ISSN 0361-7688, Programming and Computer Software, 2016, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 121–128. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.

, 2016.
Original Russian Text © S.S. Adjemov, N.V. Klenov, M.V. Tereshonok, D.S. Chirov, 2016, published in Programmirovanie, 2016, Vol. 42, No. 3.

The Use of Artificial Neural Networks for Classification

of Signal Sources in Cognitive Radio Systems
S. S. Adjemov, N. V. Klenov, M. V. Tereshonok, and D. S. Chirov
Moscow Technical University of Communications and Informatics,
ul. Aviamotornaya 8a, Moscow, 111024 Russia
e-mail: nvklenov@gmail.com
Received August 12, 2015

Abstract—In the paper, methods of classification of signal sources in cognitive radio systems that are based
on artificial neural networks are discussed. A novel method for improving noise immunity of RBF networks
is suggested. It is based on introducing an additional self-organizing layer of neurons, which ensures auto-
matic selection of variances of basis functions and a significant reduction of the network dimension. It is
shown that the use of auto-associative networks in the problem of the classification of sources of signals makes
it possible to minimize the feature space without significant deterioration of its separation properties.

DOI: 10.1134/S0361768816030026

1. INTRODUCTION radio communication and radio monitoring is

When using modern technologies of cognitive sig-
nal processing, which allow the receiver to obtain and
use information about the air by correcting its param-
eters and protocols in a dynamic and autonomous way
and by learning on the results obtained, there may
arise a situation of uncertainty about a set of signal fea-
tures that may be helpful for the identification of the
radiative objects. Moreover, a separate problem is
identification of signals from different sources of radio
emission and revealing rare atypical sources [1]. In
particular, determination of a set (vocabulary) of fea-
tures for constructing a system of cluster classification
and recognition of radio signals in the receivers is a
separate complex problem, some aspects of which are
discussed below.
Currently, one of the most universal methods for
solving the problem of identification of radio signals
and their sources is based on the use of artificial neural
networks [1, 2]. Artificial neural networks are capable
of generalizing data and allow one to model rather
complicated probability distribution functions. Owing
to their universality, the artificial neural networks
(ANNs) allow us to classify radio signals and identify
their sources based on both samples of signal readings
and various sets of measured time-frequency charac-
teristics.
2. USE OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
BASED ON RADIAL BASIS FUNCTIONS
restricted. One principal restriction is that the multi-
layer perceptron does not provide probabilistic inter-
pretation of the classification results. The second—
technical—restriction is that the multilayer perceptron
requires rather lengthy training. There is another type
of neural networks that lacks these restrictions. This is
a network based on radial basis functions (RBF or
probabilistic network).
The operation of an RBF network relies on the use
of the Bayesian method [3]: for each source of radio
signal, the decision is taken on the basis of knowledge
about most probable class of sources among those that
the source could belong to. Such a decision requires
estimation of the probability density function for each
class of radio signal sources. This estimate is obtained
by considering training data. The formal rule can be
formulated as follows: the class with the most dense
distribution in the region of the unknown source of
radio signal has advantages compared to other classes.
In the RBF networks, the probability distribution
function is estimated by the Parzen method [4] as a
sum of basis functions centered at the points repre-
senting training samples. Most often, for the basis
functions, the Gauss functions are used. For the j
class, they take the form
nj
−|| x − x i || 2
g i ( x) = ∑ exp σ2
, (1)
i =1

A multilayer perceptron (MP) is most frequently where n j is the number of objects of class j in the train-
used in the identification problem. However, the use ing set and the parameter σ specifies the width of the
of this type of neural networks in problems of cognitive basis functions and their effect.

