Draft Guidelines For Engineering of Natural Slopes (H-4) - Compressed

IRC: SP: ___- 2021
GUIDELINES FOR ENGINEERING OF NATURAL SLOPES
1 2
3 4
1. Rehabilitation / Treatment of landslide locations with Slope Protection, Retention and Drainage Improvement Measures on NH58
in Chamoli, Uttarakhand, Birahi, CH 437+560 to 468+ 585.
2. Rockfall Mitigation Measures Near Khandala Tunnel (Mumbai Side) – Mumbai – Pune Expressway, CH 46+135 to 46+240.
3. Four Laning of Parwanoo-Solan Section of NH-22 (Now-5) from km 67.000 to km 106.00 on EPC Mode under NHDP Phase-III in the
state of Himachal Pradesh -Portal 2 Approach for Borog tunnel.
4. Landslide Rehabilitation along with Improvement of Drainage System at Tindharia S3 location at km 53+452 to 53+482.
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

2021
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Scope
CHAPTER-2 PLANNING
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Identification of slope instability prone area
2.2 Preliminary investigation at the planning stage
2.3 Geological conditions relating to hazards
2.4 Topographic map production with advanced technology utilizing satellite data for hazards detection
2.5 Development of various alignment options
2.6 Multi-criteria analysis to select the most suitable alignment option
2.7 Detailed geological mapping along the final alignment
2.8 Fine tuning of the final alignment
2.9 Checkpoints during field survey for planning
CHAPTER-3 INVESTIGATIONS
3.0 General
3.1 Investigations for slope assessment and stability analysis of soil and rock slopes
3.1.1 Surface investigations
3.1.2 Subsurface investigations
3.1.3 Hydrological investigations
3.1.4 Laboratory investigation
3.1.5 In-situ test for determining geotechnical properties
3.2 Use of correlations to assist property selection
3.3 Some typical examples of landslides investigation affecting hill roads
3.3.1 Subsidence and lateral displacement of road surface
3.3.2 Damage at boundary between cut and fill
3.3.3 Damage by debris or deposits from upper slope
3.4 Performa for collection of data regarding landslide occurrences and clearance
CHAPTER-4 ANALYSIS
4.0 General
4.1 Critical input parameters required for the analysis
4.2 Essential matters for proper slope stability analysis
4.2.1 Identification of slope instability blocks (Essential step 1)
4.2.2 Alignment of survey lines (geometry) (Essential step 2)
4.2.3 Careful preparation of slope instability profile and close examination of slip surface (Essential step 3)
4.2.4 Distribution of pore water pressure (Essential step 4)
4.2.5 Determination of the strength parameters (Essential step 5)
4.3 Methods of analysis and selection criteria
4.3.1Stability analysis of slopes predominantly with soils
4.4 Stability analysis of slopes predominantly with rock strata and in weathered rock
4.4.1 Failure modes and use of stereographic projections to identify failure modes
4.4.2 Relationship between geology and classes of rock strength
4.4.3 Critical input parameters required for the analysis
4.4.4 Design methods
4.5 Stability analysis for predominantly rock slopes
CHAPTER-5 METHODS FOR PREVENTION, STABILIZATION AND MITIGATION OF SOIL /ROCK
SLOPES FAILURES, ROCK FALLS, AND DEBRIS FLOW
5.0 General
5.1 Avoid problem/choose alternative alignment/relocation
5.2 Use of light-weight materials in construction/rehabilitation
5.3 Modification of slope geometry to minimize driving forces and/or improving resisting forces
5.3.1 Removal of loose material, flattening of slopes, reducing water table
5.3.2 A standard gradient of cut slope
5.3.3 Provision of berms
5.3.4 Balanced cut and fill slopes
5.3.5 Treatment of cut and fill slope from unfavourable topographic, geological, geotechnical, and
groundwater conditions
5.4 Provision of surface and subsurface drainage measures ensuring holistic drainage network
5.4.1 Surface drainage system to increase runoff and reduce the adverse impact
5.4.2 Subsurface drainage system to improve slope stability
5.4.3 Road surface and subsurface drainage
5.4.4 Public drainage systems in hill side areas and hill slope stability
5.4.5 Use of permeable fill and removal of unstable materials to improve stability and drainage
5.5 Erosion control and other surface protection measures
5.5.1 Different types of vegetating methods for erosion control
5.5.2 Selection criteria of erosion control system
5.6 Provision of Restraining, Retaining and Protection structures to improve slope stability – Rigid and
flexible systems
5.6.1 Restraining structures
5.6.2 Retaining structures
5.7 Treatment/Training of slopes subjected to hydraulic forces from water bodies
5.7.1 Longitudinal structures to protect river/stream bank slopes
5.7.2 Transverse river/stream training structures by reducing driving forces against slope stability
5.8 Improvement in internal stability of slope by soil nailing, rock anchoring, rock bolting, grouting, and
micropiling etc.
5.8.1 Soil Nailing/Rock Bolting/Rock Anchoring and Facia Stabilization
5.8.2 Anchored Retaining Wall
5.8.3 Micropiles
5.9 Rockfall mitigation measures
5.9.1 Drapery systems
5.9.2 Rockfall prevention measures
5.9.3 Protection Measures
5.9.4 Retention Measures
5.9.5 Warning measures
5.10 Debris-Flow mitigation measures
5.10.1 Debris Flow Barriers
5.10.2 Debris-flow basins
5.10.3 Weirs/Deflectors for debris flow mitigation
5.10.4 Debris-flow retaining walls
5.11 Emergency measures
5.11.1 Umbrella Structure
5.12 Avalanche mitigation measures
5.13 Precast cut and cover tunnels
5.14 Combination of countermeasures/mitigations
5.14.1 Rehabilitation of failed slope/New construction of steep slope due to road widening
5.15 Conclusions and recommendations
CHAPTER-6 INTRODUCTION
6.0 Scope
6.1 Definition of Nail/rock bolt and Ground anchor
6.1.1 Nails
6.1.2 Ground anchors
6.2 Difference between soil nailing & ground anchoring
6.3 Applications, suitability, merits & demerits of nails and ground anchors
6.3.1 Nails
6.4 Nails for soil and rock slope stabilization
6.4.1 Types of nailing
6.4.2 Materials
6.4.3 Soil investigation
6.4.4 Bond strength
6.4.5 Installation technique for grouted soil nailing
6.4.6 Effects of groundwater on soil nailing
6.4.7 Drainage measures
6.4.8 Corrosion protection
6.4.9 Design and Analysis of soil nail system
6.4.10 Testing
6.4.11 Quality Control and Assurance
6.5 Ground anchors for soil and rock slope stabilization
6.5.1 Applications of ground anchors for slope stabilization
6.5.2 Types of Ground Anchors
6.5.3 Mechanism of anchored wall system
6.5.4 Materials
6.5.5 Soil/rock investigation
6.5.6 Corrosion protection of steel tendon and stressed steel components
6.5.7 Installation
6.5.8 Failure modes of an anchored wall system
6.5.9 Design parameters and procedure
CHAPTER-7 REINFORCED SOIL SYSTEM
7.0 General
7.1 Reinforced soil system
7.1.1 Reinforced soil wall (RSW)
7.1.2 Reinforced soil slope (RSS)
7.2 Suitability of Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS)
7.3 Use and Application of Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS)
7.4 Components of Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS)
7.4.1 Reinforcing element
7.4.2 Facing/Facia systems
7.4.3 Reinforced Fill
7.4.4 Drainage arrangement
7.5 Design of Reinforced Soil Slope
7.5.1 Failure Modes
7.5.2 Design of Reinforcement for Steepening Slopes and Slope Repair
7.6 Shored reinforced soil structure/Shored MSE Wall (SMSE wall)
7.6.1 Design Considerations of Shored MSE wall
7.6.2 Types of Shored MSE walls or Shored RS system
7.7 Construction
CHAPTER-8 SOIL SLOPE STABILIZATION BY MICRO-PILES
8.0 General
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Impact of micropile elements in design considerations
8.2.1 Grouting
8.2.2 Reinforcement
8.3 Design approach
8.3.1 Design concepts for micropiles used for soil slope stabilization
8.4 Load test on micropiles
8.4.1 Ultimate test
8.4.2 Verification test
8.4.3 Proof test
8.4.4 Creep test
8.4.5 Frequency of tests
8.4.6 Test load magnitude
8.4.7 Method of testing
8.4.8 Acceptance criteria
8.5 Durability
8.5.1 Criteria
8.5.2 Methods of corrosion protection
CHAPTER-9 PREPARATION OF DETAILED PROJECT REPORT (DPR) FOR ENGINEERINGOF
NATURAL SLOPES
9.0 Introduction
9.0.1 Geology and Geotechnical Aspects
9.0.2 Reconnaissance Survey
9.0.3 Design Stage Requirements
9.1 Structure of DPR for Slope Protection Projects
9.2 Guidelines for Landslide Investigation and Mitigation Design
9.2.1 Introduction to the area
9.2.2 Detailed investigations for landslide-prone locations
9.2.3 Slope Stability Analysis
9.2.4 Proposed Mitigation Measures
9.2.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
9.2.6 Timelines of various activities
9.2.7 Cost Estimation
9.3 List of Annexure (To be enclosed with DPR)
9.3.1 Details to be provided in DPR for mitigation measures proposed
ANNEURE A-I
ANNEXURE A-II General Considerations for Design of Shored Reinforced Soil Structure / Shored MSE
Wall
ANNEXURE A-III Typical Examples in India
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 2.1 Dip slope structure
Fig 3.1 Multiple geomorphologic mapping schemes for a section of gently dipping sedimentary outcropping
lithologies and characteristic landforms that developed as a result of variable geomorphic processes
Fig 3.2 Plane of faults and weak zones within rock mass causing slide
Fig 3.3 (a) Slope in rock mass crossed by vertical joints normal to the slope face, which do not affect the
slope stability (b) Rock cut in which the jointing is almost parallel to the slope surface and dips more than
the joints friction angle, causing the sliding of isolated blocks
Fig 3.4 (a) Slide of rock block along stress relief joint in a road cut (b) Slope in weathered phyllite, parallel
to the rock Schistosity (c) Natural slope in migmatitic gneiss with schistose rock structure and internal
weathered layers
Fig 3.5 Destabilization of gravity deformation by pressured groundwater
Fig 3.6 Subsidence with lateral displacement
Fig 3.7 Cracks along boundary of cut and fill
Fig 3.8 Dip and plunging slope
Fig 3.9 Slopes showing variations in slope conditions along NH310A Gangtok-Lachung in Sikkim a) slope
of soil b) slope of soil with boulder and c) rock slope failure
Fig 3.10 Debris deposit (talus) provided from upper free face (NH94, Syanachatti) a) full view, b) collapsed
slope and talus, c) talus at lower part
Fig 3.11 Damage due to embankment collapse (NH707A, Dehradun-Uttarakhand, UK)
Fig. 4.1 causative/driving forces triggering the slope stability problems in natural slopes
Fig. 4.2 Earth removal and embankment that may cause slope instability
Fig. 4.3 Example of survey lines for profile in a slope instability site
Fig. 4.4 Contour map of slip surface of slope instability area
Fig. 4.5 Pseudo 3D Analysis Model
Fig. 4.6 Setting main profile for analysis
Fig. 4.7 Terminology defining discontinuity orientation (dip and dip direction)
Fig. 4.8 Planar failure (a) Typical sketch (b) Photograph (c) Stereographic projection
Fig. 4.9 Wedge failure (a) Typical sketch (b) Photograph (c) Stereographic projection
Fig. 4.10 Toppling failure (a) Typical sketch (b) Photograph (c) Stereographic projection
Fig. 4.11 Circular failure (a) Typical sketch (b) Photograph (c) Stereographic projection
Fig. 4.12 Rockfall Phenomenon
Fig. 4.13 Relationship between geology and classes of rock strength
Fig. 5.1 Various options to improve stability of slopes
Fig. 5.2 Cross Fall of Berms
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Fig. 5.3 Benching of a hill slope
Fig. 5.4 Improvement in Slope Stability after benching
Fig. 5.5 Typical cut slopes
Fig. 5.6 Typical fill slopes
Fig. 5.7 Process of Loosening or Relaxation of Slope Caused by Cutting
Fig. 5.9 Typical cross section of water seepage from uphill to downhill side
Fig. 5.10 Catch water drains
Fig. 5.11 Interceptor Drains
Fig. 5.12 Typical cross section of chute drain with gabion boxes or mattresses
Fig. 5.13 a) Typical view of chute drain provided on hill slope
Fig. 5.14 (a) Horizontal drainage boring and (b) Drainage well
Fig. 5.15 (a) Drainage Well and (b) Inflow from Outlets of Drainage Boring
Fig. 5.16 Arrangements of Horizontal Drainage Borings
Fig. 5.17 Cross section of horizontal drainage boring
Fig. 5.18 Picture showing the release of hydrostatic pressure using a horizontal drainage system
Fig. 5.19 Construction of channels to collect/discharge water across the hill slope
Fig. 5.20 Typical hill side development impacts on runoff
Fig. 5.21 Lined drainage system with various arrangements to dissipate energy
Fig. 5.22 Permeable fill below embankment/subgrade
Fig. 5.23 Stripping of unstable surface material as a slope prevention measure, filter material ensures
drainage at the base and improves stability
Fig. 5.24 Rock buttress used to control unstable slopes
Fig. 5.25 Gravity retaining structures applicable to both cut and fill slopes
Fig. 5.26 Different types of gravity retaining structures
Fig. 5.27 Provision of cantilever retaining wall in a hilly area - Commonly used to control movements of
small soil masses or sidehill fill sections
Fig. 5.28 Provision of counterfort retaining wall
Fig. 5.29 (a) Shotcrete crib work (b) Cast in-place concrete crib work
Fig. 5.30 Brief Sketches of Cast-in-place Concrete Crib Works
Fig. 5.31 Gabion Wall to protect hill slope
Fig. 5.32 Rip-rap toe protection on river stream
Fig. 5.33 Typical section of gabion retaining wall with launching apron on a river stream bed
2
Fig. 5.34 Typical section of fabric form mattress with launching apron on a river stream bed
Fig. 5.35 Typical cross section and photograph of check dam
Fig. 5.36 A typical photograph of soil nailing with flexible facia (vegetated facia)
Fig. 5.37 Typical rock slope failure on highways
Fig. 5.38 Methods of rockfall mitigation/ stabilization- Prevention, Retention, Protection and Warning
measures as per IRC SP 106, clause no. 8.2.1
Fig. 5.39 A typical example of different types of facia used for rockfall mitigation measures
Fig. 5.40 Rock removal methods for rock slope stabilization
Fig. 5.41 Typical cross section of reinforcing rock slope by anchors/bolts/nails
Fig. 5.42 Rock bolts on a rock face as reinforcement with drapery systems like steel mesh, rope netting and
rope panels as facia for rockfall protection along Mumbai-Pune expressway
Fig. 5.43 Buttresses
Fig. 5.44 Cross section a typical rockfall ditch design
Fig. 5.45 Rockfall embankment to protect infrastructure and roads, located at the foot of natural cliff
Fig. 5.46 Example of an open rock shed
Fig. 5.47 Example of rock shed using precast arch structure
Fig. 5.48 Simple drapery system with top anchoring only
Fig. 5.49 Simple drapery system with top and bottom anchoring
Fig. 5.50 Simple drapery system consisting of steel mesh without any surface nails, but with top and bottom
anchoring
Fig. 5.51 Flexible rockfall barriers
Fig. 5.52 Rockfall attenuators and Hybrid Barriers
Fig. 5.53 Secure drapery system for rockfall mitigation
Fig. 5.54 Covering of slope with net before shotcrete
Fig. 5.55 Finished view of slope covered with shotcrete
Fig. 5.56 Debris flow barrier
Fig. 5.57 Application of Umbrella structure as an emergency roadside restoration measure
Fig. 5.58 Precast cut and cover tunnel
Fig. 5.59 Typical hill slope failure
Fig. 5.60 Typical proposed solution for hillslope stabilization - illustrating combination of multiple solution
system
Fig. 6.1 Types of in-situ ground improvement techniques a) ground anchor, b) soil nailing
Fig. 6.2 Typical cross section and basic elements of a soil nail wall
Fig. 6.3 Installation sequence of soil nails
3
Fig. 6.4 Effect of Groundwater on wall facing
Fig. 6.6 Principal modes of failure of soil nail wall system
Fig. 6.7 Components of ground anchor
Fig. 6.8 Application of ground anchors and anchored systems for slope stabilization
Fig. 6.9 Types of ground anchors
Fig. 6.10 Typical corrosion protection of tendon bond length of strand tendon using a single corrugated
sheath and cement grout (Dimensions are in mm)
Fig. 6.11 Typical corrosion protection of tendon bond length of strand tendon using a double sheath and
cement grout (Dimensions are in mm)
Fig. 6.12 Possible failure modes (external)
Fig. 6.13 Internal stability of an anchored wall
Fig. 6.14 Typical design cross-section of an anchored wall system (Reference: Jie Han; Ground
Improvement)
Fig. 7.1 Available land for unreinforced vs reinforced slopes
Fig. 7.2 Generic cross sections of reinforced slope structures, illustrating primary ,secondary and surficial
reinforcements used to: (a) increase stability of a slope; and (b) provide improved compaction and surficial
stability at edge of slopes
Fig. 7.3 Application of reinforced soil slopes
Fig. 7.4 Subsurface drainage considerations - a) Ground water and drainage b) drain details
Fig. 7.5 Failure modes for reinforced soil slopes including internal failure within the reinforced soil zone,
external failure entirely outside the reinforced soil zone, and compound failure starting behind and passing
through the reinforced soil zone
Fig. 7.6 Limit Equilibrium approach
Fig. 7.7 External failure modes for reinforced soil slopes
Fig. 7.8 Requirements for design of reinforced soil slopes
Fig. 7.9 Generic cross section and different components of an SMSE Wall System
Fig. 7.10 Example of typical face support showing a) smooth inclined face, and b) vegetated face
Fig. 8.1 Micropiles for slope stabilization
Fig. 8.2 Micropile construction sequence
Fig. 8.3 Different types of grouting
Fig. 8.4 Concentrated movements recorded from inclinometer at the slip surface
Fig. 8.5 Micropile System
Fig. 8.6 Single Vertical Micropile Model for Design Analyses, (b) Relationship Between Hreq and Cohesive
Strength for Micropile Analysis Model
4
Fig. 8.7 Micropiles with battered upslope leg and battered downslope leg
Fig. 8.8 Definition of inclination angle when (a) slip surface is horizontal and (b) slip surface is not horizontal
Fig. 8.9 Relationship between adjusted capacity of individual micropiles and inclination angle
Fig. 8.10 Plastically Deforming Soil between Two Adjacent Micropiles
Fig. A1.1 Typical examples of improper drainage causing saturation of slope mass due to infiltration of
rainwater collected from the properties and habitation on hill slopes
Fig. A1.2 Recommended property drainage system as solution to problem which is given in Fig. A1.1
Fig. A1.3 Example of rigid retaining wall-The photograph of PCC wall with temperature reinforcement
Fig. A1.4 Typical sketch of composite soil reinforcement system
Fig. A1.5 Gabion boxes/matresses for toe protection and bank protection on river stream,
Fig. A1.6 fabric form mattress for bank protection on river stream
Fig. A1.7 A) Typical landslide on a hill slope
Fig. A1.8 Downhill slope before and after rehabilitation
Fig. A1.9 Uphill slope before and after rehabilitation
Fig. A1.10 River training works before and after construction
Fig. A2.1 Proposed SMSE wall dimensioning when adequate space is available
Fig. A2.2 Alternative proposed geometry of MSE wall component of an SMSE wall system where space will
not be available at the top >0.3 H
Fig. A2.3 Frictional connection options for a SMSE wall system
Fig. A2.4 Mechanical connection options for a SMSE wall system
Fig. A2.5 Stepped shoring wall interface
Fig. A2.6 Drainage considerations for a SMSE wall system
Fig. A2.7 SMSE wall system failure modes
Fig. A3.1 Typical cross section
Fig. A3.2 Site photograph during construction
Fig. A3.3 Site photograph after completion
Fig. A3.4 Typical cross-section of shored MSE wall
Fig. A3.5 Interface connection of primary reinforcement of reinforced soil system with the eye nuts of
anchors/nails
Fig. A3.6 Construction is under progress
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Items and points to check in field survey
Table 2.2 Items and points to check in field survey (Detailed)
Table 3.1 Items to describe core samples by visual inspection
Table 3.2 Rock material strengths (FHWA-IF-02-034)
Table 3.3 RMR classification of the jointed rock mass (Z. T. Bieniawski-Engineering Rock Mass
Classifications)
Table 3.4 Mechanism of landslide with respect to rainfall
Table 4.1 Critical parameters required for analysis for various failure modes in rock slope.
Table 5.1 Permissible slope values for bed rock excavation (IRC Special Report 15)
Table 6.1 Difference between ground anchors and soil nailing/rock bolts
Table 6.2 Estimated bond strength for soil nails in coarse grained soils
Table 6.3 Estimated bond strength for soil nails in fine grained soils
Table 6.4 Estimated bond strength for soil nails in rock– drilling method: rotary drilled
Table 7.1 Reinforced fill specifications for Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS)
Table 8.1 Summary of typical 𝜶𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 (Grout-Ground bond) values for micropile design
Table 8.2 Frequency of tests of micropiles
Table 8.3 Criterion for assessing ground corrosion potential
Table A2.1 Summary of SMSE wall system design recommendations
Table A2.2 Recommended SMSE wall construction tolerances
GUIDELINES FOR ENGINEERING OF

