CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Language is one of the most important aspects in human life, because in running

activities people cannot avoid using language. By using language, one can interact with

others and express what he feels. Leech (1981: 40) explains that language besides having

informal function which everyone tends to assume is most important, it can have

expressive function; that is, it can be used to express the speaker’s feeling.

To express what someone wants to say in order to make the others understand,

language can be utterance in two ways; spoken and written. In written form someone can

express his/her feeling to the readers by creating some writing. On the other hand, in

spoken form someone can express everything that he/she wants to say to the listener

directly.

In the written form, there are so many media of writing where author can express

their feeling, such as letters, newspapers, magazine, even novels. In the spoken form

language have many function such as speech to communicate, debate, discuss to solve

problem, etc.

Charles Morris (in Parera, 2004: 11) divided four functions of language;

informative, valuative, incintife, and systemic. Language that is used in political speech

has several purposes, such as: to persuade, to convince, even to control the thoughts and

action of the public relation. Language that is used in political field is different with daily

conversation.
 Political communication like speech is an effort to persuade people to be in

agreement. Therefore, the aim and the process of political communications have much

closed relation to persuade things. “Language is power” as Barner (2004) said that

politics is an activity to add and get the power. Politicians need to know how to build a

relationship with people. Political communication can be realized in the many forms, one

of them political speech.

The language in use named as discourse, the higher structural level of language. It

is emphasized by Schifrin’s theory (1994: 20): “discourse often defined in two ways: a

particular unit of language (above the sentence), and a particular focus (on language

use).” Thus, any form of language, spoken or written, as far the meaning can be

comprehended and used by its users, it can be named as discourse.

Moreover, the scope of discourse is enlarged by kramsch’s theory (in Oktavianus,

2006: 28), the theory says that discourses are more than just language: they are ways of

being in the world, or form of life that integrates words, acts, values, belief, attitudes, and

social identities. It infers that any form of language, as far as it has purpose and meaning,

can be categorized as discourse. Discourse is not just to be read or listened. Moreover,

discourse needs to be criticized, or analyzed. Harris (in Schifrin, 1994: 24) proposes that

the goal of discourse analysis is to discover how it is different random from sequences.

By using discourse it will be obvious that a piece of writing or an utterance is meaningful

discourse or not.

A text may be spoken or written, prose or verse, dialogue or monologue.

According Halliday and Hasan (1976: 1) “text is refer any passage, spoken, or written, of
whatever length, that does form a unified whole.” Shortly, text is a unit of language in

use. It means that text is defined as discourse.

Cohesion is the relationship between one part and the other part in a text.

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 4), “Cohesion has a semantic concept and it

refers to the relation of meaning that exists within the text”. Cohesion is very important

because it functions as a bridge which relates words and sentences even paragraphs in a

text. Cohesion helps the reader to get the whole meaning of the text. Cohesion is divided

into two groups. They are grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. Grammatical

cohesion is also divided into several groups namely reference, substitution, ellipsis, and

conjunction while lexical cohesion is classified into reiteration and collocation.

One of interesting works to analyze is speech. Speech is one of the ways for

people to express their minds or ideas to give knowledge and information. It does not

spend much time to understand it but it is not easy to understand well. Sometimes some

speeches are written with complicated sentence therefore it needs deeper comprehension.

Thus, it also need much time to analyze and understand it carefully.

One of the Barack Obama speeches was chosen to be analyzed. The speech

Obama chosen because Barak Obama as one of the United States of America’s president

has used the rhetoric speech in persuading the audience. As president he has done his

speech in order to persuade the audiences. In delivering his speech Obama has good

language in uttering his speech. His speeches have directed all of hearer in America, even

most people in the world impressed by his speech.

Actually there are many topic of Presidential speech of Barack Obama in 2010,

but for this research the writer taken only one speech transcript as the source of data that
is transcript of the Presidential speech at Indonesia University was carried out on

November 10th, 2010. The topic of this speech is about the

1.2 Identification of Problem

The writer want to know further about the cohesiveness as the factors that create

cohesion, whether the speech meet the criteria of being cohesive. In this study, the writer

deals with the following question:

1. What kinds of cohesive ties in term of grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion

that occurred in speech?

2. What are the most frequent of cohesive ties occurred in speech in term of

grammatical and lexical cohesion?

1.3 Objective of the Study

Through this study, the writer wants to find out the cohesive ties that are used in

speech. Besides that, the writer also describes the most frequently cohesive ties which

occur in speech in term grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion proposed by theory of

Halliday and Hasan .

