The Gerontologist

cite as: Gerontologist, 2017, Vol. 57, No. S2, S149–S159

doi:10.1093/geront/gnx071

Research Article

Couples’ Shared Beliefs About Aging and Implications for

Future Functional Limitations

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Shannon T. Mejía, PhD1,* and Richard Gonzalez, PhD2
Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. 2Institute for Social Research,
1

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

*Address correspondence to: Shannon T. Mejía, PhD, Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign,
110 Huff Hall, 1206 South Fourth Street, Champaign, IL 61820. E-mail: shannon.t.mejia@gmail.com

Received September 12, 2016; Editorial Decision Date April 21, 2017

Decision Editor: Catherine W. Gillespie, PhD

Abstract
Purpose of the Study:  Individual beliefs are known to be predictive of health. This study examines the co-construction of
couple norms and links couples’ shared beliefs about aging to future individuals’ and couples’ functional limitations.
Design and Methods: Data from the 2008 and 2014 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (1,231 couples; age
range = 51–90) were analyzed using latent variables that estimated shared and individual variance in beliefs about aging in
2008 and functional limitations at follow-up in 2014. Spouses’ individual processes of physical activity and disease burden
were modeled to contribute to couples’ shared beliefs about aging and subsequent functional limitations. Models progres-
sively controlled for indicators of partner selection, couples’ shared health experiences, and similarities and differences in
age.
Results:  Couples’ beliefs about aging predicted future functional limitations. The effect magnitude decreased but remained
significant in all models. Physical activity predicted couples’ future functional limitations but was largely explained by
shared health experiences and similarities and differences in age for wives and husbands, respectively. Disease burden con-
tributed to couples’ shared beliefs about aging. Husbands’ contributions were explained by partner selection, but wives’
contributions remained significant in all models. The effect of couples’ shared beliefs on change in couples’ functional limi-
tations was explained by couples’ shared health experiences.
Implications:  Beliefs about aging and health occur within the context of close relationships and shared experiences.
Knowledge of couples’ beliefs and health is necessary to support their individual and collective efforts to age successfully
together.
Keywords:  Self-perceptions of aging, Dyadic analysis, Common fate model, Health, Longitudinal analysis

Beliefs about one’s own aging are known to have signifi-
cant consequences for future experiences of aging, includ-
ing health, health behaviors, and longevity (Westerhof
et al., 2014). Although aging is not experienced in isolation,
but rather in concert with close others (Antonucci, Fiori,
Birditt, & Jackey, 2010; Settersten, Richard, & Hagestad,
2015), little is known about how couples co-construct
common beliefs about aging over their extended shared his-
tories. Spouses are known to be connected in their health
and well-being (Meyler, Stimpson, & Peek, 2007). Their
health behaviors, perceived relationship quality, coping
behaviors, and goals have been shown to influence their
partners’ experiences (see Hoppmann & Gerstorf, 2009).
In addition to directly influencing each other, spouses may
also co-create shared norms—through shared experiences
and collective action—that is greater than the sum of its
parts and exerts independent influence on individual out-
comes (Gonzalez & Griffin, 2002). In this study, we use

