M7 Introduction

Resin is a broad term used to describe natural or synthetic substances that form
plastic materials after polymerization. Resins are named according to their chemical
composition, physical structure, and means for activation of polymerization. (GPT-9)

M7 Lesson 1 COMPOSITE RESIN

Dental resin-based composites are structures composed of three major components:
a highly cross-linked polymeric matrix reinforced by a dispersion of glass, mineral, or
resin filler particles and/or short fibers bound to the matrix by coupling agents. Such
resins are used to restore and replace dental tissue lost through disease or trauma and
to lute and cement crowns and veneers and other indirectly made or prefabricated
dental devices.
The gold standard of reference for these materials is amalgam. However, amalgam
has its own disadvantages, such as (1) poor esthetics, (2) unfounded concerns about
health hazards from the leakage of mercury, and (3) waste disposal concerns. Because
resin-based composites can be made to match the natural appearance of teeth, they
have become the most popular of the esthetic or tooth-colored filling materials and are
widely used for a variety of dental applications.
Another key advantage of resin material is that they can be made in a range of
consistencies, from highly fluid to rigid pastes, which allows them to be conveniently
manipulated and molded, to a custom-made form and then converted through a
polymerization curing reaction to a hard, strong, attractive, and durable solid.

History and Chronology of composite development

During the first half of the twentieth century, silicates were the tooth-colored material
of choice for cavity restoration. Silicates release fluoride and are excellent for preventing
caries, but they are currently used almost exclusively for deciduous teeth because they
become severely eroded within a few years.

Acrylic resins, similar to the materials used to make dentures and custom
impression trays (polymethylmethacrylate [PMMA], soon replaced silicates because of
their tooth-like appearance, insolubility in oral fluids, ease of manipulation, and low cost.
Unfortunately, these acrylic resins had relatively poor wear resistance and tended to
shrink severely during curing, which caused them to pull away from the cavity walls,
thereby producing crevices or gaps that facilitate leakage within these gaps. Excessive
thermal expansion and contraction caused further stresses to develop at the cavity
margins when hot or cold beverages and foods were consumed.
 These problems were reduced somewhat by the addition of quartz powder
particles to form a composite structure. The filler occupies space, but it does not take
part in the setting reaction. In addition, commonly used fillers have an extremely low
coefficient of thermal expansion, approaching that of tooth structure, thus greatly
reducing thermal expansion and contraction. However, these early PMMA-based
composites were not very successful, in part because the filler particles simply reduced
the volume of polymer resin without being bonded (coupled) to the resin. Thus, defects
developed between the particles and the surrounding resin, which led to leakage,
staining, and poor wear resistance.

In 1962, Bowen developed a new type of composite material that largely overcame
these problems. Bowen’s main innovations were bisphenol-A glycidyl dimethacrylate
(bis-GMA), a monomer that forms a cross-linked matrix that is highly durable, and a
surface treatment utilizing an organic silane compound called a coupling agent to
bond the filler particles to the resin matrix. Current tooth–colored restorative materials
continue to use this technology, but many further innovations have been introduced
since 1962.

M7 Lesson 2 RESIN-BASED
CEMENT
Resin cements are the newest types of cements used to lute and bond indirect
restorations. They have higher compressive, tensile, flexural strength and wear
resistance compared to conventional luting cements. They come in different shades,
forms and are virtually insoluble in oral fluids, providing better marginal seal than any
other cement types. These categories of cements can be used for all types of
restorative materials (porcelain, metal, porcelain fused to metal, laboratory composites).

M7 Lesson 3 ACRYLIC RESIN

Acrylic resins are used in the fabrication of nearly all removable dentures.
Understanding the properties and the processing techniques of resins can help the
dentist in fabricating better dentures.
Since the mid-1940s, the majority of denture bases have been fabricated using
polymethyl methacrylate resins (acrylic Resins). In its pure form it is a colorless
transparent sold bit can be tinted to provide almost any color, shade and degree of
translucency. It is stable in normal intraoral conditions and is easy to process.