1.4 Scope of Study

The study focuses on the analysis of cohesive ties in Barak Obama speech. The

theory of discourse analysis used in this research is cohesion theory proposed by Halliday

and Hasan (1976) in his book Cohesion in English. To make text being coherence there

are two ways, lexical cohesion and grammatical cohesion. Both of lexical and

grammatical cohesion have different element and function. There are four types of
grammatical cohesion; reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. Both substitution

and ellipsis have three types, that are; nominal, verbal and clausal.

1.5. Method of the Research

In doing this research, the writer uses both quantitative and qualitative methods.

The source of the data is taken from a transcript of the U.S Presidential speech in websit

http://obamafoodorama.blogspot.com/2010/11/transcript-president-obamas-speech-

in.htmle. In doing this research the writer used the method proposed by Sudaryanto

(1993). The method consists of three steps. They are collecting data, analyzing the data

and representing the result of the data analysis.

1.5.1. Collecting the Data

In collecting the data, the writer used observational method, which is the method

of collecting data by doing an observation of the language that used in this research

directly. The technique that she used is non-participatory observational technique, which

is a technique. She also used note-taking technique, which is a technique by taking note

for all the data that found (Sudaryanto, 1993: 135). In the process of collecting the data,

here are some procedures which have been done. Firstly, the writer has attempted to

discover the transcript of the U.S Presidential Speech in Indonesia University, November

10th, 2010 in internet to be analyzed. Then, the writer read the transcript of the speech

repeatedly in several times. After that, the writer collected the data based on cohesion

analysis. Finally, the writer divided the data into datum.

1.5.2. Analyzing the Data

 In analyzing the data there are two methods; identity and distributional method.

Identity method is determining tool of the language with the element out of it, and

distributional method is determining tool part of language itself. After looking at those

definitions above, in this research the writer analyzed the data using distributional

method. In analyzing the data, the writer uses some steps; they are; (1) Identifying the

data that is needed for this research, (2) Classifying the data based on the types, and (3)

analyzing the data based on the theory that is used.

The writer tried to identify and analyze each data how the cohesive ties influences

the cohesion text in the transcript of presidential speech of Barak Obama. In analyzing

the data, the writer used the concepts of cohesion which divided into two groups

generally namely, grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion proposed by Halliday and

Hasan (1976). The writer also used the supporting theories or concepts proposed by

Renkema (1993) and Halliday (1985).

1.5.3. Representing the Result of the Data Analysis

In the last step, the writer applies formal and informal methods in presenting the

result of analysis. The formal method is applied in presenting the result of analysis in the

form of table and informal method is applied in presenting the result of analysis in the

form of verbal language.

 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Review of the Related Study

2.2 Definition of Key Term

• Discourse analysis

Discourse analysis is the study of investigation of the relationship between form

and function. Renkema (1993:1). As a science, it is pulled from many different field,

including linguistics (how discourse is structured), sociology (how discourse is used

between parties), and psychology (how language is perceived).

Stubs (1983: 1) says, discourse analysis concerns with language use beyond the

boundaries of a sentence or utterance (grammatical or mental phenomenom), the

interrelationship between language and society (societal phenomenom), and the

interactive or dialogic properties of every day communication. In other sense, discourse

analysis refers to the study of organization of language above the sentence and above the

clause and therefore to study the larger linguistics unit such as conversational exchanges

and written text. By this, it covers the analysis of text.

• Text.

Text may be spoken or written, prose or verse, dialogue or monologue. It is best

regarded as semantic unit, in the term of form, the text consist of sentence. According to

Halliday and Hasan (1976) “the word ‘text’ is used in linguistics to refer any passage,
spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole”. Text is not

merely a collection of sentences. It is a collection of related sentences in which every

sentence in it is connected to each other. His concept of text is almost similar with

Shannon and Weaver (In Renkema, 1993: 33). They build the concept of text as follow:

“the writer is then the information source. What a writer has in mind can of course be

based on other sources of information. The message is coded into word.

On account of this, the writer concludes that text can be characterized by the

connections between sentences. In this literature review, seven criteria that sequence of

sentences must meet in order to qualify as a text. They are; cohesion, coherence,

intentionality, acceptability requires, informativeness, situationality, and intertextuality.

• Cohesion and Ties.

Cohesion is a part of the system of a language. The concept of meaning that exists

within a text. Based on Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1985: 4) cohesion is

“the grammatical and/or lexical relationship between the different elements of a text”.