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S150
older couples’ shared beliefs about aging to predict future
individuals’ and couples’ functional limitations and exam-
ine how individual health and health behaviors contribute
to these shared processes.
Self-perceptions of Aging and Functional
Limitations
Subjective experiences of aging are multidimensional
(Brothers, Miche, Wahl, & Diehl, 2015) and develop
through experiences within societies (Barrett & Montepare,
2015), personal experiences of aging (Hubley & Russell,
2009), and interactions with others (Schafer & Shippee,
2010). Beliefs about aging encompass attitudes toward
one’s own aging, are largely driven by age stereotypes and
personal experiences of aging (Diehl et al., 2014), and con-
sistently predict markers of successful aging such as func-
tional ability and longevity (Westerhof et al., 2014). Beliefs
about aging affect future health through cognitive and
behavioral pathways (Levy, 2009). As a cognitive frame,
beliefs about aging shape how individuals experience age-
related change in their bodies, relationships, and roles
(Stephan, Chalabaev, Kotter-Grühn, & Jaconelli, 2013;
Stewart, Chipperfield, Perry, & Weiner, 2012). In addition,
beliefs about aging motivate health behaviors and have
been prospectively linked to physical activity and preventa-
tive care (Kim, Moored, Giasson, & Smith, 2014). Taken
together, beliefs about aging form self-fulfilling prophecies
for future experiences of health and well-being in old age
(Levy, 2009) and are predictive of individuals’ future health
(Sargent-Cox, Anstey, & Luszcz, 2014).
How individuals understand their own aging is inter-
subjective—the meaning of age and the experience of
aging is constructed through interactions in society and
with others (Settersten et  al., 2015). Married couples are
intimate family units of unrelated individuals who elected
each other to navigate a shared life course. Many couples
in older adulthood share extended life histories and have
traveled together through age-graded roles and responsi-
bilities. Within their tightly interwoven lives, a spouse’s
beliefs have implications for the partner’s experience of
aging (Drewelies, Chopik, Hoppmann, Smith, & Gerstorf,
2016). Similarly, one spouse’s experiences of health and ill-
ness are known to shape relationship processes (Martire
et  al., 2006). This study examines how individual beliefs
about aging, health behaviors, and health experiences con-
tribute to the co-construction of norms that are unique to
the couple and exert an independent and unique influence
on health outcomes (see Figure 1).
Couples’ Co-construction of Shared Beliefs
Individual beliefs about aging are constructed in part
through experiences of health. In this study, we examine
how physical activity and disease burden—two individual
processes—shape couples’ shared beliefs about aging and
The Gerontologist, 2017, Vol. 57, No. S2
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Figure 1.  Common fate model of couples’ self-perceptions of aging on
future functional limitations with contribution of individual processes
on shared processes. Note: Loadings within constructs are constrained
to 1.  Variances within constructs across gender are constrained to
equal. Individual variances (i) were allowed to covary within gender
and were tested for equality/inequality across gender.
predict future functional limitations. We selected physi-
cal activity and disease burden because of their relevance
for subjective experiences of aging (Hubley & Russell,
2009), relationship processes (Rook, 2015), and health
policy and interventions (Martire, Schulz, Helgeson,
Small, & Saghafi, 2010). Spouses establish norms that
guide how they support one another in managing chronic
illness, as well as encourage each other to engage in posi-
tive health behaviors (Tucker & Mueller, 2000). Evidence
also suggests that one spouse’s physical activity and dis-
ease burden has implications for both spouses’ health
and well-being. For example, one spouse’s engagement
in physical activity could influence the partner’s activ-
ity engagement (Franks, Wendorf, Gonzalez, & Ketterer,
2004; Li, Cardinal, & Acock, 2013) and potentially shape
beliefs about aging (Levy, 2009). Similarly, partners are
intimately involved in the disease process (Franks, Lucas,
Stephens, Rook, & Gonzalez, 2010; Monin et al., 2010).
Managing chronic conditions can increase caregiving bur-
den and limit opportunities for both partners (Polenick,
Martire, Hemphill, & Stephens, 2015), to the detriment
of couples’ beliefs about aging and functional limitations.
Experiences of aging are also gendered (Calasanti, 2010;
Kornadt, Voss, & Rothermund, 2013). Husbands and
wives may therefore differ in how their individual experi-
ences contribute to couples’ shared norms of health and
shared beliefs about aging.
The Gerontologist, 2017, Vol. 57, No. S2
Couple-level processes stem from partner selection and
shared experiences, which have implications for how inter-
ventions and policy can support couples in constructing pos-
itive shared beliefs about aging. Partners select one another
across the axes of age, education, and race (Schwartz,
2013), which distribute opportunities and exert constrains
on the couple unit and guide how couples move together
through their shared life course. Through their shared expe-
riences, couples co-construct norms of support, companion-
ship, and social control (Rook, 2015), which shape couple
processes and amplify individual experiences (Gonzalez &
Griffin, 2002). In this study, we focus on couples’ shared
experiences of health and health behaviors because health
involves both spouses and health behaviors are formed in
response to experiences within the couples’ shared environ-
ment (Franks et al., 2004; Li et al., 2013; Tucker & Mueller,
2000). In addition to guiding partner selection, age indicates
the experience of historical events, biological and psycho-
logical aging processes, and transitions through age-graded
roles and responsibilities (Settersten et al., 2015). Similarities
and differences in age within couples therefore have impli-
cations for how couples’ shared beliefs are shaped by indi-
vidual processes and predict future health.
Present Study
Together, extant research on the interdependence of
health and well-being within couples offers a compel-
ling foundation to examine older couples’ shared beliefs
about aging. Our study has three aims. Our first aim is
to quantify the extent to which beliefs about aging are
shared within couples and linked to individuals’ and cou-
ples’ future functional limitations. Our second aim is to
examine how individual processes contribute to shared
processes of couples’ beliefs about aging and functional
limitations. We test the contributions of spouses’ indi-
vidual physical activity and disease burden to couples’
beliefs about aging and subsequent functional limitations.
Our third aim is to examine the extent to which indica-
tors of partner selection, shared health experiences, and
similarities and differences in age within couples account
for these associations.
Methods
The current study examines couples’ shared beliefs about
aging and future functional limitations using data from
the 2008 and 2014 waves of the Health and Retirement
Study (HRS). The HRS is a National Institute of Aging
(NIA U01AG009740) sponsored biennial panel study that
