J Fam Viol (2010) 25:619–625
DOI 10.1007/s10896-010-9315-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Anger Control and Acceptance of Violence as Mediators
in the Relationship between Exposure to Interparental Conflict
and Dating Violence Perpetration in Mexican Adolescents
Amy Clarey & Audrey Hokoda & Emilio C. Ulloa
Published online: 4 July 2010
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
Abstract Dating violence is a prevalent problem in high
school students. Previous research has found that anger
expression styles and acceptance of violence beliefs
mediate the relationship between experiencing family
violence and dating violence perpetration. Few studies have
examined the intergenerational transmission of violence
theory in predicting dating violence in Mexican teens. The
purpose of this study is to examine the relationships among
exposure to interparental violence, anger expression,
acceptance of violence beliefs, and perpetration of teen
dating violence in Mexican teens. Surveys were adminis-
tered to 204 high school students (aged 15 to 17) from
Monterrey, Mexico. Regression analyses revealed that
anger control and acceptance of violence beliefs, mediated
the relationship between interparental conflict and dating
violence perpetration. These results support the use of
family-based interventions that challenge acceptance of
violence beliefs and teach anger control techniques in
Mexican teens.
Keywords Dating violence perpetration .
Exposure to interparental violence . Anger control .
Acceptance of violence
A. Clarey : E. C. Ulloa
Department of Psychology, San Diego State University,
San Diego, CA, USA
A. Hokoda
Child and Family Development, San Diego State University,
San Diego, CA, USA
A. Hokoda (*)
San Diego State University,
5500 Campanile,
San Diego, CA 92182-4502, USA
e-mail: ahokoda@sdsu.edu
Dating violence is a prevalent problem in adolescents. For
example, Grunbaum et al. (2001) estimated that 9.5%
adolescents have been victims of physical abuse by their
dating partner. In addition, a recent review of dating
violence research reported perpetration estimates range
from 26 to 46% for physical violence and 3% to 12% for
sexual violence (Hickman et al. 2004). Dating violence has
also been shown to be related to negative physical,
psychological, and behavioral effects, such as, school
failure, substance abuse, and suicidal ideation (Ackard
and Neumark-Sztainer 2002; Silverman et al. 2001).
While research has increasingly examined the prevalence
and effects of dating violence, most literature is limited to
Canadian and American Caucasian men and women
(Jackson 1999). A review of the family violence literature
for the past 20 years has found only a few studies examining
ethnic minority populations (Jasinski and Williams 1998).
An exception to this is a study by Ingram (2007) who found
that 18.7% of Latinos reported experiencing intimate partner
violence in the past year compared to 15.7% of non-Latinos.
Dating Violence Perpetration and Exposure
to Interparental Conflict
The intergenerational transmission of violence theories
presume that exposure to violence in the family is a strong
predictor of relationship violence later in life (Carter et al.
1988; Rosenbaum and O’Leary 1981). These theories are
derived from the social learning theory which posits that
children observe and imitate behavior that they see
rewarded from those who are close to them such as their
parents and siblings (Bandura 1977). Thus, those who
witness violence in their parents’ relationship are more
likely to perpetrate or imitate the same behaviors when
620
involved in a similar relationship. This theory has been
empirically supported in both adolescents and adults. For
example, past research has shown exposure to interparental
conflict to be a predictor of dating violence in college men
(Carr and VanDeusen 2002). In addition, it has been
reported that over half the high school students who report
witnessing interparental violence were involved in an
abusive relationship themselves (O’keeffe et al. 1986).
Ingram (2007) compared Latinos and non-Latinos and
found that more Latinos witnessed interparental violence
than non-Latinos.
Dating Violence Perpetration and Anger Control
When anger becomes uncontrollable or destructive it can
lead to problems in an individual’s personal relationships
with friends, family, or intimate partners. For example,
research has shown that individuals who are physically
abusive to their dating partners have poorer anger manage-
ment skills than those who are not violent to their dating
partners (Lundeberg et al. 2004). In addition, violent
