COMPOSITE AIRCRAF DESIGN by Martin HollmannCOMPOSITE AIR CORAL ID] SUGAY by Martin Hollmann Published by Martin Hollman Printed in the United States of America Monterey, California Copyright © 1983 by M. Hollmann. This book or parts thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the permission of the author. AIRCRAFT DESIGNS.INC. 2959 Monterey-Salinas Highway Monterey, California 93940TABLE OF CONTENTS TABS OF CONZTENZS Page CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION - - ------------------------ 1 CHAPTER 2. ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES --- ---------- 5 CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS ----------------------------- 13 3.1 Fabrics and Fibers -- 13 3.1.1 Fiberglass 13 3.1.2 Graphite - - - 16 3.1.3 Kevlar 19 3.2 Resins and Hardeners 22 3.2.1 Epoxy Resin Systems - - 22 3.2.2 Polyester Resins and Hardeners 25 3.2.3 Vinyl Ester Resin "Derakane" 26 3.3 Prepreg Materials -------------------------------- 27 3.4 Core Materials 27 3.4.1 Urethane Foam 27 3.4.2 Styrofoam -- 28 3.4.3 PVC Foam - 29 3.4.4 PV-Rohacell Foam - 30 3.4.5 Honeycomb 30 3.5 Parting Compounds - ------------------------------ 31 36 Adhesives - - ------------------------------------- 31 37 Finishing Materials - - - 32 3.7.1 Bondo Lightweight Body Filler - 32 3.7.2 Feather Fill - - - - - 33 3.7.3 Microspheres - - - 33 DESIGNPage 3.7.4 Primers and Thinners 33 3.7.5 Paints --- 34 3.7.6 Gel Coat - - 35 3.8 Tools for Working with Composites - - 3.8.1 Resin Balance - - - - - - 3.8.2 Hot Wire Cutter - - - 3.8.3 Docket Spray Gun - 3.8.4 Kerosene Heater- - CHAPTER 4. FABRICATION TECHNIQUES: --------------- 39 4.1 Layup over Foam - ------------------+++-2----2---°- 39 4.2 Wet Layup in a Mold - -- - - - ------------------------- 44 4.3 Foam Sandwich Fabrication - - 50 CHAPTER 5. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS - - ------------------ 53 5.1 Netting Analysis - - - ------------+--+----------------- 77 5.2 Rule of Mixture - - - --- ----------------------------- 79 5.3 Foam Sandwich - - - --------------------2520rr rere 80 5.4 Designing and Sizing a Composite Spar - - - 84 5.5 Thermal Loads - -- -------------------0--- 0-2-0 --- 91 CHAPTER 6. MATERIAL PROPERTY TESTING ------------ 95 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION- --------------------------- 99 APPENDIX A. GLOSSARY ---------------+-02--0220-7---- 401 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTTABLE OF CONTENTS Page APPENDIX B. LIST OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL SUPPLIERS -- 113 APPENDIX C. REFERENCES -------------------------- 417 APPENDIX D. COMPUTER PROGRAMS ----------------- 119 1. COMPOSITE for the IBM PC andMacintosh PC ---------- 119 2. SPAR - ----------- 2-22 -eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 123 DESIGNBurt Rutan's Next Generation Trainer, top, and the.Long-Bze bottom, are two high performance all composite aircraft which have pioneered the use of the fiberglass/foam construction technique.tsse[D ST UT spt0der pTIom Auew jas seu qyezoxte styy ‘xobvox euvop pue uvany yoTG Aq 3TTNGeza-buoT eatsoduos [Te snowes ous,| | | INTRODUCTION CHARTER 1 INTRODUCTION Composite materials have significant and decisive advantages over materials such as aluminum, wood, and steel for specific aircraft design applications. It is these advantages that will revolutionize the aircraft industry within the next 20 years, and we will witness the development of more fuel efficient, lighter, and higher performance aircraft. Hopefully, we will be involved in the development of these aircraft. For the designer to realize the advantages of composites, he must be familiar with first, the various materials available, the fabrication techniques, and design and analysis rational such that Proper selection and sizing of the aircraft structures is possible to assure the structural integrity of the aircraft for a minimum weight and/or minimum cost. This book deals mainly with the practical use of composite materials for lightweight aircraft structural applications. Simple equations for estimating composite material properties are given and references for those interested in the detailed mechanics of composite materials is listed. Material sources, prices, comparisons with recommendations are made. This book is intended as a composite material primer for those who already know how to design metallic and wood aircraft structures, and it is intended to stimulate interest in the generation of aircraft designers who will be building better and more efficient aircraft of the future. When designing with composites, the aircraft designer