is conducted by the University of Michigan and nationally
representative of Americans aged 51 and older (Sonnega
et  al., 2014). Sampling is conducted using a multistage
probability design at the household level. If the primary
respondent is coupled, both partners are interviewed and
brought into the HRS panel.
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Beginning in 2006, 50% of households were randomly
assigned to an in-person interview at their place of resi-
dence and the other 50% was interviewed by telephone.
Interviews included questions about functional limitations,
health, and demographics. Following the in-person inter-
view, respondents were left a paper self-administered psy-
chosocial questionnaire (SAQ) to complete and return by
mail. Starting in 2008, the baseline for this study, the SAQ
included questions on beliefs about aging.
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Participants
In the 2008 wave, 1,992 married couples (3,984 indi-
viduals), where both spouses were age eligible (M = 68,
SD  =  9.01, range  =  51–95), community-residing, and
non-proxy respondents, were assigned to the in-person
interview. Among eligible couples, 79% identified as
White/Caucasian, 9% identified as African American,
12% identified as Hispanic/other, and 29% had com-
pleted at least some college. From this sample of eligi-
ble couples, there were 1,883 couples (86%) where both
(n = 1,723) or at least one (n = 160) spouse completed
and returned the SAQ. Logistic regression showed those
who completed the SAQ tended to be older and identify
as White.
Measures
The measures of individual and shared processes follow.
Descriptive statistics are provided for the analytic sample
(1,231 couples).
Shared Processes
Beliefs about aging and functional limitations were mod-
eled as the couples’ shared processes and were adjusted for
variance at the individual level.
Beliefs About  Aging. Respondents’ beliefs about aging
were measured at the 2008 wave using the Philadelphia
Geriatric Center Morale subscale on attitudes toward on
aging (Lawton, 1975). The subscale included three posi-
tive (e.g., I have as much as pep as I  did last year) and
two negative (e.g., Things keep getting worse as I get older)
statements about one’s own aging. Respondents rated each
statement from (1) strongly disagree to (6) strongly agree.
The beliefs score was constructed for each respondent by
reverse coding the negative items and then calculating the
mean (M = 4.12, SD = 1.08). The scale showed good inter-
nal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .72).
Functional Limitations. Respondents’ reports of difficulty
completing basic physical activities were measured in the
2008 and 2014 waves (Fonda & Herzog, 2004). Activities
(walking several blocks, jogging 1 mile, walking 1 block,
sitting for 2  hr, getting up from a chair, climbing stairs,
climbing 1 flight of stairs, stooping, reaching arms above
S152
shoulders, pushing and pulling large objects, lifting weights,
and picking up a dime) that respondents reported having
difficulty completing due to health problems were summed
(M = 2.59, SD = 2.71, range = 0–10).
Individual Processes
Physical activity and disease burden were adjusted for
interdependence within couples and examined separately
as individual processes that contribute to couples’ shared
beliefs about aging and future functional limitations.
Physical Activity. The frequency of engagement in moder-
ate activity was measured in the 2008 wave. Respondents
reported their frequency of doing moderately energetic
activities such as gardening, cleaning the car, or walking.
Responses on the single-item scale ranged from (4) “hardly
ever or never” to (1) “more than once a week” and were
reverse coded so that a higher score indicated greater fre-
quency of moderate activity (M  =  3.11, SD  =  1.16). We
acknowledge the conceptual overlap in the items that com-
prise functional ability and physical activity. We assume
the future ability to do an activity (functional ability) to be
distinct from the frequency of actually doing the activity
(physical activity).
Disease  Burden. Respondents’ disease burden was meas-
ured in 2008 as the count of reported diagnoses of: heart
disease, lung disease, diabetes, cancer, stroke, and arthri-
tis. Diagnoses of cancer and stroke were counted if the
respondent reported receiving treatment for the condition
within the last 2  years. Signs of depression were counted
toward disease burden if respondents reported more than
four symptoms in the 8-item Center for Epidemiological
Studies Depression scale (CES-D; Steffick, 2000). Disease
burden ranged from 0 to 7 (M = 1.53, SD = 1.19).
Covariates
Covariates were added in blocks to explain how couples’
individual and shared processes predicted future functional
limitations. The first block addressed partner selection and
included sociodemographic characteristics of educational
attainment (25% with at least some college), race, and
sample quintiles of household wealth. The second covari-
ate block added indicators of couples’ shared health experi-
ences and adjusted for: body mass index (BMI categorized
as <18.5–24.9 [27%]; 25–29.9 [40%]; 30+ [33%]), alco-
hol use (59% currently drink alcohol), and whether or
not the respondent had ever smoked (57% have smoked).
The health and health behavior block adjusted for disease
burden in physical activity models, and physical activity
in disease burden models. The final model added age to
adjust for similarities and differences in age within couples.
All covariates, except for BMI (missing = 19) and smoking
(missing = 18) were fully present within the analytic sam-
ple. Missing values were accommodated using full informa-
tion maximum likelihood.
The Gerontologist, 2017, Vol. 57, No. S2
Loss to Follow-up
In total, 562 (14%) respondents died before the 2014 fol-
low-up. Logistic regression found couples’ and individu-
als’ functional limitations, age, disease burden, frequency
of physical activity, and smoking to predict vital status at
follow-up. In addition, 53 couples (106 individuals) were
alive but formed separate households between 2008 and
2014, and 239 individuals were alive but missed the 2014
interview. The likelihood of exclusion from analysis due
to the couples’ separation or missed interview did not sys-
tematically vary across study covariates. Across all causes
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of loss to follow-up, those who attritted tended to have
more negative couples’ (but not individual) beliefs about
aging as well as greater functional limitations at the cou-
ple level and fewer functional limitations relative to their
couple norm (see Supplementary Table  1). The final ana-
lytic sample included 1,231 couples where at least one
spouse completed the SAQ in 2008 and both spouses were
alive and completed the follow-up interview in 2014 (see
Supplementary Figure 1).
Analytic Plan
Common fate models (Ledermann & Kenny, 2012), also
known as latent dyadic models (Gonzalez & Griffin, 2002),
were used to link couples’ shared variance in beliefs about
aging to their shared variance in functional limitations at
follow-up 6 years later. The common fate model is a form
of structural equation model that parses observed variables
into variation that is attributed to the couple and individual.
A latent variable represents couples’ shared variance (simi-
lar to a couple mean). The residual represents the spouses’