Physical properties of denture base resins: these characteristics are critical to fit and
function of removable denture prostheses.

o Polymerization Shrinkage: change in density of monomer after mixing leads to
an overall decrease in volume. This “shrinkage” can lead to poor adaptation of
denture base and cuspal interdigitation. Therefore a material with low
polymerization shrinkage is recommended for denture base. Polymerization
shrinkage in acrylic resins are distributed uniformly thus clinically satisfactory
denture bases can be produced using acrylic resin
o Porosity: The presence of surface and subsurface voids can compromise the
physical, esthetic, and hygienic properties of a processed denture base.
Porosities can be produced when the temperature of water bath exceeds
100.40C or due to inadequate mixing of monomer and polymer
o Water absorption: The introduction of water molecules produces two important
effects. First, it causes a slight expansion of the polymerized mass. Second,
water molecules interfere with the entanglement of polymer chains and thereby
act as plasticizers
o Solubility: denture base resins are soluble in a variety of liquids; they are
virtually insoluble in the fluids commonly encountered in the oral cavity.
o Processing stresses: Whenever a natural dimensional change is inhibited, the
affected material sustains internal stresses. If stresses are relaxed, distortion of
the material can occur.
o Crazing: In a clinical setting, crazing is evidenced by small linear cracks that
appear to originate at a denture’s surface. Crazing in a transparent resin imparts
a “hazy” or “foggy” appearance. In a tinted resin, crazing imparts a whitish
appearance. In addition to esthetic effects, these surface cracks predispose a
denture resin to fracture.
o Strength: most important contributing factor to strength of resins is their degree
of polymerization. Therefore self-curing resins have lower strength compared to
their heat-curing counterpart.
o Creep: these materials act as rubbery solids. When a denture base resin is
subjected to a sustained load, the material may exhibit deformation with both
elastic (recoverable) and plastic (irrecoverable) components. If this load is not
removed, additional plastic deformation can occur over time. This additional
deformation is termed creep.

Composition:
The liquid contains nonpolymerized polymethyl methacrylate and the powder contains
prepolymerized polymethyl methacrylate. When the liquid and powder are mixed a
workable mass is formed which is then poured into a pre-form mold cavity and
polymerized.

Polymerization or Setting:
A chemical reaction that transforms small molecules into large polymer chain. In short,
this is the process where the soft workable mass formed after mixing the powder and
liquid is hardened. Acrylic resins can be divided into three types based on the chemical
basis for their polymerization: Heat activated, Chemically Activated, and Light activated
Acrylic Resins

M7 Lesson 3 ACRYLIC RESIN (2)

A. Heat Activated Acrylic Resins

o Heat-activated materials are used in the fabrication of nearly all denture bases.
The polymerization is achieved by use of thermal energy (heat) using a water
bath or microwave oven.