121
122
Training set
Wj, σj
Kohonen
layer
Fig. 1. Structure of self-organizing RBF network and results of signal classification.
Thus, an RBF network does not need learning like
that for networks with back propagation of errors,
since all parameters of the RBF network (the number
of elements and weights) are determined directly by
learning data. The only external parameter is the width
of the basis functions σ. It can be seen from
formula (1) that the value of σ greatly affects the esti-
mate of the distribution density over the classes and,
accordingly, the result of the classification. This is
most critical in the cases of low signal/noise ratios,
which lead to considerable fluctuations of the
observed parameters of the signals. This gives rise to
the necessity in a method for estimating the optimal
width of the basis functions σ.
One of the basic problems associated with the
selection of σ is that different classes of objects have,
as a rule, different values of intraclass variance. For
example, values of intraclass variance of parameters of
signals of different classes of one mobile communica-
tion system measured on one and the same receiver
may differ by more than order of magnitude. One of
the ways to take into account the fact that statistical
characteristics of different classes can considerably
differ is to specify different values of σ. for each class of
objects. Thus, expression (1) takes the form
nj
−|| x − x i || 2
g i ( x) = ∑ exp
σ 2j
, (2)
i =1
where parameter σ j specifies function width for class j.
The value of σ j for each class should be selected by
way of analysis of the training set. This goal can be
achieved by means of a self-organizing Kohonen map
PROGRAMMING AND COMPUTER SOFTWARE
ADJEMOV et al.
Input data Class A Class B
0.225
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.264
Output layer
Sample
layer Summing
layer
(SOM). As shown in [1–3], the SOM ensures efficient
clusterization of the training set of radio signals
together with an estimate of the intraclass variance for
each informative parameter. The values of the intra-
class variance obtained by means of the SOM can be
used as estimates of the basis functions width σ j .
Another advantage of the SOM is calculation of the
center positions for each class.
Like in an RBF network, each neuron of the SOM
is an n-dimensional column vector of weight coeffi-
cients
W = [w1, w2, … , w n ]T , (3)
where n is determined by the dimension of the original
space. The SOM training is based on competition of
neurons [3, 4]. As the result of training of a one-layer
SOM, N clusters are formed, each of which contains
signals of one class. A cluster may consist of both one
and several neurons. Each neuron is a set of weight
coefficients W j , which are averaged values of parame-
ters of the training set instances grouped around a
given neuron with some σj. The process of a SOM
training consists in successive correction of vectors
representing the neurons and proceeds as follows:
1. One vector x from the training set is randomly
selected.
2. A winner–neuron wc , is determined as a vector
that is most similar to the input vector. The similarity
is meant to be the Euclidean distance between the vec-
tors.
3. The SOM weights are corrected according to the
formula
Vol. 42 No. 3 2016
 THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS 123

Results of calculation of probability distribution density 1. To carry out clusterization of the training set by
Distribution Distribution means of a one-layer self-organizing Kohonen map.
Feature
Class label
value
density by density by 2. Using W j and σ j obtained, form an RBF net-
samples classes work.
А 0.25 0.043936934 0.179272 3. To classify new data using the RBF network syn-
А 0.3 0.135335283 thesized in this way.
В 0.769 0.026834954 0.213672 The proposed method makes it possible to consid-
В 0.766 0.029077227
erably improve correctness and noise immunity of sig-
nal classification and reduce size of the RBF network.
В 0.768 0.027565232
To illustrate efficiency of the proposed method, we
В 0.762 0.032315768 consider an example. Suppose that we have two classes
В 0.764 0.03065989 of signals A and B. To classify signals, we will use val-
В 0.76 0.034047455 ues of a feature x. Signals from class B are measured
В 0.761 0.033171971 more accurately than signals from class A. For the
training set, we have measured values of feature x of
signals from classes A and B, which are presented in
the table.
wi (t + 1) = wi (t ) + hci (t ) ⋅ ( x(t ) − wi (t )), (4)
We will train the RBF network on the sample pre-
where t is the epoch number. Function h(t ) is called sented in the table (σ = 0.02 ) and consider network
neuron neighboring function. It can be divided into a operation when classifying a signal with the feature
distance function and training rate function and is value x = 0.5. The third and fourth columns show
defined as follows: results of calculation of probability distribution of each
instance and classes A and B for x = 0.5.
h(t ) = h(|| rc − ri ||, t ) ⋅ α(t ), (5)
From the data presented in the table, it can be seen
where r determines neuron position in the grid, h(d , t ) = that the signal corresponding to the value x = 0.5 will
d2 be classified among the class B, since it has greater
2σ 2 (t )
e is the distance function, δ(t ) is the correction probability density in the given region, although, in
radius, d = || rc − ri || is the distance between the win- terms of distance, the point x = 0.5 is closer to class A
(see Fig. 1). This is due to nonuniformity of the net-
ner–neuron and the ith neuron, α(t ) = A is the work training set, which has much more instances of
t+B class B than those of class A. Moreover, due to higher
rate function, and A and B are rate constants. At the
first stage, quite large values of the rate parameters A, accuracy of measurements, instances of class B are
located near the class centroid more densely than
B and the radius δ(t ), are selected, which allows us to
those of class A.
position the weight vectors in accordance with the dis-
tribution of signals in the sample being analyzed. As a result of clusterization of the training set pre-
Then, fine weight adjustment is carried out. As a sented in the table, three clusters with the centroids
result, we obtain rate parameters that are much 0.25(A), 0.3(A) и 0.764(B) and the corresponding
smaller than the initial ones. variances were obtained by using a SOM. Training of
the RBF network by these values with the classifica-
If the values W j and σ j obtained after the SOM tion of the point x = 0.5 yielded the following values of
training are used in the construction of an RBF net- the probability density at the point (see Fig. 1):
work, then the neuron network obtained will possess 0.179272 for class A and 0.030429 for class B. Thus,
the following advantages compared to the standard both probabilistic and metric estimates yielded identi-
one [3, 4]: cal results.
• lesser dimension;
• higher noise immunity of the classification 3. REDUCTION OF THE FEATURE SPACE
owing to individual width of basis functions for each DIMENSION IN THE SIGNAL SOURCE
neuron. IDENTIFICATION PROBLEMS WITH THE
Structure of a self-organizing neuron network on USE OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
radial basis functions is presented in Fig. 1.
An important specific feature of the RBF networks
Thus, the following classification method is sug- is that their size (and computational complexity) lin-
gested for classification–recognition of signals with early depends on the size of the input data (features of
optimal (in terms of noise immunity) selection of radio signal sources being recognized) and the number
width σ j of potential functions and minimization of of samples in the training set. Reduction of the num-
the RBF network size. ber of samples reduces recognition accuracy; there-