NATURAL SLOPES
Version-9, 09/09/2020 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
India has a vast area in hilly regions. Out of 28 states and 8 Union territories, 9 states are predominantly in
hilly regions in North and North-East, whereas 9 other states have substantial hill areas. These areas are
rich in natural resources, flora, and fauna, and have extreme climatic conditions, difficult and hazardous
terrain, and high altitude. The roads constructed in these areas are affected by floods due to heavy rainfall
resulting in huge runoff leading to, landslide, and other disasters. In high altitude, heavy snow and
avalanches also affect the roads constructed in these areas. But the economic development, tourism, and
strategic needs of the country have necessitated the government to launch massive road construction
programs in these areas.
The construction of roads in these areas involves major cutting of high hill slopes. It requires a hill road
project to undertake proper geological and geotechnical investigations to avoid major or minor slope
failures which often leads to trigger massive slope instabilities like landslides and result in serious
consequences. For widening or greenfield alignment, slope instabilities s are mostly triggered by unplanned
cuts without taking a prior measure of protection. Besides slope instabilities like landslides, rockfall, debris
flow and subsidence are also observed on hill roads either due to natural causes or manmade activities.
Due to the immense liability associated with collapses of the highway slopes, slope stability is a major
concern for agencies involved in highway construction from economic as well as risk point of view and
therefore disturbed and/or distressed slopes require major attention before any highway activity is planned
or carried out.
Slope stability primarily depends on the slope geometry, slope material strength characteristics, geological,
geomorphological and hydrological conditions, etc. Most of the time, the solutions are combinations of
various stabilization measures from surface slope protection measures to solutions for deep instability
problems. Hence while selecting the slope stabilization measures, a multidisciplinary approach is required.
Based on the analysis of the above parameters, a proper design shall be suggested.
1.1 Scope
This guideline addresses the key components of planning, investigations, analysis, design, and
construction of hill slopes along with remedial measures to prevent slope failures including rockfall, debris
flow, etc. The issues are being addressed and illustrated through case studies. The guidelines are
designed to help the contractors, consultants, and other clients, engineers such as geotechnical engineers,
geologists, surveyors, etc. to have a good understanding of the causes of slope failures and the various
methods which can be adopted to mitigate the problems about a slope instabilities. The document has
been compiled after a comprehensive literature review of different techniques and practices adopted and
successfully implemented in India as well as overseas to handle the problems of slope failure. Based on
the review of the above, the best technical aspects relevant to Indian conditions are provided in the
document. The guidelines are divided into 9 chapters covering the various aspects of natural slopes.
Chapter-2 provides an insight regarding the selection of the appropriate alignment out of the various
available alignment options to be selected from an economic and technical point of view. Chapter-3
provides an input for surface/subsurface investigations including geological, geomorphological,
geotechnical, and hydraulic aspects to be undertaken on slide-prone locations in hilly terrains. Chapter-4
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provides an insight into the methods of stability of slopes predominantly with soil, rock, and weathered rock
and their failure modes including the use of stereographic projections for identification of rock slope failures.
Chapter-5 on Methods for prevention, stabilization, mitigation of soil and rock slopes, rockfalls and debris
flow, covers in a very exhaustive manner, the various kind of problems being faced on high slopes and
slope instability areas along with the rehabilitative measures including drainage. It also brings out several
case studies where a combination of rehabilitative measures are being successfully implemented. Besides
above, this chapter also covers the aspects of rockfall and debris flow along with the possible rehabilitative
measures. To arrest the occurrence of slope failure, many new technologies and techniques are now in
vogues such as soil nailing and anchoring, reinforced soil slopes, and micropiles. These techniques along
with their design and construction methodology have also been included in this guideline and the same is
being covered in chapter 6, 7 and 8.
Proper planning to protect the hill slopes can go a long way in mitigating the potential slope instability
problems and reducing the risks. But scant attention is paid to this aspect of planning at the early stages
and DPRs are prepared without adequate investigations. Often, the issues of unstable natural slopes come
up only during construction. Once the project is commissioned, unstable slopes can be disruptive
bottlenecks with major risk to life and property. Addressing the concerns of slope stability at the planning
stage itself will minimize the probability of slope failure; diminish the impact of failure and reduces the
lifecycle cost of the projects significantly. To address this issue, chapter-9 titled preparation of Detailed
Project Report (DPR) for landslide mitigation and rehabilitation has been added in the guidelines covering
the various aspects which shall be duly considered before the award of any hill road project.
To successfully implement the various techniques, proper selection of materials and technical
specifications along with a proper implementation method is a must. To cover these aspects also, the
relevant Indian Roads Congress guidelines/manuals/special reports, Specifications of MoRTH, BIS codes,
FHWA guidelines, AASHTO guidelines, ASTM test methods and specifications, other similar publications
and technical reports on the available subject has been suitably provided in the document for further
necessary reference and guidance. These guidelines shall be studied in conjunction with other IRC
guidelines on slope stability and landslides etc. such as IRC SP 48, IRC SP 106, IRC HRB SR 15 and IRC
75. Besides above, the JICA document on “Capacity Development Project on Highways in Mountainous
Regions – Guidelines for Slope Protection and Embankment with Advanced Technology” was also referred
to in the preparation of these guidelines.
Overall, these guidelines shall aid to study the problems of high slopes/steep slopes including disturbed
and/or distressed slopes requiring attention when the new road is at the stage of feasibility, planning, road
widening, and secondly when the existing road is experiencing a various type of slope failures. The
guidelines of these kinds are dynamic and the inputs provided by the user agencies would help the Indian
Road Congress (IRC) in improvising the techniques and rehabilitative measures as suggested in the
guidelines.
The next chapter deals with the relevant aspects of Planning for road alignment and slope
management.
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CHAPTER 2
PLANNING FOR ROAD ALIGNMENT AND SLOPE MANAGEMENT
2.0 Introduction
Stability of slopes along a road is a crucial parameter that needs to be a part of initial assessment and
subsequent planning while fixing the road alignment on a hill road or for widening the existing road. If the
concerns of slope stability are addressed at the initial stage itself, it will minimize the probability of slope
failure and diminish its impact if any. Circumventing the problem at the planning and design stage would be
more practical than during the construction stage. The present chapter deals with the various aspects
which should be assessed at the planning stage to minimize the risk of slope failure or landslide and the
steps which may be considered by a planner to finalize a road alignment on a hill slope.
2.1 Identification of slope instability prone area
For hill road construction as well as operation and maintenance, the stability of slopes is one of the most
important concerns for the government and road administrators. It is therefore important that slope
instability areas like landslide-prone areas/steep slopes which are prone to slide be identified at the
planning stage itself and stability of such slopes be evaluated for the existing slopes. In addition to the
roadside slopes, the engineers at the planning stage should also consider and identify slopes located at a
distance because rockfall, debris flow, and deep-seated landslides occurring at a distance may also cause
damage to hill roads over a distance with its moving mass. If a deep-seated landslide occurs, the volume of
debris may exceed thousands of cubic meters entailing large scale debris flow which causes serious
damage to downstream. To prevent or mitigate such disasters, identification of slope instability areas like
landslide-prone areas in the planning stage is essentially important. Such planning would help to decide for
shifting of alignment to avoid disaster-prone areas. In case, the shifting of alignment is not possible then
preventive measures can be planned and budgeted in the initial stage of road construction itself to avoid
any dispute or litigation at a later stage.
2.2 Preliminary investigation at the planning stage
Preliminary investigation at the planning stage should include the compilation of existing data, aerial photo
reading, and topographic features along with geological field survey. Through this stage, basic site
information along with the alignment such as topographic, geological, geotechnical, and hydrological
conditions should be understood. Existing information as listed below shall be collected and organised at
the planning stage.
• Design drawings from any previous structure at the site
• Site investigation reports including bore logs and results of in situ laboratory tests, if available.
• Construction records
• Geological maps, survey data, and other miscellaneous records
• Hydrological records
• Aerial photograph interpretation using a drone, LiDAR and other advanced remote sensing
techniques
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• Regional seismicity
• Disaster records
The collected information should be organized and plotted into large-scaled maps of about 1/5000.
Topographic, geological, and geotechnical conditions, hydrological and hydrogeological conditions,
distribution of slope instabilities along the planned route are to be examined. Ground conditions of the sites
should also be examined where important structures are planned, such as high and long cuttings, high
embankments, bridges, and tunnels.
2.3 Geological conditions relating to hazards
Similar to topographic conditions, geological conditions substantially govern the design, construction, and
operation and maintenance of hill roads. Understanding of geological conditions along planed/existing hill
roads, therefore, has significant meaning for road administrators.
• Unfavourable geological condition for hill road
Certain types of rock and geological setting/structure often act unfavourably to hill road construction as well
as operation and maintenance. In case engineer/road administrator notices such conditions along the
planned hill road, engineer/road administrator shall avoid such conditions as much as possible and if such
conditions are unavoidable, engineer/road administrator shall employ countermeasures in the aim of
minimizing the influence from such conditions.
• Swelling
Certain rock types or rocks with particular minerals cause time-dependent deterioration called “swelling”.
Swelling is a phenomenon caused by unloading and moisture absorption of certain clayey minerals called
“smectite”. Montmorillonite is typical smectite clay. Smectite clay has a particular mineral structure that can
absorb abundant moisture in the air or surroundings and expand drastically.
Through the process of swelling, with drastic expansion, rock body containing smectite deteriorates and the
strength of rock weakens. With the expansion, swelling causes damage to concrete/steel structures.
Swelling occasionally occurs in sedimentary soft rock and igneous rock, such as tuff, mudstone,
serpentinite, and marl, depending on the contents of smectite clay. Smectite clay is also found in the bands
of hydrothermal alteration. On the other hand, black cotton soil is a famous expansive soil type for its
distinctive expansive property. Observation of core samples from drilling investigation provides valuable
clues for detecting swelling rock. Due to unloading by drilling and moisture content in the air, swelling rock
obtained as core samples shows its expansive property after being recovered from the subsurface. Thus,
observation of core samples at different timings may provide information about swelling. Once the
possibility of swelling is noticed, further testing is required, such as X-ray analysis, methylene blue test, and
laboratory swelling tests measuring dimension or swelling pressure.
• Slaking
Slaking is another time-dependent deterioration phenomenon. Slaking occurs when the rock surface
appears to the surface by excavation or landslide and then is exposed to repeated dry and wet cycle. By
being exposed to dry and wet cycle repeatedly, binding among particles in the slaking rock weakens and
then decomposition proceeds. Through the process of slaking, the strength of rock and resistance against
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weathering and erosion weakens. Thus, in the alternation with sound hard rock, slaking rock often exhibit
differential erosion and forms overhung which may cause instability of slope.
Slaking is often observed in sedimentary soft rock, such as sandstone, mudstone, marl, and tuff. In
metamorphic rock or Mesozoic‐paleozoic rock, slaking is occasionally seen in the rock strata containing
clayey minerals. Slaking property is evaluated through slaking test, in which a specimen is exposed in 11
cycles of wet and dry conditions.
• Layered rock strata
Rock strata with bedding and foliation are not unfavourable geological conditions. Since bedding and
foliation are weak planes in rock strata, however, depending on the direction of such planes, landslide,
collapse, and rockfall often occur in such geological conditions.
In case an apparent dip of bedding or foliation shows such angles shown in Fig. 2.1, the slope shall be
considered as unstable for landslide or collapse which are controlled by dip slope structure. In case an
apparent dip shows such angles in (c), the dip slope structure is deemed stable but, depending on the
development of cracks or gradient of slope surface, hazards like rockfall or gravity deformation may arise.
Fig. 2.1 Dip slope structure

Beddings are observed in Cenozoic sedimentary soft rock and Mesozoic‐Paleozoic sedimentary rock and
formed parallel with the deposition plane. Foliation is seen in metamorphic rock and formed parallel with the
flattened plane during the metamorphic process.
• Rock with rich mica contents
Mica is a flat-shaped mineral with a slippery surface. Mica is often observed in igneous rock, such as
granite and pegmatite, as well as metamorphic rock, such as certain types of schist and gneiss. When mica
forms foliation planes since mica is easily detached from each other, the problems explained in the
previous section may become more severe. The easily detached feature of mica facilitates the
decomposition of rock by the action of weathering as well as unloading.
Debris and colluvium including abundant mica contents, which are derived from the decomposition of mica
rich rock, show a distinctive feature of smaller internal friction angle than expected with the normal soil
condition. Such weaker mechanical properties of debris make slope prone to landslide under the conditions
of abundant rainfall or increase of groundwater level
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• Faults and fractured zones