remaining individual (or unique) variance to depict individ-
ual variation above and below the couple mean. The com-
mon fate model allows couples to vary from other couples
(some couples may have more positive beliefs about aging
than others) and for spouses within the dyad to vary within
couples (spouses may differ from each other in their beliefs
about aging). We used the common fate model to link cou-
ple variances over and above effects at the individual level.
This approach is distinct from the commonly used actor-
partner interdependence model, which adjusts for inter-
dependence within couples and then links the remaining
individual variance to spouses’ individual outcomes.
In preparation for analysis, separate measurement mod-
els were constructed to parse couple from individual vari-
ance. Factor loadings were constrained to 1 and residuals
were constrained to be equal across gender. This model is
mathematically equivalent to an unconditional model in
the multilevel context.
To accomplish Aim 1, we first used the unconditional
models to estimate the intraclass  correlations, which repre-
sent both the proportion of total variation attributed to cou-
ple membership and the extent of similarity within couples.
We then regressed couples’ shared processes of functional
limitations at follow-up on couples’ beliefs about aging,
The Gerontologist, 2017, Vol. 57, No. S2
adjusting for individual covariances. To address Aim 2, we
modeled physical activity and disease burden as individual
processes—adjusted for interdependence within couples—to
contribute to couples’ beliefs about aging and predict cou-
ples’ functional limitations. Individual variances were con-
strained to be equal within each construct to scale the betas
and then covaried within gender to simultaneously estimate
couple and individual processes. Functional limitations and
disease burden were measured as continuous rather than
count variables because an error term must be estimated
to simultaneously examine individual and couple-level pro-
cesses using this analytic framework. The key couple-level
effects were similar in both their magnitude and significance
when functional limitations were modeled as a count vari-
able. Husbands and wives’ covariances and paths from indi-
vidual parameters were tested for gender invariance using the
log likelihood test.
To complete Aim 3, covariates were added sequentially
in blocks to test explanations for couples’ individual and
shared processes. All exogenous observed variables (all
covariates) were correlated with one another. We concluded
analysis by testing the effect of individuals’ and couples’
beliefs about aging on residual change in functional limita-
tions. In these models, both beliefs about aging in 2008 and
functional limitations in 2014 were adjusted for functional
limitations in 2008. Residual change was examined first as
unadjusted and then sequentially adjusted by the partner
selection, shared health experiences, and age similarity/dif-
ferences blocks. Data were analyzed using MPLUS.
Results
Couples’ Beliefs About Aging and Functional
Limitations
Descriptive statistics of study covariates are presented
in Table  1. Chi-squared tests and analyses of variance
showed that husbands tended to be older and have higher
educational attainment, greater disease burden, greater
physical activity, negative beliefs about aging, and fewer
functional limitations than wives. To accomplish our first
aim, we examined the extent to which beliefs about aging
were similar within couples and predicted couples’ future
functional limitations. In total, 35% of the variation in
beliefs about aging, 21% of variation in functional limi-
tations, 17% of variation in physical activity, and 19%
of variation in disease burden was attributed to couple
membership (see Supplementary Table 2). Couples’ beliefs
about aging predicted couples’ functional limitations at
follow-up, (β = −.60, SE = 0.03, p < .001). Couples with
more positive beliefs tended to have fewer functional
limitations at follow-up. The likelihood test (Gonzalez &
Griffin, 2001) found this path to be significantly different
from zero (χ2(1) = 26.78, p < .001). Individual beliefs about
aging were also correlated with individual functional
limitations at follow-up; (rhis(beliefs, limitations)  =  −.29,
SE  =  0.03, p < .001; rher(beliefs, limitations)  =  −.35,
S153
SE = 0.04, p < .001). Although allowing variation in indi-
vidual effects across gender did not significantly improve
model fit (χ2(1) = 1.40, ns), the following models remained
unconstrained across gender due to our interest in within-
couple differences.
Contributions of Individual Physical Activity and
Disease Burden
To accomplish Aim 2, individual processes of physical
activity (Table 2) and disease burden (Table 3) were added
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to the models. Spouses’ individual physical activity was
significantly linked to more positive couples’ beliefs about
aging and predicted lower couples’ functional limitations
at follow-up. Individual disease burden was associated
with more negative couples’ beliefs about aging and pre-
dicted greater couples’ functional limitations at follow-
up. The likelihood test found neither individual physical
activity nor disease burden to vary significantly by gender
in their contributions to couples’ shared processes (see
Supplementary Table 3). At the individual level, the covari-
ance of chronic conditions and functional limitations was
stronger for wives than husbands (χ2(1) = 8.58, p < .01).
Selection, Shared Experiences, and Age
Similarities/Differences
To address Aim 3, we progressively adjusted for indicators
of partner selection (sociodemographics), shared health
experiences (health and health behaviors), and similarity
and differences in age to explain how couples’ shared and
individual processes were predictive of future functional
limitations. We began with adjusting for sociodemograph-
ics of race, education, and wealth, which are known to be
implicated in partner selection. As presented in Tables 2
and 3, the effect of couples’ beliefs about aging was damp-
ened but continued to predict couples’ future functional
limitations. Adjusting for partner selection rendered the
effects of physical activity on couples’ beliefs about aging
nonsignificant (Table  2, sociodemographics), but spouses’
physical activity continued to significantly predict cou-
ples’ future functional limitations. In contrast, the effects
of spouses’ disease burden on couple processes remained
robust, although more so for wives’ than husbands (see
Table 3, sociodemographics).
In our second set of models, we adjusted for health and
health behaviors—covariates that are representative of
couples’ shared health experiences. The effect of couples’
beliefs about aging on future functional limitations was
slightly reduced in both the physical activity (Table 2) and
disease burden (Table 3) models. The remaining contribu-
tion of physical activity to couples’ functional limitations
was rendered nonsignificant once shared health experi-
ences, including disease burden, were also accounted for
(Table  2, health). The contribution of husbands’ disease
burden to couples’ beliefs about aging was explained by
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Table 1.  Descriptive Characteristics of Study Covariates Across Gender (N = 1,231 Couples)