o
 Composition: aside from compositions mentioned earlier, small amount of
benzoyl peroxide is added to the powder as an initiator (responsible for
starting the polymerization process) and Hydroquinone is added to the liquid
as an inhibitor (prevent undesirable polymerization or “setting” of liquid during
storage)
 Handling and processing: as a rule heat-activated denture base resins are
shaped via compression moulding
 Compression moulding technique
 Preparation of the mold
 Selection and application of separating medium. Alginate based
separating medium is placed on all surfaces of the mold except the teeth
to prevent any contact of acrylic resin with the mold. Any contact of acrylic
with the mold can lead to a) if water diffuses from mold to acrylic, it can
affect polymerization rate and physical properties of the final denture base
and b) if dissolved free monomer soaks into the mold , the mold can fuse
with the acrylic denture base
 Mixing – polymer to monomer ratio: powder (polymer) is mixed with liquid
(monomer) at 3:1 ratio by volume to achieve a doughlike workable mass
 Mixing- polymer-monomer interaction: when polymer and monomer are
mixed the resultant workable mass has 5 stages
 Sandy: no reaction. Polymer remains unaltered. Coarse or grainy
mixture
  Stringy: monomer attacks polymer and is absorbed. “stringiness or
stickiness” when touched
 Dough-like: Polymer chains are formed and increase in number. Mass
behaves like a pliable-dough. Not sticky anymore therefor at this stage
material is introduced into the mold cavity
 Rubbery or elastic: monomers are dissipated by evaporation. The
mass rebounds when compressed or stretched the mass no longer
flows freely so cannot be molded.
 Stiff: continued evaporation of monomer. Mass is dry and resistant to
mechanical deformation
 Mixing- Dough forming time: ADA requires denture base resins reach
this stage in less than 40min from start of mixing. In practice most
products reach dough-like consistency in less than 10min
 Mixing- Working time: defined as the time denture base material
remains in dough-like stage. ADA requires the dough to remain
moldable for at least 5min. Refrigeration can increase working time
but moisture from refrigeration can lower the physical properties of the
final denture base
 Packing: the placement and adaptation of denture base resin within
the mold cavity. Most critical step. The entire mold cavity should be
filled and excess removed. Too much material leads to excessively
thick denture base and too little material leads to void or porosities.
 Polymerization: The denture flask is immersed in a water bath. Benzoyl
peroxide is decomposed at a temperature of 600C and leads to a chain-
growth polymerization. Therefore heat is the Activator. Polymerization is
exothermic thus if the temperature of water bath exceeds the boiling point
of monomer at 100.80C, the unreacted monomer would boil and lead to
internal porosities.
 Polymerization cycle: the heating process used to control polymerization
is termed polymerization cycle or curing cycle. One technique involves
processing the denture base at 740Cfor 8 hrs. A second technique is
processing at 740C for 8hrs and then increasing the temperature to 1000C
for 1hr. a third technique is to process the resin at 740C for 2hr then
increasing the temperature to 1000C for 1hr.
 Finishing and polishing: After the denture is processed, it is removed from
the flask, the excess is trimmed and the base is polished.

B. Chemically Activated Acrylic Resins


o Chemically activated Acrylic resins: aside from heat chemical activators can also
be used to induce polymerization. Chemical activation does not require
application of thermal energy therefore it is called cold-curing, self-curing or auto-
polymerization resins.
 
o
 Composition: dimethyl-para-toluidine, is added to the monomer which causes
decomposition of benzoyl peroxide and as a result polymerization is initiated.
Polymerization progresses in a manner similar to heat-activated.
 Heat vs. Self -cure resin: the denture bases made from heat activated resin
and self-cured resins are quite similar but there are certain disadvantages
and advantages to self-curing resins


o Disadvantages


o
 Degree of polymerization: incomplete in self-cured compared to heat-cured
 Decreased transverse strength of denture base: due to incomplete
polymerization, unreacted monomer in self-cured resins act as a plasticizer
 Decreased biocompatibility: unreacted monomer can cause tissue irritation
 Lowered colour stability


o Advantages


o
 Less shrinkage: therefore slightly better dimensional accuracy


o Processing: chemically activated denture base resins are most often molded
using compression techniques. Therefore mold preparation and resin packing
are essentially the same as those described for heat activated resins. Initial
hardening occur within 30minbut polymerization continues for an extended
period.

C. Light-Activated Acrylic Resins


o Light activated Acrylic resins: visible light activated denture base resins are
available in single component sheet and rope forms.


o
 Composition: generally described as resin-based composites having matrices
of urethane dimethacrylate, microfine, silica and high-molecular weight acrylic
resin monomers. Acrylic resin beads are also included as organic fillers.
 Visible light is the Activator while a photosensitizing agent like
camphorquinone serves as the initiator for polymerization
 Processing: denture base fabrication using light-activated acrylic resin is
different. It cannot be flasked in conventional manner since the opaque
investing material (plaster) prevents light penetration.
 Denture base is molded to an accurate cast
 Teeth are positioned
 Denture base is exposed to high intensity light
 Following polymerization, denture is removed and polished