A fault is a major discontinuity with some extent of displacement. In many cases, along the faults, the rock
mass is detached, deformed, stretched, compressed, sheared, or fractured. Fractured zones are developed
by the movement of faults and composed of the materials formed by strong compression and shear, most
of which are clay and sand characteristically seen at fractured zones. Fractured zones form weaker belts in
the rock mass and often cause problems in construction. With its clayey contents, fractured zones often
form natural impermeable walls and cause a substantial difference in groundwater level between both sides
of the zones, which cause a sudden inflow of groundwater.
2.4 Topographic map production with advanced technology utilizing satellite data for hazards
detection
Along with geological conditions, topography has a very close relationship with the occurrence and
distributions of slope instabilities. The steeper slope is more unstable. The gradient of a slope which makes
slope unstable varies depending on various parameters, such as the shape of slope, direction and
properties of geological strata, relative density/stiffness of soil, the hardness of the rock, direction, and
density as well as location and properties of weak layers or discontinuities, and strength properties of
materials, which ranges drastically in relation with weathering and decomposition conditions as well as
water contents and earth pressure. On the other hand, there are certain topographic features relating to
specific types of slope instabilities because an instability like landslide leaves particular traces on terrain
depending on its type and movement. Understanding such topographic features will help engineers to
locate hazardous areas of slope instabilities. Especially when cutting slope is planned along the alignment,
such features imply potential landslides which may negatively affect the cutting and thus require careful
treatment in design.
Aerial photo reading provides valuable information for topographic interpretation, such as photo lineament,
the gradient of slopes along with nick/concave nick lines, degree and pattern of erosion, the elevation of
peneplain, and flat terrace, traces of collapse, and landform unique to the landslide. Through such
topographic interpretation, unfavourable ground conditions against construction and operation and
maintenance of hill roads are effectively detected, including fractured/sheared zones, faults, steep slope,
and landslides. Aerial photo reading is, however, manually conducted by skilled engineers. Thus, the
individual difference in the results of photo reading is inevitable and training of such engineers takes a long
time and experience. Also, for the areas where thick vegetation covers the surfaces, detailed topographic
information is not effectively obtained with aerial photographs. For such cases, drone survey or airborne
laser scanning (ALS) or generally LIDAR (light detection and ranging) is effective. ALS is based on the
principle of the analysis of laser pulses which are emitted from an aircraft borne equipment, moving at a
certain distance from the targeted object. By using ALS technology, the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of
high quality can be interpolated with a spatial resolution of about 1 m and a height accuracy of 0.1 to 0.20
m in elevation.
On the other hand, a wide variety of satellite images are available in recent days and some of them are
distributed free of charge. Digital Surface Model (DSM) can be generated with such satellite images with
the help of GIS software. With such DSM, topographic analysis and interpretation of a certain area can be
executed effectively and provide valuable information for hill road planning as well as landslide
investigation. Besides, some spatial digital data are available at a low cost or even practically no cost.
Currently, digital data from two satellites AW3D30 and Sentinel-2 are available for this purpose.
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Utilizing spatial data obtained from satellites for practically no cost and open source GIS software, the
procedure for producing a topographical map with a personal computer is introduced. The details are given
in https://www.qgis.org/en/site/. With this procedure, easy and quick preparation of topographic maps of
any areas in India is available and thus identification of landslide-prone areas with topographic map reading
would be easily utilized in many hill road projects. Through such a process, therefore, avoiding landslide-
prone slopes in the planning stage of hill roads may be realized, and detecting hazardous slopes during
construction as well as operation and maintenance stages would be done effectively and quickly. To
understand these features in further detail, reference may be made to Section 4 of IRC SP 106.
ISRO prepared landslide hazard zonation maps for pilgrim/tourist routes in Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, and Meghalaya. Besides, ISRO is also preparing seasonal landslide inventory regularly.
These satellite-based inputs are very useful for preparedness. Experimental landslide Early Warning
System for rainfall triggered landslides is carried out for the following routes namely Rishikesh-Badrinath,
Rishikesh-Uttarkashi-Gaumukh, Chamoli-Okhimath Rudraprayag-Kedarnath, and Pithoragarh-Malpa in
Uttarakhand during specific seasons. Near real-time information on landslides is derived regularly during
major landslide events in the country and disseminated through Bhuvan geoportal. The areal extent of a
landslide is also estimated using satellite data and DSMs. Also, in the case of river blockade due to
landslide, necessary inputs are provided to Govt. from time to time.
2.5 Development of various alignment options
Based on reconnaissance survey, geological consideration and topographic features as discussed above,
few specific alignments may be taken into considerations for choosing the final alignment. The chosen
alignment options must fulfil the geometric requirements of road design and must pass through the
specified obligatory points. To fix the alignment and for geometric design, reference may be made to the
latest version of IRC 52 (Guidelines for the alignment survey and Geometric Design of Hill Roads), IRC SP
48 (Hill Road Manual), IRC SP 20 (for rural roads), IRC 73, IRC 86 and IRC SP 19. Also, in hilly terrain,
alignment options must minimize the geological difficulties likely to be encountered such as unstable slope,
adversely dipping beds, complex fault structures, lineaments, thrusts, etc. Landslide hazard analysis
techniques and maps, landslide data inventory, landslide susceptibility mapping, and landslide hazard
zonation mapping are effective tools to understand the causes of various kinds of slides. Such type of
mappings before development is the basic need not only for minimizing the risk to life and property but also
for the quality and durability of infrastructure in disaster-prone areas. To understand these features in
further detail, reference may be made of Section 4 of IRC SP 106.
2.6 Multi-criteria analysis to select the most suitable alignment option
After selecting alignment options, the most suitable or preferred alignment is selected. Criteria dictating the
selection of the most preferred alignment option can be based on the following considerations:
• Geological Considerations
• Constructability
• Functionality, operations, safety, maintainability
• Environmental considerations and social impact
• Economic and Financial considerations
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The influence and the importance of individual criteria vary from project to project. Most of the time, there
are multiple and often conflicting criteria that need to be evaluated for deciding on the most preferred
alignment. The problem needs to be properly structured to evaluate these multiple criteria. A Multi-Criteria
Analysis (MCA) is recommended, also known as Multiple Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) or Multiple
Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA). For further information on the subject, reference may be made to IRC
SP 106.
2.7 Detailed geological mapping along the final alignment
Once the optimum alignment option is chosen, the detailed geological mapping should be carried out along
this alignment on a larger scale than that used for the preliminary geological mapping. The suggested
mapping scale is 1:5,000 or larger scale, depending on the complexities of geology and their likely
influence on the project in the area being investigated. Focus during detailed geological mapping should be
on unravelling the details at the project level through an analysis of the outcrops and the geological
features, the observation of exposed rocks at the surface, and the geometrical relationships of different
lithology allowing the rebuilding of a geological and geomorphological model of the project area. Once a
significant geological/geomorphological feature is identified, the following procedures are to be followed:
• Prepare detailed maps to a larger scale for localized suspect areas of geological and
geomorphological complexities and anomalies;
• Describe the outcrop or the geomorphological feature;
• Obtain structural data such as dip, dip direction, and strike of foliation, lineation, thrust, folds, fault,
etc.
2.8 Fine-tuning of the final alignment
Detailed geological mapping can throw up issues that may require adjustments in the selected alignment.
Besides, site visits by experts in related fields such as geotechnical, rock mechanics, slope engineering,
tunnelling, bridges, etc., to critical locations can help in identifying problems that must be minimized by
refinements in the selected alignment. Such fine-tuning should be aimed at identifying and minimizing risks
and problems during construction and operations. Risks that cannot be mitigated by a refinement of the
alignment must be addressed, and one of the significant objectives of the next stage, i.e. detailed site
investigations, in securing input data for developing appropriate designs and construction techniques for
managing such residual risks, besides providing input parameters for the design of structures including cut
slopes along the entire alignment.
2.9 Checkpoints during field survey for planning
The elements of planning must be implemented early during the development of the project and must
continue through various stages right down to the construction phase. Four broad components of planning
for slopes along roads include:
• Alignment selection,
• Investigation and generation of design parameters,
• Development of a framework of design
• Development of excavation methodology including support measures.
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For further details on the above subject, reference may be made of Section 7 of IRC: SP: 106. Based on
the data obtained during the planning stage, proper investigation and designing of various protective and
rehabilitative measures shall be evolved as provided in the subsequent chapters.
Along with aerial photo and topographic map reading, field survey provides detailed and geological
information for planning and design of hill roads. Table 2.1outlines the items and points to confirm in a field
survey for hill road projects.
Table 2.1 Items and points to check-in field survey
Category Item Points to Check
Shape of slope Height, gradient, cross-section, etc.
Normal topography Talus, terrace, hill, normal slope, etc
Topography
Anomaly Overhang, outcrop, knick line, etc.
Landslide topography Landslide, debris flow, collapse, etc.
Rock type Geological strata, rock facies, hardness
Discontinuities Fault, fractured zone, joint, bedding, foliation
Geology Structure Strike, dip, folding
Weathering Weathered/altered condition, strength
Soil/deposit Soil type, composites, thickness, density
Boulder/detached rock Size, density, instability, etc.
Vegetation Type (forest, meadow, bare land, etc.), density,
Surface
growth situation
Spring Location, quantity, deposition
Type Hillslope protection, sabo structure, landslide
countermeasures, road, structure, river structure
Structure scale height, extent, condition of deposit
Scale Height, extent, condition of deposit
Deformation Crack, bulge, deformation, displacement
Following the preliminary geological survey, a detailed survey, including drilling and field surveys, shall be
conducted to obtain more detailed geological information at the surface and subsurface. Table 2.2 explains
the items and points to check in a detailed survey. In a detailed survey, depending on the purpose of the
survey, additional surveys shall be conducted, such as geophysical exploration, landslide monitoring,
rainfall observation, groundwater level observation, and laboratory tests.
Table 2.2 Items and points to check-in field survey (Detailed)
Item Points to Check
Slope failure/collapse Property of collapse (length, width, and depth), geological conditions (rock
and soil properties), crack, fissure, geological discontinuity*, weathering
TOPOGRAPHY
and alternation, gradient and material of slip surface, spring and seepage,
vegetation, cracks on a slope, displacement of a slope, head scarp,
conditions of debris (material and deposit conditions), the possibility of
reoccurrence or development of rockfall and collapse, and existing
structure
Rockfall Slope with boulders, steep rock slope with densely developed joints,
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cracks, and fissures along with unstable or detached parts, slope with
overhung, slope with collapse, slope with outcrop, slope with debris, talus,
colluvium, and terrace sediments, slope with gully erosion, bald land, the
undulation of a slope, detached ridge or valley, vegetation, and distribution
of boulders
Landslide Anomaly of surface
Location, alignment, shape, and scale of head scarps, swamps, ponds, and
wetlands, subsiding at the head of a landslide, a situation of the middle of
landslide, shape of cracks, raise and bulge at the toe (pressure ridge),
collapse at the toe, spring, anomaly of trees, and rice paddy as well as
farmland.
Anomaly of structure
Deformation of building, retaining wall, road, railway, utility pole, tunnel,
well, masonry, and other structures
Debris flow At source
Properties and conditions of collapse and landslide at the source, situation
and condition of stream bank and bed, thickness, distribution, and gradient
of highly weathered part of a rock, colluvium, debris, talus, and river
deposit.
Transport section
Bed slope, a width of the stream, situation of stream bank erosion, and
vegetation
Deposit section
Thickness and distribution of debris at stream and stream mouth, a
diameter of detached rock, boulder, cobble, and gravel, rock type,
vegetation
Rock and soil type Rock
Type of rock, hardness, notable minerals and void
Soil
Type of soil (residual soil or debris?), thickness, shape, and diameter of
GEOLOGY
gravel, a property of matrix (particle size and inclusion of silt and clay),
moisture condition, the proportion of gravel and matrix, and degree of
compaction (relative density)
Geological structure Geological discontinuity*
Properties of bedding, foliation, joint, and unconformity (tightness, the
roughness of plane, interval, and filling material and its property),
distribution of discontinuities (strike and dip, continuity, density, and angle
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with slope), folding, and others.

Intrusive rock
Strike and dip of the contact surface, a property of chilled margin, a
property of condition of contact metamorphism
Fault and fractured zone
Strike and dip, scale, width, and property (characteristics of the fault
surface and fractured part, development of slickenside, interbedded clay,
degree of compaction (relative density), and spring and seepage)
Alteration zone
Type of mother rock, degree of alteration, distribution, softness, colour,
development of slip surface.
Weathering condition Relaxation of the rock mass, openness/interval of crack and fissure,
conditions/degree of weathering, the hardness of the rock, void, material
due to weathering (clay, residual soil, decomposed soil), and colour.
Core samples from (Rock)
drilling Rock type, hardness, shape, colour, length of the core sample,
smoothness of core surface, interval, roughness, colour, and filling of
cracks, the direction of discontinuities (bedding, foliation, and joints),
weathering condition (colour, softness, material due to weathering, and
decomposition status), alteration condition, void, and RQD.
(Soil)
Soil type, colour, contents, moisture condition, the particle size of sand,
clayey content, relative density/stiffness, consistency, size and shape of
gravel, void, and included minerals.
Groundwater (Through drilling investigation or monitoring well)
Groundwater level and its seasonal variation, permeability, conductivity,
pH, chemical property, water quality, flow property, pressure status (free or
artesian groundwater), and quantity
Boulders and Shape, hardness, stability distribution of boulders and detached / unstable
SURFACE
detached rock rock

Spring and surface Position of spring, quality, and quantity of spring water, moisture content of
water soil/rock, freezing / unfreezing during winter
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Vegetation (often seen at the unstable slope)

Bald land, fallen tree, damage on a tree trunk, bending of a tree, and poor
growth of vegetation
(often seen at landslide/failure sites)
Bamboo, willow, and butterbur
(often seen at thick overburden with well-drained property)
Well grown cedar trees
(often seen at unstable slope such as failure/landslide sites)
Silver grass, knotweed, kuzu, and plume poppy
(often seen at the sandy ground, talus, and alluvial fan)
Fruit farm of orange, peer, and chestnuts
(often seen at debris/colluvium or failure sites)
A stark difference from the surroundings
Landslide/ debris flow Sabo dam, check dam, hill slope works, flow channel works, surface
countermeasures, drainage, horizontal drainage boring, nailing, and ground anchors.
STRUCTURE
River structure Revetment works, dike/embankment, watergate, water shoot, and irrigation
facilities
Road structure Slope protection works, cut slope, embankment, bridge, and drainage
Others Public building, treatment facilities, and others.
*: discontinuity: a plane with detached rock mass, such as joint, bedding, foliation, and fault as well as the
fractured zone.
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CHAPTER 3
INVESTIGATIONS
3.0 General
After selecting the most suitable alignment option, the next step shall be to identify the locations prone to
slope failure before the construction work is taken up, and accordingly, investigations shall be planned.
Such investigations are required to suggest preventive measures or alternative routes that are less
susceptible to slope instability problems.
During the investigation, sufficient information should be collected on-site conditions to enable an analysis
of the problem, assessment of the risk of instability, and the design of remedial measures to prevent or
minimize the risk to acceptable levels.
3.1 Investigations for slope assessment and stability analysis of soil and rock slopes
Following are the general investigations, which shall be carried out for slope stabilization and rockfall
mitigation measures. However, investigation requirements for any project should be outlined based on the
site-specific conditions.
3.1.1 Surface investigations
3.1.1 a) Topographic survey and mapping
The topographical survey shall be carried out for the area under consideration to help in establishing the
ground profile for analysis and design. The survey extent along the slope should be capturing the full slope
length on the hill and valley side. If the slopes are too high, then at least 50m distance on the uphill side
and valley side should be captured.
Field maps should be prepared to give the plan of the affected area and typical cross-sections, which can
be used for stability analysis. General observations should be made concerning the condition of the slope,
covering aspects such as the extent and nature of vegetation cover, surface runoff characteristics, and the
presence of springs. Erosion of the toe and tension cracks in the crown area shall be covered in detail. It
shall also include mapping of structures present along the full stretch (transmission towers, electricity poles,
towers, hutments, buildings, existing road alignment (centerline and boundary), drains (if any), bridge
location, river (if present at the toe of the slope), etc. The scale for cross-section drawings shall be decided
based on the sensitivity of slope. It may vary from every 5 to 50m interval depending upon the site
condition. The contours shall be provided at an interval of 2-5m depending upon the slope height.
Topographic maps shall be prepared using the photogrammetric interpretation of aerial photography,
drone, LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging), and other advanced remote sensing techniques as given in
Chapter-2, wherever possible instead of traditional surveying instruments.
3.1.1 b) Geomorphological studies
For mapping, it is first required to draw the periphery of the affected area and also the adjoining hillslope
area so that the nature of the surrounding hillslope area and its influence can be understood easily from the
map. Debris covered zone, as well as a step like features (if present), must be marked, which indicate the
different phases of landslide activities and also the rotational nature of the slide. The zone of cracks and
pattern of cracks should be marked since it reflects the weaker nature of the hill slopes which is prone to
failure shortly. Other features of erosion, such as rill marks, channel type of erosional features of the softer
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rock beds, gully formation, hanging cliffs, toe erosion, etc. should be studied and marked on the map. The
exact location of any experimental trench or drill holes, different observation pegs, etc. (if made) must be
marked. The direction of a predicted mass movement with their help must be marked. Data on the rate of
mass movements of different project areas must be recorded. Displacement of pegs, widening of the old
and new cracks developed on hills, existing old trees and plants both tilted and non-tilted, new growth of
vegetation on the slide or potential sliding zone as well as its surrounding areas to know the creep area and
the partly or completely self-stabilized area must be marked. Various other features like seepage area,
small or big ridge-like features, local depression and elevation, the extent of soil and rocky areas, concave
and convex nature of the slope surface, nature of the catchment areas, nature of the drainage pattern,
vesicular structures or potholes and cracks, etc. which allow the water to pass deep into the hill slope, and
also the type of vegetation etc. must be plotted to get a complete geomorphological map of the affected
area. Fig 3.1 shows a typical geomorphological map of the landslide-prone area.
The geomorphological features and its significance to identify the various features of landslides is
mentioned in detail in Table 2.4 of IRC SP 106, which shall be referred.
Fig 3.1 Multiple geomorphologic mapping schemes for a section of gently dipping sedimentary
outcropping lithologies and characteristic landforms that developed as a result of variable
geomorphic processes
3.1.2 Subsurface investigations
3.1.2 a) Geotechnical investigation
The geotechnical investigations are required to characterize the soil and rock materials found in the slope.
This can be done by collecting soil and rock samples from the slope by boring. The size and depth of the
bores shall be chosen so that samples, as required for the various types of tests are obtained. The method
of taking samples shall be as given in IS 1892 and IS 2132. The tests on the samples shall be conducted
as per the relevant part of IS 2720. The information regarding the various tests on soil and rock which shall
be carried out for stability analysis and other considerations are provided in the subsequent sections. The
number of tests, type of tests and their location, etc. shall be provided by the designer to obtain a holistic
view of the entire slope material characteristics and drainage pattern, for a complete slope stability analysis
and design of protective and rehabilitative measures. For further details regarding the scientific
investigation of slopes and landslide, reference may be made of Section 5 of IRC SP 106. If the access
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towards valley side slope and hillside slope is not possible, then Seismic Refraction Test (SRT) to get the
profile details in longitudinal (along road alignment) and lateral (across road alignment) directions shall be
conducted. This test shall be carried out to establish the rock and soil profiles of varying density. The
dynamic shear modulus of the soil shall also be obtained from the results of this test. The specification for
the equipment’s and other accessories, the procedure for carrying out the test, recording, and analysis of
results and their presentation shall conform to IS 1892.
The locations where some structures are to be erected/constructed to prevent slope failures, the minimum
number of investigation points and their location shall be decided based on the sensitivity of the structure.
However, as a general rule, a minimum of one investigation point for every 100m shall be taken. The exact
location, interval and required number of tests shall be determined based on the variability of slope
condition and materials. If the bedrock is encountered, the minimum depth into the bedrock shall be at least
2.5-3m. If the soft strata are encountered extending to a depth greater, investigation depth should be
sufficient enough to fully penetrate the soft strata into the competent material (stiff to hard cohesive soil,
compact to dense cohesionless soil or bedrock). In locations where the base of cut is below groundwater
level, increase the depth of investigation as needed to determine the depth of underlying pervious strata.
Some general considerations for boring and collection of soil samples are given below.
3.1.2 a1) Borings and sampling
The boreholes need to be located in such a way that the details of strata variation along the cross-section
are captured. The diameter of the borehole shall be generally 150mm for all types of soil/ rock. The depth
of borehole shall be up to refusal or 30m whichever is encountered first during drilling. The following tests
shall be conducted to assess the strength of soil and rock encountered in the borehole.
• Standard Penetration Test (SPT) in soil/rock strata. The specification for equipment’s and other
accessories, the procedure for conducting the test, presentation of test results and collection of
disturbed soil samples, etc. shall conform to IS: 2131. SPT test shall be executed until bedrock or
bearing layers are confirmed. The ground with N values of not more than 4 blows shall be considered
as soft grounds, which require special attention for trafficability as well as settlement and stabilization of
embankment.
• Groundwater details shall be adopted for determining the groundwater table in boreholes as per
IS:6935 and as per the instructions of the expert and as explained in Section 3.2.3 dealing with
groundwater investigation.
• Core Recovery (CR) and Rock Quality Designation (RQD) - The relevant part of IS 11315 for core
recovery, rock quality designation and other various parameters to describe discontinuities may be
referred.
The following table shall be used to describe the visual inspection of core samples obtained after the boring
and sampling.
Table 3.1 Items to describe core samples by visual inspection
Items Classification criteria / Items to be described
Material, Rock Ex. Andesite, mudstone, sandy soil, sand with gravel, clayey sand etc.,
/Soil type
Colour Colours, as well as shades, should be recorded (ex. Dark brown, pale green etc.,)
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Hardness classification criteria
Class Definition
A Sound. Extremely hard. Too hard to crack by hit with a hammer
Hardness
B Hard. Sound clearly and metallically when hit with a hammer
C Moderately hard. Easily cracked when hit with a hammer
D Soft. Broken in pieces when hit with a hammer
E Very soft. Decomposed to Sandy or clayey soil
Shape Classification Criteria
Class Definition
1 Cylindrical core sample (more than 50cm)
2 Cylindrical core sample (between 15 and 50cm)
3 Cylindrical core sample (between 5 and 15)
Shape 4 Cylindrical or flake core sample (less than 5cm) and the outer
peripheral surface of the core is barely recognized.
5 Brecciated
6 Sandy
7 Clayish
8 No sample obtained or only sample or sludge or cut off obtained.
Crack Classification criteria
Class Definition
a Tightly closed or, if the separated surface of a crack is not
weathered or altered
Type of Crack b Surface and peripheral of a crack are weathered or altered. But the
body is not affected.
c Rock body along cracks is weathered or altered and softened
d Not recognized as a crack in sandy or brecciated cores.
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Weathering Classification criteria
Class Definition
a Extremely fresh. No alternation of material.
b Fresh. Feldspar is not altered. Reddish browning around coloured
minerals.
c Slightly weathered. Oxidation of coloured minerals and partial
whitening of feldspar.
d Weathered. Coloured minerals show golden colour and its
surrounding becomes brownish clay. Most of the feldspar is altered.
Weathering e Highly weathered. Most of the minerals are altered excluding quartz
and some type of feldspar. The texture of mother rock is not
recognized.
Alteration Classification Criteria
Class Classification State