Men Women

M % SD M % SD p

Age 67.94 8.07 65.00 7.88 <.001

 51–64 34% 48% <.001
 65–80 58% 49%
 80+ 8% 4%
Race
 White 81% 80%

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  African American 8% 8%
 Hispanic/other 12% 12%
Some college 35% 30% =.003
Disease burden 1.39 1.13 1.25 1.04 =.002
 Diabetes 23% 14% <.001
 Cancer 13% 9% =.002
  Lung disease 8% 8%
  Heart disease 28% 16% <.001
 Stroke 5% 3% =.01
 Arthritis 55% 63% <.001
 Depression 10% 14% =.002
Physical activity 2.43 1.97 2.47 1.91
Self-perceptions of aging 4.20 1.06 4.30 1.03 =.05
N functional limitations 2008 1.58 1.98 2.04 2.32 <.001
N functional limitations 2014 2.25 2.60 2.51 2.70 =.02
  Walking several blocks 28% 30%
  Jogging 1 mile 66% 66%
  Walking 1 block 14% 13%
  Sitting for 2 hr 14% 17%
  Getting up from chair 37% 37%
  Climbing flights of stairs 41% 47% =.002
  Climbing 1 flight of stairs 14% 18% =.005
 Stooping 45% 45%
  Reaching arms above shoulders 16% 15%
  Pulling/pushing large objects 21% 27% <.001
  Lifting heavy objections 16% 25% <.001
  Picking up a dime 9% 8%

Note: Gender differences tested using chi-squared analysis for categorical variables and analysis variance for continuous variables. N = number.

couples’ shared health experiences. The effect of spouses’ Discussion

disease burden on couples’ functional limitations was ren-
Signs of one’s own aging are ubiquitous in daily life. Coded
dered nonsignificant (Table 3, health).
signals from institutions, the media, and interactions with
The third model added adjustments for similarities and
others make changes in physical ability and appearance,
differences in spouses’ age. Couples’ beliefs about aging
relationships, and roles salient in an age-structured society
continued to predict couples’ future functional limitations
(Levy, 2009; Settersten et al., 2015). Aging is inescapable,
in the fully adjusted models. Accounting for husbands’ and
but beliefs about aging are malleable (Stephan et al., 2013),
wives’ age rendered all remaining effects of physical activity
can remain positive until the end of life (Kotter-Grühn,
on couples’ functional limitations nonsignificant (Table 2,
Kleinspehn-Ammerlahn, Gerstorf, & Smith, 2009), and
chronological age). The effect of wives’ disease burden on
are predictive of future health, well-being, and longevity
couples’ beliefs about aging remained significant.
(Westerhof et al., 2014). Our research extended the propo-
We concluded by testing the effects of couples’ beliefs
sition that aging is not experienced alone, but in concert
about aging on couples’ shared processes of change in func-
with close others (Antonucci et al., 2010; Settersten et al.,
tional limitations (see Table 4). The contributions of cou-
2015). We examined the extent and implications of older
ples’ beliefs about aging on couples’ shared processes of
couples’ shared beliefs about their own aging. We found
change in functional limitations was largely explained by
couples to be similar in beliefs about aging, their shared
indicators of shared health experiences.
beliefs to predict future functional limitations, and their
The Gerontologist, 2017, Vol. 57, No. S2 S155