PROGRAMMING AND COMPUTER SOFTWARE Vol. 42 No. 3 2016

124 ADJEMOV et al.

fore, the only way to improve the training is to reduce Note that the recovered value fˆ j( x) should be as close
the dimension of the feature space. to the initial one as possible for the selected value m:
Let us turn to the definition and optimization of
the feature space (the so-called feature vocabulary) for || ZU − F || 2 ⎯⎯ → min .
Z ,U
(8)
the identification of signal sources. Such a vocabulary
should include features the a priori information on In what follows, we consider a vector version of the
which required for the description of classes in the lan- algorithm:
guage of these features can be obtained. Note that
some of these features should not be included in the F̂ is a centered column vector F̂ = F − MF of fea-
vocabulary in view of their low informativeness, tures F = ( f1, f 2, … , f k ), which is governed by a linear
whereas other features, as a rule, most informative model F̂ = AZ ;
ones, cannot be defined in a sufficiently fast, cheap, Z is a column vector of uncorrelated principal
and qualitative way on a modern technological level of
development of information receipt and processing components z j , where j = 1, … , k ;
systems. A is a matrix of loads of features f i on components
There are many methods for selecting a feature set r j (i = 1, … , k, j = 1, … , k ) of the form
under constraints on the cost of their implementation
and methods for comparative feature estimate: com- A = (aij ) ∈ » k ×k . (9)
plete search method, method of successive addition
and removal of features (or their combinations); Let us denote the covariance matrix of the column
branch and bound algorithm, genetic methods, ran- vector of features F as Σ = M (FF
ˆ ˆ T ). Since this matrix
dom (with or without adaptation) search, and cluster is symmetric and nonnegative definite, it has k real
analysis (hierarchical or SOM-based) methods. When nonnegative eigenvalues λ, and the matrix of the
using any method from the above list, some original eigenvalues can be written as
features are completely ignored.
⎛λ 0 … 0 ⎞⎟
This problem can be solved by means of methods ⎜ 1
⎜
for synthesizing a feature set at the expense of reduc- ⎜ 0 λ2 … 0 ⎟⎟
tion of the feature space dimension without significant ∧= ⎜ ⎟, λ1 > λ 2 > … > λ k . (10)
⎜     ⎟⎟
loss in the quality of solution of the classification and ⎜
identification problem. In the framework of this ⎜⎜
⎝ 0 0 0 λ k ⎟⎟⎠
approach, a set of m features is constructed with the
use of all n initial features (clearly, m < n). Note that the eigenvectors v j = (ν1 j , ν 2 j , … , ν kj )T , of
In this work, we will use the principle component the matrix Σ, corresponding to the eigenvalues λ j ,
analysis method for searching the minimal number of compose matrix of eigenvectors V = (v1, v 2, … , v k ) .
new features from which the initial features can be
restored with insignificant errors by means of a linear Now, let us turn to searching an optimal transfor-
transformation [5, 6]. mation. Let Zˆ = V T Fˆ , MZˆ = M (V T Fˆ ) = V T MFˆ = O,
We assume that the above-mentioned set of n fea- where O = (0, 0, … , 0)T , Then, it follows that Ẑ is a
tures of a signal x i provides full description of the sig- centered vector with the covariance matrix
nal: x i = { f1( x i ), f 2( x i ), … , f n( x i )}, where i = 1, … , l , and
l is the number of signals. Then, the entire set of signals ˆ ˆ T ) = M (V T FF
M (ZZ ˆ ˆ TV ) = V T M (FF
ˆ ˆ T )V
can be represented as a matrix F of the form ⎛λ 0 … 0 ⎞⎟
⎜ 1
⎜ ⎟
⎧ f1( x1) … f n( x1)⎫ ⎜ 0 λ2 … 0 ⎟ (11)
⎪ ⎪ = V T ΣV = ⎜ ⎟,
Fl ×n = ⎨ … … … ⎬ . (6) ⎜     ⎟⎟
⎜
⎪ f1( x1) … f n( x1)⎪ ⎜⎜ 0 0 … λ ⎟⎟
⎩ ⎭ ⎝ k⎠

