1: Foundations of Sociology

Reading: Structural-Functional Theory

Sociological Paradigm #1: Functionalism

Functionalism, also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure with
interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in
that society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist,
Hebert Spencer (1820–1903), who saw similarities between society and the human
body; he argued that just as the various organs of the body work together to keep the
body functioning, the various parts of society work together to keep society functioning

(Spencer 1898).  The parts of society that

Spencer referred to were the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and behaviors
focused on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family, healthcare,
religion, and the economy.

Émile Durkheim, another early sociologist, applied Spencer’s theory to explain how
societies change and survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex
system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability
(Durkheim 1893), and that society is held together by shared values, languages, and
symbols. He believed that to study society, a sociologist must look beyond individuals to
social facts such as laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashion, and rituals,
which all serve to govern social life. Alfred Radcliff-Brown (1881–1955) defined
the function of any recurrent activity as the part it played in social life as a whole, and
therefore the contribution it makes to social stability and continuity (Radcliff-Brown
1952). In a healthy society, all parts work together to maintain stability, a state
called dynamic equilibrium by later sociologists such as Parsons (1961).

Durkheim believed that individuals may make up society, but in order to study society,
sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts. Social facts are the laws,
morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules
that govern social life (Durkheim 1895). Each of these social facts serves one or more
functions within a society. For example, one function of a society’s laws may be to
protect society from violence, while another is to punish criminal behavior, while another
is to preserve public health.

Another noted structural functionalist, Robert Merton (1910–2003), pointed out that
social processes often have many functions. Manifest functions are the consequences
of a social process that are sought or anticipated, while latent functions are the
unsought consequences of a social process. A manifest function of college education,
for example, includes gaining knowledge, preparing for a career, and finding a good job
that utilizes that education. Latent functions of your college years include meeting new
people, participating in extracurricular activities, or even finding a spouse or partner.
Another latent function of education is creating a hierarchy of employment based on the
level of education attained. Latent functions can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Social
processes that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society are
called dysfunctions. In education, examples of dysfunction include getting bad grades,
truancy, dropping out, not graduating, and not finding suitable employment.

BRING IT HOME

Watch the following video to see more applications of the structural-functional theory.

Click on the image to open the video in a new tab.

Criticism
One criticism of the structural-functional theory is that it can’t adequately explain social
change. Also problematic is the somewhat circular nature of this theory; repetitive
behavior patterns are assumed to have a function, yet we profess to know that they
have a function only because they are repeated. Furthermore, dysfunctions may
continue, even though they don’t serve a function, which seemingly contradicts the
basic premise of the theory. Many sociologists now believe that functionalism is no
longer useful as a macro-level theory, but that it does serve a useful purpose in some
mid-level analyses.

A GLOBAL CULTURE?

Some sociologists see the online world contributing to the creation of an emerging global culture. Are you a part of
any global communities? (Photo courtesy of quasireversible/flickr)

Sociologists around the world look closely for signs of what would be an unprecedented event:
the emergence of a global culture. In the past, empires such as those that existed in China,
Europe, Africa, and Central and South America linked people from many different countries, but
those people rarely became part of a common culture. They lived too far from each other, spoke
different languages, practiced different religions, and traded few goods. Today, increases in
communication, travel, and trade have made the world a much smaller place. More and more
people are able to communicate with each other instantly—wherever they are located—by
telephone, video, and text. They share movies, television shows, music, games, and information
over the Internet. Students can study with teachers and pupils from the other side of the globe.
Governments find it harder to hide conditions inside their countries from the rest of the world.
Sociologists research many different aspects of this potential global culture. Some explore the
dynamics involved in the social interactions of global online communities, such as when
members feel a closer kinship to other group members than to people residing in their own
countries. Other sociologists study the impact this growing international culture has on smaller,
less-powerful local cultures. Yet other researchers explore how international markets and the
outsourcing of labor impact social inequalities. Sociology can play a key role in people’s abilities
to understand the nature of this emerging global culture and how to respond to it.
Let me begin by briefly explaining the term ‘structural functionalism’ by taking
each word in turn. ‘Structuralist’ sociological approaches are those which assert
that the behaviour of people in society is structured according to a set of rules or
laws. Evidence for this assertion is based on the observation that people do not
act randomly; instead, their behaviour, including their social interactions, is
patterned. Thus the aim of the sociologist is to identify the laws that structure
our behaviour.

Emergence Of Structural Functionalism.

Structural Functionalist
1402 Words6 Pages

Emergence of Structural Functionalism Structural functionalist

theories are grounded in the thought that society and family are
congenial entities and, as such, the harmony between the two is
the natural state of people, as found in Leeder (2004). Structural
functionalism, and the viewing of the family as a social system, is
at the core of the family process and other theories. To
understand structural-functionalism, we must first understand
the coalescing theories in which it is rooted, functionalism and
structuralism. Both approaches gained momentum in the
1920’s, during the time in which diffusionism also emerged.
Functionalism Functionalism viewed society as a network of
institutions, such as marriage and religion, that are related…
show more content…
Structural-functionalism is quite important to our understanding
of how families in other parts of the world have been explained
and the lens through which families have been viewed.
However, it is a way of seeing that is now being challenged by
other theorists and might not hold true in a transnational
twenty-first-century (Leeder, 2004). Elements of Structural
Functionalism Interdependence Since society is composed of
different parts, and the proper operation of these parts is
necessary to the smooth operation of society as a whole, the
interdependence of the parts is an important feature of
functional analysis. The roles assumed of people, along with
societal institutions and organizations are all interdependent. A
change in one part disturbs others, requiring other parts to take
account of the changes, adjust its actions, and acclimate to any
changes needed. While most sociological approaches recognize
the interdependence of the elements of a society, the
functionalist approach tends to regard these elements of society
(individuals or institutions) as having particular functions to
perform. For example, Parsons reasons that every person
inhabits a rank or place within an assemblage. "Status and role
tend to go together in what Parsons calls the 'status-role bundle
'" (Grabb, 1990). These are the means in which people fill the
constructs of society. So long as roles are carried out, the
constructs are efficiently