Table 2.  Individual Physical Activity and Couples’ Shared and Individual Self-perceptions of Aging in 2008 Predicting Couples’
Shared and Individual Functional Limitations in 2014 (N = 1,231 Couples)

Unadjusted Sociodemographicsa Healthb Chronological agec

β SE β SE β SE β SE

Couple level
  Couples’ SPA ←
   His physical activity .17** 0.06 .08 0.06 .04 0.06 .04 0.06
   Her physical activity .17** 0.06 .11† 0.06 .10 0.06 .10 0.06
  Couples’ limitations ←

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  Couples’ SPA −.55*** 0.09 −.50*** 0.12 −.41** 0.14 −.46** 0.17
   His physical activity −.28** 0.09 −.26* 0.11 −.24* 0.11 −.25† 0.14
   Her physical activity −.26** 0.08 −.24* 0.10 −.21† 0.11 −.20 0.13
Individual level (residual correlations)
 SPA ←
   His physical activity .19*** 0.04 .20*** 0.04 .17*** 0.04 .16*** 0.04
   Her physical activity .11* 0.04 .09* 0.05 .04 0.05 .05 0.05
 Limitations ←
  His SPA −.27*** 0.04 −.28*** 0.03 −.22*** 0.04 −.21*** 0.04
  Her SPA −.31*** 0.03 −.30*** 0.03 −.21*** 0.04 −.22*** 0.04
   His physical activity −.21*** 0.05 −.20*** 0.05 −.17*** 0.04 −.16*** 0.04
   Her physical activity −.22*** 0.04 −.21*** 0.04 −.16*** 0.04 −.15*** 0.04
Model fit indices
 RMSEA .04 .03 .02 .01
 CFI .99 .98 .99 .99
 BIC 25475.574 30556.105 49811.146 51982.25
  χ2 (model vs. saturated) χ2(4) = 9.95* χ2(22) = 40.82* χ2(52) = 69.73 χ2(64) = 76.03

Note: Standardized β coefficients presented. BIC  =  Bayesian Information Criterion; CFI  =  Cumulative Fit Index; RMSEA  =  Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation; SPA = self-perceptions of aging.
Models are additive and adjusted for: aIndividual’s race and education, and sample quintiles of household wealth. bIndividual smoking status, use of alcohol
(1 = drinks alcohol, 0 = does not drink alcohol), body mass index (<18.5–24.9 [ref.], 25–29.9, 30+), and number of chronic conditions. cIndividual age group
(51–64, 65–79, 80+).
†
p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

individual experiences of health and health behaviors to
shape these processes.
Beliefs about aging develop over a lifetime of experi-
ences with age stereotypes, age-graded social institutions,
and interactions with others. Our research showed that
a striking 35% of the variation in beliefs about aging is
shared within couples and hold enduring implications for
future health. The couple’s shared environment represents
co-constructed couple norms, rituals, and tendencies that
shape how spouses interact with and support one another
(Rook, 2015; Tucker & Mueller, 2000). Our research iden-
tified a unique and separate pathway by which beliefs about
aging are linked to future functional limitations—that the
shared environment exerts an independent influence on
future health. Beliefs about aging influence health through
behavioral and cognitive pathways (Levy, 2009) and shared
beliefs may shape how couples jointly appraise, interpret,
and respond to experiences of aging (Rook, 2015; Tucker
& Mueller, 2000). In designing policies and interventions
to improve individuals’ beliefs about aging, our findings
highlight the importance of recognizing individual beliefs
as part of a larger whole. Policies and interventions are
most often directed at the individual, and attention to the
couple environment provides an opportunity to amplify a
program’s intended effects (Martire et al., 2010). Our find-
ings justify further research on couple-level effects. For
example, cognitive framing interventions could include
components where couples discuss aging beliefs together.
Alternatively, an estimation of spouses’ shared beliefs could
assist practitioners in placing assessment of an individual
within the context of the couple’s norms.
Individuals’ beliefs, resources, and behaviors are
known to be important for both partners’ future health
(e.g., Drewelies et al., 2016; Franks et al., 2004; Kim et al.,
2014; Westerhof et  al., 2014). We expanded this body
of research and illustrated how individual processes of
physical activity and disease burden contribute to couples’
co-constructed norms of beliefs about aging and future
functional health. Relationship processes are known to
be essential to health behavior and disease management
(Martire et al., 2010; Rook, 2015). In addition to shaping
individual beliefs about aging and future health, we found
husbands’ physical activity to predict couples’ future
functional health, whereas wives’ disease burden shaped
S156 The Gerontologist, 2017, Vol. 57, No. S2

