curve of the soil (Fig. 17). There appears to be a relationship between the shear strength versus matric suction curve and the Soil-Water ‘Characteristic curve. The Soil-Water Characteristic curves have been used extensively in the prediction of the coefficient of permeability function of unsaturated soils. Similarly, it would appear possible to empirically characterize the shear strength versus matric suction relationship for an unsaturated soil using the Soil-Water Characteristic curves. The Soil-Water Characteristic curve describes the water retention characteristic of a soil. A fine-grained soil has smaller pores than a coarse-grained soil. Consequently, a fine- grained soil is able to hold water at higher matric suctions. A fine-grained soil drains gradually with increasing matric suctions beyond the air entry value. A coarse-grained soil usually drains rapidly beyond the air entry value. ‘The nonlinear character of the shear strength versus matric suction envelope is related to the effects of desaturation (see Fig. 18). Let us consider a two-grain soil element. ‘The frictional resistance, R, resisting relative movements between the two soil grains, both for the saturated case (Fig, 18a) and the unsaturated case (Fig. 18D), can be expressed mathematically as follows, if it is assumed that the total normal stress, N, is zero. That is, considering the frictional resistance, R, due only to the negative pore-water pressure. Seo de eee ee eee eS - 20 - where y= the coefficient of friction, F, = the force due to the negative pore-water pressure. Ina particulate medium (such as soil), jis usually expressed as a function of the effective angle of internal friction, ¢". b= tang! - (6) In Fig. 18, the effective normal force, F,, for the saturated soil, is given by Bye Apt ee ee ee TD where A, = total area contribution from soil and water in the saturated soil, Uy = the pore-water pressure in the saturated soil | For the unsaturated soil, the effective normal force, F.,, due to the negative pore-water pressure can be written as, Fy = Aylyg s+ Pee a) where A, = total area contribution from soil and water in the unsaturated soil, uy2 =. the pore-water pressure in the unsaturated soil. ‘The frictional resistance to shear, R, in Fg. (5) can be written as follows, for the saturated case (Fig. 18a) and the unsaturated case (Fig. 18b): ‘saturated unsaturated = (tang!) (Apu) (tang!) (Ayuyz) © (9) t= Rs (tang) (uy) (tang) (24) (uy) (10) 3 wt Rl) na)» where 7 = the frictional stress with reference to the full cross-sectional area, Ap. Since A, < Ap, therefore, (2 tang! = sang’) < tang’. - 2.) (yy Ay In Eq. (7) (Le., the saturated case) the negative pore-water pressure, U,,, is effective over the full cross-sectional area, Ag, of the element. In practice, Ao, will be obtained from the external dimensions of the soil (i.c., the gross cross-sectional area). Equation (8) for the unsaturated case, shows that the pore-water pressure, U,a, is effective over a reduced cross- sectional area, A,, The reduced cross-sectional area, A,, is an unknown, However, it is known that the value of A, gets smaller with an increase in matric suction, The reduced area, A, is not a directly measurable quantity. ‘Therefore, if the equation is referenced to the -2- easily measured gross cross-sectional area, Ay, a reduction in the effective area must be reflected in a smaller friction angle. The reduced friction angle has been given the symbol ° in Eg. (11). The nonlinear characteristic of the ¢° angle may also be deduced from the water content versus matric suction curve of the soil (i.e., the Soil-Water Characteristic curve). At matric suctions below the air entry value, the soil remains essentially saturated and ¢" is equal to ¢'. The air entry value is the matric suction at which the soil starts to desaturate. The air entry value is controlled by the largest pores present in the soil. The pore size and its corresponding air entry value, (u, ~ U,),, can be estimated using the capillary model based on Lord Kelvin's equation (i.¢., Eq. (12)).. 27, (a, -u),= cosas. 2 (12) where T, = surface tension (i.c., 72.75x10® N/m) T = pore radius in meters @ = contact angle; which in soils can be taken as zero. Above the air entry value, the soil desaturates progressively as the matric suction is increased. The angle @” will decrease from a value equal to $' to lower values, in accordance with Eq. (11) 9.4 Nature of the Water Content versus Matric Suction Curve .€., Soil-Water Characteristic Curve) ‘An idealized water content versus matric suction curve is shown in Fig. 19, as a plot of suction ona logarithmic scale versus volumetric water content on an arithmetic scale. The curve in Fig. 19 is referred to as the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve. The suction is usually plotted on a logarithmic scale as it can vary over six orders of magnitude. Typically, when a soil is tested, it is first wetted such that its matric suction is returned to zero. The corresponding water content is called the saturated water content, 0,. As the soil dries, the soil will remain saturated up to a certain matric suction value known as its “air entry value", (u,-u,),. The magnitude of the air entry value is dependent on such factors as the grain size distribution and the arrangement of the particles of the soil. More specifically, it is a function of the void spaces in the soil. The air entry valu is low in a coarse-grained soil and high in a fine-grained