individuals have a greater tendency to direct their anger
toward the person who is the object of anger and they
demonstrate less ability to control their angry feelings in
comparison to individuals who are not violent (Eckhardt et
al. 2002).
Exposure to Interparental Conflict, Anger Control,
and Dating Violence Perpetration
Because individuals who are exposed to interparental
violence maybe more likely to imitate their parents’
behaviors (O’Keefe 1998), adolescents in a dating relation-
ship may respond to anger in a way that they have observed
and learned from their parents. Despite this logical
inference, there are few studies examining the role anger
control plays in the relationship between exposure to
interparental violence and perpetration of dating violence.
An exception to this is a study by Wolf and Foshee (2003)
that examined the mediating role of three anger expressive
styles in the relationship between witnessing interparental
violence and dating violence among primarily white
adolescents in North Carolina. The first, constructive anger
expression, involves an individual who tries to make the
situation better by discussing it with the person who is the
object of their anger. The second, destructive direct anger
expression, involves behaving aggressively towards the
person who is the object of anger. The third, destructive
indirect anger expression, is anger that is directed inward or
anger that is not directed at the person who is the object of
their anger. After assessing the mediational roles of these
J Fam Viol (2010) 25:619–625
anger expression styles it was found that destructive direct
and indirect anger expressive styles are the mechanisms
through which exposure to interparental violence predicts
dating violence perpetration.
Dating Violence Perpetration and Acceptance
of Violence
In addition to anger control, acceptance of violence has been
examined in relation to dating violence perpetration. For
example, it has been found that justification of violence is a
predictor of dating violence perpetration among adolescents
(Malik et al. 1997). Ulloa et al. (2004) reported that Latino
teens’ acceptance of dating violence is related to their
experiences with dating violence. In addition, Cauffman et
al. (2000) found that while dating violence is generally
viewed as unacceptable, the justification of violence in certain
situations (e.g., self-defense, playing around, revenge) was
strongly associated with dating violence. Similarly, when
Ingram (2007) compared acceptance of dating violence in
Latinos to non-Latinos, he found that while the majority of
Latinos and non-Latinos do not view dating violence as
acceptable, significantly more Latinos believe that there are
times when it is OK to slap their partner.
Exposure to Interparental Conflict, Acceptance
of Violence Beliefs, and Dating Violence Perpetration
Riggs and O’Leary (1996) developed a model of courtship
aggression that they named the “background-situational
model of courtship violence” that is based on the social
learning and conflict theories. This model proposes that
variables causally related to courtship or dating aggression
can be separated into situational factors (e.g., relationship
satisfaction, stress, alcohol consumption) and background
factors (e.g., interparental aggression, child abuse, prior
aggression). Riggs and O’Leary assert that background
factors, such as exposure to interparental aggression,
establish an individual’s pattern of aggressive behavior. In
addition, they propose that violence in the family of origin
contributes to a greater acceptability of violence as a
response to conflict. After examining this model, they
report that those who witness interparental violence are
more accepting of dating aggression, thus putting them at
risk for engaging in courtship aggression (Riggs and
O’Leary 1996). In addition, O’Keefe (1998) examined
primarily Latino and African American students in Los
Angeles who witnessed interparental violence and com-
pared those who experienced dating violence with those
who did not. The results revealed that not only did
acceptance of violence differentiate those who experienced
J Fam Viol (2010) 25:619–625
dating violence with those who did not, but also that
acceptance of violence mediates or explains the relationship
between exposure to interparental violence and dating
violence perpetration.
Although research shows dating violence is a prevalent
problem and has detrimental effects, there is scant literature
on dating violence in Mexico. In fact, despite evidence that
domestic violence is prevalent in Mexico (Díaz-Olavarrieta
