

‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

١
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 
 K٪١٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 KW‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬K‫א‬ •
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

Introduction  ١ J١
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 General Concepts ٢ J١
 K‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 measured quantity E١F
Standard system E٢F
measuring instruments E٣F
measuring technology E٤F
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W E١F
 KKKKKKKKKKKKK‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W E٢F
 W
The international standards system‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
K  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
The primary standards system ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
The secondary standards system‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬E
 ‫א‬‫א‬F
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
The working standard‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W E٣F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W E٤F

 Electrical And Electronic Instruments‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٣ J١

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KEF
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١ J٣ J١
Functions and Characteristics of Electrical and Electronic Instruments
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

،‫א‬‫א‬KK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٪١٠٠
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 (amplifier)‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 
 Electrical Units‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١ J١ J٣ J١
،‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 
 K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 (Q)‫א‬‫ א‬E١F
(I)‫א‬‫ א‬E٢F
(V)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٣F
(R)‫ א‬E٤F
(L)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٥F
(C)‫ א‬E٦F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬E١ J١F

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬   ‫א‬
     W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
m  (meter)  l (Length)‫א‬
kg (kilogram)‫א‬ m (Mass)‫א‬
 s  (second) t  (Time)‫א‬
°K (degree Kelvin) T  (Temperature)‫א‬‫א‬
cd (candela) (Luminous intensity)‫א‬
A (Ampere) i (Electric current)‫א‬‫א‬
     W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
V (Volt) V (Electromotive force)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
C (Coulomb) Q (Quantity of charge)‫א‬
Ω (Ohm) R (Electrical resistance)‫א‬‫א‬
 F (Farad)‫א‬ C (Capacitance)‫א‬
H (Henry) L (Inductance)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬E١ J١F
 
 Error Sources in Measurements‫א‬‫א‬ ٤ J١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬،
 W(Instrumental Error)‫א‬‫א‬ E١F
 E J JFW‫א‬ EF
E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ FW‫א‬ E
F
E–FW‫א‬ E
F
E–FW‫א‬ E
F
 W(Gross Error)‫א‬‫א‬ E٢F
 ‫א‬ EF

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
(Environmental Error)‫א‬ E٣F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
K
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬ (Expected Value) 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬(Error)‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K(Percentage Error)‫א‬(Absolute Error)‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 Absolute Error (eab)‫א‬‫א‬

 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
e ab = Yn − X n E١ J١F
 W
 ‫א‬‫א‬: eab
‫א‬‫ א‬: Yn
 ‫א‬‫ א‬: Xn
 Relative ErrorEerF‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬

e ab Yn − X n
(e r ) = = E٢ J١F
Yn Yn

 Percentage Error (e%) ‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬

e ab Y − Xn
(e % ) = × 100 % = n × 100 % E٣ J١F
Yn Yn
 
 

 W‫א‬
Accuracy‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

Relative Accuracy (Ar) ‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ (Ar)‫א‬‫א‬
 W(Ar)‫א‬‫א‬

Xn Y − Xn
Ar = =1 − n = 1 − er E٤ J١F
Yn Yn
 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬WAr
Percentage Accuracy (a%)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ (a%)‫א‬‫א‬
Xn Y − Xn
a% = % = 100 % − n × 100 % E٥ J١F
Yn Yn
a % = 100% − Percentage Error = 100% − e % E٦ J١F
 
 W
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬: a%

 E١ J١F
‫א‬، 49 V ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬، 50 V ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫ א‬EF
 W‫א‬
 Weab‫א‬‫א‬ EF
 e ab = Yn − X n = 50 − 49 = 1 volt 
We%‫א‬‫א‬ EF

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

e ab 50 V − 49 V
e% = × 100 % = × 100 % = 2 %
Yn 50 V

WAr‫א‬‫א‬ EF
50 V − 49 V 1
Ar =1 − =1− = 0.98
50 v 50

Wa%‫א‬‫א‬ EF
a % = 100% − e % = 100% − 2 % = 98 %

 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬(Precision)‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬K
Xi − Xn
E٧ J١F        (Pr ecision ) i = 1 −
Xn
 W
(i)‫א‬‫א‬W(Precision)i
 (i)‫א‬‫א‬W X i
  (n)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬W X n

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 E٢ J١F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ Vi (volts)‫א‬‫א‬
 1 98
 2 102
 3 101
 4 97
 5 100
 6 103
 7 98
 8 106
 9 107
 10 99
 E٢ J١FE٢ J١F
 
 K(P4%FWE٤F‫א‬(Precision)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
 WE٧ J١F‫א‬
Vi − V
Pi % = 100 % − ×100 % 
Vn
 ‫א‬‫א‬١٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬n
 i = 4W،E٤F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

 W،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ X10

98 + 102 + 101 + 97 + 100 + 103 + 98 + 106 + 107 + 99

X= = 101.1
10

97 − 101.1
P4% = 100 % − ×100 % = 95.94 %
101.1

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬٥ J١
Statistical Analysis of Errors in Measurements