has many variables and variable combinations such as resins, fabrics, fabric styles and makes, laminating techniques available to him. He must evaluate these variables and variable combinations before making a final design decision. As the designer becomes familiar with these variables and the advantages and limitations of composites, he soon recognizes that for each application, only a limited number of options are feasible and only one or two are optimum. Finding these optimums is one of the most exciting and DESIGN 1CHAPTER 1 rewarding experiences, and it is the Purpose of this book to help the designer make the proper decision. There are constantly new composite materials being introduced on the market. However, in this book we will deal with only those which are Presently being used on aircraft structures and are affordable by the aviation community. These materials are grouped into three categories: fabrics, resins, and foams. The fabrics can be purchased in a variety of styles. However, we are going to limit our interests to unidirectional, U.D., fabrics and bidirectional, B.D., fabrics. The U.D. fabrics have a majority of the fibers running in one direction such that the maximum strength and stiffness of that material is oriented in that direction. The B.D. fabric has close to half of its fibers oriented in one direction and close to half oriented at 90 degrees to the first fibers as shown in Figure 1. Transverse 2 2 t Longitudinal t f 0 =f oe 1 R 1 U.D. Fabric B.D. Fabric Figure 1. Unidirectional, U.D., and Bidirectional, B.D., Fabrics. The B.D. fabric has approximately equal mechanical Properties in direction 1 and direction 2. However, at 45 degrees to direction 1, low mechanical properties are realized for the B.D. fabric. Low mechanical Properties are realized for the U.D. fabric in direction 2 since only the resin provides strength and stiffness in that direction. The four fabric fibers which are of interest are E-glass fiberglass, S-glass fiberglass, intermediate strength carbon which is also known as graphite depending on the amount of carbonization, and Kevlar. Kevlar is a DuPont tradename for aromatic polyamide fiber known as "aramid" fiber which is processed by a highly 2 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTINTRODUCTION guarded process only known to DuPont. The two generic resins which we are primarily interested in are polyester and epoxy resin. Vinyl ester resin is a polyester resin which because of its excellent properties deserves special attention. Each of these resins has many chemical formulations and various curing agents such that a large variety of mechanical and physical properties can be achieved. Each of these resins are best suited for a specific application in building aircraft. The four foams that are most used are: styrofoam, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride foam commonly known as just PVC foam, and polyvinyl foam known as PV. Because of their high strength and flexibility, honeycomb cores are also used. The ideas, materials, methods, and techniques presented in this book are based on my 20 years of experience working in the aerospace industry designing composite material structures which includes evaluating, designing and optimizing the world's largest graphite structure, the MX canister. Six of these 16,000 pound filament wound launch tubes were built and tested. The space shuttle solid rocket boosters were designed using this same technology. | also had the opportunity to design the world’s first all composite sandwich armored personnel carrier. My experience also includes designing a graphite wing spar for the F-15; designing fiberglass airducts for Pioneer F and G; designing, and testing various fiberglass rotor blades for gyroplanes; designing, building and flying a composite aircraft called the Condor made of graphite, fiberglass, aluminum, and steel; and performing the stress analysis on the Lancair 200. There are a large number of people who have recognized the potential use of composite materials for aircraft structures but there are only a few who have actually been successful in using and promoting these materials ‘or aircraft use. Among these people are my friends, Burt Rutan, Jim Kern, lance Neibauer, Hans Neubert, Richard Tracy, and Jim Irwin. Without their dedication and without the realization of their dreams, the wide acceptance of composites would not be where it is today in the aviation community. | am especially grateful to Richard and Susie McWilliams for their many fecommendations and enthusiastic support and to Carlene Clark who typed DESIGN 3CHAPTER 1 the original