Halliday and Hasan stated that “Cohesion is a semantic relation between an

element in text and some other element that is crucial to the interpretation of it” (1976:

8). Furthermore in Renkema (1993: 35) “cohesion is the connection which results when

the interpretation of textual elements is depends on another element on a text”. From the

definition above, it seems that cohesion can occur if the interpretation of one element in

discourse depends on another element. So, cohesion also can be said the unity of form.

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 8) give an example:

 Marry promised to send a picture of the children, but she hasn’t done.

A word “done” from the example above is replacement phrase “sent a picture of the

children. This cohesion called verbal substitution.

Based on explanation above, Halliday and Hasan (1976) and Renkema (1993: 37)

divided cohesion into two parts generally; grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.

Both grammatical and lexical cohesion have types each other. To make it clear, see the

comparison between Halliday Hasan (1976) and Renkema (1993) from the diagram

below:

1. Cohesion devises of Halliday and Hasan (1976)

Tie refers to single instance of cohesion, a term for one occurrence of a pair of

cohesively related items. The concept of tie makes it possible to analyze a text in terms of

its cohesive properties, and give a systematic account of its patterns of texture (Halliday

and Hasan, 1976:3). There are five types of cohesion ties; reference, substitution, ellipsis,

conjunction and lexical cohesion.

A tie includes not only the cohesive element itself but also that which is

presupposed by it. Thus, a tie is best interpreted as a relation between these two elements.

Moreover, a tie is also directional by means that it maybe anaphoric, with presupposed

element preceding or cataphoric, with the presupposed element following.

• Language in Politics

Language and politics are two elements that are related to each other.
2.3. Theoretical Framework

Based on Haliday and Hasan (1976) cohesion is also semantic one. Cohesion

divided into two groups, namely grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.

Grammatical cohesion deals with some form which is realized through grammar. While

lexical cohesion is expressed through the vocabulary. In order words, it is the cohesive

effect archived by the selection of vocabulary.

2.3.1. Grammatical Cohesion

Grammatical cohesion is one of the types of cohesion which is expressed through

grammar. It consists of reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

 Reference

In general, reference is the relation between word and thing. In other word

reference in a sentence is determined by the writer or the speaker. The referential

meaning may refer to people, place, or things. According to Halliday and Hasan,

reference us the specific nature of the information that is signaled for retrieval (1976: 31).

In this reference, the information that should be retrieved is the referential meaning,

identity of particular thing or class of things that is being referred to.

This term, is also used by Halliday and Hasan theory to describe the relation

between an element of the text and something else by reference to which it is interpreted

in the given sentence. Reference can be divided as:

 1. Exophoric, the relation between one item to something outside the text or in the

context of situation.

2. Endophoric, the relation between the presupposing item and presupposed item

within the text. Thus, it consists of: first, Anaphoric is relation where the

presupposing item presupposes the information that has been occurred in the

preceding sentence. Second, Cataphoric is the relation, where the presupposing

item presupposes the information following it.

Based on Halliday and Hasan point of view, they divided reference into three types, they

are: personal, demonstrative, and comparative reference.

• Personal Reference

Personal reference is reference by means of the function in the speech situation

through the category of person (1976: 37). The category of personals includes the three

classes of personal pronoun, namely personal pronoun, adjective pronoun, and possessive

pronoun.

Form Personal Pronoun

Subject Object
First Person
Singular I Me
Plural we Us

Second Person
Singular You You
Plural You You

Third Person
Singular He, She, It Him, Her, It
plural They Them
 Form Possessive Adjective
First Person
Singular My
Plural Our

Second Person
Singular Your
Plural Your

Third Person
Singular His, Her, Its
Plural Their

Form Possessive Pronouns

First Person
Singular Mine
Plural Ours

Second Person
Singular Yours
Plural Yours

Third Person
Singular His, Hers, Its
Plural Theirs

• Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative reference is reference by mean of location on a scale of proximitif.

The meaning of proximity here is typically from the point of view of the speaker or
writer. This scaled is defined in terms of the selective participation and circumstances

that define the textual occasion (1976: 37).

Semantic category selective Non-

selective
Grammatical function Modifier/head Adjunct Modifier
Class Determiner Adverb Determiner
Proximity
Near This, these Here (now)
Far That, those These (then) The

Neutral

• Comparative Reference

According to Halliday (1985: 294) comparative reference is indirect reference by means

of identity or similarity. Comparative reference is divided into general comparison and

particular comparison.