et al. 2002), few studies have examined the intergenera-
tional transmission of violence theory in predicting dating
violence in Mexican teens. Therefore, the purpose of this
study is to examine the relationships among exposure to
interparental conflict, anger expression, acceptance of
violence beliefs, and perpetration of teen dating violence
in Mexican adolescents. Based on the intergenerational
transmission of violence theory and previous research
(O’Keefe 1998; Wolf and Foshee 2003), it is hypothesized
that anger expression styles will mediate the relationship
between exposure to interparental conflict and dating
violence perpetration. For the same reasons, it is hypothe-
sized that acceptance of violence will mediate the relation-
ship between exposure to interparental conflict and dating
violence perpetration.
Method
Participants
The participants included 204 high school students, aged 15
to 18 years of age from Monterrey, Mexico. Of the
participants, 129 were female and 75 were male.
Procedures
Assessment Procedures To ensure the students recruited for
the study knew that questions ask for sensitive information,
researchers and an administrator from the two high schools
explained the purpose and procedures and gave example
questions. The overall response rate was 23% with 933
parental permission forms sent home, and 260 consent
forms returned. Because the permission form asked for a
parent to sign only if he/she gave their permission for their
child to participate, it is unknown if the low participation
rate was due to failure for parents to receive the packet or
parents’ refusal to give permission. Those students receiv-
ing parental permission were given an assent form and 82%
of the 260 students who received parental consent agreed to
participate. From this sample 10 students were removed
from analysis because they were not between the ages of 15
and 18 years. Once the assent form was signed, willing
participants completed the survey in approximately 30 min.
The survey contained a battery of measures assessing
621
victimization and perpetration of dating violence, family
risk factors such as exposure to interparental violence, as
well as, individual risk factors such as acceptance of
violence and anger expression.
Translation Procedures Back translation techniques (Brislin
1970) were used to translate measures into Spanish. During
this process, a bilingual/bicultural individual of Mexican
descent, with a background in psychology, translated the
instrument to Spanish. Following the translation, another
individual translated the Spanish version back to English.
The English and Spanish surveys were then compared to
ensure linguistic and conceptual equivalence, and the
translated measure was piloted on teens and professionals
in Mexico.
Measures
Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory
(CADRI) This measure, developed by Wolfe et al. (2001),
assesses teen relationship violence perpetration and victim-
ization among adolescent dating partners with 34 items
answered on a four-point Likert scale ranging from “never”
(0) to “often” (3). The dependent variable in the present
study was dating violence perpetration which included
items such as, “I kissed my dating partner when he/she
didn’t want me to,” “I insulted my dating partner,” and “I
slapped my dating partner or pulled his/her hair”. The
Cronbach alpha reported for the total perpetration scale for
the original English version was .83 (Wolfe et al., 2001),
and the translated Spanish version also had acceptable
internal consistency with an alpha level of .86 (Hokoda et
al. 2006).
Anger Expression This scale was developed by Bosworth
and Espelage (1995) and consists of five items that assess
students’ ability to self-regulate by staying out of fights and
talking out disagreements. The items are rated on a five-
point Likert scale ranging from “never” to “always.” A
sample item is “How often do you have temper outbursts
you cannot control?” The Cronbach alphas for the original
English version were .85 and .61 for the translated Spanish
version.
Acceptance of Couple Violence The measure of Acceptance
of Couple Violence was developed by Foshee, Fothergill,
and Stuart (1992). The measure has 11 items and assesses
acceptance of male on female violence, acceptance of
female on male violence, and acceptance of general
violence. Sample questions include “Girls sometimes
deserve to be hit by the boys they date,” “A girl angry
enough to hit her boyfriend must love him very much,” and
“Sometimes violence is the only way to express your
622 J Fam Viol (2010) 25:619–625