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬،E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬FK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬W  ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(Average deviationF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(arithmetic mean)‫א‬‫א‬
 K(Standard deviation)
 Average value (arithmetic mean)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١ J٥ J١
 (X1 , X 2 , X 3 .....X n ) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬n X ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WKn‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
X 1 + X 2 + X 3 + ........ + X n
X= E٨ J١F
n
 
 deviation‫א‬‫א‬ ٢ J٥ J١
 X i ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬( d i )i‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WK X ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
di = Xi − X E٩ J١F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + . . .. + d n = 0 E١٠ J١F
 W
n
∑ d i = X1 − X + X 2 − X ...... + X n − X = X 1 + X 2 + .... − X n − X − X − ........ − X
i =1
n n
∑ d i = .∑ X i − nX = 0
i =1 i =1

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
n
E١١ J١F          ∑ di = 0
i =1

 K  ‫א‬‫א‬

 
 Average deviation‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١ J٢ J٥ J١
 WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(D)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + . ... + d n
D = E١٢ J١F
n

Standard deviation‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٢ J٢ J٥ J١

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(S)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
d 12 + d 22 + d 32 + ... + d 2n
 E١٣ J١F S =
n or (n − 1)

‫א‬(n-1)‫א‬‫א‬( n < 30 )‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

n ‫א‬‫א‬،n‫א‬‫א‬( n ≥ 30 )‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kn-1
 
 E٣ J١F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K X ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
K d i ‫א‬‫ א‬EF
n
K ∑ d i ‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
i =1
KD‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
KS‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬
50.1 X1
49.7 X2
49.6 X3
50.2 X4
 E٣ J١FE٣ J١F
 

 W‫א‬
 W X ‫א‬‫א‬ EF
50.1 + 49.7 + 49.6 + 50.2
X = = 49.9
4
 W d i ‫א‬‫א‬ EF
d1 = 50.1 − 49.9 = 0.2
d 2 = 49.7 − 49.9 = - 0.2
d 3 = 49.6 − 49.9 = - 0.3
d 4 = 50.2 − 49.9 = 0.3
n
 W ∑ d i ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
i =1
4
∑ di = d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4 = 0.2 − 0.2 − 0.3 + 0.3 = 0
i =1
WD‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
0.2 + − 0.2 + − 0.3 + 0.3 1
D = = = 0.25
4 4

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 WS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
d 12 + d 22 + d 32 + d 24 0.2 2 + 0.2 2 + 0.3 2 + 0.3 2
 S = = = 0.294
4 −1 3
 

 Limiting Errors‫א‬‫ א‬٦ J١

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬KFull scale reading‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ± 2% ‫א‬‫א‬voltmeter‫א‬
K2%‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K2%‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 E٤ J١F
2 % 300 v 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 K120 v
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 Limiting Error at full scale = 0.02 × 300 v = 6 v
 W120 v‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
6
Limiting Error at 120 v = × 100 % = 5 %
120

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 
Elements of Electronic Instruments‫א‬‫א‬ ٧ J١
 W‫א‬KE١ J١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
Transducer Signal modifier Indicating device  
    
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬E١ J١F

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WTransducer E١F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WSignal Modifier E٢F
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
‫؛‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
WIndicating Device E٣F
K(Ammeter)‫א‬(Voltmeter)‫א‬‫א‬
W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
، ‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬W  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

 

 

 

-١٦-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬٨ J١
Selection, Usage and Care of Measuring Instruments
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(The operating and instructions manual)E ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
،‫א‬،W
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K،
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K ‫א‬
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

-١٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،1.5 A‫א‬‫א‬ ١ J١
K(e%)‫א‬‫א‬(eab)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K 1.46 A
 
‫א‬،2 kΩ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ٢ J١
W‫א‬،1.93 kΩ
 K‫א‬‫א‬ EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F

‫א‬ ‫א‬،30.15 V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٣ J١

K29.9 V

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ٤ J١

‫א‬ (volts)‫א‬‫א‬
(1) 20.20
 (2) 19.90
 (3) 20.05
 (4) 20.10
 (5) 19.85
 (6) 20.00
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

-١٨-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٥ J١

‫א‬‫א‬ (mm)‫א‬
 1 2.21
2 2.18
3 2.20
 4 2.21
 5 2.17
 6 2.19

-١٩-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 K‫א‬‫ א‬EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E
F

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬98%‫א‬‫א‬ ٦ J١
 300 V175 V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٧ J١
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬K٣٠٠

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٨ J١
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،5.6 kΩ
‫א‬ (kΩ)‫א‬
 1 5.75
 2 5.60
 3 5.65
 4 5.50
 5 5.70
 6 5.55
 7 5.80
 8 5.55
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

-٢٠-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 
W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٩ J١
‫א‬‫א‬ (kHz)‫א‬
1 532
 2 548
 3 543
 4 535
 5 546
 6 531
 7 543
 8 536

-٢١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٦٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F

‫א‬2%300V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١٠ J١
K120 V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 

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