Grammatical class Adjective Adverb

General I
Identity Some, equal, identical dentically
Similarity Similar, additional Similarly, likewise
Difference Other, different, else Differently, otherwise
Particular Better, more, etc So, more, less, equally
  Substitution

Substitution is the replacement of a word (group) or sentence segment by a

“dummy” word. It means that substitution is relation in word rather in meaning. Halliday

state that:

“substitution is a relation between linguistics items, such as words or

phrases:… substitution is a relation in lexicon grammatical level, the level
of grammar and vocabulary, or linguistic form”. (1976: 89). Halliday
added, “a substitute is a short of counter which is used in place of the
repetition of particular item”. (1976: 89).

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), there are three types of substitution;

nominal substitution (one for singular and ones for plural), verbal substitution (do) and

clausal substitution (so, not).

• Nominal Substitution

Nominal substitution is the substitution of noun. It is marked by one, ones, and

same. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 91) say that nominal substitution is the substitute

one/ones always function as head of nominal group, and can substitute only for an item

which itself head of a nominal group.

• Verbal Substitution

Verbal substitution is the substitution of verb. It refers to a verb which is used in

verbal substitution depends on the role of action and situation. The verbal substituted in

English is do with the morphological scatter do, does, did, doing, done.
 • Clausal substitution

Clausal substitution is the substitution of clause by another item. It is marked by

so (positive marker) and not (negative marker).

 Ellipsis

Ellipsis is the omission of a word or a part of a sentence. It is also can be said the

substitution by zero. Ellipsis occurs when some essential structural element is omitted

from a sentence or clause and can only be recovered by referring to an element in the

preceding text. It has three types, nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis.

Halliday said ellipsis as substitution by zero. He state that:

“The starting point of the discussion of ellipsis can be familiar nation that
is ‘something left unsaid’. There is no implication here that what is unsaid
is not understood; on the contrary, ‘unsaid’ implies ‘but understood
nevertheless’, and another way of referring to ellipsis is in fact as
SOMETHING UNDSTOOD, where understood is used is used in the
special sense of ‘going without saying’. (1976: 142)

• Nominal Ellipsis

Nominal ellipsis means ellipsis within the nominal group. On logical dimension

the structure is that of a head of with of optimal modification. There are some elements

which become modifier in nominal ellipsis. Halliday said that: “Nominal ellipsis

therefore upgrading of a word functioning as Dietic, Numerative, and Epithet.”

 • Verbal Ellipsis

An ellipsis verbal group presupposed one or more words from a previous verbal

group. Technically, it is defined as a verbal group whose structure does not fully express

its systematic feature.

Verbal ellipsis can divided into two ways:

1. Lexical Ellipsis

Lexical ellipsis is omission from the right side which lexical verb. Halliday said

that: “lexical ellipsis is ellipsis ‘from the right’; it is always involves omission of the last

word.” (1976: 173)

2. Operator Ellipsis

Operator ellipsis is opposite with the lexical ellipsis. Halliday state that: “there is

another type of verbal ellipsis, which is ellipsis ‘from the left’. We shall refer to this as

‘operator ellipses’, since it involves only the omission of operator: the lexical verb always

remains intact.” (1976: 174)

• Clausal Ellipsis

Clausal ellipsis has modal element and propositional element. The modal element

has the subject plus the finite element in the verbal group, while propositional element

has the residue; the remainder of the verbal group.

  Conjunction

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 226), conjunctive elements are cohesive

not in themselves but indirectly by virtue of their specific meaning. It means that they are

not primarily devices for reaching out into the preceding text but they express certain

meaning which presupposes the presence of other components in discourse. In other

word, conjunction does not depend either on referential meaning or identity or

association of wording. There are four types of conjunction:

• Additive

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 244) additive relation consists of

additional information to the text. The conjunctive relation, are: and, or,

furthermore, beside, likewise, similarly, that is, in other word, for instance, ect.

• Adversative

The adversative relation is contrary relations which happen in the component of

what being said (1976: 250). The adversative relations are: yet, but, however, at

the same time, in fact, at least, etc.

• Causal

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 260) causal relation includes the relation

from combination clauses or sentences which clausal effect exists. The causal

relation are; so, because, for this reason, as a result, then, here.
 • Temporal

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 261) temporal relation is expressed in its

simplest form by sequential relation conclusion and summary. The temporal

relations are; next, before then, first, finally, in the end, in short, to sum up.

2.3.2. Lexical Cohesion

According to Halliday and Hasan, lexical cohesion looks at the way aspect of

vocabulary links parts of text together. It is established through vocabulary, and hence at

the lexicogrammatical level (1976: 6). There are two types of lexical cohesion; reiteration

and collocation. Lexical cohesion is established in a text by the choice of words.