version. This version is printed on a Macintosh Personal Computer Laser Writer. Two suggestions when building composite aircraft. p Don't Substitute the Wrong Materials 4 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES CHARTER 2 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES Cost and weight are among the two most important variables that determine which type of material is used. Typically, the lower the weight, the higher the cost and vice versa. This relation, however, is not always tue. The end cost of a structure is comprised of fabrication and tooling cost in addition to material cost. Composite material fabrication techniques allow complex shapes to be fabricated in a single operation such that labor and fabrication costs are low compared to metal or wood structures. The end cost of a composite structure is usually less even though the material costs are higher as shown for a typical composite structure in Table 1. Table 1. Cost of a Typical Structure, Graphite/Fiberglass vs. Aluminum COMPOSITE ALUMINUM Material $230 $175 Labor and Tooling 100 200 Total $330 (12% less) $375 Weight 35 Ibs (30% less) 50 Ibs The labor costs for the aluminum or wood structure are high because it is assembled out of a large number of smaller pieces which are riveted, bolted, bonded, or welded together. The composite structure is fabricated as one or two assemblies in a female mold or over a foam core. My Condor was made out of a total of 32 composite parts. The Lancair 200 uses 34. DESIGN 5CHAPTER 2 Complex contours and shapes can be easily accommodated which are normally difficult to form with metal or wood. This allows the aircraft designer to contour a structure to his specific needs and we can expect to see new aircraft shapes emerge as composites become widely accepted for aircraft structures. Figure 2 shows some of the aircraft that we might see in the far future. Because rivets and lap joint with surface discontinuities are not present on the outside surface in composite structures and tighter sealing is obtained, the overall aircraft drag can be reduced by more than 17 percent which means that our composite aircraft can fly faster, burn less fuel, and fly further for a given power setting. The Lancair 200, for example, has a maximum airspeed of over 210 mph using the same engine as a Cessna 150 with the same useful load. The sailplane designer have discovered this a long time ago and they are among those who have pioneered the composite aircraft technology. It is interesting to know that a comparison of drag data for a typical metal fuselage to a composite fuselage does not show significant drag reduction. For example, the fuselage drag coefficient for the all metal P-51 Mustang is almost identical to the drag coefficient of the very clean Q-2 composite aircraft. Both aircraft have a fuselage drag coefficient of about 0.0036. If we compare the drag coefficient of a smooth NACA 4412 airfoil to a rough one, Cg smooth = 0.006 to Cg rough = 0.010, and the maximum lift coefficient of Cj smooth = 1.55 to Cj rough = 1.28, we realize that large parasitic drag reductions are possible in the wing. The higher Cj maximum for the smooth airfoil which we can achieve with a composite wing structure will allow us to teduce the wing area by (1.55- 1.28)/1.55=17 percent. At cruise, the wing parasite drag is about 35 percent of the total aircraft drag so that the total drag reduction of our laminar composite aircraft is 35 x 1.28 x 0.006/(1.55 x 0.010) = 17%. It should be realized that this is a theoretical best. Small bugs on the leading edge, moisture, and any protrusion higher than 0.004 inches on the wing will trip the laminar boundary layer and reduce our theoretical reduction in drag. However, if we keep our composite wing clean, we will improve our performance significantly. This is also true for composite rotor blades used on gyroplanes and helicopters. 6 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES STYLIST COWBOY SOFT DRINK SALESMAN WAR BIRD PILOT Figure 2. Composite Aircraft Designed for Specific People. DESIGN 7CHAPTER 2 The mechanical properties of composites vary significantly and depend not only upon what types of materials and styles of fabrics are used, but upon the fabrication techniques which in turn control the void content, resin content, and resin properties. Knowing that these differences exist, makes it difficult to compare the strength and weight of a composite laminate which may have high unidirectional strength properties or maybe high bidirectional properties, orthotropic, to an isotropic material such as aluminum or steel which have