Table 3.  Individual Disease Burden and Couples’ Shared and Individual Self-perceptions of Aging in 2008 Predicting Couples’
Shared and Individual Functional Limitations in 2014 (N = 1,231 Couples)

Unadjusted Sociodemographicsa Healthb Chronological agec

β SE β SE β SE β SE

Couple level
  Couples’ SPA ←
   His disease burden −.21*** 0.06 −.13* 0.06 −.10† 0.06 −.09 0.06
   Her disease burden −.32*** 0.06 −.26*** 0.07 −.23*** 0.07 −.21*** 0.06
  Couples’ limitations ←

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  Couples’ SPA −.39** 0.13 −.33* 0.15 −.38* 0.16 .49** 0.18
   His disease burden .21*** 0.11 .25* 0.12 .22† 0.13 .02 0.13
   Her disease burden .32*** 0.11 .24† 0.13 .16 0.13 .02 0.14
Individual level (residual correlations)
 SPA ←
   His disease burden −.24*** 0.04 −.25*** 0.04 −.22*** 0.04 −.21*** 0.04
   Her disease burden −.26*** 0.05 −.25*** 0.05 −.24*** 0.04 −.24*** 0.04
 Limitations ←
  His SPA −.29*** 0.03 −.29*** 0.03 −.26*** 0.03 −.25*** 0.03
  Her SPA −.30*** 0.04 −.29*** 0.04 −.27*** 0.04 −.28*** 0.04
   His disease burden .29*** 0.04 .29*** 0.04 .27*** 0.04 .27*** 0.04
   Her disease burden .45*** 0.03 .44*** 0.03 .42*** 0.03 .41*** 0.03
Model fit indices
 RMSEA .04 .04 .02 .02
 CFI .99 .97 .98 .98
 BIC 25149.31 30236.69 49828.50 52012.07
  χ2 (model vs. saturated) χ2(4) = 12.06* χ2(22) = 64.21** χ2(52) = 87.08** χ2(64) = 105.85***

Note: Standardized β coefficients presented. BIC  =  Bayesian Information Criterion; CFI  =  Cumulative Fit Index; RMSEA  =  Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation; SPA = self-perceptions of aging.
Models are additive and adjusted for: aIndividual’s race and education, and sample quintiles of household wealth. bIndividual smoking status, use of alcohol
(1 = drinks alcohol, 0 = does not drink alcohol), body mass index (<18.5–24.9 [ref.], 25–29.9, 30+), and frequency of moderate physical activity. cIndividual age
group (51–64, 65–79, 80+).
†
p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

couples’ concurrent shared beliefs about aging. These find-
ings suggest that first, individual processes are important—
they shape one’s own beliefs, which then form the couples’
shared beliefs. Therefore, an intervention that “treats” an
individual has the potential for broader impact through
its contribution to shared norms. However, these shared
norms can also dampen the effects of individual treatments
if not accounted for (Martire et al., 2010). Second, although
husbands and wives were found to be similar in how their
own physical activity and disease burden contributed to
their own beliefs about aging, our research suggests that
contribution of individual experiences to couples’ norms
is gendered (Calasanti, 2010; Kornadt et  al., 2013). Our
research suggests that interventions aimed at modifying
married couples’ beliefs about aging should be sensitive
to how husbands and wives perceive their disease burden.
For example, previous research has shown how individuals
interpret the experience of chronic conditions—as actiona-
ble or an unavoidable consequence of aging (Stewart et al.,
2012). Based on the findings from this study, these beliefs
are expected to be amplified through their contribution
to the couples’ shared beliefs. The potential for couples’
norms to amplify individual beliefs and behaviors would
be a fruitful topic for further research.
The source of couples’ shared processes is important
because it assists researchers, practitioners, and policy
makers in positively affecting older adults’ health and
well-being. Couple processes are grounded in the distal
history of how couples selected one another, their shared
historical and current experiences and behaviors, and also
by their similarities and differences in chronological age
(Choi & Vasunilashorn, 2014; Meyler et al., 2007). In this
study, the contribution of spouses’ physical activity to cou-
ples’ shared beliefs was entirely explained by indicators of
partner selection. Distal statuses such as race and educa-
tion are known to open and constrain access to health-
promoting environments (Calasanti, 2010; Settersten
et  al., 2015). Building on this earlier work, our findings
suggest that interventions aimed at improving couples’
shared beliefs through increased engagement in physical
activity must be sensitive to the constraints couples face.
Additionally, we found couples’ shared health experiences
to explain the contributions of not only husbands’ disease
burden to functional limitations, but also the contribution
The Gerontologist, 2017, Vol. 57, No. S2 S157

Table 4.  Couples’ Shared and Individual Self-perceptions of Aging on Residual Change in Functional Limitations (N = 1,231
Couples)

