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    Thomas Kuhn - S Copernican Revolution

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    THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION Plonctery Astronomy inthe Development of Western Thought 1D 2. a THOMAS 5. KUHN HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS - CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, AND LONDON, ENGLAND. (© Copyright 1957 bythe President and Fellows of Hornd Calle (© rue 1985 by Thomas. Kuhn Larry of Congres Catlg Card Naber 87-7612 158 0-874.17103-9 (pop) Prin the United Sites of Ameria TOL. K.NASH FOR A VEHEMENT COLLABORATION PREFACE The story of the Copericen Revolution has been tld many times before, but never, to my knowledge, with quite the scope and ‘object aimed at here. Though the Revolution’ name is singular, the ‘event was plural, [ts core was «transformation of mathematical as: tronamy, but it embraced conceptual changes in cosmology, pss, philosophy, and religion as wel, These individual arpects of the Revo. Tation have been examined repeatedly, and without the resulting studies this book could not have been written. The Revolution’ plurality transcends the competence ofthe individual scholar working from primary sources, But both specialized studies andthe elementary ‘works patterned on them necessriy miss one of the Reveltin's most ‘essential and facinating characteristics ~a characteristic which arises {rom the Revolitionsprality itself Because of its plurality, the Copersican Revolution offers an ideal ‘opportunity to discover how and with what effect the concepts of many diferent fickls are woven into a single fabric of thought Copernicus himself was a specialist, a mathemstial astronomer con- cemed to corect the esoteric techniques used ia computing tables of plinetary portion. But the direction of his research was often deter- ‘mined by developments quite foreign to astronomy. Among these were medieval changes in the analysis of falling stones, the Renaissance revival of an ancient mystial philosophy which saw the sun as the Jmage of God, and the AUantc voyages which widened the terrestrial horizons of Renaissance man. Even stuonger Alations between distnet Fields of thought appear in the period after the publication of Copernicus” work. Though his De Recoltionibus consists principally ‘of mathematical formulas, tables, and diagrams, it could only be tusimilated by men abe to crete a new physics, a new conception of ‘ice, and a new idea of man's relation to God. Creative interdict nary te like these play many and varied roles inthe Copernican Revo- lution. Specialized accounts are inhibited both by aim and method from examining the nature of these ties and thelr efacts upon the growth of human knowledge. “This account of the Copernican Revolution therefore aims to dis wi PREFACE play the significance of the Revolution’: plurality, and that object is probably the book’ mest important novelty. Pursuit of the object hi, Thowever. necessitted a second innovation. This book repeatedly Solites the istitutionalized boundaties which separate the audience for “scence” Teom the audience for “history” or “philosophy.” Occ sonally Ray seem to be two books, ne dealing with scence, the other with tllectual itor: "The combination of science and intellectual history i, however, sential in approaching the plural stracture ofthe Copernican Revo- Tution. The Revolution centered in astronomy. Neither is nature, its hor its causes can be understood without afr geasp upon the {ata and concepts that were the tools of planetary astronomers. Ax tronomical observations and theories therefore make up the essential elenife” component which dominates my rst two chapters and eeu throughout the remainder ofthis book. They do not, however, make up the whole book, Plnetary astronomy seas never a totally Independent purslt with its own smmutable standards of accuracy, guy. and proof. Astronomers were trained in other sciences 3s well, and they were committed to various philosophical and religious Systems, Many of their ronatronomica beliefs were fundamental fst in postponing and then in shaping the Coperican Revolution, These rnonasttonomical belies compose my “intellectual history” component, ‘which, after Chapter 2, parallels the scientie. Given the purpose of this book, the two are equally Fundamental, ‘Besides. Tam not convinced that the (wo components are realy isnt. Except in ocensional monographs the combination of science fand intellectual history i an unusual one. Initially st may therefore Seem incongruous. But there can be no intrinsic incongruity. Scientific concepts ave ideas, and as such thoy aro the subject of tntllectual history. They have seldom been teatd that way, but only because few Iistorians have had the technica traning to deal with seientife source materials 1 am myself quite certain thatthe techniques developed by Historians of ideas eam produce a kind of understanding that science will receive in no other way. Though no elementary book ean fully document that thess, this one should provide at least preliminary ex dence Tred it has already provided some evidence. The book grows ont of a series of lctures delivered each year since 1949 in one of the PREFACE ix science General Education courses at Harvard College, and in that application the combination of technical and intellectual bstoial materials has