somewhat uniform mechanical properties in all directions. It is interesting to compare composites to metal for a wing spar cap application or rotor blade application where the primary loads are oriented in one direction and isotropic material mechanical properties are not needed. The ultimate strength of U.D. graphite, Kevlar*, and E-glass laminates is shown as a dot in Figure 3. It can be seen that these materials have more than twice the strength of aluminum. The density and strength of each material is shown in Table 2 to demonstrate that not only are composites stronger, but they are also considerably lighter. The prices are 1985 dollars for prepreg materials. These prices are greatly reduced for wet layup material constituents. For example, the price of a prepreg graphite is $48.00 per pound as shown in Table 2, compared to about $22.00 per pound for the same graphite in a dry fabric with a separate resin and hardener as used in a wet layup. This low price makes graphite and fiberglass especially attractive for general aviation aircraft. Kevlar looks attractive at first glance. However, it is important to realize that the compressive strength of Kevlar is only 40,000 psi. Since most structures must be capable of taking both tension and compression loads, Kevlar is not attractive for such applications as wing spars or rotor blades which are subjected to high bending and compressive loads. Kevlar has found wide use in such structures as fairings and filament would rocket motor cases where only tensile loads are realized from the internal pressure of the burning propellant. Furthermore, it should be noted that, uPont de Nemours * Trademark, 8 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES although the material data of Table 2 looks very attractive, material properties obtained for wet layup, room temperature cured composites are lower than those shown in Table 2. 40% by volume epoxy resin prepreged, vacuum bagged, and temperature cured composites i 200 Stress, |: ksi 100 ° 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 Strain, inches/inch Figure 3. Stress/Strain and Tensile Strength Comparison. Fatigue characteristics of graphite are excellent when compared to aluminum as shown in the S-N fatigue diagram of Figure 4. The excellent fatigue resistance of the graphite means that a higher ratio of working stress to ultimate stress may be used in most structural applications. In addition to the good fatigue properties, the vibration damping of composites is superior to steel as shown in Table 3. This characteristic is used in composite fishing rods to achieve a longer casting length. The free vibrations dampen out sooner when the rod is made of composites which results in less friction between the line and the guides. Tennis rackets made out of graphite are also superior to aluminum or wood ones. Both my son and my wife are fanatic tennis players and they both use graphite rackets. My son had purchased an aluminum one but soon his elbow started hurting from the undamped vibrations. With the graphite one he never has that problem. DESIGN 9CHAPTER 2 Table 2. Material Properties for U.D. Prepreged Vacuum Bagged and Temperature Cured Epoxy Resin Composite Laminates. Ultimate Tensile Tensile Modulus, Density, $/Pound Strength,Fty.ksi 1 E,msi 2 Ibs.in.3 AIS! 4130 125 29 0.283 3.00 Steel 2024-13 64 10 0.10 3.50 Aluminum4 "Thornell”" 225 20 0.055 48,006 7300 Graphite Kevlar 495 200 "W 0.050 22.008 E-Glass> 160 5.7 0.076 5.404 Notes: ilo 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ksi = 10 pounds per square inch. msi = 10 pounds per square inch. Union Carbide Corp., similar to: Hercules AS-4, Celonese Celion 3000 Graphite. . Per MIL-HDBK-5. Per MIL-HDBK-17. . 1984 quotes from suppliers of resins and fabrics. 10 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES Ratlo Working stress Max stress Cycies to failure Figure 4, Fatigue Behavior of Unidirectional Composites. Table 3. Decay of Free Vibration. Loss Factor x 1074 Stainless Steel 6 Graphite/Epoxy 7 29 Fiberglass/Epoxy Kevlar 49/Epoxy 180 Cured Polyster Resin Loss Factor* A,/(A, 4 1) Amplitude DESIGN 1CHAPTER 2 | JUST COULDN’T GET MY SANDING PROGRAM TO RUN 12 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTMATERIALS CHAR INGER 3 MATERIALS A good basic understanding of materials is absolutely essential in working with composites because the proper selection of each constituent and the proper combination of constituents is necessary if you want to obtain the best performance from a laminate and avoid costly and time consuming mistakes. If you are not certain of a specific material combination or