M8 Introduction
Whenever a cast pure metal or alloy is permanently deformed in any manner it is
considered a wrought metal. Because of plastic deformation, the microstructure of an
alloy is altered and the alloy exhibits properties that are different from those it had in the
as-cast state. The most significant changes are its proportional limit and ductility, which
will be discussed later. The applications of wrought metals in dentistry include
orthodontic wires, clasps for removable partial dentures, direct-filling gold, root canal
files and reamers, preformed crowns in pediatric dentistry, and surgical instruments.
The primary metals are wrought noble alloys wrought metals are mostly base metal
alloys, such as stainless steel, cobalt-chromium-nickel, nickel- titanium, and beta-
titanium. Some wrought noble alloys are also available.

M8 While Task
Key Terms:

o Annealing—The process of controlled heating and cooling that is designed to

produce desired proper- ties in a metal. Typically, the annealing process is
intended to soften metals, to increase their ductiLity, stabilize shape, and
increase machinability (see stress relief). In the case of gold foil, the term refers
to removal of contaminant from the surface of the foil.
o Cold working—The process of plastically deforming metal at room temperature.
o Compaction (condensation)—The process of increasing the density of metal
foil, pellets, or powder through compressive pressure.
o Ductility—The ability of a solid to be elongated or thinned plastically without
fracturing.
 o Ductile fracture—The rupture of a solid structure resulting in measurable plastic
deformation.
o Malleability—The ability (of a metal) to be hammered into thin sheets without
fracturing.
o Springback—The amount of elastic strain that a metal can recover when loaded
to and unloaded from its yield strength; an important property of orthodontic
wires.
o Strain hardening—The increase in strength and hardness and decrease in
ductility of a metal that is caused by plastic deformation below its recrystallization
temperature; also called work hardening.
o Superelasticity—The ability of certain nickel-titanium alloys to undergo
extensive deformation result- ing from a stress-assisted phase transformation,
with the reverse transformation occurring on unloading; sometimes called
pseudoelasticity.
o Working range—The maximum amount of elastic strain that an orthodontic wire
can sustain before it plastically deforms.
o Wrought metal—A metal that has been plastically deformed to alter the shape
of the structure and certain mechanical properties, such as strength, hardness,
and ductility.

Applications of Wrought Metal in Dentistry


o Orthodontist - wires for correcting displacements of teeth
o Prosthodontist - clasps for retention and stabilization of removable partial
dentures
o Endodontist - files and reamers to clean and shape canals
o Pedodontist - preformed metal crowns for deciduous teeth

STAINLESS STEEL ALLOYS

 Superior performance for curettes and endodontic instruments

 Major alloys used in orthodontics

Types:

o
 Ferritic Stainless Steels
 Provide good corrosion resistance at a low cost when high strength is not
required.
 They Cannot be hardened by heat treatment or readily work-hardened
 Consequently they have little application in dentistry.
 Martensitic Stainless Steels
  Can be heat-treated in the same manner as plain carbon steels
 Used for surgical and cutting instruments
 Austenitic Stainless Steels
 The addition of nickel to the iron-chromium-carbon composition stabilizes
the austenite phase on cooling
 Type 18-8 stainless steel, which contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel
by weight most commonly used alloy for orthodontic stainless steel wires
and bands.

Austenitic stainless steel is preferable to ferritic stainless steel for dental applications
because it has the following properties:

o

 Greater ductility and ability to undergo more cold work without fracturing
 Substantial strengthening during cold working (some transformation to
martensite)
 Greater ease of welding
 Ability to overcome sensitization
 Less critical grain growth
 Comparative ease of forming

COBALT CHROMIUM NICKEL ALLOYS


o
 Originally developed for use as watch springs (Elgiloy)
 First marketed for use in orthodontic appliances during the 1950s
 The orthodontic force delivery for Elgiloy Blue and stainless steel orthodontic
wires is essentially the same
 Elgiloy Blue wires have a “soft feel” compared with the more resilient
stainless steel wires because of their much lower yield strength.