Reiteration is the use of general words as cohesive elements. A reiterated item may be a

repetition or use the same word, synonym or near-synonym, hyponymy that is the relation

of word “flower” to “tulip”. Metonymy that is the relation of a part as a whole, and

antonymy that is the opposite of a word.

According to Renkema (1993: 39), lexical cohesion includes two types; namely

reiteration and collocation. Reiteration includes same word (repetition), synonym (or near

synonym), super ordinate and general word.

 Reiteration

Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical

items, the use of a general word to refer back to lexical item, and a number of things in

between the use of a synonym, near-synonym or super ordinate.

 Here are the examples:

 Repetition: a conference will be held on national environmental policy. At this

conference the issue of sanitation will play an important role.

 Synonymy: a conference will be held on national environmental policy. This

environmental symposium will be primarily a conference dealing with water.

 Hyponymy: we were in town today shopping for furniture. We saw a lovely table.

 Metonymy: at six-month check-up, the brakes had to be repaired. In general,

however, the car is in good condition.

 Collocation

Collocation is the cohesive effect of such pairs depends on association to another

word. Furthermore, collocation is a cover term for the cohesion resulted from the

occurrence of the lexical totems that they are in some way or other typically associated

with one other, because they tend to occur in similar environments. According to

Renkema (1993: 39) “Collocation deals with the relationship between words on the basis

of the fact that these often occur in the same surrounding”.

For example:

Res cross helicopter were in the air continuously. The blood bank will be separately in

need of donors.

The word ‘donors’ in example above is collocation to the word ‘blood’.

 CHAPTER III

COHESION ANALYSIS IN THE “TRANSCRIPT OF PRESIDENTIAL SPEECH

OF BARACK OBAMA AT INDONESIA UNIVERSITY”

In this chapter, the writer answer the research questions which are to find out the

types of cohesive ties that occurred and the most frequent cohesive ties used in the

“Transcript of Presidential Speech of Barack Obama”. The data were analyzed based on

the theories proposed in the previous chapter. This analysis will show us some data

consisting cohesive ties in term grammatical and lexical cohesion in “Transcript of

Presidential Speech of Barack Obama”.

The Coding Scheme of Cohesive Ties

1. REFERENCE
 Personal reference : R1

Demonstrative reference : R2

Comparative reference : R3

2. SUBSTITUTION

Nominal substitution : S1

Verbal substitution : S2

Clausal substitution : S3

3. ELLIPSIS

Nominal ellipsis : E1

Verbal ellipsis : E2

Clausal ellipsis : E3

4. CONJUNCTION

Additive : C1

Adversative : C2

Constrastive : C3

Temporal : C4
 5. LEXICAL COHESION

Repetition : L1

Synonym : L2

Hyponym : L3

Metonymy : L4

Antonymy : L5

Collocation : L6

3.1. Analyzing Cohesion in “Transcript of Presidential Speech of Barack Obama”

Paragraph 1

Terima kasih(1). Terima kasih, thank you so much, thank you, everybody(2).

Selamat pagi(3). (Applause.) It is wonderful to be here at the University of Indonesia(4).

To the faculty and the staff and the students, and to Dr. Gumilar Rusliwa Somantri, thank

you so much for your hospitality(5). (Applause.) Assalamualaikum dan salam sejahtera.

Thank you for this wonderful welcome(6). Thank you to the people of Jakarta and thank

you to the people of Indonesia(7). Pulang kampung nih(8). (Applause.) I am so glad that I

made it back to Indonesia and that Michelle was able to join me(9). We had a couple of

false starts this year, but I was determined to visit a country that’s meant so much to

me(10). And unfortunately, this visit is too short, but I look forward to coming back a

year from now when Indonesia hosts the East Asia Summit(11). (Applause.) Before I go
any further, I want to say that our thoughts and prayers are with all of those Indonesians

who are affected by the recent tsunami and the volcanic eruptions -- particularly those

who’ve lost loved ones, and those who’ve been displaced(12). And I want you all to

know that as always, the United States stands with Indonesia in responding to natural

disasters, and we are pleased to be able to help as needed(13). As neighbors help

neighbors and families take in the displaced, I know that the strength and the resilience of

the Indonesian people will pull you through once more(14).

Sentence No. of Cohesive Item Type Distance Presupposed Item

number Ties
1 1 Thank you L1

http://obamafoodorama.blogspot.com/2010/11/transcript-president-obamas-speech-

in.html