if you are trying something new, you must be willing to make a few test specimens and test them, and sometimes not even that will tell you the whole story. For example, | wanted to find out if acertain gelcoat would soften and wrinkle, “alligator” as it is called, after the application of different resins over gelcoat. None of the test specimens showed "alligator" However, when | made the full size part, the gelcoat showed "alligator" on some surfaces and | ended up scraping a large expensive piece. | discovered that air had to circulate over the gelcoat for a proper cure. The mold for the large piece had several cavities which did not allow the gelcoat to cure adequately, so that the resin softened the somewhat already soft gelcoat. Proper mixing and a temperature above 70 degrees Fahrenheit were also necessary to fully harden the gelcoat. 31. FABRICS AND FIBERS The selection of the fabrics and fibers is extremely important since the fibers and fabrics are usually not only the most expensive items, but they also determine to a major extent the strength and weight of our structure. 3441. Fiberglass Fiberglass is the most widely used material because it is low cost, low weight, has good strength, and has a high strain to failure as shown in Figure 3. Two types of fiberglass are available, S-glass and E-glass. DESIGN 13CHAPTER 3 The S stands for structure and E stands for electric. Because of the lower cost of the E-glass, it is used in most structural applications in addition to being used in the electronic industry. Table 4. Glass Fabrics and U.S. Weavers Style Construction Thickness, Weight, Tensile” Cost** Warp x Fill inches oz/sq.yd Strength $/yd 7781 57 x 54 0.009 8.95 590 x 400 1.76 Aircraft 1543 48 x 30 0.009 8.65 675 x 85 1.96 Aircraft 1800 16 x 14 0.010 9.65 450 x 350 2.00 Boat 7500 16 x 14 0.010 9.60 450 x 350 2.22 Boat 7533 18 x 18 0.008 5.7 230 x 220 1.69 Boat 7544 28 x 14 0.022 18.0 745 x 830 3.72 Boat Minimum average breaking strength, pounds per inch ** 38 inches wide roll Us Hexcel Corporation 11711 Dublin Bivd., Dublin, California 94566 Telephone: 415 828-4200 Clark-Schwebel Fiber Glass Corporation 5 Corporate Part Drive, White Plains, New York 10604 Telephone: 914 694-9090 Burlington Glass Fabrics Company Link Drive, Rockleigh, New Jersey 07647 Telephone: 201 767-4610 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTMATERIALS To handle the glass, it is best purchased in a woven fabric form and there are several large glass weavers in the U.S.A. from whom fiberglass cloth can be purchased as noted in Table 4, Each weaver has a variety of styles of fabric in which the two size of the strands of glass, yarn, and the two count per inch vary in the longitudinal direction, warp, and at 90 degrees to the warp direction, fill. The number of yarns per inch is generally known as the construction or count, and the weight of the dry fabric is given in ounces per square yard. The most common aircraft grade glass fabric is style 181 which weighs about 9 ounces per square yard and which when purchased is known as style 7781 or style 1581. Style 7781 is almost the same as 1581 with the exception that style 7781 is less expensive since the very tight quality contro! used in fabricating the style 1581 is not employed. Style 7781 is most commonly used in the aircraft industry since it has excellent strength properties and each ply thickness is 0.009 inches. This is about the minimum thickness we can practically use, and one to two layers are typically used for outside skins. When highly U.D. strength Properties are needed, style 1543 fabric is commonly used. Styles 7781 and 1581 are both a tight weave and it will lake extra effort wetting out the fabric and removing air bubbles in wet laups. When strength is not important, it may be better to use common boat cloth which is typically sold by weight. The boat cloth has a looser weave and can be layed up considerably easier than the style 7781 fabric. Weave pattern is important in many applications. If a part has curvatures or angles, a looser weave, such as the CFS, would be used because of its good drapability characteristics. However, if a relatively ‘lat part is to be produced, a plain weave would suffice. Shown in Figure 5 are four common weave patterns. Keep in mind that each pattern can have different properties depending on the amount of yarns per inch in the construction. Fiberglass cloth requires a finishing process to improve the bond between the resin and glass. The most common finish is Volan* bonding agent. Volan is a complex in which methacrylic acid is coordinated with thromium. Various other finishes