1 No alteration Altered minerals are not recognized by visual
observation.
2 Weak alteration The texture of mother rock is visually observed and
the degree of alteration (decolouration) is low or yet
altered part is dominant (more than 50%)
3 Middle alteration Alteration is visually observed but the texture of
mother rock is recognized and identified. Or yet
Alteration altered part remains or reticulately altered.
4 Strong alteration Altered minerals are dominant and texture of
mother rock is not recognized.
Sampling rate (%) Core recovery rate in certain consecutive section or 1-meter long section of drilling.
Maximum length The maximum length of the core sample within a consecutive section of the same
(cm) rock type.
RQD (%) Sum of the length of core samples longer than 10cm in a 1-meter long section
(Rock Quality
Designation)
Classify rock quality depending on hardness, shape, crack condition, weathering
Evaluation
and alternation.
3.1.2 a2) Rock material strength and RMR classification

The following tables (Table 3.2 and
Table 3.3) may be referred for rock material strength and RMR classification.
Table 3.2 Rock material strengths (FHWA-IF-02-034)
Grade Description Field identification Range of Uniaxial Compressive
Strength (MPa)
R6 Extremely strong rock The Specimen can only be chipped with >250
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geological hammer
R5 Very strong rock Specimen requires many blows of the geological 100–250
hammer to fracture it.
R4 Strong rock Specimen requires more than one blow with a geological 50–100
hammer to fracture it.
R3 Medium-weak rock Cannot be scraped or peeled with a pocket knife; 25–50
specimen can be fractured with a single-firm blow of the
geological hammer.
R2 Weak rock Can be peeled with a pocket knife; shallow indentations 5–25
made by a firm blow with point of geological hammer.
R1 Very weak rock Crumbles under firm blow with the point of a geological 1–5
hammer; can be peeled by a pocket knife.
R0 Extremely weak rock Indented by thumbnail. 0.25–1
Table 3.3 RMR classification of the jointed rock mass (Z. T. Bieniawski-Engineering Rock Mass
Classifications)
A. CLASSIFICATION PARAMETERS AND THEIR RATINGS**
PARAMETER RANGES OF VALUES
For this low range –
Point load strength
>8 MPa 4 to 8 MPa 2 to 4 MPa 1 to 2 MPa uniaxial compressive test
Strength of index
is preferred
intact rock
1 Uniaxial 10 to 3 to
material 100 to 200 50 to 100 1 to 3
compressive >200 MPa 25 to 50 MPa 25 10
MPa MPa MPa
strength MPa MPa
Relative Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
90% to
Drill core quality ROD 75% to 90% 50% to 75% 25% to 50% <25%
2 100%
Relative Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Spacing of joints >3m 1 to 3m 0.3 to 1m 50 to 300mm <50mm

3
Relative rating 30 25 20 10 5
Slicken sided
Very rough
Slightly Slightly surfaces or
surface
rough rough Gauge <5mm
Not Soft gauge >5mm thick
surfaces surfaces thick
continuous Or
Condition of joints Separation Separation Or
4 No Joints open >5mm
<1mm <1mm Joints open 1 to
Separation continuous joints
Hard joint Soft joint wall 5mm
Hard joint
wall rock rock continuous
wall rock
joints
Relative rating 25 20 12 6 0
Inflow per 10m

None <25 liters/min 25 to 125 liters/min >125 liters/min
tunnel length
Ratio = joint water
pressure/major 0 0 to 0.2 0.2 to 0.5 >0.5
Groundwater
5 principal stress
Moist only
Water under moderate
General conditions Completely Dry (interstitial Severe water problems
pressure
water)
Relative rating 10 7 4 0
B. RATING ADJUSTMENT FOR JOINT ORIENTATIONS
Strike and dip orientations of
Very favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable Very Unfavorable
joints
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Tunnels 0 -2 -5 -10 -12

Ratings Foundations 0 -2 -7 -15 -25
Slopes 0 -5 -25 -50 -60
C. ROCK MASS CLASSES DETERMINED FROM TOTAL RATINGS
RMR rating 100 to 81 80 to 61 60 to 41 40 to 21 <20
Class No. I II III IV V
Description Very good rock Good rock Fair rock Poor rock Very poor rock
** In addition to the above table, reference may also be made to the various parts of IS 13365 which relate to rock mass
classification systems. It would provide a field data collection format, which will enable the investigator to collect all the relevant
data for classification and other relevant information related to rock mass for investigations.
3.1.2 b) Geophysical explorations
Geophysical testing can be used as a part of the initial site exploration to provide supplementary
information to the data collected by other means (i.e., borings, test pits, geologic surveys, etc.).
Geophysical testing can be used for establishing stratification of subsurface materials, the profile of the top
of bedrock, the depth to groundwater, the boundaries of various types of soil deposits, the presence and
depth of voids, buried pipes, and existing foundations. However, data from geophysical testing should
always be correlated with information from the direct methods of exploration already discussed. There are
many different types of geophysical in-situ tests such as seismic methods, electrical resistivity methods,
gravity and magnetic methods etc., that can be used to obtain stratigraphic information from which
engineering properties can be estimated.
3.1.2 c) Geological investigations
During the geological investigations, the following data shall be collected.
Nature of rock
• Indicate whether the rock is sound or weathered/disintegrated or decomposed. Also indicate whether
the slide material is predominantly of rock or soil, decomposed rock or disintegrated rock or a mixture of
both.
Type of rock and formation
• Indicate the types of rock met within the formation
• Indicate whether there is any interbedding involved especially of slide susceptible formation such as
shales or sandstones.
Dip and strike
• Indicate the dip and strikes of the rock formation and note whether they are favourable or unfavourable
for slide formation with reference to the location of the road at a particular stretch.
Weathering
• Indicate whether the rock is subjected to weathering or other degrading processes due to normal or
manmade causes.
Significant geological features
Following are some of the geological features that are more significant than others as related to the
geotechnical behaviour of slopes and other engineering works and the same shall be provided in the report
prepared for the analysis of slopes.
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• Faults - The rupture of the rock mass by geologic (tectonic) action, followed by some displacement,
causes the formation of a continuous plane of discontinuity, often accompanied by the fragmentation of the
rock along this plane. This allows water percolation and more weathering than in the adjoining rock mass.
A fault plane can have a much lower friction coefficient for the rest of the rock mass. An unfavourable
orientation of this plane to the cut is when it has a direction parallel or with low angles to the slope surface
and dips towards the slope. If the plane is exposed in the excavation and if the friction angle of this plane is
equal or smaller than the dip angle, it will cause the sliding of the rock mass above it.
Fig 3.2 Plane of faults and weak zones within rock mass causing a slide
• Joints, Bedding or Schistosity Planes and Shear Zones - These planes of discontinuity act in
the same manner as faults, representing planes of weakness within the rock mass. These discontinuities
can be critical when adversely oriented to the slope.
• Fig 3.3 present two examples of how jointed rock can affect slope stability.
• Fig 3.3 (a) shows an example where jointing does not affect the slope stability, whereas
• Fig 3.3 (b) shows how jointing conditions affect the stability of the slope.
• Fig 3.4 (b) shows a slope in which inclination is entirely conditioned by the schistosity of the rock,
oriented parallel to the slope, and by the presence of weathered soil layers within the rock mass.
• Stress relief joints - The slow natural removal of topsoil by erosion promotes decreasing stress acting
on the rock bodies due to the weight of the material, as a result of the rock then tends to decompress,
giving rise to tension in planes parallel to the topographic surface. As the rock has a low-tensile strength
(about one-tenth the compressive strength), it fractures, forming a family of joints, which become more
tightly spaced close to the rock surface. They are often weathered, as they constitute paths of entry for the
waters infiltrating into the ground, besides the fact that after heavy rains they are saturated allowing the
building up of high hydrostatic pressures.
• Tension Cracks - In rock cliffs where the slope is very steep, sometimes even vertical, and when the
strength of the rock is low, vertical tension cracks may be formed. During high precipitation, the water
infiltrates very easily within these fissures and since their drainage is usually much slower than the
infiltration rate, high hydrostatic pressures are built up, exerting hydrostatic lateral thrust on the thin vertical
slice of rock, causing failures by toppling.
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• Sheared Planes - In planes that underwent displacement in the geologic past, like bedding planes in
folded strata and planar discontinuities, the friction angle decreased due to the destruction of the roughness
during shear, and the friction coefficient also decreased, eventually attaining its residual strength.
• Weak layers - The rock masses may contain layers of weakness, which may represent potential zones
of failure. This is commonly the case in stratified rock, examples being the presence of shales within harder
rocks such as Sandstone or Limestone, Mica Schists, Quartzites, and other hard rocks, or porous and
poorly cemented Sandstone. Their adverse effect will also depend on the orientation of these layers to the
slope surface.
• Weathered zones - The rock mass may be more weathered in certain zones or layers than others;
similarly, too weak layers, they represent weaker zones.
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Fig 3.3 (a) Slope in rock mass crossed by vertical joints normal to the slope face, which do not
affect the slope stability (b) Rock-cut in which the jointing is almost parallel to the slope surface
and dips more than the joints friction angle, causing the sliding of isolated blocks
Fig 3.4 (a) Slide of rock block along stress relief joint in a road cut (b) Slope in weathered phyllite,
parallel to the rock Schistosity (c) Natural slope in migmatitic gneiss with schistose rock structure
and internal weathered layers
• Permeable layers -The existence of more permeable layers covered by impermeable layers, such as
the saprolite horizon (chemically weathered rock) covered by clayey soil, may help developing uplift
pressures that decrease the strength of the soils. Another undesirable condition may occur when, within the
slope or at the foundation of high fills or dumps, there are permeable layers intercalated with less
permeable layers; in this situation, an artesian condition may occur if the piezometric level is high,
decreasing the stability of the slope.
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• Colluvium deposits - These deposits are resultant from the accumulation of loose material
transported by gravity or by erosion from the upper parts of the hill. These deposits occur at the toe of the
hill or the hill slope in portions of lower inclination. Due to their mode of formation, they stayed practically at
their natural angle of repose and also are quite irregular and under-consolidated. In tropical regions, where
chemical weathering predominates, they have an earthy matrix and rounded rock fragments and boulders.
They commonly show movements and instabilities in rainy seasons due to the rise of water level and to
decrease of its suction tension. In arid or semi-arid regions, under prevailing physical weathering, they may
have a sandy matrix and angular rock fragments and are more commonly called the talus. In any case, they
are very unstable deposits (mainly the colluvium) when subjected to cuts.
3.1.3 Hydrological investigations
The following hydrological data needs to be collected for effective hydrological investigation
• Rainfall data
a. Annual rainfall (mm)
b. The intensity of rainfall per hour (mm)
c. The average deviation of rainfall intensity per hour (mm)
d. Highest deviation of rainfall intensity per hour (mm)
• Catchment area above the slide area (sq.km)
• Groundwater conditions in and around the slide area
3.1.3 a) Correlation between groundwater and landslide
As explained in the previous sections, rainfall is one of the major triggers of landslides. Slope failure,
collapse and debris flow occur during or right after a substantial amount of rainfall. Even rockfall occurs
during or after rain. On the other hand, some of the landslides start sliding a few days after a peak of
rainfall; time lags exist between the peak of rain and activation of a landslide. Activation of landslides even
after some time lag of rains is very common. It occurs when groundwater accumulates at certain critical
locations, where the slope is just on the verge of failure. Due to the development of excess pore water
pressure and lubrication of soil, landslides occur even after a time lag.
In the process of activation of landslides, rainfall needs to travel from the surface through water passages
in the ground including cracks, fissures, voids, and porous zones of rock/soil to the slip surface lying deep
ground. On the slip surface, infiltrated rainfall increases pore water pressure and then decreases shear
strength of slip surface, which leads to destabilization of slope causing landslides.
This section explains the relationship between landslide disaster and surface runoff /groundwater,
highlighting pore water pressure which induces large-scale slope disasters.
Table 3.4 Mechanism of landslide with respect to rainfall
Form of Water Landslide Mechanism
Raindrop erosion During rainfall, the soil/rock particles get detached from
the ground and are taken away with rainwater and it
Surface water results in the erosion of slope surface.
Gully erosion When the amount of rainfall exceeds infiltration capability
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of the ground, surface runoff erodes the surface and

forms V-shaped groove which is usually called gully. The
term “rill” is used for similar but narrower erosion than a
gully.
Shallow slope failure Unconfined groundwater is directly recharged by rainfall
which infiltrates into the ground. On slopes, recharged
groundwater changes its course when it encounters a
constraining bed, such as bedrock, fresh rock, and
aquiclude (any geological formation that absorbs and
hold water but does not release at a sufficient rate), from
Unconfined vertical to obliquely downward along the surface of the
groundwater constraining bed. The groundwater flow then has
seepage pressure which moves soil particles in the
shallower part and eventually causes shallow slope
failure.
The similar mechanism is assumed for cut slope failure,
in which debris/colluvium on bedrock or weathered part
on fresh rock collapses due to rainfall after cutting.
Deep-seated landslide When fissures in deep bedrock are saturated by
groundwater infiltrated from the upper slope, the
groundwater becomes pressured due to the difference in
heads with that of the upper slope, and eventually
destabilize the slope with the much wider and deeper
sliding body than ordinary failures as explained in section
3.2.3.2.
Cut slope failure of In the cut slope of bedrock, closed fissures in bedrock
Pressured bedrock become open due to relaxation by stress release. When
groundwater the opened fissures are saturated, the groundwater
becomes pressured and then destabilizes the cut slope
of bedrock
Landslide During rainfall, rainwater coupled with groundwater
infiltrates and reach to slip surface thereby increase pore
water pressure and decrease effective pressure on the
slip surface. This process reduces resistance force
against sliding along the slip surface and triggers
landslide movements.
3.1.3 b) Pressured groundwater and deep-seated landslide

The relation between groundwater and stability of slope is another interesting aspect in landslide
engineering. As well understood, groundwater destabilizes slopes. But this does not mean any types of
groundwater have to destabilize slope. Groundwater stagnated in an unsaturated condition does not
destabilize slope. But saturated groundwater destabilizes slopes by generating "water pressure". Water
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pressure is the key of destabilization. Fig 3.5 shows one of the possible explanations for the generation of
pressured groundwater which may cause destabilization of gravity deformation and lead to a deep-seated
landslide. At the initial stage, the fissure water stagnated in the upper slope, which is shown in grey
hatching in Fig 3.5, is not connected to the fissure water stored in the loosened zone of gravity deformation
in the lower slope. If heavy rainfall infiltrates into the ground and saturates fissures, the fissure water in the
upper slope becomes connected to that of the loosened zone and then extremely high pressure affects the
fissure water in the loosened zone. It is turned to pressured groundwater and may destabilize the block of
gravity deformation.
Fig 3.5 Destabilization of gravity deformation by pressured groundwater

The requirement for groundwater to generate high-pressure head is that fissures are filled with
groundwater. Factors related to the quantity of groundwater are not included. In other words, if enough
amount groundwater is provided by rainfall to fully saturate fissures, the pressure head, which corresponds
to the highest elevation of the continuous fissure water in the rock mass, will be generated at the lower part
of the slope.
3.1.4 Laboratory investigation
The purpose of laboratory tests is to investigate the properties of natural materials such as soil and rock, to
identify and correlate through classification tests, and define the engineering properties in parameters used
for design.
If the slope is predominantly made up of soil or a mixture of soil and rock, disturbed and undisturbed
samples should be collected at a few locations covering the affected area. Disturbed samples may be used
for determining the index properties, grain size distribution, etc. whereas the undisturbed samples may be
collected from open pits or boreholes, using an appropriate type of sampling tubes since good quality
undisturbed samples are the basic requirements for reliable evaluation of shear strength parameters.
Various tests which are required to be carried out for geotechnical investigations are provided in Section 5
of IRC SP 106.
3.1.5 In-situ test for determining geotechnical properties
In-situ tests are often the best means for determining the engineering properties of subsurface materials
and in some cases, maybe the only way to obtain meaningful results. Section 5 of IRC SP 106 refers to the
commonly conducted field tests for soil and rock properties. In-situ rock tests are performed to determine
in-situ stresses and deformation properties (moduli) of the jointed rock mass, shear strength of jointed rock
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masses or critically weak seams within the rock mass, and residual stress along discontinuities or weak
seams in the rock mass.
3.2 Use of correlations to assist property selection
In some cases, if it is felt by the design engineer that the data provided through the geotechnical
investigations are not realistic and cannot be reliably used as an input parameter for designing a structure
and if time and budget constraints do not allow for the second set of investigation or for any number of
reasons (e.g. cost, sampling difficulties, time, etc.), it may be difficult to obtain the specific parameters of
interest. In such cases, the designer may use well developed and/or site-specific correlations to obtain the
desired parameters during the preliminary stage of design. Quite often the correlations also serve as a
quality assurance check on determining test results. The actual property of interest may also be predicted
by back calculations for use in the design. However, such parameters at the time of construction shall be
verified through the onsite investigation and necessary modifications in the design shall be incorporated if
required as per the actual parameters obtained. Correlations, in general, should never be used as a
substitute for an adequate subsurface investigation program but rather to complement and verify a specific
project related information.
3.3 Some typical examples of landslides investigation affecting hill roads
This section describes some of the typical landslides observed on some sites affecting pavement
performance in hill roads. This has been included to show some typical examples to be kept in mind while
conducting landslide investigations.
3.3.1 Subsidence and lateral displacement of road surface
This example shows subsidence and lateral displacement on a hill road constructed on a clayey soil fill
which was loosely compacted and subjected to saturation from the uphill side as shown in Fig 3.6. Such
cases may be less active, but they occur very frequently whenever the clay mass gets saturated. In such
cases, the residual shear strength of clay, which is among the weakest shear strength of clay governs the
resistance force. It is suggested that while examining such cases due care shall be taken to investigate the
causes of subsidence and according to the site condition, rehabilitative measures shall be suggested.
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Deformation in the central

portion of pavement
Fig 3.6 Subsidence with lateral displacement
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3.3.2 Damage at the boundary between cut and fill