been quite successful. Since students in this General Education course do not intend 10 continue the study of selene, the technical facts and theories that they leara function principally as paradigis rather than as intrinsically useful bits of information Furthermore, though the technical scientife materisls are essential they scarcely begin to function until placod in « historical or phil sophical framework where they illuminate the way in which science develops, tho nature of sciences authority, and the manner in whieh scence affects human life, Once placed in that framework, however, the Copernican system or anyother scientific theory has relevance and appeal for an audience far broader than either the scentifc or the undergraduate community, Though my Sr prose in writing it was to supply reading for the Harvard course and for others like i, this bok, which is not a text, is also addrested tothe general eader Many friends and colleagues, by theie advice and eritcsm, have helped to shape this book, but none has Felt so large oF significant a tnatk as Ambassador James B, Conant, Work with him Sst perwnded ‘me tht historical study could yield a new sor of understanding ofthe structure and function of scientific research, Withost my own Coperi: fan revolution, which he fathered, neither this book nor my” other essays in the history ofsience would ave been writen, ‘Me. Conant also read the manuscript, and its early chapters show many sign of he productive eitiisms. Others who will recognize here fand there the effects of their useful suggestions inchade Marie Boas, 1B, Coben, Mt. B. Gilmore, Roger Hahn, G. J. Holton, B.C. Kemble, P.E. LeCorbeiller,L. K. Nash, and F. G. Watson. Bach bas applied critical talent to atleast one chapter; several read the entice mans script in an earlier version; and sll have reseued me from mistakes or ambiguities. The advice of Mason Hammond and Mortimer Chambers, has given my oceasional Latin translations an assurance that they would not otherwise possess. Amolfo Ferro fst introduced me t0 Ficino's De Sole and showed me that Copernicus’ attitude toward the ssn isan integal part of « Renalssance tradition more stiing even {nthe arts and literature than inthe seiences. ‘The illstatons daplay the skl, but scarcely the patience, with ‘which Miss Polly Horan has translated and retranslted my vague * PREFACE Airections into communicative symbols. J.D. Elder and the staf of the Harvard University Pres have given me constant and sympathetic fiance in the arduous transmutation to type of a manuscript that fonforme neither to the rules for seientie publication nor to those for itor. Tho indox attests the industry and ineligence of W.J. Charles. ‘The jolt generosity of Harvard University and the Joba Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation provided the years leave of bience during which most of my manuscript was fst prepared. I am. ‘ko grateful tothe University of Calforia for a small grant which tssisted in the Goal preparation of the manuscript and in seing it though the press. ‘My wife has been an active participant throughout the book's de- velopment, but that participation i the least of her contributions to it Brain children, particularly someone else's, are the most obstreperous members of any household. Without her continuing toleration and fre ‘bearanee this one would never have survived. TSK Berkeley, California November 1956 Note tothe Seventh Printing. This printing contains a number of cor rections and textual changes inadvertently omited from earlier Harvard ‘ditions, With this and subsequent printings, all changes previously in troduced in the Random House and Vintage paperback editions are also inched in the Harvard Paperback together with afew minor core. tons after the earlier paperback editions were prepared. CONTENTS Foreword by Janes Bryant Conant (Chapter 1: The Ancient Two-Sphore Universe Chapter 2: The Problem of the Plants Chapter 3: The Two-Sphere Universe in Aristo “Thought Chaptor 4: Recasting the Tradition Aristotle to the Copernicans Chapter 9: Copernic” Innovation (Chapter 6: The Asinilation of Copernican Astronomy (Chapter 7: The New Universe ‘Technical Appendix References Biographical Notes Index ii THE ANCIENT TWO-SPHERE UNIVERSE Copernicus and the Modern Mind ‘The Copernican Revolution was a revolution in ideas, formation in man's conception ofthe universe and of his owa zelation toi. Aguin and again this episode in the history of Renaissance thought thas been proclaimed an epochal turning point in the intelletual development of Western man. Yet the Revolution tumed upon the ‘most obscure and recondite minutiae of astronomical research. How ‘an it have had such signifcance? What does the phrase “Copernican Revolution” mean? {In 1543, Nicholas Copernicus propose to increase the seeuracy and simplicity of astronomical theory by transferring to the sun many ‘stronomical functions previously attibuted to the earth. Before his proposal the earth had been the fixed center about which astronomers ‘computed the motions of stare and planets, A century later the sua had, atleast in astronomy, replaced the earth asthe center of planetary ‘motions, and the earth had lost its unique astronomical status, bcom- ing one of a number of moving planets, Many of modera astronomy’s pincipal achievements depend pon this transposition. A reform in the fundamental concepts of astronomy is