NICKEL-TITANIUM ALLOYS

o
 Wrought nickel-titanium orthodontic wire alloy known as Nitinol, introduced
commercially during the 1970s
 The alloy name “Nitinol” originally came from the two elements nickel (Ni) and
 titanium (Ti) and the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) where these alloys
were developed.
 Contains 55% nickel and 45% titanium by weight.
  Orthodontic wire alloys contain small amounts of other elements, such as
cobalt, copper, and chromium.
 This wire alloy is noted for its much lower elastic modulus and much wider
elastic working range than those of stainless steel and Co-Cr-Ni wires.

DIRECT FILLING GOLD


o
 Pure gold is the noblest of all dental metals
 Rarely tarnishing or corroding in the oral cavity
 The most ductile and malleable metal used in restorative dentistry.
 Pure gold in the form of foil or powder can be adapted to the walls of a cavity
preparation with only a minimal marginal gap.
 The use of direct filling golds is generally limited to areas where they simply
“fill” a space (such as pits and small class I, II, III, V, and VI restorations) and
for repairing casting margins.

M8 Lesson1 Direct Filling Gold

For many years, Dentistry has used metals as replacement for missing tooth
structures. Gold foil was said to be used as a restorative material from many years ago
because it can be directly placed in the mouth, piece by piece which can be weld
together by hand pressure.

M9 Pre-task
Definition of terms:

 alloys- mixture of two or more metals

 Base metal- a common metal that is not considered precious, such as copper, tin, or
zinc
 Brazing-has a melting point above 450C
 Carat- a system for stating the amount of gold in an alloy.
 Casting- a process by which a wax pattern of a shape is converted into metal
 Coping-a thin covering of the coronal portion of the tooth usually without
anatomic conformity.
 Coring- a microstructure in which composition gradient exists between the center
and the surface of cast dentrites, grains or particles
 Fineness- a system for stating the amount of gold in an alloy
 Flux- a chemical used to dissolve the oxide on the surface of an alloy and allow a
melted solder to flow and bond to the alloy
 Grains- microscopic crystals that make up cast alloys
 Metal- an element or alloy whose atoms readily lose electrons to form positively
charged ions.
 Noble metal- metals that are highly resistant to oxidation, tarnish and corrosion
 Pickling- a process of submerging a cast restoration in a hot acid to remove surface
oxides formed during the casting process.
 Soldering- is a method of joining two or more cast or wrought using another alloy
called a solder
 Spruing- the addition of a small cylinder of wax, plastic or metal to the wax pattern
before investing
 Wought metal alloys – these are cold worked metals that are plastically deformed to
bring about a change in shape of structure and their mechanical properties.

M9 Lesson 1 COMPONENTS
 An alloy is defined as a metal body containing two or more elements, at least one of which
is metal and all of which are mutually soluble in the molten state.
 Most alloys solidify over a range of temperature rather than a single temperature as does a
pure metal.
 Gold alloys
o Pure gold is yellow, soft metal that is welded together and easily deformed under
pressure.

Types of casting alloys

 High noble casting alloys

 Noble casting alloys
 Base-metal casting alloys

Desirable Properties of Dental Casting Alloy

1.
1. biocompatibility
2. Tarnish and corrosion resistance
3. Thermal properties
4. Strength requirements
5. Fabrication of cast prosthesis and frameworks
6. Porcelain bonding
 7. Economic conditions

ADVANTAGES:

1.
1. Casting techniques and materials are capable of reproducing precise form and minute
detail.
2. Yield strength, tensile strength and shear strength of alloys used for cast
dental restorations are greater than those of any other materials used intra-orally.
3. Casting restorations have fewer voids, no layering effect, less internal stresses,
fairly even stress patterns, maximum bonding between component phases
4. Can be finished, polished or glazed outside the oral cavity without endangering P-D
organ

DISADVANTAGES:

1.
1. Being a cemented restoration, several interphases will be created at the tooth cement
casting junction. These interphases and the leakage accompanying them, will
become more significant.
2. They require extensive tooth involvement in preparation creating possible hazard for
vital dental tissues.
3. Procedure is length requiring more than one visit, with temporary restoration
between visits.
4. Cast alloys are expensive than other restorative materials.
5. Natural teeth maybe abraded more easily due to abrasive differential leading to
teeth shifting, tilting or rotating.