Combination of cut and fill is often employed in hill road construction to minimise the risk of cut slope failure
and utilise materials form cutting. However, after opening the road to service, the following kind of damages
are often seen at sections of cut and fill open cracks with subsidence along centre lines and turtleback
shaped cracks on the pavement of filling areas Fig 3.7. Such damage is caused by the difference of
hardness, compaction, and stability between cut and fill areas. Cut areas often exhibit high bearing capacity
whereas artificial filling is sometimes loosely compacted. At the same time, fill slope is often damaged by ill-
prepared drainage and slope protection which may erode or destabilize the slope. To avoid such damage,
proper selection of filling material and adequate control of compaction are essential, along with well-
prepared drainage system and fill slope protection. If a filling is put on heads of landslides without proper
bonding, the landslide is activated during rainy seasons and causes damage to the road. Careful
investigation is essential to avoid such damage.
Fig 3.7 Cracks along the boundary of cut and fill

3.3.3 Damage by debris or deposits from the upper slope
Rockfall/slide from natural/artificial slopes, debris from slope failure of upper slopes, debris and boulders
from mountain slopes which are located quite far from the road is also one of the prime factors causing
accidents and a severe amount of damage to the road pavement. The material flowing/falling from the
downhill side causes severe damage to the structures provided for toe protection and results in
accumulation of debris at the lower part and affecting the water streams on the downhill slope. To
counteract such damages on roads by debris, locating the source of debris is essential by carefully
examining the uphill and downhill slope by checking properties of debris, deposits, and boulders not only on
uphill side but downhill side and stream bed. Examples of deposits and debris along hill roads in India from
various sources are explained in this section.
3.3.3 a) Fall of debris from cut slope along the hill road
Due to changes in the intersection between road alignment and geological structures or topographic
condition as well as variations in weathering/alternation conditions of slopes, condition of outcrop observed
on cut slopes along hill road may vary significantly even among adjacent or neighbouring slopes.
Understanding conditions of cut slopes, such as material and geological structures of slopes including dip
and plunging slope, is essential for risk evaluation of hill road as shown in Fig 3.8.
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a) Dip slope α=30-500 slope b) dip slope α>500 Rockfall c) plunging slope toppling, rockfall
failure with sliding
Fig 3.8 Dip and plunging slope
(a) (b)
(c)
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Fig 3.9 Slopes showing variations in slope conditions along NH310A Gangtok-Lachung in Sikkim a)
slope of soil b) slope of soil with boulder and c) rock slope failure
3.3.3 b) Fall of debris from a free face on an upper slope located far from hill road
In the hilly regions in India close to the Himalayas, abundant debris is often observed depositing on and
around hill roads. Such debris seems to have travelled from outcrops of very steep free face located far and
high from the hill roads, after being detached from the outcrops as a form of rockfall or rockslide. Fig 3.10
shows devastating debris deposition observed at Syanachatti village along NH94 in the State of
Uttarakhand, which occurred in the rainy season of 2017. The debris was from the upper slope which
shows features of a free face. On detailed investigation, it was found that the geology of the source of the
debris is hard and rigid gneiss with plunging structure at the face, with cracks and fractured zones which
partially developed at the outcrop and resulted in the weathering of the front face and collapse of a rock
outcrop. The boulders in the debris have a maximum diameter of 3 meters.
If debris along a road seems to be provided from the source located far from the road, recording shape and
size of fallen rocks of debris is important, by which impact force at given locations is assumed. The impact
force is one of major factor to consider proper countermeasures. Besides, debris often forms talus slopes
with an angle of repose, on which boulders may move again by triggers, such as rainfall, erosion, and
earthquake. Such reactivation of rockfall or slide should also be considered.
(a)
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(b) (c)
Fig 3.10 Debris deposit (talus) provided from the upper free face (NH94, Syanachatti) a) full view, b)
collapsed slope and talus, c) talus at the lower part
3.3.3 c) Deformation on embankment
As long as properly designed and constructed, embankment may not cause serious problems to hill roads.
Several causes may lead to deformation on an embankment as follows:
(a) Improper material
(b) Insufficient compaction of the material
(c) Improper treatment of the bearing layer
(d) Erosion of embankment slopes
(e) Improper treatment of toe of slopes
(f) Improper treatment of drainage system (surface, crossing, and slope)
(g) Improper treatment against consolidation settlement
The causes of (a) and (b) may develop differential settlement and cracks on the road surface which may
lead infiltration of surface water into an embankment. Such infiltration causes internal erosion and then
leads to pipe flow within embankment, which may cause the failure of embankment. The embankment with
such defect may show tilting or bulging of retaining walls along the toe of embankment.
The cause (c) may lead failure of an embankment, especially when the embankment is put on ahead of a
landslide.
The causes of (d), (e), and (f) destabilize embankment slopes. Among them, erosion or washing away from
the toe of embankment directly cause the failure of embankment.
The cause of (g) may not be eye-catching along hill roads but where soft soil lies below the alignment,
consolidation settlement causes long life problems of differential settlement at the boundary with structures.
Along hill roads, submerged valleys, back marsh, traces of ponds/lakes, and marshlands formed by
landslide dams may have soft soil layer underground.
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A shoulder of embankment collapsed by foot erosion is shown in Fig 3.11. Gully erosion at lower slope led
to the collapse of the lower slope and affected the foot of the embankment possibly located on the middle
of the slope.
(a)
(b)
Fig 3.11 Damage due to embankment collapse (NH707A, Dehradun-Uttarakhand, UK)
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3.4 Performa for collection of data regarding landslide occurrences and clearance
The following Performa may be used for data collection during a landslide investigation. It may please be
noted that it is only a suggestive format, the actual format may be designed by the investigation agency as
per the prevailing site conditions.
i. Location
• Name of the road
• National Highway No. or State Highway No. or Major District Highway No. or other Road
ii. Location of the slide
• Location
• At km from
• Name if any, by which the slide is commonly referred to
iii. Data to be collected regarding the slide when it is active
• Date of sliding
• No. of times sliding has taken place in the year
• Duration for which road was blocked by the slide No. of days/hr.
• Damage to property or causality caused by the slide
• Quantity of material cleared
• Method of clearance
o Manual or by machine and the time is taken for clearing
• Cost of the clearance operation
• Were any permanent stabilizing measures executed since the last sliding and if so their efficacy
• Is the slide preceded by rainfall or snowfall?
• The extent of area precipitating in sliding is
o confirmed to the uphill side of the road only
o confirmed to the downhill side of the road only
o covers both
• Is the slide likely to have been due to manmade caused, such as back cutting, etc.?
• Does the slide appear to be a surficial one or deep-seated one?
iv. Standard information/data to be collected about the slide:
Prepare a sketch of the slide area covering the slope both uphill and downhill of the road and include
the following information.
• Length of a slide from crown to toe indicating separately the length affected both above and below
the road
• Width of the slide (parallel to the road)
• Maximum depth (normal to the slide)
• General description of the slide area giving the condition of the slopes, presence of erosion gullies,
presence of water springs, tension cracks, etc.
Note: The sketch and the associated data should be after each major slide
Geological data
• Nature of rock (Indicate whether the slide material is predominate of rock or soil, decomposed rock
or disintegrated rock or a mixture of both)
• Types of rock and formation
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o Indicate the types of rock met within the formation

o Indicate whether there is any interbedding involving especially of slide susceptible
formation, such as shales or sandstones
• Dip and Strike
o Indicate the dip and strikes of the rock formation and note whether they are favourable or
unfavourable for slide formation with reference to the location of the road at the particular
stretch.
• Weathering
o Indicate whether the rock is subject to weathering or other degrading processes due to
normal or man-made causes.
Geotechnical data
• Nature of the slope
o Give the classification of the soil (or soil fraction of the mantle material) and identification
data according to standard soil mechanics procedure
o Is there any preconsolidated clay or shale met with?
• Alteration of the forces acting
o Has there been any increase in the load due to the construction of embankments or
structures or accumulation of slide material?
o Has any constructional work been carried out that adversely influences the stability, such
as undercutting the toe, etc.?
o Has the slope been subjected to vibrating action of either construction equipment or due to
earthquakes, or due to blasting?
• Action of water
o Has any water or seepage been noticed at the joint planes or along the slide surface or in
clay strata?
o Give a brief description of the drainage conditions prevailing in the slide area
o Are there any sources of water flow nearby, such as a lake or a reservoir or a river, etc.?
Causes of slide
Landslides are normally caused by several factors rather than a single factor. The factors causing
landslides are as follows-.
• Geological causes and factors
o Weathered rock, disintegrated and/or decomposed rock
o Joint planes dipping unfavourably
o The disintegration of rock either due to temperature changes or due to frost effects
o Decomposition rock due to either natural or manmade causes
• Geotechnical causes and factors
o Increasing load causing sliding due to any construction or accumulation of slide material or
snow
o Reduction in resisting forces caused by excavation at the toe
o Increase in the water of clayey layers either due to rainfall or seepage of water
o Increase in water content due to bad drainage facilities
o Increase in pore pressure due to sudden draw-down or due to a rise in water level in lake
up-stream
o Vibration due to blasting or constructional activity or earthquake causing instability
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o Inter-beds of clay or shale or mica that are susceptible of being softened by the action of
water
Hydrological data
• Rainfall data
o Annual rainfall (mm)
o The intensity of rainfall per hour (mm)
o The average deviation of rainfall intensity per hour (mm)
o Highest deviation of rainfall intensity per hour (mm)
• Catchment area above and below the slide area (Sq. km.)
• Groundwater conditions in and around the slide area
Remedial measures
• Has the slide area been studied for evolving remedial measures? If so, by which organization?
• Give a summary of the major recommendations
• Were any/all of the remedial measures implemented?
• What is the efficacy and degree of the success met within stabilizing the slide area?
Any other additional information
This chapter has dealt with various investigations carried out to identify a landslide. The next
chapter deals with the stability analysis of such identified natural slopes.
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CHAPTER 4
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF NATURAL SLOPES
4.0 General
Stability analysis is defined as the "analytical method to quantitatively evaluate the degree of stability of
artificial or natural slope". In the detailed design stage, stability of cut/fill slope is evaluated using different
stability analysis methods. Slope stability analysis is the basis of detail design and shall be carried out
properly. In case the slope is found to be unstable, countermeasures to increase stability shall be planned
and designed. The investigations for countermeasures shall be done simultaneously to establish
appropriate position, scale, and quantity of countermeasures. Causative/driving forces triggering the slope
stability problems in natural slopes. Chapter-3 of IRC HRB SR 15 summarises causes for the slopes to
become unstable and to trigger mass movements.
Fig. 4.1 causative/driving forces triggering the slope stability problems in natural slopes
The proforma for collection of data regarding landslide occurrences and their causes are given in clause no
3.5, chapter-3 of the document. It can be cross-referred from chapter-2 of IRC HRB Special Report 15
(Landslide Correction Techniques) and the main parameters listed include geological data, geotechnical
data and hydrological data.
For drainage design, parameters like rainfall data, hydrological details of a catchment area, return period
and duration of rainfall are to be collected and followed as per IRC SP 42. Clause 9.4 of IRC SP 42 gives
the data required for the design of cross drainage works. Special requirements of drainage in hilly roads are
detailed in clause no. 8.5 of IRC SP 42. Factors affecting runoff including intensity of rainfall, duration and
frequency are explained under section 6.3 of IRC SP 42. Under section 7.1.4, the design return period for
different types of roads in the urban area are defined. For rural highways, the side drains shall be patterned
as per clause no. 7.1.5 of IRC SP 42. For drainage design, rainfall data, hydrological details of a catchment
area, return period and duration of rainfall as per IRC SP 42 are to be collected.
Stability analysis of soil slopes and rock slopes are covered under Chapter-3 and Chapter-4 of IRC HRB
Special Report 15, clause no. 11.5 of IRC SP 48. Chapter-3 of IRC 75 gives stability analysis in both static
and seismic condition. Stability of cohesionless slopes is covered under section 3.4 of IRC 75 and different
methods of slip circle analysis (i. e. Ordinary method of slices (OMS), Taylors method, Swedish slip circle
method, Bishop’s method, Janbu's simplified, Spencer's method, Sarma's method, Morgenstern-Price
method) for cohesive soil slopes is covered under section 3.5 of IRC 75. Stability analysis using software is
covered under section 3.7 of IRC 75. Seismic slope stability aspects are covered under clause no. 3.8 of
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IRC 75. Table 3.1 of IRC 75 gives a summary of the recommended minimum factor of safety for stability
analysis.
Chapter-6 of IRC SR 15 shall be referred for hazard zoning. The factors to be considered for the
preparation of hazard zonation map is listed in table 6.3, 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 of IRC SR 15.
The critical input parameters required for the stability analysis are given below.
4.1 Critical input parameters required for the analysis
Main input data required for the analysis of slopes are the following.
A. Geometry: define the area to be analyzed (including the slope height, slope angle) and select a few
critical or representative cross-sections.
B. Stratigraphy: select different material layers based on the results of the site investigation.
C. Material strength parameters: Mohr-Coulomb's strength criterion is used in most cases to define
failure and shear strength parameters in terms of effective or total stresses. Effective stress
analyses are used in most cases in colluvial and residual soils. Total stresses are used for
saturated soils in undrained conditions of failure. It is suggested that most natural slopes and also
slopes in residual soils should be analyzed through the effective stress method, considering the
maximum water level that can be reached under severe rainstorms.
D. Shear strength parameters can be obtained from laboratory tests. Back analyses of failures are an
important source of information to obtain or calibrate shear strength parameters as discussed in
Chapter-3.
E. Groundwater: Water levels and pore water pressures should be determined close to the slip
surface. Piezometer observation is the best way to observe the groundwater regime during dry and
wet periods. In such cases, it is recommended to correlate pore pressures with precipitation level,
also to take into account the maximum rainfall for the period of the life of the structure.
F. External loads: Existing or possible future loading should be taken into account, such as fills,
stockpiles, foundations, walls, blasting and earthquake accelerations, pile driving, etc.
There are five essential matters for conducting proper stability analysis, which are described in the
subsequent sections.
4.2 Essential matters for proper slope stability analysis
4.2.1 Identification of slope instability blocks (Essential step 1)
In general, slope instability rarely exists independently; often coexist in a form of instability blocks which
move interrelatedly. To decide the proper location of countermeasures, each block should be delineated,
and its stability should be evaluated. In case specific slope instability block is treated, due attention should
be paid to both the target slope instability as well as neighbouring ones. For example, in case an earth
removal work is planned at the upper part of the target instability, the cutting work for soil removal may
trigger another instability at the upper slope. A similar case may occur for counterweight embankment
(buttress fill). Such cases should be avoided as shown in Fig. 4.2 below.
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Fig. 4.2 Earth removal and embankment that may cause slope instability
4.2.2 Alignment of survey lines (geometry) (Essential step 2)
Survey lines should be set in a manner properly obtaining the shape of slope instability blocks and slip
surface, as listed below.
• The direction of longitudinal survey lines (lines for slope instability profiles) should follow the direction of
instability movement.
• Slope instability often has an asymmetrical form of slip surface in the direction perpendicular to its
movement. In case the magnitude of an instability considered as large, additional survey lines for
profiles and cross-sections should be planned to cover the area of instability. Multiple survey lines
enable pseudo-3D analysis as shown in Fig. 4.3.
Fig. 4.3 shows an interesting example of arrangements of survey lines for slope instability investigation.
The contour lines of Fig. 4.3, which show elevation of the terrain, imply the movement of the instability part
from the top to bottom of the figure. But the actual survey lines were arranged as the straight lines of A to F.
Fig. 4.4 shows the counter map of slip surface, the bottom of the instability mass, of the same instability.
The slip surface is controlled by strike and dip of a rocky layer interbedded in a sedimentary rock formation
and thus forms the flat plane with the maximum dip inclining from left to right. In the actual scene, the
instability area moved to the direction composed of the maximum dips of the terrain and the slip surface
and the survey lines follow such direction. If the survey lines had been decided only with the tendency of
the terrain on the topographic map, such lines must have been useless. The survey line for profiles and
cross-sections should be decided considering the actual movement of slope instabilities. Since this
instability was considered as large and the shape of the slip surface varies among the profiles, a pseudo-
3D analysis was employed as shown in Fig. 4.5. The above implies that while planning to obtain data for
plotting contours of the slope, the direction of slope movement shall be given due consideration and
accordingly survey points shall be planned.
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Fig. 4.3 Example of survey lines for a profile in a slope instability site
Fig. 4.4 Contour map of slip surface of slope instability area
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Fig. 4.5 Pseudo 3D Analysis Model

In case stability of small instability, the area is evaluated through 2D analysis only on the main profile,
location of the survey line for the main profile is crucially important. The survey line for the profile should be
placed where a slip surface runs the deepest position on a cross-section such as shown in the left of Fig.
4.6 because the deepest slip surface leads the lowest stability and thus requires the largest
countermeasures. In other words, if the main profile is set apart from the deepest section such as shown in
the right of Fig. 4.6, the stability analysis on such profile provides higher safety factor than the actual and
thus leads insufficient countermeasures to be designed through it.
Stability analysis on a profile set close to the flanks of instability part provides a higher safety factor. Thus,
an actual safety factor for entire instability must be higher to some extent than that of examined on the
profile of the deepest slip surface. If a design based on the stability analysis on the deepest slip surface is
considered too large, true 3D or pseudo-3D analysis should be employed, both of which require more
detailed investigation than 2D analysis.
Fig. 4.6 Setting main profile for analysis
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4.2.3 Careful preparation of slope instability profile and close examination of slip surface
(Essential step 3)
Shape and depth of a slip surface shown in a slope instability profile are the basic input for stability analysis
and design. In other words, the design of countermeasures depends on slip surface and instability profile. If
a design of countermeasure is made based on an incorrectly prepared slope instability profile or falsely
interpreted slip surface, design and the following construction of countermeasures would be ruined. Slope
instability profile should therefore be carefully prepared along with closely examined slip surface based on
results of slope instability investigations which are carefully planned and conducted with sufficient details.
4.2.4 Distribution of pore water pressure (Essential step 4)
Groundwater is one of the most important triggers to activate slope instabilities. When the groundwater
level varies, pore water pressure on a slip surface also varies. Pore water pressure on slip surface controls
landslide movement; when pore water pressure rises, safety factor decreases, and vice versa. Accordingly,
for the design of groundwater control works, the distribution of pore water pressure should be precisely
understood as much as possible. An open standpipe is sometimes used to determine water level and for
the calculation of pore water pressure. However, such methods do not precisely give the pressured
groundwater.
For such a purpose, dedicated monitoring well with a vibrating wire type piezometer to monitor the pore
water pressure developed just above the slip surface or slope instability clay for precise monitoring and
determination can be used. This is a much-preferred option as compared to the open standpipe measuring
system, which only gives information about the water level, whereas, in case of vibrating wire piezometer,
the pore water pressure can be measured in engineering units i. e Kg/cm2 or KSc as well as it indicates the
water level (as 10 m of water column equals 1 Kg/cm2 pressure).
For remote monitoring especially for slope instabilities, the vibrating wire piezometers are the best option as
the data can be data logged through a remote. The pore water pressure data using vibrating wire
piezometer can be used for analysis and design and further use.
4.2.5 Determination of the strength parameters (Essential step 5)
In addition to pore water pressure acting on slip surface, soil parameters essential for stability analysis are
as follows:
• The cohesion of slip surface: c’
• The angle of shear resistance of slip surface: φ΄
• Unit weight of sliding mass above slip surface: γ
The shear strength parameters as discussed in Chapter-3 can be determined with laboratory tests using
samples directly taken from the boreholes. Sometimes, it becomes difficult to obtain test samples
representing the real ground conditions. Under such conditions, the soil parameters required for slope
stability can be determined using back analysis or using correlations as described in section 3.3 of Chapter-
3.
4.3 Methods of analysis and selection criteria
4.3.1 Stability analysis of slopes predominantly with soils
The slope stability analysis is carried out by two different approaches
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A. Limit equilibrium approach (slip circle analysis)

