Copyright: Capt.

VK Goyal
Mass & Balance

Basic Empty Mass. All light aircraft use the BEM and its G position as the
foundation from which to calculate all relevant masses and CG positions

• Operating mass minus crew and fuel load.

Dry Operating Mass. Large aeroplane use Dry Operating Mass. The Load and
Trim Sheet cannot be completed until the DOM and its CG position are known. It is
the total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of Operations. The
mass includes items such as;

• Crew and crew Baggage

• Catering and removable Passenger service equipment
• Potable water and lavatory chemicals.

It does not include – useable FUEL and TRAFFIC LOAD.

Operating Mass (Wet not Dry). The total mass of the aeroplane ready
for operations with FOB (Fuel on Board).

• But no Traffic Load.

Zero Fuel Mass. Dry operating mass with traffic load, but no fuel

Take-off Mass. Operating mass (with fuel) plus Traffic Load

Traffic Load. The total mass of pax, baggage and cargo.

• Originally known as the ‘payload’, the traffic load is the revenue-
generating load that pays the salaries and hopefully produces a profit for
the operator.

Useful Load.

• The Useful Load is the sum of the traffic load and the Take-off fuel.

Maximum Structural Take-off Mass. The maximum permissible mass of an

aeroplane at the start of the take-off run.

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Maximum Zero Fuel Mass.. The maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane
with no useable fuel. (Ballast fuel is part of ZFM, if specified as such.)
The maximum stress in the wing roots occurs when the wing fuel tanks are
empty. To ensure that the wings don’t fold up permanently above the
aircraft as the fuel is consumed a maximum zero fuel mass is imposed on the
structure by the manufacturer.

Maximum Structural Landing Mass. The maximum permissible mass of an

aeroplane for landing under normal circumstances.

RTOW: The allowable Take-off Mass is the lowest of:

 Structural Limited Take-off Mass
 MZFM + Take-off Fuel
 Regulated Take-off Mass = Field Length Limited Take-off Mass
 Regulated Landing Mass + Fuel used in flight

Some More Terms

Centre of Gravity

• The point through which the force of gravity is said to act on a mas
• It is that part of the aircraft that follows the flight path and the point
about which the aircraft manoeuvres in the air.
• The Centre of Gravity is also the point of balance and as such it
affects the stability of the aircraft both on the ground and in the air.

Datum
• A point along the longitudinal axis (centre line) of the aeroplane (or
it’s extension) designated by the manufacturer as the zero or
reference point from which all balance arms begin. By taking
moments about the balance arm the CG position of the aircraft can be
determined.

Balance Arm
• The distance from the aircraft’s Datum to the CG position or centroid
of a body of mass. For example, the centroid of a square or
rectangle is the exact centre of the square or rectangle.

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• For the purposes of calculations, all balance arms ahead of (in front
of) the datum are given a negative (-) prefix and those behind (aft of)
the datum are given a positive (+) prefix.
• Calculate all relevant masses and CG positions. The Load and Trim
Sheet cannot be completed until the DOM and its CG position are
known.

Centre of Gravity limits.

• The CG is not a fixed point. it has a range of movement between a
maximum forward position and a maximum rearward position, which are
set by the aircraft manufacturer and cannot be exceeded.

Effect of Movement of Centre of Gravity

• The position of the CG determines how stable or how manoeuvrable the
aircraft will be.

• Starting at the mid position of the fuselage, a CG moving towards the

nose of the aircraft will progressively increase the stability and, at the
same time, progressively reduce the manoeuvrability.

• Similarly, a CG moving aft towards the tail of the aircraft will increase
the manoeuvrability and decrease the stability.

• Too much stability increases the flying control stick forces and the work
load on the pilot trying to overcome them.

• Too much manoeuvrability makes the aircraft unstable and difficult to

control.

Pilot Operating Hand-book

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Engine Fire on Ground (Start-Up)

1. Ignition Switch – Start. Continue Cranking the engine to suck in

the flames and accumulated fuel. If engine starts,
2. Power 1700 RPM for a few minutes;
3. Then Shut Down the Engine and inspect for damage.

If engine fails to start

1. Throttle fully open

2. Mixture Idle-cut Off
3. Cranking - Continue
4. Fuel SOV OFF
5. Auxiliary Fuel Pump OFF

If engine fails to Start - Engine Secure.

6. Master Switch Off

7. Ignition OFF
8. Parking Brake RELEASE
9. Fire Extinguisher COLLECT
10.Evacuate the Aircraft

Try to extinguish the fire using FE, Dirt etc.

11.Inspect for damage.