Structural Functionalism
1448 Words6 Pages

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory that sees society as a
complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.[1] This approach looks at
society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape
society as a whole, and believes that society has evolved like organisms.[2] This approach looks at both
social structure and social functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of
its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, andinstitutions. A common analogy,
popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as "organs" that work toward the proper
functioning of the…show more content…
Society was in upheaval and fear abounded. At the time social order was crucial, and this is reflected in
Parsons' tendency to promote equilibrium and social order rather than social change. Furthermore,
Durkheim favored a radical form of guild socialism along with functionalist explanations. Also, Marxism,
while acknowledging social contradictions, still uses functionalist explanations. Parsons' evolutionary
theory describes the differentiation and reintegration systems and subsystems and thus at least temporary
conflict before reintegration (ibid). "The fact that functional analysis can be seen by some as inherently
conservative and by others as inherently radical suggests that it may be inherently neither one nor the
other." (Merton 1957: 39) Stronger criticisms include the epistemological argument that functionalism is
tautologous, that is it attempts to account for the development of social institutions solely through
recourse to the effects that are attributed to them and thereby explains the two circularly. However,
Parsons drew directly on many of Durkheim’s concepts in creating his theory. Certainly Durkheim was one
of the first theorists to explain a phenomenon with reference to the function it served for society. He said,
“the determination of function is…necessary for the complete explanation of the phenomena” [cited in
Coser,

Reading: Functionalist Theory on Education

Functionalism
Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. They
contend that education contributes two kinds of functions: manifest (or primary) functions, which
are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent (or secondary) functions, which
are the hidden and unintended functions.

Manifest Functions

There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is
socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice
various societal roles. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who
established the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as “socialization
agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult
economic roles” (Durkheim 1898). Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this
responsibility in full.

This socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole.
In the early days of compulsory education, students learned the dominant culture.
Today, since the culture of the United States is increasingly diverse, students may learn
a variety of cultural norms, not only that of the dominant culture.

School systems in the United States also transmit the core values of the nation through
manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students
conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers
and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. This function
also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will
continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this
function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students
all day.
The teacher’s authority in the classroom is a way in which education fulfills the manifest functions of social
control. (Photo courtesy of Tulane Public Relations/flickr)
Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social
mobility. This function is referred to as social placement. College and graduate schools
are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the
financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more
motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A
student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees
business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success.

Latent Functions

Education also fulfills latent functions. As you well know, much goes on in a school that
has little to do with formal education. For example, you might notice an attractive fellow
student when he gives a particularly interesting answer in class—catching up with him
and making a date speaks to the latent function of courtship fulfilled by exposure to a
peer group in the educational setting.

The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years
and can help people find jobs after their schooling is complete. Of course, with social
media such as Facebook and LinkedIn, these networks are easier than ever to
maintain. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill
that is transferable to a workplace and that might not be learned in a homeschool
setting.

The educational system, especially as experienced on university campuses, has

traditionally provided a place for students to learn about various social issues. There is
ample opportunity for social and political advocacy, as well as the ability to develop
tolerance to the many views represented on campus. In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street
movement swept across college campuses all over the United States, leading to
demonstrations in which diverse groups of students were unified with the purpose of
changing the political climate of the country.

Manifest and Latent Functions

Manifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended Latent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with
goals consequences

Socialization Courtship

Transmission of culture Social networks

 Manifest and Latent Functions

Manifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended Latent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with
goals consequences

Social control Group work

Social placement Creation of generation gap

Cultural innovation Political and social integration

According to functionalist theory, education contributes both manifest and latent funct

Functionalists recognize other ways that schools educate and enculturate students. One
of the most important U.S. values students in the United States learn is that of
individualism—the valuing of the individual over the value of groups or society as a
whole. In countries such as Japan and China, where the good of the group is valued
over the rights of the individual, students do not learn as they do in the United States
that the highest rewards go to the “best” individual in academics as well as athletics.
One of the roles of schools in the United States is fostering self-esteem; conversely,
schools in Japan focus on fostering social esteem—the honoring of the group over the
individual.

In the United States, schools also fill the role of preparing students for competition in
life. Obviously, athletics foster a competitive nature, but even in the classroom students
compete against one another academically. Schools also fill the role of teaching
patriotism. Students recite the Pledge of Allegiance each morning and take history
classes where they learn about national heroes and the nation’s past.
Starting each day with the Pledge of Allegiance is one way in which students are taught patriotism. (Photo
courtesy of Jeff Turner/flickr)
Another role of schools, according to functionalist theory, is that of sorting, or classifying
students based on academic merit or potential. The most capable students are
identified early in schools through testing and classroom achievements. Such students
are placed in accelerated programs in anticipation of successful college attendance.

Functionalists also contend that school, particularly in recent years, is taking over some
of the functions that were traditionally undertaken by family. Society relies on schools to
teach about human sexuality as well as basic skills such as budgeting and job
applications—topics that at one time were addressed by the family.