This is the most commonly used method of analysis for slope stability. In all limit equilibrium
methods of analysis, shearing forces tending to disturb the equilibrium are quantitatively evaluated
and compared with the available shear strength. This process enables the calculation of a factor of
safety. With the dissemination of computers and stability analysis software, simplicity of the method
of analysis is no longer important. If one has very good geometry, groundwater, and soil strength
data, it would be better to use a rigorous method such as Sarma, Morgenstern-Price or Spencer.
They will give very similar and accurate results. On the other hand, if the data quality is not so
good, the engineer may still use a rigorous method or a simplified one such as Bishop or Janbu.
B. Stress-strain approach
The stress and strains within the potential sliding mass cannot be determined from limit equilibrium
studies. The stress-strain approach allows a continuous assessment of soil behaviour to the point
of failure. Generally, it is carried out by using the finite element method based on very detailed and
complete knowledge of the soil characteristics. These methods are complex in comparison to the
limit equilibrium methods. Nevertheless, such an analysis permits a detailed examination of the
ways in which the slopes deform and fail.
Method of slope stability analysis of slope predominantly of soil is given in detail in IRC: 75- “Guidelines for
the design of high embankments” which may be referred. Though IRC75 deals with manmade slope, i.e.,
embankments, the method of analysis given is equally applicable to natural hillslopes including cut-slope.
4.4 Stability analysis of slopes predominantly with rock strata and in weathered rock
Stability of a slope predominantly with rock strata primarily depends on the structural geology of a slope. It
plays a major role in its mode of failure and determines how it should be analyzed. Structural geology refers
to the naturally occurring breaks in the rock such as bedding planes, joints, and faults, which is generally
termed as discontinuities. The significance of discontinuities is that they are the planes of weakness in the
much stronger, intact rock so failure tends to occur preferentially along these surfaces.
Because weathering is a progressive process, the degree of weathering decreases with depth and the rock
properties change accordingly. The design of slopes in the weathered rock must take into account changes
in the weathering profile with depth. It has been reported that a large number of slope instabilities in the
mountainous region occur through the debris created due to weathering. It is necessary, therefore, to use
slope designs that are specifically suited to the properties of weathered rock. Such designs are based on
the same principles as for fresh rock but the design methods for fresh and weathered rock are different.
4.4.1 Failure modes and use of stereographic projections to identify failure modes
Depending upon the factors mentioned above the rock mass can have any of the failure modes such as (a)
Planar failure (b) Wedge failure (c) Toppling failure and (d) Circular failure.
The mode of failure can be determined by stereographic projection based on the relationship between
geological discontinuity and slope (direction and inclination). Stereographic projection is a technique used
for graphical representation of rock discontinuities, given by two angles (a) the dip, which is the maximum
inclination of discontinuity to the horizontal (𝜓) (b) dip direction, the direction of the horizontal trace of the
line of dip measured clockwise from north (𝛼) (Fig. 4.7).
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(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7 Terminology defining discontinuity orientation (dip and dip direction)
4.4.1 a) Planar failure
It is governed by the main discontinuity dipping in the direction of the slope. The favourable conditions to
occur plane failure are (a) The plane on which sliding occurs must strike parallel or nearly parallel (within
approximately ±20˚) to the slope face, (b) The dip of the sliding plane must be less than the dip of the slope
face (c) The dip of the sliding plane must be greater than the angle of friction of the surface (d) Upper end
of the sliding surface either intercepts the upper slope or terminates in a tension crack.
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Fig. 4.8 Planar failure (a) Typical sketch (b) Photograph (c) Stereographic projection
4.4.1 b) Wedge failure
The mechanism is governed by two main discontinuities in which intersection lines dip towards the slope
Fig. 4.9 Wedge failure (a) Typical sketch (b) Photograph (c) Stereographic projection
4.4.1 c) Toppling failure
The toppling of columns separated from the rock mass by steeply dipping structural features which are
parallel or nearly parallel to the slope face
Fig. 4.10 Toppling failure (a) Typical sketch (b) Photograph (c) Stereographic projection
4.4.1 d) Circular failure
In case of a closely fractured or highly weathered rock, a strongly defined structural pattern no longer
exists, and the slide surface is free to find the line of least resistance through the slope. In such materials,
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failure occurs along a surface that approaches a circular shape. The conditions under which circular failure
will occur arise when the individual particles in a soil or rock mass are very small compared with the size of
the slope. Hence, broken rock in a ﬁll will tend to behave as a “soil” and fail in a circular mode when the
slope dimensions are substantially greater than the dimensions of the rock fragments.
The stability analysis of circular failure is carried out using the limit equilibrium procedure which
involves the comparison of the available shear strength along the sliding surface with the force required to
maintain the slope in equilibrium.
Fig. 4.11 Circular failure (a) Typical sketch (b) Photograph (c) Stereographic projection
4.4.1 e) Rockfall
Rockfall consists of fall of loose blocks or slabs due to slipping, rolling or toppling on the slope. There are
cases in which a large number of loose blocks are susceptible to sliding making it extremely difficult to fix
them all. In this case, the most feasible stabilization method is to reduce risk by controlling rockfall and the
use of barriers. These methods will be discussed in detail in chapter 5. In such cases, the prediction of the
rockfall path is important. For the detailed analysis of various modes of failure in rock slope IRC HRB 15-
Special Report- “Landslide correction Techniques” and “Rock slope engineering” by Duncan C Wyllie and
Christopher W Mah shall be referred.
Fig. 4.12 Rockfall Phenomenon
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4.4.2 Relationship between geology and classes of rock strength

After geology, the next most important factor governing stability is the shear strength of the
potential sliding surface. In all slope stability analysis, it is necessary to use the shear strength properties of
either the discontinuities or of the rock mass (Fig. 4.13).
Classes of Rock strength
Yes No
Sliding surface
along
discontinuity?
Joints parallel to Pair of intersecting Closely fractured Weak, massive

face joints rock rock
Use discontinuity shear strength Use rock mass shear strength

Fig. 4.13 Relationship between geology and classes of rock strength
4.4.3 Critical input parameters required for the analysis
In general, to analyze the stability of a rock slope following parameters are required. Critical parameters
required for the analysis of various failure modes are enlisted in the below Table 4.1
• Slope height, slope angle
• Rock unit weight
• The slope angle of the failure plane
• Dip and dip direction of tension crack (if any)
• Shear strength parameters of the failure plane
• Groundwater distribution in slope
• Potential earthquake loading
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Table 4.1 Critical parameters required for analysis for various failure modes in rock slope.
Failure Critical parameters required for analysis of rock
Method of analysis
mode slope
• The slope angle of the failure plane
Planar
2D limit equilibrium analysis • Dip and dip direction of tension crack (if any)
failure
• Shear strength parameters of the failure plane
• Seismic loads (if any)
• Slope height
• Dip and direction of the two joints, slope face, an
Wedge 3D wedge failure analysis, limit equilibrium upper surface
failure method • Dip and dip direction of tension crack (if any
• Shear strength parameters of the two joints
• Slope height, angle
Limit equilibrium analyses of simplified block
• The spacing of toppling joint
models are useful for estimating the potential for
• A dip of toppling joints
Toppling toppling and sliding
failure Discrete element models of simplified slope • Overall base inclination
geometry can be used for exploring toppling • Shear strength parameters of base joint and toppling
failure joint (friction angle, cohesion, tensile strength)
Circular 2D limit equilibrium method with automatic search • Shear strength of materials along the failure surface
failure of the critical slip surface • Groundwater distribution in slope
• Calculation of trajectories of falling or bouncing
rocks based upon velocity changes at each
impact • Slope height, slope angle
• Presence of loose boulders
Rockfall • Monte Carlo analyses of many trajectories • Coefficients of restitution of materials forming a slope
based upon a variety of slope geometry and • Presence of structures to arrest falling and bouncing
surface properties give useful information on rocks
the distribution of fallen rocks
4.4.4 Design methods

There are two broad groups of methods for the design of rock slopes – limit equilibrium analysis and
numerical analysis
• Limit equilibrium analysis results in the calculation of factor of safety and different procedures are
used for plane, wedge, circular and toppling failures – the types of failure being dependent on
slope geology.
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• Numerical analysis estimates values of stresses and strains developed at various locations on the
slope and the stability is evaluated by a comparison of stresses in slope with rock strength
4.5 Stability analysis for predominantly rock slopes
Where the hillside formation is made up of jointed rock mass, failures are governed by the relative
orientation of the discontinuities within the rock mass to the slope of the hill face. Different types of
spherical projections can be used to determine which mechanism of failure of the rock masses are
kinematically possible. The results of such an analysis form the basis of choosing the appropriate method
of analysis for evaluating the factor of safety against sliding. The interaction of joints and bedding planes
concerning a given plane is normally evaluated by restoring to spherical projections and stereonets. With
the help of such stereonets, it will be possible to identify if the sliding is likely to occur on a single plane or
along two planes or over a set of stepped joints, etc. Reference may be made of Goodman (1980),
“Introduction to Rock Mechanics” for details concerning the application of stereonet projection methods” for
evaluating the stability of rock slopes.
In certain situations, sliding in a slope made of the rock mass can also be analyzed by slip circle analysis.
Some of such conditions are:
• The rock mass on a hill slope is highly fractured and has randomly oriented joints.
• The rock mass has low strength and strength characteristics approach that of soil.
• Faults or pre-shear planes or other discontinuities may exist, which may induce failure along the non-
linear slope surface.
Notwithstanding the above, the geological and geomorphological study of the rocky area and devising
corrective measures would normally be adequate for meeting most requirements of rocky slopes on hill
roads.
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CHAPTER 5
METHODS FOR PREVENTION, STABILIZATION AND MITIGATION OF SOIL /ROCK SLOPES FAILURES,
ROCK FALLS, AND DEBRIS FLOW
5.0 General
In general, landslide represents a complex phenomenon in natural slopes, especially in hilly terrains. Factors
such as the composition of the slope viz. the bouldery soil, jointed nature of rock beds with varying thickness, a
spacing of joints, presence of inter-bedding, shear and fault planes and weaker gauge material, etc., contribute
to inhomogeneity. Prime causative factors such as rainfall have a random distribution in terms of intensity and
duration. These complexities influence the stability of slopes and poor drainage conditions in the hilly area.
Selection of the appropriate slope stabilization techniques shall be preceded by an adequate study of the site
conditions and the type of construction which causes instability in natural slopes.
Most slope engineering techniques require a detailed analysis of soil and rock properties and sound
knowledge, experience and understanding of the underlying soil and rock behaviour under the existing
conditions. The various stabilization, mitigation and rehabilitative measures should be based on proper slope
stability analysis addressing the local, global and compound issues for stability of the slope. To improve the
stability of any slope, certain actions are required to be carried out. To be effective, first, one must identify the
most important causes/phenomena/controlling processes that are affecting the stability of the slope; second,
one must determine the appropriate techniques to be applied to reduce the influence of that
processes/causes/phenomena. The mitigative measures must be designed to suit the condition of the specific
slope under study.
The following sections provide a general introduction to techniques that can be used to increase slope stability.
Generally, to tackle hillslope instability problems, a combination of various techniques may require to be used
to stabilize the entire slope. These may consist of modification of slope geometry, drainage measures,
construction of retaining structures and adoption of methods to increase the internal stability of slopes. The
stabilization/mitigation/rehabilitative techniques, in general, are categorised as given below.
• Earth/Rock slope stabilization and mitigation
• Rockfall protection and mitigation
• Debris flow mitigation
In any high-risk situation, where a slope instability may endanger lives or adversely affect the property, it is
suggested that professional geotechnical experts or institutions/ consulting firms/ specialized solution providing
firms dealing with such disaster management problems and having successful experience in restoration and
rehabilitation of major landslide solutions in India and abroad should preferably be consulted before any
stabilization work is undertaken.
Several techniques/methods are available for prevention and control of slope failure and can be broadly
classified as
1. Avoid problem/ choose alternative alignment/relocation
2. Use of lightweight materials in construction/rehabilitation
3. Modification of slope geometry to minimize driving forces and/or improving resisting forces
4. Provision of surface and subsurface drainage measures ensuring holistic drainage network
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5. Erosion control and other surface protection measures

6. Provision of restraining, retaining and protective structures – rigid and flexible systems
7. Treatment/training of slopes subjected to hydraulic forces from water bodies
8. Improvement in internal stability of slope by nailing, anchoring, grouting, micro piling etc.
9. Rockfall mitigation measures
10. Debris flow mitigation measures
11. Emergency measures
12. Avalanche mitigation measures
13. Precast cut and cover tunnels
The above techniques to control or prevent slope instability problems are described in sections 5.1 to 5.13. in.
An attempt is being made to present some examples with illustrations and photographs for a better
understanding. To deal with the stability of high hill slope, multiple techniques at one location may be required
to stabilize the slope as stated earlier.
For natural slopes subjected to slides or repeated slips due to dynamic forces, rigid structures shall not be a
suitable choice. Flexible structures are structures which can accommodate movements and they are used to
redistribute stresses and strains without localising or maximising stresses at certain parts of the structure.
These structures are more suitable for natural slopes subjected to dynamic forces. Reinforced soil /composite
reinforced soil system with vegetated/gabion/geocell facia (MoRTH Section 705) and geosynthetics/steel as
reinforcement, gabion gravity structures, river/stream bank slope stabilization using mechanically woven double
twisted steel wire mesh gabion or mattress/fabric form mattress/riprap with suitable weight, three-dimensional
geosynthetic erosion control mats, geocomposite drainage measures, stabilization by soil nailing/rock
anchors/rock bolting, rockfall protection mesh/wire rope netting, and rockfall protection steel barriers are few
examples of engineered flexible structures.
When used for landslide remediation or mitigation, conventional erosion control measures made of reinforced
concrete or shotcrete usually are not visually pleasing or environmentally friendly. These traditional “hard”
remedial measures are increasingly being replaced by vegetated composite soil/structure bodies that are
environmentally friendlier. Mechanical and biological elements must function together in a complementary
manner. Live plant parts, that is, roots, stems, and branches, serve as additional strengthening the main
structural/ mechanical elements in the slope protection system. These systems blend into the landscape. They
emphasize the use of natural, locally available materials, such as soil, rock, timber, and vegetation, in contrast
to manufactured materials such as steel and concrete. The structural or mechanical components do not
visually intrude upon the environment as much as conventional earth rigid retaining structures.
Precautions to be taken while adopting flexible structures
Following are to be noted while employing flexible systems.
(1) Steel materials are to be protected against corrosion by suitable measures as per MoRTH and other
national or relevant international standards appropriate to the specific site condition.
(2) Gabion/Gabion facia and mattresses referred in this document are meant only mechanically woven as per
national standards IS 16014, IRC SP 116, IRC 89 and MoRTH Section 2500 (clause no. 2503.3.1), 3100.
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The gabion should not be of handmade or inferior quality as it will affect the overall performance of the
system.
(3) The erosion and scour protection flexible gabion/revet mattress with mechanically woven wire mesh crates
shall be as per MoRTH 2500 (clause no. 2503.3.1) and IRC 89 and fabric form mattress shall be as per
FHWA-NHI-09-112 (HEC 23). For all structures subjected to hydraulic forces, both geotechnical & hydraulic
stability need to be verified. The normal hydraulic checks are tractive shear force criteria, velocity criteria
and deformation criteria.
(4) Reinforced Soil Walls (RSW) and Reinforced Soil Slopes (RSS) are the two major classifications of the
reinforced soil system. Reinforced soil structures with slope face angles steeper than 70° are categorized
as reinforced soil walls and those with slope face angle less than and equal to 70° are considered as
reinforced soil slopes. Where geosynthetics are used as facing for permanent reinforced slope structures,
outer facia elements are required to be protected against UV degradation from sunlight all the time. When
vegetation is used as the facia cover, the face should provide a suitable medium like coir or jute for the
establishment and continued growth of vegetation. MoRTH 3100, FHWA NHI 10-025 and BS 8006 Part-1
cover the requirements for reinforced soil systems. The details of reinforced soil structures are covered in
clause No. 5.7 and Chapter-7 of this document.
(5) Geosynthetic materials while employed are to be ensured that no parts of geosynthetics shall be kept
exposed to sunlight at any time post-construction to avoid degradation under UV or creep under high
temperature or stresses. They shall be fully covered permanently by protective measures like vegetative
cover or soil cover or any equivalent materials to prevent UV degradation and creep under high
temperatures.
Rigid structures
The retaining walls (concrete and masonry), brick and concrete lining and shotcrete lining are few of the rigid
structures. IRC HRB 15 is giving the considerations to be followed when these rigid structures are in use in
areas where challenging slope instabilities occur.
Precautions to be taken while adopting rigid structures
(1) Foundations of retaining walls must be taken deep enough to reach hard strata or rock and must be safe
from scour, front and surface water.
(2) For dry stone masonry walls, the base must be substantial and capable of disturbing the pressure over the
foundation when forces are high. Normally, no stone should be used which is less than 0.14 cu. m. in size
in such structures. Bed of each stone should not normally be less than 1.5 times its height. The backfill
layer immediately against the wall should consist of stone or some granular material. The soil or granular
material between the backfill layer and hill slope should be rammed and compacted in 150mm layers
sloping away and downwards from the back of the wall.
(3) Proper drainage measures should be provided to prevent water accumulating behind a rigid retaining wall
or a shotcrete lining. Adequate weep holes not less than 75mm diameter should be provided.
5.1 Avoid problem/choose alternative alignment/relocation
For most highway design studies, a geological reconnaissance survey is an important preliminary part of the
project development. During reconnaissance, potential stability problems, such as poor surface drainage,
seepage zones on existing natural slopes, hillside creep, and ancient landslide should be carefully noted. IRC
HRB 15 presents how the site observations shall be helpful to understand where the slope instabilities are
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severe and unrepairable. Early recognition of known troublesome areas encourages alternative studies for
future highway relocation. If relocation is not possible, adjustment to line and grade of the highway should be
considered.
The most difficult landform to detect, and the costliest to deal with in construction, are generally ancient
landslides. A field examination by a trained and experienced geologist or geotechnical engineer and aerial
photographs will reveal certain physical incongruities, such as hummocky terrain, blocked regional or local
drainage pattern, ancient slide scraps, and vegetation differences. For more details on identification of a slope
which can be stabilized/repaired/protected and slopes unrepairable, IRC HRB 15, IRC SP 106, IRC SP 48 (Hill
Road Manual) shall be referred.
For road or any other transportation projects, which involves widening of existing road or bench, it is highly
recommended that hillside cutting shall be avoided as much as possible, and deforestation shall not be caused,
which may lead to a perennial landslide zone. Instead, relocation of the bench towards the valley side shall be
preferred after adopting proper alignment and stabilization techniques. However, when the valley side is very
steep, it will be appropriate to do cut and fill in a balanced way by protecting or stabilizing or mitigating both hill
and valley instabilities.
5.2 Use of light-weight materials in construction/rehabilitation
In embankment construction or for slope rehabilitation, lightweight materials such as fly-ash, encapsulated
sawdust, expanded shale, cinders, and seashells can be used successfully to reduce the driving force. The
embankment construction or slope rehabilitation by using lightweight materials shall be designed by
considering all probable forces and appropriate density. For further details about lightweight fill materials,
reference may be made to chapter-3 of FHWA NHI 16-027 (GEC 013).
5.3 Modification of slope geometry to minimize driving forces and/or improving resisting forces
5.3.1 Removal of loose material, flattening of slopes, reducing water table
If relocation or realignment of a proposed roadway is not practical, either complete or partial removal of the
unstable area should be among the alternative design considerations. The slope flattening also increases the
slope stability considerably. The extent of removal or flattening shall be decided based on slope stability
analysis as discussed in the previous chapter (chapter 4). Loading the berm and reducing the water table could
also be considered to increase the stability as shown schematically in Fig. 5.1.
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Fig. 5.1 Various options to improve the stability of slopes1