CLASSIFICATION
I. According to number of alloys present

o
 Binary
 Ternary
 Quaternary

II. According to major element present


o
  gold alloys ■ cobalt alloys
 Silver alloys ■ titanium alloys
 Palladium alloys ■ copper alloys
 nickel alloys

III. According to the dominant phase system


o
 single phase
 Eutectic
 Peritectic
 intermetallic

IV. According to three major elements


o
 gold palladium silver
 Palladium silver tin
 Nickel chromium molybdenum
■ Cobalt chromium molybdenum
■ Iron nickel chromium
■ Titanium aluminum

High noble alloys

 These alloys are the most expensive as gold, palladium and platinum are expensive
 Relatively high densities that make that make them easier to cast
 Due to high liquidus (high melting point) allows them to serve
 Resistant to corrosion even under severe conditions
 Noble metals are gold, palladium and platinum

Noble alloys

 Contain at least 25% noble elements with no requirement for gold and 75% consists
of base metals.
 More biocompatible with the oral tissues, because they tend to corrode less than
base metals.

Base metal alloys

 Base metal alloys are based on active metallic elements that corrode but develop
corrosion resistance via surface oxidation that produces a thin, tightly adherent film
that inhibits further corrosions
M9 Lesson 2 DENTAL
INVESTMENT
Investment can be described as ceramic material that is suitable for forming a mould
into which molten metal or an alloy is cast. Materials such as gypsum, phosphate and
silicate are used for investing.

INVESTMENT- materials can withstand high temperatures, also known as refractory

materials
In general, an investment is a mixture of three distinct type or components of materials;
refractory, binder and modifiers

Classification:

o According to type of binder used:
 Gypsum-bonded investments-used for casting gold alloys, withstand
temperature up to 700C
 Phosphate-bonded investments- for metal ceramic and cobalt-chromium
alloys, withstand higher temperatures
 Ethyl-silica bonded investment- alternative to the phosphate-bonded for high
temperature casting, principally used in the casting of base-metal alloy partial
dentures.
o According to the type of silica used:
 Quartz investment
 Cristobalite investment
o According to the use and melting range of alloy

Properties of an ideal investment

1. Setting time
2. Porosity
3. Smooth surface
4. Easily manipulated
5. Setting expansion
6. Normal setting expansion
7. Hygroscopic expansion
8. Thermal setting expansion
Requirements of Investment Materials:

1. wax pattern.
2. Easily manipulated
3. Setting time should be less
4. Should maintain the integrity at higher temperatures and should not decompose
to give off gases.
5. Possess sufficiently high value of compressive strength at the casting
temperature to withstand stresses set up when the molten metal enters the
mould.
6. Should expand to compensate for the casting shrinkage
7. Investment should be porous enough to permit the air or other gases in the mold
cavity to escape easily during the casting.
8. Investment should produce a smooth surface and fine detail and margins on the
casting.
9. Should be inexpensive

M9 Lesson 3 CASTING
PROCEDURE
Casting can be described as an object formed by the solidification of a fluid that has
been poured or injected into a mold.
The procedure involves three steps:

1. Fusing the alloy or thermoplastically softening the ceramic material.

2. Transporting the thermally treated investment to the casting machine.
3. Forcing the melt into the investment mold.

Casting Procedure:

 Finidhing and polishing

 Divesting
 Casting
 Burnout procedure
 Die preparation
 Wax pattern preparation
 Spruing
 Investing procedure
 Impression
 Tooth/teeth preparation