therefore the Best of the Copernican Revolution's meanings. ‘Astronomical reform isnot, however, the Revoluton'senly mean- ing. Other radical alterations in man’s understanding of mature rapidly followed the publication of Copernicus’ De Revolutiontbus in 158. Many of these innovations, which culminated a century and a half later in the Newtonlan conception of the universe, were unantllpated byproducts of Copernius astronomical theary. Copernicus suggested the earth's motion in an efor to improve the techniques used in pre- 2 THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION Alicting the astronomical postions of ccestil bodies. For other seiences hhis suggestion simply raised new problems, and until these were solved the astronomers concept of the universe was incompatible with that of other scientists. During the seventeenth century, the reconciliation of these other sciences with Copernican astronomy was an important feause of the general intellectual ferment now known as the scientific revolution. Through the seientic revolution acience won the great ‘new role that thas since played in the development of Western society and Wester thought Even its consequences for science do not exhaust the Revolution’ ‘meanings. Copernicus lived and worked during a period when rapid ‘changes in political, economic, and intellectual ie were preparing the bases of modern European and American civilization, His planetary theory and his associated conception of sun-centered universe we Instrumental in the tanston from medieval to modeen Western so clety, because they seemed to affect man's relation to the universe and. to God. Initiated as a nazeowly techaea, highly mathematical revision of classical astronomy, the Copernican theory became one foc for the tremendous controversies in religion, in philosophy, and in social theory. Which, during the two centuries fllowing the discovery of Americ, set the tenor ofthe modern mind. Men who believed that their terres ‘al home was only a planet circulating binly shout one ofan ininity of stars evaluated thelr place inthe cosmic scheme quite diferently ‘han had their predecessors who saw the earth athe wnique and focal ‘center of God's creation. The Copernican Revolution was therefore also, part ofa transition in Western man's sense of values. ‘This book i the story of the Copernican Revolution in all three of these ndt quite separable meanings ~ astronomical scientific, and phil- ‘sophical. The Revolution as an epiode in the development of plane- tary astronomy will of necessity, be out most developed theme. During the frst wo chapters, as we discover what the naked eye can sc i the Iheavens and how stargarers Brst roasted to what they sao" there, stronomy and astronomers will be very nearly our only concern. But fonce we have examined the main astronomical theories developed in ‘he ancient world, our viewpoint will shift. In anlyzing the strengths of the ancient astronomical tradition and in exploring the requisites for a radical break with that tradition, we shall gradually diseover how lifeless to restrict the scope of an established scientife concept to-a single science or even to the sclences as a group. Therefore, in THE ANCIENT TWO-SPHERE UNIVERSE 2 (Chapters 3 and 4 we shall be less concerned with astronomy itself than with the intellectual and, more briefly, the social and economic millew within which astronomy was practiced. These chapters will al primarily with the extra-astronemical implications ~ for scence, for religion, and for daily lfe—of a time-honored astronomical com cxptual scheme, They will show how a. change in the conceptions of mathematical astronomy could have revolutionary consequences, Finally in the lst thre chapters, when we tur to Copernicus’ work, its reception, and its contribution tox new scientific conception of the ‘universe, we shall deal with all these strands at once, Only the battle that established the concept of the planctary earth a: « premise of ‘Western thought can adequately represent the full meaning of the Copernican Revolution tothe modern mind Because ofits technieal and historical outcome, the Copernican Revolution is among the mest fascinating episodes inthe extie history of science. But it as an addtional significance which transcends its specie subject: it Mustrates a process that today we badly need to lunderstand. Contemporary Western civilization Is more dependent, both for its everyday philosophy and for its bread and butter, upon ‘sientiic concepts than any past civilization has been But the scientific theories that bulk so larg in our dail lives are unlikely to prove final. ‘The developed astronomical conception of & universe in which the stars, including our sun, are sattered here and there through an ine Site space is es than four centuries old, and ite already out of date, ‘Before that conception was developed by Copernicus and his succes- tors, other notions about the structure of the universe were used to explain the phenomena that man observed in the heavens. These older astronomical theories dered radically from the ones we now hold, but ‘most of them received in thelr day the same resolute credence that we ‘ow give our own, Furthermore, they were believed for the same reasons: they provided plausible answers to the questions that seemed Important. Other sciences offer parallel examples ofthe teansency of ‘weasured scientific belifs. The