soil, in accordance with Lord Kelvin's equation (Eq. 12). Below the air entry value, water will not drain from the soil, apart from some water flow associated with volume changes of the soil structure ‘When the air entry value is exceeded, the largest pores in the soil begin to drain. The water lost with increasing matric suction is rapid in the beginning. It then approaches a straight line on a semi-log plot. Eventually, the soil would have lost much of its water and any subsequent increase in matric suction results in a minimal loss of water. At this point, the soil is described as having reached its "residual water content”, 0,. The residual water content is the lowest water content attainable in the soil after bulk water flow ceases. Bulk water in soil can be extracted using the pressure plate or other axis-translation methods of applying matric suction, In shear strength, the residual water content usually represents the Euaout Jimit at which matric suction would contribute to any further increase in shear strength. The salient features of the Soil-Water Characteristic curve, (i.e., the saturated volumetric water content, air entry value and residual water content) are shown on the idealized curve in Fig. 19. Various mathematical expressions have been published to represent the water content versus matric suction relationship. ‘The objective in most cases has been to enable the derivation of closed form analytical expressions for unsaturated coefficient of permeability. Unsaturated coefficients of permeability are difficult to measure. The use of the Soil-Water Characteristic curve to predict the permeability function has proven to provide a reliable estimate for saturated/unsaturated flow modelling In the following section the nature of one such expression for the Soil-Water Characteristic curve is illustrated with reference to the parameters shown in Fig. 19. ‘The dimensionless water content, 0, is defined as follows 0-0. @= ata eee ee 8,-0, where @ = any volumetric water content, 6, = residual volumetric water content, and 8, = saturated volumetric water content. The volumetric water content, 6, is defined as the volume of water relative to the total volume of the specimen and can be written in terms of other volume-mass variables as follows. Se _ WG. (4) degree of saturation, void ratio w = gravimetric water content G, = specific gravity of solids ‘Alternatively, the dimensionless water content can be expressed as follows. eee eise se (as) Equation (15) is equivalent to Eq. (13) provided the void ratio, e, remains constant. If the void ratio varies considerably over the range of matric suction change under consideration, Eq. (15) will differ from Eq. (13). Equation (15) is desirable in engineering practice since the gravimetric water content is an easy, commonly measured parameter in geotechnical engineering. -23- ‘The Soil-Water Characteristic curve can be expressed in terms of the dimensionless water content, @, and the matric suction, (u, - uy). The equation has the following form: 1 Tea (u-¥) (16) where a, m and n are coefficients, and ht = (u, - u,), the matric suction. Substituting Eq. (16) into Eq. (13) and solving for the volumetric water content at any matric suction, gives, fe eee ease eet ee eerie e(aa Tsathy"l® The coefficient m, has been set to 1 in many studies (Gardner, 1958). Mualem (1976) used a model in which m and n were related as follows: 1 m=i1-t or n= (18) n ‘The Burdine model (1953) uses Eq. (19) for the relationship between the m and n variables. am eee eee he seer ceGaO) n 9, and 0, can be measured, or average values can be obtained from experimental data. ‘The values of a and n can be obtained as shown in the following section Equation (17) can be differentiated with respect to the soil suction head, h. Substituting Eq. (13) for the dimensionless water content, @, then gives: do _ _2m(8,-8) ga (y_gaya. 2... - (20) da i-m ‘The following expression can be written for the variable, a, in Eq. (16). a= 2 @*-1)%-- CEE HE Ceca Substituting Eq. (21) into Eq. (20) gives: do _ _78.-8) 9. 9%)... . (22) 2h Iam 02-8") - ‘The only unknown variable on the right hand side of Eq. (22) is the parameter m. If the soil suction, f, and the corresponding value for the slope of the variable curve, d9/di, at a point ‘on the Soil-Water Characteristic curve (see Fig. 19) is known, the value of m can be estimated, Let us define the variable S, as the slope of the dimensionless water content with respect to the logarithm of matric suction. The variable, S, can be expressed in the following form, ae Aasusteusaensananeeviseee "1 S- atoghy * ‘The change in dimensionless water content can be written in terms of the change in volumetric water content as follows: ae (24) Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (23) gives, (25) (26) (27) To estimate the variable, m, first evaluate the variable, S, from the Soil-Water Characteristic curve (Fig. 19) at a known dimensionless water content value. Consider the location where the dimensionless water content is 0.5 (i.e., © = 1/2). Denoting this point with the subscript P, gives: (28) Rearranging Eq. (28) gives, (29) - 25 - For a dimensionless water content value of 0.5, Eq. (21) can be expressed as: EEE Hatt eteetE (30) pie and Eq. (27) becomes: ee (31) 1.151 —@_ (1-2 T-m Approximate expressions can be written for the variable, m, in terms of S, as follows: 1 -exp (-0.85,) when 0

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