are available. However, the Volan DESIGN 15CHAPTER 3 finished fabrics are most commonly used with epoxy, polyester, and viny! ester resins. Straight cutting shears or large scissors are used to easily cut the dry fiberglass cloth in a cool, dry, and dark place to minimize the aging of the finish which is important to the quality of the bond between the resin and glass. Fiberglass cloth fabrics are commonly sold in 38 inch wide rolls with about 125 yards per roll for the style 7781 and boat fabrics and in 200 yard rolls for the style 1543. The style 7781 roll weighs 75 pounds and costs $260 in 1984 dollars. The style 1543 fabric in a 200 yard roll weighs 114 pounds per roll and costs $440. The names and addresses cf common U.S. fiberglass weavers and fabrics are listed in Table 4. 3.1.2. Graphite Although fiberglass is the least expensive material, graphite fibers are the most promising for aircraft structures because of their low weight, high strength, and high stiffness as shown in Figure 3. Many airframe manufacturers are making extensive use of graphite fibers in their products. Boeing for example has replaced about 14 percent of their aluminum structure with Union Carbides "Thornell" T300 graphite fiber in their new 757 and 767 passenger jets. The Starship and Voyager are completely built out of graphite and honeycomb and we can expect to see more and more complete aircraft built out of this material. There are two types of commonly used graphite fibers: high strength, HTS, and high modulus, HMS. A comparison of the strength, stiffness, and cost of U.D. laminate made of these fibers in Figure 6 shows that as the stiffness increases, the strength decreases and the cost increases. Graphite fibers are manufactured from a polyacrylonitrile, PAN, precursor. The manufacturing process is made up of three stages as shown in Figure 7; oxidation, carbonization, and graphitization. Graphitization takes place at temperatures up to 5400° F. 16 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTMATERIALS Plain Weave (Pp) over 1, under | Ss es Se oe 2 es ee ee SS = Crowfoot Satin Weave (CFs) over 3, under 1 ! —_——_—_ — << << sme meee = semcmen aos << xo coo << os << toes oo —<— << somes soo =< se soo << soos ee ee << soo, oe = se see = << sac soon os ee see <<< oo Widssiiigaat 5 HarnessStain Weave (SHS), over 4, under 1 - — aa ~— — _ ~_ ~—_ — ~ i | Mian 8 Harness Satin Weave (8HS), over 7, under 1 Figure 5. Popular Weave Patters. DESIGN NCHAPTER 3 250 200 HMS, £=40 msi 7 | GY-70 $350/Ib a iz 75S , E=20 msi = © AS4 $43/Ib a E100 re 0 0.0025 0.005 0.0075 0.010 Strain, inches/inch Figure 6. High Modulus vs High Strength U.D. Graphite Laminate. There has been a real need for a lower cost HMS graphite fiber for some time since the cost of the Goodyear GY-70 at $350 per pound is simply too high for most applications. Union Carbide has developed a high modulus “pitch” base graphite which uses pitch instead of PAN fibers. The pitch base material is extremely interesting since the modulus can be increased or decreased, at the expense of strength, to any required level. Their P75S pitch is somewhat equivalent to the high priced PAN base GY-70 at a fraction of the cost. Union Carbide's Thornell P55S pitch base graphite is also attractive at a current fiber price of $18 per pound compared to $20 per pound for AS-4. A U.D. P55S epoxy laminate has a typical strength of 150 ksi and a tensile modulus of 34 msi. Its compressive strength of 70 ksi is however low. Union Carbide started producing the pitch base fibers in March 1982. The most used fibers are Union Carbide's Thornell T300 and Hercules AS-4 graphite fibers which sell in a dry woven fabric for about $30 to $70 per pound depending on the size and quantity purchased. Prepregs cost about twice this amount. 18 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTMATERIALS It should be recognized that these prices are attractive when we realize that first, when combining the fabrics with 50 percent resin by weight, the price drops to about half of the fabric price per pound of structure and that second, only a small amount of graphite need be added to a fiberglass structure to greatly enhance the structural stiffness ofa structure. Special Acrylic Fibers OXIDATION CARBONIZATION Inert Gas = GRAPHITIZATION Inert Gas SURFACE TREATMENT Oxidized Acrylic Tow = 0a Figure 7. Graphite Fiber Manufacturing Process. 