baie concepts of astronomy have, in fact, been more stable than most, ‘The mutabilty ofits fundamental concepts {not an argument for ‘ejecting scence. Each new scientie theory preserves a hard core of the knowledge provided by its predecessor and adds to it Science progresses by replacing old theorles wth new. But an age as dominated bby science as our own does need a perspective fom which to examine 4 THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION the seientie elifs which it takes so much for granted, and history provides one important source of such perspective. If we ean discover the origins of some modern scientific concapts andthe way in which they supplanted the concepts of an earlier ge, we are more likely to evaluate inteligentty their chances for survival. Thi book deals pri marily with astronomical concepts, but they are much like those emt ployed in many other sciences, and y sentinizing their development ‘we can learn something of scientific theories in general. For example: What i a seientie theory? On what should it be based to command four respect? What i ts function, is use? What is its staying power? Historical analysis may not answer questions hike these, but it cas {luminate them and give them meaning. Because the Copernican theory is in many respects & typical sclentie theory, is history can illustrate some of the processes by Which sclentie concepts evlve and replace their predecessors. Init cextrascientie consequences, however, the Coperican theory is not typical: few sclontife theories have played 20 large « role in aon- Sclentife thought. But neither iss unique. In the nineteenth century, Darwi's theory of evolution raised similar extracientii quertion. In our own century, Elasten's relativity theories and Frevds psycho- analytic theories provide centers for controversies from which may ‘emerge further radical reoientations of Western thought. Freud hisn- slf emphasized the parallel effect of Copernicus’ discovery that the ‘earth was merely a planet and his own diteovery thatthe unconscious controlled much of human behavior, Whether we have learned their theories of ot, we are the intellectual heire of men like Copernicus and Darwin. Our fundamental thought proceses have been reshaped by them, just as the thought of our children or grandchildren will have been reshaped by the work of Einstein and Freud, We need more than an understanding of the interal development of scence, We mut sso ‘understand how a sientis'sscltion of an apparently petty, highly technial problem can on occasion fundamentally alter men's attitudes toward basi problems of everyday ie, The Heavens in Primitive Coxmolog Much ofthis book will deal withthe impact of astronomical observations and theoees upon ancient and early modern cosmological thought, that i, upon a set of man's conceptions about the structure of the universe, Taday we tke it for granted that astronomy should aflect THE ANCIENT TWO-SPHERE UNIVERSE 5 cosmology. If we want to know the shape of the univers, the earth's postion in t,o the relation of the exeth tothe sun and the sun tothe stars, we ask the astronomer or perhaps the physicist. They have made Aetaled quantitative observatins ofthe heavens and the earth; their Inowledge of the unlverse ks guaranteed by the accuracy with which they predict its behavior. Our everyday conception of the universe, our popular cosmology, is one product of their painstaking researches But this close assoclaton of astronomy and cosmology is both tempo- rally and geographically loa Every civilization and culture of which we have records has had an answer for the question, “What Is the structure of the universe?” But only the Western civilizations which descend from Hellenie Greece have paid much attention to the ap- pearance of the heavens in arriving at that answer. The drive to con: struct cosmologies is far elder and more primitive than the urge t0 ‘make systematic observations of the heavens. Furthermore, the prim tive form of the cosmological drive Is particulaly informative because it highlights features obscured in the more technical and abstract cosmologis that are Familiar today, ‘Though primitive conceptions of the universe display considerable substantive variation, all are shaped primatily by terestral events, the events that impinge most immediately upon the designers of the systems. In such cosmologis the heavens are merely sketched in to provide an enclosure for the earth, and they ate peopled with and ‘moved by mythical Bgures whose rank inthe spsitual hierarchy usually increases with their distance from the immediate terrestrial environment. For example, in one principal form of Egyptian cos- mology the earth was pictured as an elongated platter. The platters long dimension paralleled the Nile; its Bat bottom was the alluvial Dsin to which ancient Egyptian civilization was restricted; and ts ‘curved and rippled rim was the mountains bounding the terrestrial world, Above the platter-earh was alt, self a god, supporting an inverted platter-dome which was the skies, The terrestrial platter in its tum was supported by water, another god, and the water restod upon 8 third platter which bounded the universe symmetrically from below. Clearly several of the main structural features of this universe were suggested by the world that the Egyptian knew: he did live in an

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