Our problem can be described as that of searching an

the components of Ẑ are uncorrelated. Then, it fol-
optimal linear transformation U = (u sj ) m×n of matrix lows that the desired vector Z has the form
Fl ×n into a matrix of smaller dimension
− 1 − 1
⎧z1( x1) … z m( x1)⎫ Z = Λ 2 Zˆ = Λ 2V T Fˆ. (12)
⎪ ⎪
Z l ×n = ⎨ … … … ⎬, Since matrix V is orthogonal, for the load matrix, we
⎪z1( x1) … z m( x1)⎪ obtain
⎩ ⎭ (7)
m −1
VZˆ = VV Fˆ = VV Fˆ = Fˆ,
T

∑z ( x)u
(13)
fˆ j( x) = s sj , j = 1, … , n.
s =1 from which it follows that

PROGRAMMING AND COMPUTER SOFTWARE Vol. 42 No. 3 2016

 THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS 125

x1

yi

xd

Fig. 2. A layer of linear neurons.

x1 ~x
1

xd ~
xd

Fig. 3. A linear auto-associative network with a bottleneck: an analog of a training rule.

1 k
Fˆ = VZˆ = V Λ 2 Z . (14)
∑λ i
1 σ= i = k ' +1
.
Thus, matrix A can be defined as A = V Λ . 2 k

Summing up, the algorithm for calculation of the ∑λ i

i =1
principal components in the index form reduces to the
following expression: The described method of principal components
k k
(MPC) is linear and does not allow us to take into
∑ ∑ν
account a number of important specific features of the
aij Fˆ i ˆi
ij F data structure. This difficulty can be avoided, for
zj = i =1
= i =1
. (15) example, by introducing a nonlinear MPC feature
λj λj space with the use of an associative network that was
trained to output its own input data but contains less
As a set of new (synthesized) features, the first k ' prin- neurons in the intermediate layer than in the input and
cipal components are used (k ' < k ), which ensure the output layers. Such specifity of the architecture, which
best in the mean square sense reproduction f1(xi), is illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3, forces the network to
f 2( x i ), … , f k ( x i ) among all possible reproductions that reduce dimension of the input data when presenting
can be constructed from k ' linear combinations of ran- them. After the auto-associative network has been
dom variables. The reproduction accuracy is calcu- trained (as a rule, it is constructed on the basis of the
lated by the formula multilayer perceptron [3]), its external interface can be