3.1.3. Kevlar Kevlar 49 Aramid has a higher tensile strength, higher tensile modulus, and a lower density than fiberglass. However, because of Keviar's low compression strength, Kevlar has found limited structural application in aircraft primary structures. Kevlar is difficult to work with and special tools are needed. At almost $16 per pound for the woven fabric, Kevlar is considerably more expensive then fiberglass which sells for about $2.50 per pound. Kevlar is available in a number of fabric styles. With the exception of Textile Products Inc., the weavers listed in Table 5 weave Kevlar. Significant weight savings are possible by using Kevlar in fairings and secondary structural elements. Laminated Kevlar DESIGN 19CHAPTER 3 structures have a density of 0.050 pounds per cubic inch compared to 0.076 for fiberglass and 0.058 for graphite. Table 5. Graphite Fabric Weavers 1. Fiberite Corporation 501 West Third Street Winona, Minnesota 55987 Telephone: 507 454-3611 2. Hercules Incorporated P.O. Box 98 Magna, Utah 84044 Telephone: 801 250-5911 3. Textile Products Inc. 2512 Woodland Drive Anaheim, California 92801 Telephone: 714 761-0401 4. Knytex P.O. Box 5293 Midland, Texas 79701 Telephone: 915 694-8912 5. Hexcel Corporation 1171 Dublin Blvd Dublin, California 94566 Telephone: 415 828-4200 Textile Products Inc. will sell graphite fabrics in small and large volume and they weave some very useful Styles as listed in Table 6. 20 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTMATERIALS Table 6. Textile Products Dry Carbon Fabrics. Style Construction Thickness, Weight, Fiber Cost Warp x Fill inches oz/sq.yd 1210U.D. 10x 0 0.013 9.6 Courtalds $2.90/yd 3inch wide AS* $58/lb tape 463B.D. 125 x 125 0.010 5.8 T300 $25.44/yd 42 inch wide $70/b tape 4243B.D. 24 x 23 0.014 10.9 T300 $37.00/yd 42 inch wide $54/Ib tape 4116H B.D.11 x 14 0.017 1104 AS-4 $30.00/yd $44/lb “Similar to AS-4 and T300 Style 4163 Graphite Fabric. DESIGN 21CHAPTER 3 3.2. Resins and Hardeners Three types of resins with a variety of hardeners and promoters as shown in Table 7 are commonly used. Epoxy resins are most commonly used for structures because they have excellent adhesives and mechanical properties. Polyester resins are used for lower strength parts where low cost, ease of producibility, low viscosity, and good wetting out are needed. A resin that has the good qualities of both polyester and epoxy is a vinyl ester resin called "Derakane" which is made by the Dow Chemical Company. Derakane is used where good mechanical properties and good workability are needed. All three resins can be used with fiberglass. However, only epoxy and Derakane can be used with graphite, and only epoxy will bond to Kevlar. 3.2.1. Epoxy Resin Systems Presently the best known structural epoxy resin is Shell Epon 828. This resin is a generic chemical resin Produced by the reaction of hisphenol A with epichlorohydrin and it is identified by other producers by their designations. For example, Dow DER 331, Ciba Giegy 604, and Union Carbide 2774 are all equivalent to Epon 828. Because Epon 828 has an extremely high viscosity at room temperature, it is difficult to wet out fabrics. Shell sells Epon 815 which is Epon 828 plus a reactive diluent. A commonly used diluent is butyl glycidyl ether, BGE. With BGE, Epon 815 has a low viscosity which allows wetting out of dry fabrics. Epon 815, however, has a lower heat distortion temperature and a lower creep strength than Epon 828 and Epon 815 is toxic and a strong sensitizer. Dow produces DER 330 which is equivalent to Epon 815. However, this resin does not contain the reactive diluent and obtains its lower viscosity from a special processing so that its toxic rating is low and the resin is only mildly irritating. DER 330 is one of the most commonly used resin systems for aircraft structures. It is most economically purchased in 50 gallon drums, 525 pounds, for about $660 from a Dow sales office. Smaller quantities of DER 330 and other composite materials can be purchased from Columbia Plastics, Inc., P.O. Box 275, Columbia, MD 21045. 22 . COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTMATERIALS A common polyamide hardener used for room temperature cure of Epon 330 is Versamide 140 which is a Product of General Mills Chemical Corp. Versamide 140 is one of the least irritating with a SPI tating of 2. Table 7. Resin Systems. Polyster Epoxy Viny! Ester Orthopthalic Isothalic Dow330 Safe-T-Poxy Derakane 411 APCO 2410 Catalyst, MEKP MEKP Versamide APCO 2183 Cobalt Naph- Hardener 140 thenate,MEKP Viscosity,cps 1,000 1,000 8,800 1,300 300 at 770F Gel Time, min. 180 180 234 45 27 at 770F Cost $/gal. 7.30 9.50 13.00 38.00 12.00 HDT*, OF 160 190 190 190 300 Toxidity, SPI** 3 3 23 1 3 laminate with*** A A A,B,C A,B,C AB Manufacturer Silmar Dow Chemical Chemtron Midland, Mi. Fresno, CA Telephone: 209 456-1500 