Unadjusteda Sociodemographicsb Healthc Chronological aged

β SE β SE β SE β SE

Couple level
  Δ Couples’ limitations ←
  Couples’ SPA −.44** 0.15 −.38* 0.15 −.32† 0.17 −.41 0.28
Individual level (residual correlations)
  Δ Limitations ←

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  His SPA −.14*** 0.03 −.15*** 0.04 −.13*** 0.04 −.13*** 0.04
  Her SPA −.14** 0.05 −.12** 0.04 −.09** 0.04 −.09* 0.04
Model fit indices
 RMSEA .18 .03 .02 .02
 CFI .85 .99 .99 .99
 BIC 27942.66 32782.03 59314.97 61541.74
  χ2 (model vs. saturated) χ2(7) = 298.34*** χ2(19) = 40.83** χ2(43) = 67.83** χ2(51) = 72.09*

Note: Standardized β coefficients presented. BIC  =  Bayesian Information Criterion; CFI  =  Cumulative Fit Index; RMSEA  =  Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation; SPA = self-perceptions of aging.
Models are additive and adjusted for: aFunctional limitations in 2008. bIndividual’s race and education, and sample quintiles of household wealth. cIndividual
smoking status, use of alcohol (1 = drinks alcohol, 0 = does not drink alcohol), body mass index (<18.5–24.9 [ref.], 25–29.9, 30+), and frequency of moderate
physical activity. dIndividual age group (51–64, 65–79, 80+).
†
p < .07. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

of couples’ beliefs about aging to couples’ change in func-
tional limitations. This is important because health and
health behaviors are accessible to intervention and are also
known to be deeply influenced by couples’ relationships
processes (Martire et  al., 2006; Rook, 2015; Tucker &
Mueller, 2000). Finally, adjusting for age did not further
explain how couples’ physical activity and disease burden
contribute to couples’ beliefs about aging. This suggests
that the relevance of similarities and differences in age for
couples’ beliefs about aging is encompassed by age-related
variation in health and health behaviors, rather than char-
acteristics of age such as age-graded roles, responsibilities,
and experiences.
The results from this study must be interpreted within
the context of its limitations. First, beliefs about aging and
functional limitations maintain a reciprocal relationship.
Although this study was longitudinal, its design prohibits
conclusions about the direction of causality. We acknowl-
edge that physical activity and functional limitations are
reciprocally related. Within the context of this study, hus-
bands’ and wives’ frequency of moderate activity—actual
activity—was found to be predictive of future functional
limitations—the ability to do activities—at both the indi-
vidual and couple level. Additionally, couples’ health and
beliefs about aging contributed to selective attrition. It is
therefore important for future research to examine the
implications of couple-level constructs on survival. We also
acknowledge that with only two points of measurement,
it was not possible to examine proximal within-couple
relationship processes. This is important because aging is a
gendered process, where husbands and wives have distinct
experiences as care givers and care receivers (e.g., Calasanti,
2010). Additional time points would allow examination of
these processes within the context of couples’ shared beliefs.
Additionally, modeling functional limitations as a continu-
ous variable estimates a linear function on the raw scale,
rather than a linear function on the log scale. This limits
the ability to think of our independent variables as risk
multipliers. However, this limitation is most relevant for
the individual effects, as the couple-level effects were com-
parable in the count model (see Supplementary Table  4).
This research does illustrate how the couple environment
encompasses previous unexplored variance in the relation-
ship between beliefs about aging and future functional limi-
tations. The findings from this study lay the groundwork to
further examine individual beliefs, health, and behaviors as
parts of a larger whole. Additionally, due to the relatively
small sample size, our models assumed invariance across
couples’ age difference and marriage tenure. The heteroge-
neity of effects across subgroups of within-couple age dif-
ferences, marriage tenure, and relationship intensity is an
important avenue for future research. Finally, due to con-
straints in the available data, this study focused on married
heterosexual couples in older adulthood. Future research
should examine similarity and differences in shared beliefs
about aging in other couple formations as well as consider
the lingering effect of previous relationships and critical
periods of shared time together.
In conclusion, couples are not only similar in their
health and behavior, but also in their beliefs about aging.
The quality of couples’ shared beliefs predicts both indi-
vidual and couple-level differences in functional limitations
S158
6 years in the future. Knowledge of the couples, including
their norms, rituals, beliefs, and general health, will assist
gerontologists and policy makers in supporting couples in
their individual and collective efforts to age successfully
together.
Supplementary Material
Supplementary data are available at The Gerontologist online.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors S. T. Mejía and R. Gonzalez certify that they have no
affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with
any financial or nonfinancial interest in the subject matter or materi-
als discussed in this manuscript.
Funding
The authors’ contributions were partially funded by the National
Institute on Aging (R01AG040635). The content is solely the respon-
sibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official
views of the funders. This paper was published as part of a supple-
ment sponsored and funded by AARP. The statements and opinions
expressed herein by the authors are for information, debate, and dis-
cussion, and do not necessarily represent official policies of AARP.
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