Table 1 Study variables descriptives Anger Control

Variable Mean Standard deviation Model 1 Model 2

β = - .17** F = 10.8**
β = - .31**
R² = .12
1. Interparental violence 19.89 7.24
2. Anger control 18.72 3.71
3. Acceptance of violence 11.67 3.76 Dating
Interparental Model 3 Violence
4. Dating violence perpetration 8.32 6.70 Conflict β = .17** Perpetration

feelings.” The respondents are asked to circle the option that
corresponds with their beliefs, on a 4-point Likert scale
ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The
Cronbach alphas for the original English version range from
.71 to .74 and for the Spanish version the alpha was .76.
Exposure to Interparental Conflict Interparental conflict
was assessed using a scale developed by Moos and Moos
(1994). Because the items are drawn from two different
versions of the measure, validity/reliability for the English
version are impossible to determine. For the Spanish
version Cronbach alpha levels were .85. Sample items
include “My parents often insult or yell at each other” and
My parents have serious arguments. Students rate how true
each statement is on a 4-point Likert scale labeled at its
endpoints “True” and “False”. Means and standard devia-
tions for study variable are provided in Tables 1 and 2.
* p < .05
** p < .01
Model 4
β = .14 (β decreases with mediator)
Fig. 1 Anger control mediating the relationship between witnessing
interparental violence and dating violence perpetration
sions are run to examine the association between exposure
to interparental violence and dating violence perpetration
when controlling for anger control and acceptance of
violence. A mediation is indicated when a previously
significant association between witnessing interparental
violence and dating violence perpetration is no longer
significant when controlling for anger control or acceptance
of violence.
Independent variables were exposure to interparental
conflict, anger control, and acceptance of violence. The
dependent variable was dating violence perpetration. All
statistical tests were conducted at alpha=.05.

Analysis Plan Results

Baron and Kenny’s (1986) criteria for mediation was
followed to assess anger control and acceptance of violence
as mediators in the relationship between exposure to
interparental conflict and dating violence perpetration. To
test this, the following conditions had to be met: (1)
exposure to interparental conflict has to significantly relate
to dating violence perpetration; (2) exposure to inter-
parental conflict has to significantly relate to anger control
or acceptance of violence; (3) anger control or acceptance
of violence has to significantly relate to dating violence
perpetration. Then if the criterion is met, multiple regres-
Table 2 Correlations between study variables
As seen in Fig. 1, results show that anger control did
mediate this relationship. Results of the Sobel test, to
determine whether the indirect effect of the IV on the DV
by the mediator, was significantly different from zero (z=
2.08, p<.05). As shown in Fig. 2, results for the mediating
role of acceptance of violence in the relationship between
exposure to interparental conflict and dating violence
perpetration showed that according to Baron and Kenny’s
Acceptance
Model 1 Model 2
β = .19** F = 3.9*
β = .16*
R² = .05

Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. Interparental Dating

Conflict Model 3 Violence
1. Interparental violence 1 Perpetration
2. Anger control −.17** 1
3. Acceptance of violence .19** −.21** 1 * p < 05 Model 4
** p < .01 β = .14 (β decreases with mediator)
4. Dating violence perpetration .17** −.31** .16* 1