517 636-1000 Applied Dow Chemical Plastics EI Segundo, CA 213 322-8050 * HDT = Heat Distortion Temperature * 1 = Non-irritating ildly Irritating 3 = Moderately Irritating “**A = Fiberglass B = Graphite C = Kevlar DESIGN 23CHAPTER 3 The Society of Plastics Industry, SPI, rates the hazard of toxic materials from class 1 non-irritating, to class 6, suspect carcinogen in animals. Class 1 - Practically Non-Irritating Class 2 - Mildely Irritating Class 3 - Moderately Irritating Class 4 - Strong Sensitizer Class 5 - Extremely Irritating Class 6 - Suspected Carcinogen in Animals Pacific Anchor Chemical Corporation in Richmond, California produces Ancamide 350A which is equivalent to Versamide 140. Normally 60 parts of Ancamide 350A are mixed with 100 parts by volume of liquid resin and some latitude in mixing ratios is permissible. The gel time is 234 minutes at 77° F.with a total cure time from 2 - 7 days at room temperature. Ancamide 400 is similar to Ancamide 350A. A gel time of 80 minutes at770 F with a typical mixing ration of 50 parts per 100 parts of resin is realized. Total cure time is 7 days at room temperature. Ancamide 400 has a storage life of at least 12 months and it is not known to produce toxic symptoms but normal handling precautions should be observed. Fifty gallons of Versamide 140, Ancamide 350A, or Ancamide 400 sell for about $640. Applied Plastics Co., Inc. APCO for short, of El Segundo, California was recently purchased by Hexcel Corp. APCO is known for their special resin system formulations. They produce a resin and hardener called Safe-T-Poxy which has a SPI rating of 1. The resin system is currently used by all homebuilders on their Long-EZE and Q-2 aircraft. Mixing ratio of hardener to resin is 50 to 100 parts by volume. The resin designation is 2410 and a 55 gallon drum sells for around $2,000. The hardener designation is 2183 and a 30 gallon drum sells for about $800. Gel time is 45 minutes. This resin is the most commonly used resin and itis extremely easy to work with compared to the Dow 330. It should also be pointed out that some people are naturally sensitive to epoxy resin and they should only consider using SPI class 2 or less materials. Safe- T-Poxy was developed especially for these people. The average shelf life of most epoxy resins is three years if they are kept in a cool and dry place in a well closed container. 24 COMPOSITE AIRCRAFTMATERIALS 3.2.2, Polyester Resins and Hardeners Polyester resins are generally lower in strength and do not adhere to Metal as epoxy resins do. However, polyester resins are more viscous and considerably easier to work with than epoxy resins. Polyesters also have a lower moisture absorption and high chemical resistance which makes them well suited for fuel tanks. Because of their low cost and ease in wetting out, polyester resins are used extensively in the boat industry and in fabricating fiberglass molds. One of the least expensive orthopthalic polyester resins is distributed by Tap Plastics, Inc., San Leandro, California. Their bonding resin is normally cured by adding 2 ounces of methyl ethyl keton peroxide, MEKP, to 1 gallon of resin. The Pot life is about 20 minutes and a cured part can be obtained in 6 hours atroom temperature. Full cure is achieved in 24 hours. MEKP sells for about $16.80 per gallon. A 55 gallon drum of polyester will cost about $460. Because the bonding resin leaves a Sticky surface, a surfacing fesin can also be purchased. The surfacing resin contains wax which comes to the surface and allows the exposed surface to cure to a hard layer. If post cure sanding of a part is necessary, it is advisable, but not compulsory, to coat the surface of the laminate with surfacing resin after the laminate has started to gel. Normal caution should be used in handling the MEKP since it is a strong sensitizer and you should wash your hands immediately if you come into contact with it. MEKP can cause blindness if allowed to come into contact with your eyes. In the Past 20 years of working with MEKP, | have had one occasion when a drop hit my eye. | immediately rushed to a water faucet and thoroughly washed my eye with clean water. Luckily I did not incur eye injuries. The Tap Plastics polyester resin can be purchased in small quantities from retailers in California. Another common commercial grade orthopthalic resin is Silmar S-583 which is sold by Chemtron Systems of Fresno, California. S-583 is mixed with 1 ounce of MEKP to 1 gallon of resin. A gel time of 13.5 minutes is realized. A 55 gallon drum sells for $420. One of the best structural Polyester resins is Silmar S-821 isothalic DESIGN 25