PROGRAMMING AND COMPUTER SOFTWARE Vol. 42 No. 3 2016

126
X Y
J3
Input
J1 J2
IB Vout
Fig. 4. Structure of an associative neural network. The insertion shows an example of energy-efficient implementation of a neuron
based on superconductive Josephson’s (elements J1, J2, J3) technologies.
stored and used for solving the dimension reduction
problem discussed.
Consider the application of the approach described
to training m linear neurons:
d
yi = ∑u x , ij j (16)
j =1
where the amplitudes of the output neurons play role
of the set of independent indicators that give as much
information about the multidimensional input of the
network as possible. To obtain several meaningful fea-
tures on the output of the network, the original train-
ing rule should be modified by way of including inter-
action between the neurons. Suppose that a neuron
tries to recover its inputs given an amplitude of its out-
put. According to the Hebb rule, which is widely used
in training, the change in the neuron weights upon
supplying an example is proportional to its inputs and
output (in the index and vector form, respectively):
Δ wTj = η yT x Tj , Δ wT = η yT x T .
If the training is formulated as an optimization prob-
lem, one can see that the neuron trained by the Hebb
rule tries to increase the amplitude of its output:
Δ w = −η ∂ E ,
∂w
E (w, x a ) = − 1 〈(w ⋅ x) 2 〉 = − 1 y 2,
2 2
where averaging is carried out over the training set
{ x a }. It has been shown in [3] that training by the Hebb
rule does not result in unlimited increase in the weight
amplitudes upon adding a term of the form
Δ wTj = η yT ( x Tj − y T w j ).
The training modified in this way, which is called the
Oja training rule for one neuron, teaches to recover
PROGRAMMING AND COMPUTER SOFTWARE
ADJEMOV et al.
~
X
values of the inputs by a given output. Such a training,
thus, tries to improve sensitivity of the only output–
indicator to multidimensional information as much as
possible and provides us with an example of optimal
information compression. In a similar way, one can
easily obtain the Oja rule for a one-layer network
equivalent to a bottlenecked network of hidden linear
neurons shown in Fig. 3 that was trained to output val-
ues of its inputs and contains
⎛ ⎞
T ⎜
∑y
⎟
Δ wij = η yi ( x j − x j ) = η yi ⎜ x − k w kj ⎟ .
T T T ~T T T
(21)
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ k ⎠
The second part of the considered auto-associative
network—decoder—relies on only encoded informa-
tion in the bottleneck of the network, which can be
seen from Fig. 4. The quality of data reproduction by
given encoded representation is usually evaluated by
means of conditional entropy H ( x| y) , where minimi-
zation of uncertainty is equivalent to maximization of
encoding entropy:
(17)
min H ( x| y)
(22)
= min { H ( x| y) − H ( y)} = max H ( y).
Indeed, encoding does not introduce additional
uncertainty, so that the total entropy of the inputs and
(18) their encoded representation is equal to the entropy of
the inputs themselves, H ( x, y) = H ( x) + H ( y| x) =
H ( x) , and, hence, does not depend on the network
(19) parameters.
To evaluate promises of the MPC use for optimiza-
tion of the feature space in cognitive radio systems, we
considered a sample of 64 signals from 10 model
sources with the following set of features: preamble
duration, preamble type, duration of squelch termina-
tion, type of squelch termination, and signal modula-
(20) tion mode. Figure 5 shows results of training by these
features of an auto-associative neural network con-
taining in its layers 5, 10, 3, 10, and 5 neurons with sig-
moid activation function. The network was trained by
Vol. 42 No. 3 2016
 THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
MSE
101
102
103
104
0 200 400
Training epoch number
Fig. 5. Results of training of an auto-associative neural
network.
the Levenberg–Marquardt method, and the learning
criterion was the mean square error (MSE). As can be
seen from the plot presented, after 500 cycles of train-
ing, the MSE of data on the network output dimin-
ished to 10 −4.
This result allows us to conclude that, in the case
under consideration, it was possible to reduce the
dimension of the feature space from 5 to 3. Separating
properties of the synthesized features have been suc-
cessfully (different classes of signals were not mixed)
verified by means of self-organizing Kohonen maps
[3, 8].
4. CONCLUSIONS
The proposed method of classification of sources
of radio signals with the use of a self-organizing neural
network on radial basis functions improves noise
immunity and correctness of classification. The
improvement of noise immunity is achieved owing to
preliminary estimation of basis function width of the
RBF network and construction of reference feature
vectors of sources of various classes of radio signals
with the use of a self-organizing Kohonen map. Effi-
ciency of the method is substantiated by model and
real data.
Analysis of possibilities of artificial neural networks
showed that auto-associative neural networks, as a
nonlinear implementation of the principal component
analysis method, allow the feature space to be mini-
mized without significant deterioration of its separat-
ing properties. Owing to the reduction of the feature
space at the stage of preliminary processing of data
arriving to cognitive radio systems, it becomes possible
to reduce computational capacities at the stages of
PROGRAMMING AND COMPUTER SOFTWARE
127
identification of radiation sources, which is especially
important in view of dependence of computational
complexity of RBF networks on the dimension of
input data. This circumstance makes it advisable to use
auto-associative artificial neural networks (ANN) in
software–hardware complexes of cognitive radio sys-
tems in the form of software preliminary processing
modules and self-organizing RBF networks in the
form of modules for recognition of radio signal
sources.
The basic problem arising in the implementation of
the proposed ANN-related solutions, namely, the dis-
sipation of energy in neurons and joins, can be solved
by using modern superconductivity technologies. An
example of the implementation of an energy-efficient
neuron is shown in Fig. 4 [9, 10]. An advantage of such
an implementation of the proposed neural networks is
simplicity of integration with superconductive digital
radio systems in one cryogenic package [11, 12].
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Ministry of Educa-
tion and Science of the Russian Federation, agree-
ment no. 14.604.21.0011 (RFMEFI60414X0011).
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Translated by A. Pesterev

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