Engine Fire in Flight

1. Mixture – IDLE CUT OFF

2. Fuel SOV OFF
3. Auxiliary Fuel Pump OFF
4. Master Switch OFF
5. CABIN HEAT and VENTS OFF

Airspeed 100 Knots for Glide ( If fire not extinguished).

Execute a Forced Landing.

PERFORMANCE

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T/O Climb Segment. The initial airborne phase is divided into four segments.
The critical engine is assumed to have failed at Vef (Critical Engine Failure
Speed).

1st Segment: Gear down, T/O flaps, T/O thrust, Speed V2.

First segment ends when Gear is UP

2nd Segment: Gear UP, T/O flaps, T/O thrust, Speed V2.

T/O thrust and Flaps maintained to get best possible Climb Gradient. Extends to
minimum 400 ft. May be higher if Terrain Obstacle clearance demands.

3rd Segment: Gear UP, Flaps UP, T/O thrust, Speed accelerating from V2 to Final
segment speed.

Called the transition or acceleration segment to change from T/O configuration to

Clean configuration. A/c is accelerated to best engine-out ROC (Vyse) speed. At
the end of segment thrust is reduced to MCT on operative engine.

4th Segment: Gear UP, Flaps UP, Thrust MCT, Speed Final segment speed

The segment ends when transition to en route altitude reached. At least 1500 ft

Max Allowable T/O mass is determined by

• Structural Limit
• Field Length limit
• Climb limit
• Tyre speed limit
• Brake energy limit
• Obstacle limit

• Factors affecting T/O distance

• Mass
• Air Density.
• Wind
• RW slope and Surface
• Flap setting
• Airframe contamination

Important Definitions & Terms

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Take-off Run Available (TORA) At most aerodromes the take-off run
available is the length off the runway from threshold to threshold.

The take-off run available is the distance from the point on the surface of
the aerodrome at which the aeroplane can commence its take-off run to the
nearest point in the direction of take- off at which the surface of the
aerodrome is incapable of bearing the weight of the aeroplane under normal
operating conditions.

Take-off Distance Available (TODA). The take-off distance available is

the take-off run available plus any clearway (TORA + Clearway). If there is
no clearway at the aerodrome then the take-off distance available will be the
same length as the take-off run available.

Although clearways can be of any length, there is a limit to the amount of

clearway that can be used when calculating the TODA. The maximum
length of clearway is this case cannot be more than half the length of TORA.

(ASDA)Accelerate Stop Distance Available or Emergency Distance

Available. The accelerate-stop distance available is the length of take-off
run available plus any stopway (TORA + Stopway).

If there is no stopway at the aerodrome then the accelerate-stop distance

available will be the same length as the take-off run available.

Landing Distance Available. The distance from the point on the surface of
the aerodrome above which the aeroplane can commence its landing, having
regard to the obstructions in its approach path, to the nearest point in the
direction of landing at which the surface of the aerodrome is incapable of
bearing the weight of the aeroplane under normal operating conditions or at
which there is an obstacle capable of affecting the safety of the aeroplane.

Screen Height The height of an imaginary screen (35 feet)placed at the end
of the Take-Off Distance Required and at the beginning of the Landing
Distance Required (50 Feet).

Balanced Field Length. A runway for which the Accelerate Stop Distance
Available is equal to the Take- off Distance Available.

Clearway An area beyond the runway, not less than 152 m (500 ft) wide,

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centrally located about the extended centreline of the runway, and under the
control of the airport authorities. The clearway is expressed in terms of a
clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope
not exceeding 1·25%, above which no object or terrain protrudes.

Stopway An area beyond the take-off runway, no less wide than the runway
and centred upon the extended centreline of the runway, able to support the
aeroplane during an abortive take-off, without causing structural damage to
the aeroplane, and designated by the airport authorities for use in
decelerating the aeroplane during an abortive take-off.

V1(Decision Speed). The maximum speed in the take-off at which the pilot
must take the first action (e.g. apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed
brakes) to stop the aeroplane within the accelerate-stop distance. It also
means the minimum speed in the take-off, following a failure of the critical
engine at VEF, at which the pilot can continue the take-off and achieve the
required height above the take-off surface within the takeoff distance
Referred to as the decision speed.

Final Segment Speed The speed of the aeroplane in segment four of the
take-off flight path with one engine inoperative.

Final take-off speed The speed of the aeroplane that exists at the end of the
take-off path in the en-route configuration with one engine inoperative.

Vlo Landing gear operating speed The maximum speed at which the
landing gear can be safely extended or retracted.