**p<.01 Fig. 2 Acceptance of violence mediating the relationship between

*p<.05 witnessing interparental violence and dating violence perpetration
J Fam Viol (2010) 25:619–625
criteria, acceptance of violence did play a mediating role in
this relationship. However, these results should be viewed
with caution because when interparental conflict and
acceptance of violence are put into a regression to predict
dating violence, not only is interparental conflict no longer
related to dating violence, but acceptance of violence is also
no longer significantly related to dating violence perpetra-
tion. Results of the Sobel test, to determine whether the
indirect effect of the IV on the DV by the mediator, was not
significantly different from zero (z=1.66).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the mediating
role of anger control and acceptance of violence in the
relationship between exposure to interparental conflict and
dating violence perpetration. Results showed that anger
control, exposure to interparental conflict, and dating
violence perpetration all significantly related to each other.
In addition, it was also found that acceptance of violence,
exposure to interparental violence, and dating violence
perpetration also significantly related to each other. Sup-
porting the first hypothesis, multiple regression analysis
revealed that anger control did mediate or explain the
relationship between exposure to interparental violence and
dating violence perpetration. This is consistent with past
research by Wolf and Foshee (2003), who found that direct
destructive anger expression styles and indirect destructive
anger expression styles are the mechanisms through which
exposure to interparental violence promotes dating violence
perpetration. Their findings, like ours, suggest that adoles-
cents exposed to family violence may learn anger expres-
sion styles that put them at risk for dating violence. In
addition, this is also consistent with social learning theory
which posits that adolescents who experience family
violence learn anger expression styles that put them at risk
for perpetrating dating violence.
The second hypothesis stating that acceptance of
violence is the mediator in the relationship between
exposure to interparental conflict and dating violence
perpetration was also supported. This finding is also
supported by previous research (O’Keefe 1998) examining
the mediation of acceptance of violence in the relationship
between exposure to interparental violence and perpetration
of dating violence. When comparing individuals who
inflicted or received dating violence to those who have
not, researchers have found that those who witnessed high
levels of interparental violence and accept the use of
violence in their dating relationships were more likely to
be involved in dating violence. The authors note that their
findings (and consequently our own) remind us that
whereas the rate of intergenerational transmission of
623
violence can be high, witnessing interparental violence is
only one aspect of this phenomena. This hypothesis is
consistent with the background-situational model of court-
ship violence, which proposes that violence in the family of
origin contributes to a greater acceptability of violence as a
response to conflict.
Findings for this study should be viewed with caution in
light of a few limitations. First, the measures used in the
present study were self-report; assessment procedures
should include multiple methods (e.g., interviews) and
assess multiple sources such as family, friends, and school
staff. In addition, because it has been found that a more
powerful modeling effect may occur for a parent of the
same sex as the child (Jackson 1999), future studies should
differentiate between mothers’ and fathers’ violence perpe-
tration. For example, it maybe that if it is the mother who is
perpetrating violence then the daughter maybe more likely
to perpetrate violence. In addition, past research has shown
that with increasing age there is a shift from familial to peer
influence (Ellickson et al. 2004). Therefore, future studies
should examine peer influences on behaviors and cognitions,
such as anger control and acceptance of violence, in relation
to dating violence perpetration in Mexican adolescents.
Another limitation of the current study is that we only
examined anger control and acceptance of violence as
mediators of the relationship between exposure to inter-
parental violence and perpetration of dating violence. There
maybe other mediators of this relationship that were not
explored. For example, this study consisted of adolescents
of Mexican descent for whom familismo maybe predomi-
nant (Sabogal et al. 1987). Familismo is defined as a
cultural value that involves an individual’s strong identifi-
cation and attachment to his or her extended family
members. In addition, personalismo is considered a value
of significance. This value refers to the preference for
relationships with those in which the individual identifies
with or considers part of the same ethnic group (Marin 1989).
Cultural values, such as familismo and personalismo, have
been found to be an influential factor on Latino lives.
Therefore, future studies should examine extended family
influences and other cultural values on behaviors and
cognitions in relation to dating violence perpetration in
Mexican teens.
Despite these limitations, the results provide support for
the use of family-based interventions that address exposure
to interparental conflict and emphasize anger control
techniques and challenge acceptance of violence beliefs
for Mexican teens and their parents. For example, anger
management strategies would include identification of
triggers that make them angry, awareness of their emotional
and physiological state at the time, and self-regulatory
activities to deescalate the emotional and physiological
response (Novaco 1975). Not only is it important to use
624
these techniques, but cultural beliefs that Latinos value
should be incorporated into interventions (Cervantes and
Cervantes 1993). For example, the Latino culture values
simpatía, which refers to the need of positive, smooth
interpersonal relations. Therefore, interventions would
challenge acceptance of violence beliefs by informing the
adolescent of the Latino value of simpatía, and identify
constructive communication skills such as negotiation to
replace the use of violence (Avery-Leaf et al. 1997).
Because attention to, and proactive empowerment of,
cultural values creates a positive therapeutic experience
for Latinos (Gloria and Peregoy 1996), cultural values
should be considered when developing and implementing
culturally sensitive interventions. Results from the study
suggest that interventions should focus on attitudinal
change and skill enhancement simultaneously.
Acknowledgments The project was funded by a grant from the U.S.
National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Center on Minority
Health and Health Disparities, Minority Health International Research
Training (MHIRT) program (5 T37 MD001442-10). In addition, the
authors wish to acknowledge help from Dr. Robert Pozos, Manuel
Angeles, M.S. at San Diego State University, Marina Duque Mora, M.
A. and Dr. Javier De Leon Cantú from the Universidad Autonóma de
Nuevo León, as well as, Director Felipe Garza Garcia, Directora María
Conceptión Ruíz Martínez, and María Chao Soto.
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