Deforestation & cutting shall be avoided or minimized as much as possible in case of such modification of slope
and proper vegetation shall be grown on the bare slopes if any.
5.3.2 A standard gradient of the cut slope
The empirical values for the standard gradient of cut slopes are shown in Table 5.1, excerpted from IRC
Special Report 15 State of the Art: Landslide Correction Techniques, 1995. The standard gradients of a slope
are the criteria to secure the stability of slopes, depending on the conditions of the slopes, such as height and
material of slope. Applying standard gradients of slope should be considered in the design of hill roads and
applying steeper gradients of a slope than standard ones should be avoided as far as possible.
On the other hand, the disadvantages of applying a gentler gradient than standard one should also be
understood. The cut slope with gentler gradient would have considerably wide areas of a slope, which require
more costs for land acquisition, construction of earthwork as well as slope protection, and maintenance of wider
areas. Besides, in general, the gentler slope is more vulnerable against erosion such as gullies and rills with a
widened surface of slope exposed to rainfall and surface runoff. For such slopes, therefore, weathering and
erosion protection measures are additionally required.
Table 5.1 Permissible slope values for bedrock excavation (IRC Special Report 15)
Rock type Range of permissible slope

(horizontal: vertical)
(i) Igneous 1/4:1 to 1/2:1
Granite, trap, basalt and lava
(ii) Sedimentary
Massive sandstone and limestone 1/2:1 to 1/2:1
Interbedded sandstones, shales and limestones 1/2:1 to 3/4:1
Massive claystone and siltstone 3/4:1 to 1:1
(iii) Metamorphic
Gneiss, schist and marble 1/4:1 to 1/2:1
Slate 1/2:1 to 3/4:1
1 Source: The Landslide Handbook—A Guide to Understanding Landslides
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*The above table is a general guideline applicable only for stable rock mass and shall not be practised/followed without a detail
technical analysis for each project site.
Principally, the stability of rock slopes is assessed by analysing structural discontinuities in rock mass and not
by assessing the strength of intact rock mass. Therefore, caution must be exercised in adopting the above
table. Factors, such as the influence of dip to the inclination of the slope face, the nature of joints, etc. must
also be kept in mind.
Thus, re-evaluating the conditions of slopes during construction is important, after the actual slope surface is
exposed. For cut slope, in addition to the stability of cut slopes with standard gradients right after cutting, the
future stability of cut slopes should be evaluated, considering the effects of loosening of bedrock to proceed
gradually with time by the effects of unloading by cutting. Then, if unstable conditions in future are anticipated,
appropriate countermeasures should be additionally installed including reshaping the corresponding slope to a
gentler gradient. In the design of cut slopes, gradients of a slope are decided depending on the property of soil
as well as rock and berms are generally placed at the boundaries of the gradients.
5.3.3 Provision of berms
Arrangements of berms should be planned in consideration of various conditions, such as the difficulty of
inspection and maintenance, a gradient of slope, height of cut slope, property of soil and rock, and construction
cost. On the cut slope, based on the properties of the ground and the scale of the slopes, berms with widths of
1 to 2 m are usually placed at every 5 to 10 meters. For high and long cut slopes or cut slopes with rockfall
protection fence placed on berms, wider berms are recommended.
Benching of slopes is also an effective method to improve slope stability. Benching increases the stability of
slopes by dividing long slope into segments of smaller slopes connected by benches as shown in Fig. 5.3.
Benching of slopes is also used to control erosion in soil cuts and to establish vegetation. Benching also
provides a work area for placing of horizontal drains. Benching of slopes is generally effective when slope
failures are surficial. Benching may not improve stability if deep rotational failure is expected. The width of the
bench shall be estimated by analysis of the stability of slope for a given soil/rock type. A typical example
indicating how benching can improve stability is shown in Fig. 5.4 for a given soil and slope condition. The
benches shall be constructed with longitudinal drainage and with suitable catch basins to carry the water down
the slopes. The ditch shall be lined or paved to reduce erosion or to prevent percolation of water into pervious
areas on the benches.
Unless drainage facility is placed along with it, berms should have a cross fall, or camber, from 5 to 10 %
towards downslope to quickly drain water, as shown in Fig. 5.2 (a) and (b). In case the lower slope of a berm is
considered easy to erode or fail or drainage ditch is placed along with it, the berms should have a cross fall
toward upslope, to discharge water to the drainage ditch, as shown in Fig. 5.2 (c) and (d).
*Note: Suitable drainage measures shall be adopted in case of erosion control of slope using vegetation/shotcrete
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Fig. 5.2 Cross Fall of Berms
Fig. 5.3 Benching of a hill slope
*All the dimensions in the above figure are in meter

Fig. 5.4 Improvement in Slope Stability after benching
5.3.4 Balanced cut and fill slopes
Cut and fill slopes that are flat enough are found to be stable over time. In most of the stretches, the road is
having a hillside and a steep valley side. To widen the roads, the hill slopes are generally cut. Both hillside and
valley sides are vulnerable to slope failure. The objective of routine cuts and fills are (a) to create road space
for the road template, (b) to balance material between the cut and the fill, (c) to remain stable over time, (d) not
to be a source of sediment and (d) to minimize the long-term maintenance cost.
The extent of cutting and filling should be based on proper slope stability analysis as per chapter-3 of this
document, IRC HRB 15 and IRC 75. It is suggested that vertical cut slopes should not be used unless the cut is
in rock. Ideally, both cut and fill slopes should be constructed so that they can be vegetated. Over steep fill,
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slopes (steeper than 1.5H:1V slope), commonly formed by side casting loose-fill material, may continue to ravel
with time and often lead to failures. During the period of construction, the extent of slope cutting/filling shall be
checked as per actual prevailing site conditions to minimize failures and based on slope stability analysis. Fig.
5.5 and
Fig. 5.6 show some typical cut and fill slope design options for varying slope and site conditions.
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Fig. 5.5 Typical cut slopes2
Fig. 5.6 Typical fill slopes3
2 Source: Low Volume Roads Engineering – Best Management Practices Field Guide
3 Source: Low Volume Roads Engineering – Best Management Practices Field Guide
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5.3.5 Treatment of cut and fill slope from unfavourable topographic, geological, geotechnical, and
groundwater conditions
From topographic, geological, geotechnical, and hydro-geological points of view, when gradients of a cut slope
are decided, important points to consider are described below:
5.3.5 a) Cut slopes in soils prone to erosion
The slopes which are mainly composed of cohesionless soil, such as sand and sand with gravel can easily
erode by surface runoff and rainfall, and frequently causes rockfall, small surface failure resulting in erosion and
accumulation of debris. In such a situation, instead of making slope gentler against the erosion caused by
surface runoff and rainfall, erosion protection and surface drainage system should be adopted as
countermeasures as provided in clause no. 5.4 and 5.5. Surface runoff should be completely drained from the
entire slope from the shoulder to the toe of the slope by properly designed surface drainage system as per IRC
42 and Hill Road manual SP 48. Especially, infiltration of surface runoff from the shoulder should be prevented
as much as possible. Besides, securing some additional space at the toe of the slope as a pocket for debris is
essential to prevent debris from reaching directly to the road in the event of a collapse.
5.3.5 b) Cut slopes in rocks susceptible to weathering
Certain types of rocks have particularly weak weathering resistance due to distinctive slaking and swelling
properties. Tertiary mudstone, some types of shale, marl, and tuff, serpentinite, altered andesite, and some
types of phyllite have such weak weathering resistance.
Due to unloading by cutting and being exposed to repeated dry and wet cycles on the surface, the cut slopes
with the aforementioned rocks are gradually decomposed to behave like cohesionless soil, which has less
strength and erosion resistance than the mother rocks.
As the decomposition proceeds, the slopes are deteriorated by surface failures and gully erosion, which form
overhung and foot erosion on the slopes by differential erosion. Such conditions induce toppling and surface
failures involving remaining parts of slopes, facilitated by densely developed joints and cracks.
To avoid such failures, the following precautions should be incorporated in the design of the cut slope:
• The gradients of slope should be so designed to secure stability even under the conditions where
weathering of rock proceeds. Adopting berms is encouraged to limit the extent of slope failures.
• To mitigate weathering, the surface of the cut slopes should not be exposed. Protection works to cover the
surface is essential unless groundwater seepage/spring is expected on the slope. The slopes with
seepage/spring require special treatment to keep drainage and to cover the slope.
5.3.5 c) A cut slope in intensely jointed and fractured rocks
Fracture zones are frequently observed in Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks, such as basalt, andesite, rhyolite, and granite, have columnar or planner joints developed by
shrinkage of lava and magma during the cooling process.
Such jointed and/or fractured rocks often cause dip slope or wedge failures. The stability of the slopes with
jointed and/or fractured rocks depends on the development of joints and fractured zones. Thus, conditions of
joints and fractured zones should be comprehensively evaluated through geological field survey, drilling and
laboratory tests, seismic exploration, coefficient of fissures, and disaster records of neighbouring slopes.
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5.3.5 d) Slopes with abundant groundwater

Slopes with groundwater springs providing substantial water or with high groundwater levels are often unstable.
For the cut slope under such conditions should adopt gentler gradients of a slope, regardless of geological
conditions. For the slopes where abundant groundwater is expected, adopting groundwater drainage works
should be prioritized.
5.3.5 e) Some general considerations for cuts in rock slope
It is generally observed that after the cutting, the stability of cut slopes decreases with a time faster than it is
expected from the appearance. If the cut slopes along hill roads are left as it is, after cutting without any
treatments or protection implemented on it, large scale slope failures or landslides may occur due to various
factors and triggers, such as weathering under severe climatic conditions, erosion by surface water, seepage
water by torrential rain or snowmelt, increased pore pressure of fissures in the rock mass, and earthquakes.
These factors and triggers were caused or facilitated by the degradation of stability of cut slopes over time.
Immediately after cutting, effects of unloading by cutting remain in the surface of the cutting. The larger the
cutting is, the stronger the effects of unloading are. Regardless of the material composes a slope, whether it is
soil or rock, a cut slope, from which cutting removes the weight of material rapidly, causes slowly but steadily
expansion of the volume of its surface. As shown in Fig. 5.7, in the process of the expansion, a cut slope
becomes relaxed or loosened, and the risk of slope failures increases (Fig. 5.8).

As deformation precedes, the lower part of the slope, which corresponds to the compression area, becomes
steeper. Then, if cutting is made at the toe, the unloaded and relaxed cut slope firstly collapses. Such failures at
the toe facilitate unloading at the toe of the deformation block and stimulate further development of gravity
deformation (bedrock deformation), which may result in a massive deep-seated landslide. The aforementioned
process is explained in Fig. 5.8. It shows an example of cutting slope at the foot of the existing slope, where a
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slope with no sign of gravity deformation, may initiate a new block of gravity deformation after cutting. This
phenomenon indicates that if a slope is composed of intact bedrock, the cutting may affect the stability of
slopes by triggering relaxation or loosening.
5.4 Provision of surface and subsurface drainage measures ensuring holistic drainage network
The Topography of hill generates numerous watercourses. This is coupled with the continuous gradient of
roads in hills and high intensity of rainfall can create improper drainage. Lack of proper drainage is one of the
major factors that trigger slope instability. Water affects the stability of slopes by:
• Saturation of the soil, which may even create a fluid situation
• Developing internal pressure within the soil mass
• Reducing the soil/rock shear strength along the potential failure zone
Hence adequate drainage of water is the most important element of a slope stabilization scheme. Drainage can
be either surface (catch water/interceptor drains, chute/cascade, cross drainage structures, etc.) or subsurface
(Drainage galleries, horizontal drains, well points, etc.). Drainage systems reduce the water level inside a
potentially unstable hillside, which leads to a reduction in pore water pressures in the ground and an increase
in the shear strength within the slope. The reduction in pore pressure by drainage can be achieved by shallow
and/or deep drains, depending on hillside morphology, the kinematics of movement predicted and the depth of
creep surfaces. Usually, shallow drainage is adopted where the potential hillside movement is shallow,
affecting depth of 5-6 m. Where there are deeper slippage surfaces, deep drainage must be introduced, but
shallow drainage systems may also be installed, to run off surface water. A typical example of a drainage plan,
an arrangement of surface and subsurface drains in a hill slope from the case history is shown in Annexure-A1,
clause no. A1.5.
It is important to do the hydrological, geotechnical and structural design of drainage system keeping because of
feasible construction steps/installation methods in hill slopes. Hydrological parameters to be investigated for
drainage systems design are given in Chapter-3 of this document, IRC SP 48 – Hill Road Manual and IRC SP
42. Additionally, IRC SP 48 – Hill Road Manual covers how the different types of surface and subsurface drain
shall be connected and an effective drainage network shall be established. For the analysis and design of an
individual surface and subsurface drainage measures, IRC SP 42 shall be referred.
5.4.1 Surface drainage system to increase runoff and reduce the adverse impact
Effective surface drainage is always the first step to control a slope instability area. It is important that the
stormwater is captured above the slide area and diverted safely around the slide area. If the slide is of
extremely large proportions, then it may also be necessary to capture surface water on the slide, and divert this
off, and away from the slide. Various types of surface drainage systems can be used depending on slope
geometry, ground material (soil or rock) and slope characteristics, existing vegetation etc. Important surface
drainage systems include catch water/interceptor drains, chute/cascade, cross drainage structures, etc. which
are described below.
5.4.1 a) Catch water drains/Intercepting drains
The water coming from the hillside slopes reaches below the road pavement towards the downhill slope and
causes instability as shown in Fig. 5.9. To reduce the flow of water towards the valley side, it is essential that
such water is intercepted at the uphill side only and diverted suitably to avoid possible failure on the downhill
slope as shown in Fig. 5.10. It is facilitated through trenches as shown in Fig. 5.11. To reduce the seepage
from the surface soil, drainage trenches are cut in an unbroken length and filled with highly permeable, granular
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material on a hill slope to reduce the pore water pressure and improve the stability. To avoid the clogging of
granular materials, the draining materials are wrapped with a suitable geotextile/geocomposite. Perforated
pipes wrapped with geotextile/geocomposite are also being used inside the trench for the speedy discharge of
water as shown in Fig. 5.11. The water through these drains is disposed-off at suitable locations. Such
methods are found to be very effective in controlling the trigger of surficial slides on a hill slope. It may also be
noted that such type of system is effective when the slope material under which they are placed are drainable.
In highly clayey soils, this type of system alone may not be sufficient. Engineer at the site, therefore, should do
a proper investigation in such a situation.
Fig. 5.9 Typical cross-section of water seepage from uphill to downhill side, Fig. 5.10 Catchwater drains
Perforated pipe wrapped

with Nonwoven geotextile
Fig. 5.11 Interceptor Drains

5.4.1 b) Chute/cascade
Surface runoff on a hill slope generally flows down in the form of natural gulley/chutes/cascade. The water
entrapped in the catch water drains is also brought down by either connecting them with existing natural gulley
or through specially provided chutes/cascade. The cumulative discharge with its increasing momentum causes
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immense erosion. It is therefore desirable to provide lined chutes to lead the discharge to the catch pit of a
culvert or a natural drainage system as shown in Fig. 5.13. Generally stepped chutes/cascade made of stone
masonry or mechanically woven steel wire mesh gabion boxes or mattress/fabric form mattress covered with
PCC lining may be used for this purpose. Typical cross-section of stepped chute/cascade with stone masonry
is given in IRC SP 48 – Hill Road Manual, Fig. 8.6. Typical cross-section of chute /cascade with gabion
boxes/mattress is shown in Fig. 5.12. For specifications of gabions, revet mattresses reference shall be made
to MoRTH 2500 (clause no. 2503.3.1) and IS 16014 and for the specifications of fabric form mattresses,
reference shall be made to FHWA-NHI-09-112 (HEC 23).
Fig. 5.12 Typical cross-section of chute drain with gabion boxes or mattresses
Fig. 5.13 a) Typical view of chute drain provided on a hill slope
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5.4.1 c) Cross drainage structures