Vle Landing gear extended speed The maximum speed at which an aircraft
can be safely flown with the landing gear extended.

Vmbe Maximum Brake Energy Speed The maximum speed on the ground
from which an aeroplane can safely stop within the energy capabilities of the
brakes.

Maximum Continuous Thrust The thrust identified in the performance

data for use during periods of unrestricted duration

Vmu Minimum unstick speed The minimum speed demonstrated for each
combination of weight, thrust, and configuration at which a safe takeoff has
been demonstrated.

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Vr Rotation Speed The speed at which, during the take-off, rotation is
initiated with the intention of becoming airborne.

VLOF Lift-off Speed. The speed at which the aeroplane gets airborne.

V1 It is the speed at which the pilot, in the event of a power unit failure, must
decide whether to abandon or continue the take-off.

Engine failure prior to V1 demands that the pilot must abandon the take- off
because there is insufficient distance remaining to enable the aircraft
accelerate to the screen height.

Engine failure after V1 demands that the pilot must continue the take-off
because there is insufficient distance remaining to safely bring the aircraft to
a stop.

V1 must not be less than Vmcg not greater than Vr and not greater than Vmbe

V2 Take-off safety speed A referenced airspeed obtained after lift-off at

which the required one engine-inoperative climb performance can be
achieved.

Vref Reference landing speed The speed of the aeroplane, in a specified

landing configuration, at the point where it descends through the landing
screen height (50 Feet) in the determination of the landing distance for
manual landings

VEF The calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail
and is used for the purpose of performance calculations. VEF, at which the
pilot can continue the take-off and achieve the required.height above the
take-off surface within the takeoff distance. It is never less than VMCG.

V3  All-engines operating steady initial climb speed (250 Kts till 10,000 feet)

V4  All-engines operating steady take-off climb speed

VA Design Maneuvering Speed

VEF The assumed speed of engine failure

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VFTO Final take-off speed

VA Design Maneuvering Speed

VEF The assumed speed of engine failure

VFE The maximum flap extended speed

VFTO Final take-off speed

VLE The maximum speed with landing gear extended

VLO The maximum at which the landing gear may be lowered

VLOF Lift-off Speed

VMBE Maximum brake-energy speed

VMC Minimum control speed with the critical power unit inoperative

VMCA Air minimum control speed in the air (take-off climb)

VMCG Ground minimum control speed (at or near the ground)

Vmcl Landing minimum control speed (on the approach to land)

VMO The maximum operating speed

VMU The minimum unstick speed

VNE Never exceed speed

VRA The turbulence speed or rough air speed

VREF The reference landing speed (Replaced Vat speed)

VS Stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the aeroplane is controllable

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VSR Reference stalling speed. Assumed to be same as Vs(1g)

Climb Gradient The ratio, in the same units of measurement, expressed as

a percentage, as obtained from the formula:- Gradient = Vertical interval ÷
the horizontal interval x 100. Also Rise/Run * 100.

Gross Performance The average performance that a fleet of aeroplanes

should achieve if satisfactorily maintained and flown in accordance with the
techniques described in the manual.

Net Performance Net performance is the gross performance diminished to

allow for various contingencies that cannot be accounted for operationally
e.g., variations in piloting technique, temporary below average performance,
etc. It is improbable that the net performance will not be achieved in
operation, provided the aeroplane is flown in accordance with the
recommended techniques.

Absolute Ceiling The altitude at which the theoretical rate of climb, with all
engines operating at maximum continuous power, is reduced to zero feet per
minute

Aerodynamic Ceiling The altitude, in unaccelerated 1g level flight, where

the Mach number for the low speed and high speed buffet are coincident.

Service Ceiling The altitude at which the theoretical rate of climb becomes
less than a specified rate of climb (typically 1000 ft/min or 300 ft/min), with
all engines operating at maximum continuous power.

ICAO Standard Atmosphere The atmosphere defined in ICAO Document

7488/2. For the purposes of Certification Specifications the following is
acceptable:–

The air is a perfect dry gas . The temperature at sea level is 15°C. The
pressure at sealevel is 1013·2 hPa (29·92 in Hg). The temperature gradient
from sea level to the altitude at which the temperature becomes –56·5°C is
0.65°C/100 m (1·98°C/1 000 ft). The density at sea level under the above
conditions is 1·2250 kg/m3

Pressure Altitude The altitude of an aircraft above the pressure level of

1013.25 hPa. This is achieved by setting the altimeter sub-scale to 1013 hPa
and reading the altitude indicated.

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Density Altitude The altitude in I.S.A., where the prevailing measured
density occurs.

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