Cross drainage structures (culverts, scuppers, causeways, minor and major bridges etc.) shall be provided at
required intervals, if necessary, depending upon the nature of the terrain to prevent the roadside drains from
being overloaded and flooding the road surface. These shall be provided at every point of natural nallah
/natural gullies and a water crossing. For details of hydrological considerations, guidelines for choice of cross
drainage structures, details of submersible and non-submersible types of cross drainage structures, reference
shall be made to IRC SP 48 – Hill Road Manual.
5.4.2 Subsurface drainage system to improve slope stability
Subsurface drainage design aims at improving slope stability by controlling pore water pressures within the
slope. Subsurface drainage systems design shall usually be conceived in conjunction with surface drainage
systems and surface slope protections. The subsurface drainage system shall be provided if any groundwater
source is found to be the source of instability of slope. It can improve the stability of a potential slip surface that
passes below the phreatic surface.
Designers should exercise due judgment in prescribing the necessary subsurface drainage systems. As a
guide, situations, where prescriptive subsurface drainage systems may be warranted, including
• Locations with evidence of seepage from the slope face,
• At the interface of materials with significant permeability contrast giving rise to the potential for
perching,
• Where there is a sizeable catchment draining towards the slope,
• The presence of underground stream courses or subsurface drainage concentrations within the slope
or in its vicinity with the possibility of lateral drainage towards the slope,
• Slopes whose stability is especially sensitive to changes in design groundwater levels,
• As contingency provisions against possible leakage from nearby water bodies.
Nevertheless, when specifying prescriptive subsurface drainage, care should be exercised to ensure that the
lowering of the groundwater table will not be detrimental to nearby structures, facilities or services.
Important sub-surface drainage systems include horizontal drainage system, deep drainage etc. as described
in the below sections. Besides, a planned re-vegetation program should also be considered as a valid
subsurface technique.
5.4.2 a) The horizontal drainage system and drainage wells
In general, the horizontal drainage borings are designed to penetrate slip surfaces of landslides with a
penetrating length of around 5 meters beyond slip surface, with a total length of boring/perforated casing of
from 20 to 50 meters. In case the boring/casing does not reach slip surfaces, drainage wells may be adopted
by which groundwater drainage network is connected and extended. Horizontal drainage borings are drilled
from drainage well, in which groundwater is collected through horizontal borings and discharged by a discharge
boring. Fig. 5.14(a) shows a profile of horizontal drainage boring and Fig. 5.14(b) shows that of the drainage
well with horizontal drainage borings to collect groundwater and a discharge boring to drain groundwater. In a
wide landslide site, drainage wells are connected with discharge borings, so that collected groundwater is
drained for a long distance.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 5.14 (a) Horizontal drainage boring and (b) Drainage well
Drainage wells are deep shafts to collect deep groundwater which is unable to be collected by horizontal
drainage borings drilled from the surface. The deep groundwater along the slip surface is collected through
horizontal drainage borings drilled from the wells and discharged through discharge borings to the
surface/downward drainage wells. Fig. 5.15(a) shows inside of drainage well looked from the platform on the
surface. Fig. 5.15(b) shows groundwater flowing into drainage well from the outlets of the drainage borings.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.15 (a) Drainage Well and (b) Inflow from Outlets of Drainage Boring
• Arrangements of Boreholes
Boreholes should be drilled in a manner to form fan-shaped or parallel arrangements. Since multiple boreholes
are drilled from one location, fan-shaped arrangements can save time for preparation of scaffolding and setting
and shifting of drilling machines. Intervals between the tips of boreholes or the points where boreholes
penetrate a slip surface should be from 5 to 10 metre. To ensure that boreholes reach the targeted
groundwater aquifer or passage, before drilling starts, depth and location of groundwater aquifer or passage
should be checked by groundwater logging or other survey methods. In Fig. 5.16, suitable arrangements of
horizontal drainage borings are illustrated.
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Fig. 5.16 Arrangements of Horizontal Drainage Borings

• The inclination of Horizontal Boreholes
As shown in Fig. 5.17, horizontal boreholes should be drilled with an upward inclination of 5 to 10 degrees from
the horizontal. Due to the inclination, collected groundwater is easily discharged and flown out of the landslide
area by the action of gravity.
Fig. 5.17 Cross-section of horizontal drainage boring

After drilling has been carried out to the desired depth and the casing installed, the latter is cleared of soil, and
sections of perforated PVC drainpipe covered with nonwoven geotextile material then pushed into the casing
and coupled together. The casing is then withdrawn, and the screen is installed over the end of the drain. Drain
holes must be thoroughly cleaned of drill cuttings and mud. Un-cleaned drain holes may only be partially
effective, sometimes maybe to the extent of 25%. In general, horizontal drains shall be made up of 50 mm to
100 mm diameter perforated/ slotted corrugated PVC pipes with the upper two-third portion of the pipe is
perforated/ slotted. The specifications of pipes shall meet the specifications for corrugated pipes (with or without
perforations) shall conform to IS-9271 and/or IS 16098 Part-2. The specifications for plain PVC/HDPE pipes
shall conform to IS 4984. The type of pipe to be used shall be decided depending on flow/site conditions. The
pipes are installed in pre-drilled boreholes at a negative gradient of 5 to 15 degrees to the horizontal into a hill
or an embankment for removing groundwater of the sub-soil with poor permeability. It is also recommended to
shroud the pipe by a suitable nonwoven geotextile so that the soil particles are prevented from entering into the
perforations/ slots thereby reducing the possibility of its clogging.
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“Phreatic line” is only applicable when there is a water profile exist in a slope stability case. It may not be
applicable or exist in all cases, but also it can’t be ruled out in all slope stability cases. This condition is very
common in hilly terrain as there are many water bodies exist in upstream hill like a drain, small water storage,
lake etc. In some cases, it exists throughout the year and some are seasonal. This is also one of the most
important reasons for the cause of the landslide. Hence, it is most important that it shall be investigated before
finalizing the design. This can be easily identified during soil investigation. The picture (Fig. 5.19) can be
referred to which shows how horizontal sub-surface drain can help in releasing hydrostatic pressure. This is not
due to the saturation of soil; this is due to the presence of phreatic water profile in a cut slope.
Fig. 5.18 Picture showing the release of hydrostatic pressure using a horizontal drainage system
As a general rule, long drains with larger spacing are more efficient than short drains with less spacing.
Moreover, the smaller the slope angle, the longer should be the drain. PVC pipe drains should not exceed 40 m
in length; for longer drain, stiffer pipe materials (stainless steel or galvanized steel) is recommended. If the
slope profile consists of heterogeneous soil and/or fractured rocks, the length of the horizontal drains must
traverse as many permeable materials as possible. In clay soils, the full change in ground-water tables can
take up to 5 years, with 50 per cent of the improvement taking place in the first year. Once water tables are
lowered in clay soils, the change is fairly permanent; however, seasonal fluctuations can occur, but rainfall will
not alter the ground-water level in the slope provided the drains do not clog. In sandy soils, the ground-water
table will lower within a few months but will also fluctuate with rainfall. Solutions recommended above are both
for soil/rock slopes and are intended for guidance purpose. A combination of solutions can be adopted as per
site requirements. For site-specific design, the services of a specialist may be taken.
5.4.2 b) Deep drainage trenches
The deep drainage trenches modify the filtration routes in the ground. Often more expensive than shallow
drains, deep drains are usually more effective because they directly remove the water that induces instability
within the hillside. Deep drainage trenches consist of unbroken cuts with a small cross-section that can be
covered at the bottom with geo-fabric material having a primary filter function. They are filled with draining
material that has a filtering function and exploits the passive drainage to carry away the drained water downhill.
The effectiveness of these systems is connected to the geometry of the trench and the continuity of the draining
material along the whole trench.
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5.4.2 c) Deep drainage wells

Wells are often used to obtain immediate control over a sliding mass while investigating the source of water
more thoroughly and preparing designs for more permanent installations. Drainage wells often encounter
artesian pressure, and therefore considerable care should be taken when drilling such holes, to accurately
record the level at which the groundwater is first encountered as well as the various standing water levels.
5.3.5 d) Isolated deep wells fitted with drainage pumps
In this type of drainage system, deep wells are installed into the slope at various locations. This system
provides for the installation of a drainage pump for each well. The distribution of the wells is established
according to the permeability of the land to be drained and the lowering of the water pressure to be achieved.
The use of isolated wells with drainage pumps leads to high operational costs and imposes a very time-
consuming level of control and maintenance.
5.4.3 Road surface and subsurface drainage
Road construction disturbs the natural hill slopes and resulting instability could be aggravated if infiltration is
encouraged. Stormwater runoff from the road pavement, as well as any sub-soil drains, should be captured and
disposed of by-lined stormwater drains or pipes. Regular maintenance, including patching of potholes, is
essential. Only impervious pavement structures are suitable for hillside development areas. Overloading by
heavy vehicles must be avoided as it could lead to stressing and premature failure of the pavement.
Road surface drainage deals with the drainage of stormwater runoff from the road surface and the surfaces
adjacent to the road formation. Several elements can be used to intercept or capture this runoff and facilitate its
safe discharge to an appropriate receiving location. These elements include:
• Kerb and channel
• Edge and median drainage
• Table drains and blocks
• Diversion drains and blocks
• Catch drains and banks
• Drainage pits
• Pipe networks
After falling onto road surfaces, rainfall-runoff drains to the lowest point. On reaching the lowest point, runoff
should be channelled along the pavement edge via kerb and channelling or discharged over the shoulders to a
suitable collection system such as a natural watercourse, table drain or piped drainage system (pipe network).
In all cases, design of the elements for this runoff must adequately cater for the safety and convenience of road
users, including pedestrians, and protect adjacent properties and the road pavement from damage.
Hillside open space should be disturbed as little as possible. The area should preferably be left in its natural
state. An adequate number of inlets/pits shall be constructed with a collector drain network across open areas
for efficient runoff collection. Cut off channels should be constructed around the edge of development on
hillsides, to intercept runoff from the open space before it reaches the developed areas. Stormwater flows from
the cut off channels should be conveyed to the nearest formal drainage system as shown in Fig. 5.19. Drop
structures and/or energy dissipaters may be needed in these channels to reduce flow velocities. All the
structures as suggested must be properly monitored and a mechanism should be in place to maintain them.
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Negligence of carrying out of routine maintenance can lead to infiltration and slope failures in hillside
developments, with potentially devastating consequences. Typical sections of the road surface and subsurface
drains are given in IRC SP 48 – Hill Road Manual, clause no. 8.7.
Fig. 5.19 Construction of channels to collect/discharge water across the hill slope
5.4.4 Public drainage systems in hillside areas and hillslope stability
Nowadays, housing and resort related developments are common activities on the hillside and their
components include buildings, roads, car parks, and open spaces. Unfortunately, the drainage practices for
hillside development about drainage for such large developments are generally poor. The huge amount of
water generated through these activities enters into a hill slope and causes a slide. In local standard practice,
grading of a hillside development area is done with a combination of cutting or filling the terrain with a slope to
achieve the intended platform as shown in Fig. 5.20. Due to the flat area, stormwater does not run off the site
but ponds on the platform and starts to infiltrate into the soil causing seepage. The infiltration creates the
wetting front such that the unsaturated zone (vadose zone) becomes saturated resulting in superficial failure
and finally the overall slope fails by the same phenomenon in a retrogressive process. To control such type of
failures, additional measures to divert such water in a proper channelized manner shall be planned as shown in
annexure A1, clause no. A1.1.
Fig. 5.20 Typical hillside development impacts on runoff4
4 Source: 47. Hill Side Drainage, Urban Strom Water Management Manual, Malaysia -
https://www.water.gov.my/jps/resources/auto%20download%20images/58464efcc60cf.pdf
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The drainage system that collects the rainwater and conveys stormwater must be designed to be fully lined to
prevent infiltration into the ground. Also, the collected stormwater from detention facilities must be conveyed
safely downslope. The public drainage system in hillside areas will usually need to incorporate devices such as
drop structures, cascading drains or energy dissipaters to avoid excessive velocities as shown in Fig. 5.21.
Alternatively, a pipe system can be successfully used on smaller developments, with the head loss being taken
up in drop pits and similar structures.
Fig. 5.21 Lined drainage system with various arrangements to dissipate energy
5.4.5 Use of permeable fill and removal of unstable materials to improve stability and drainage
Embankments built against toe slopes to stabilize a hill slope can impede groundwater flow. Similarly, roads
may interfere with natural groundwater paths when a thin permeable soil cover is removed, and the road built
up onto the rock or impermeable till underneath. In such a situation, it is required that a permeable fill below the
subgrade or embankment as shown in Fig. 5.22 shall be provided. Such an arrangement will facilitate the free
flow of drainage and improve the overall stability of the hill slope. To do so, excavate below the soil bottom and
use a permeable fill-blanket at the bottom at least by half a meter below the subgrade/ embankment.
Excavating into the underlying soil "keys" the toe load into the slope as well as ensure that the drainage is
below the critical failure surface. This type of drainage may also be recommended for cut and fill and backcast
road construction. This layer may consist of clean pit-run gravel, free-draining sand, or other suitable local
materials. If springs or concentrated flows are encountered, drain-pipes may also be required. Where supplies
of coarse aggregate are limited, trenches can be cut through the subgrade and backfilled with gravel
(Squamish culverts). The trenches should be about 1 m2 in cross-section and spaced at 5 to 10 m intervals or
more depending upon the site condition. To ensure that drainage does not get clogged with time it is suggested
that after the trenches are excavated, geotextile fabrics are laid into. The backfill gravel is placed on to fabric
and the fabric is folded over the top of the drain material.
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Fig. 5.22 Permeable fill below embankment/subgrade, Fig. 5.23 Stripping of unstable surface material as
a slope prevention measure, filter material ensures drainage at the base and improves stability
5.5 Erosion control and other surface protection measures
Erosion is often a problem when there is not enough protective cover on steep slopes or in drainage channels
that have been designed to rely on vegetation for long term erosion control. Vegetation is ideal for erosion
control because it is relatively inexpensive to establish and maintain and it presents aesthetically appealing
look. There are different methods of slope protection using vegetation such as simple vegetative turfing,
transplantation of ready-made turfs or grass, application of mulch, vetiver grass, use of coir and jute mats, use
of 2D synthetic geogrids/netting, use of three-dimensional erosion control mats, preformed polymer geocells or
webs etc. For further details, IRC 56 and MoRTH 700 shall be referred.
Seeding with grasses and legumes reduces surface erosion, as continuous erosion may gradually lead to
landslides. Planting with shrubs adds vegetative cover and stronger root systems, which in turn will enhance
slope stability. Planning is required for successful implementation of the re-vegetation program. Before
undertaking to seed, a person with local experience should be consulted for advice. Local knowledge based on
success and failure is invaluable.
A slope made as stable as possible before seeding will be of benefit in making the slope resistant to future
erosion and failure. Controlling surface-water drainage, removing cut-bank overhangs, reducing slope angles,
and benching all should be done before seeding begins. There are two basic types of seeding: dry seeding and
hydraulic, also known as hydro-seeding:
5.5.1 Different types of vegetating methods for erosion control
5.5.1 a) Dry seeding
Dry seeding is done with rotary disk and air-blown seeders. These methods are less costly than hydraulic
seeding but are limited to rough soil surfaces and gentler slopes. Rotary disk seeders spread seed and fertilizer
by centrifugal force. The simplest seeder is the hand-held seeder. Air-blown seeders use air to blow or shoot
seed and fertilizer up to a distance of 5 to 8 meters. Equipment can be adapted for motorized vehicles. Till the
establishment of vegetation, the slope is susceptible to erosion and may result in washing away of seeds and
seedlings. In such circumstances, a protective cover on the soil is required which can resist soil erosion, retains
runoff and facilitates the establishment of vegetation on the surface. Such systems can be broadly classified in
two (a) Rolled Erosion Control Products (b) Hydraulically Applied Erosion Control Products.
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5.5.1 b) Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECP)

It can be either biodegradable mats like coir, jute geotextile, etc. or Erosion Control Blanket (ECB) or 3 D
Geosynthetic Mats (Turf reinforcement mats (TRM)). Even though the RECP can be utilized to provide a cover,
provision of it alone won’t help to bring vegetation without adequate measures. ECBs shall be applicable only for
very gentle soil slopes (geotechnically quite stable) and where rainfall intensity is comparatively less. For steep
slopes subjected to heavy rainfall, TRMs are recommended. To ensure the proper functioning of RECPs, soil
surface needs to be smooth graded or else it will leave voids behind loose erosion control mat which will make
the growth of vegetation difficult. The selection systems of the erosion control products shall be following the
specifications mentioned in Table 13 and 14 of MoRTH 700. Construction procedure is given in IRC: 56.
5.5.1 c) Hydraulically applied Erosion Control Products (HECP)/Hydro-Seeding/Hydro-Mulching
Hydraulically applied erosion control is a process where seed and any combination of fertilizer, lime, bio-
stimulant, moisture retention polymer, tackifier, and other additives are combined with water and a hydro-seeding
mulch (HECP materials) to form a slurry. These ingredients are mixed in a Hydro mulcher machine which
contains a mechanical agitation system that creates and maintains a homogenous slurry and sprayed over
prepared ground in a uniform layer. In general, HECPs require less soil preparation, fast and efficient on larger
jobs, it can be applicable for rocky or uneven soils or sites which are difficult to access.
Relying upon vegetation growth alone may be sometimes very unpredictable and unreliable as it may be
extremely difficult to achieve >90% vegetation coverage in a short period, leaving exposed areas vulnerable to
erosion especially in steeper slopes, sandy silty regions and high-intensity rainfall areas, the root reinforcing
geosynthetic systems can be used. Depending upon the duration for which protection needed (short term-2 to 3
years or longer time), either natural fibre-based or polymer-based 3-D mats or Rolled Erosion Control Products
can be laid over the HECP applied surfaces.
5.5.1 d) Slope protection using Geocells
On natural slopes where vegetation may be difficult to establish, geocells may be adopted as an erosion
protection system. Geocells are 3-dimensional cellular confinement system, fabricated from ultrasonically welded
HDPE strips that are expandable on-site to form cellular structures. The HDPE material required to be used for
geocells shall contain a minimum of 2% carbon black for UV resistance. The walls of the cells are perforated for
migration of nutrients with pore water. The perforations along with the textured surface of the cell walls help to
retain the infilled topsoil. The cell depth of Geocell for erosion protection generally ranges from 75 – 150 mm, but
higher depth may be considered as per specific site requirements. Geocells are placed in position over a
reasonably dressed surface, expanded and placed in position by J hooks or stakes, spiked into the ground. The
geocells prevent the soil from slippages and encourage vegetation growth. The system reduces the water runoff
velocity down the slope surface. Geocells infilled with coarse granular material can be considered where
vegetation growth is difficult. Suitable geotextile conforming to IRC: SP:59 should be adopted as filter media
behind geocells. Geocell material requirements for slope erosion protection are given in MoRTH 700 and IRC SP
59.
5.5.1 e) Slope erosion protection using gabions and mattresses
Gabions and mattresses can be successfully used for erosion protection of gentle and steep slopes as per IRC
56 and MoRTH 2500 (clause no. 2503.3.1) for slopes subjected to heavy erosion especially near to water
bodies. Gabions and mattresses as porous gravity weights can effectively sustain the eroding slope and also
preserve their natural look without the need of any tree cutting or roots removal, thus providing eco-compatible
and free-draining solutions.
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5.5.2 Selection criteria of erosion control system

The selection of the erosion control measures shall be made based on erosion control effectiveness and
functional longevity, appropriate product selection for erosion control mat, the ability of erosion control material to
encourage seed germination and plant growth, soil PH which determine soil reaction and neutralization
requirement, selection of suitable plants and fertilizers with the help of a horticulturist to ensure ideal
considerations for the growth of vegetation. The details of erosion control measures are available in IRC 56.
Synthetic and natural geotextiles can be used as erosion control mats. The requirements of erosion control mat
as per different slope angle and rainfall intensity shall be referred from MoRTH 700, table13 & 14. Table 5.
5.6 Provision of Restraining, Retaining and Protection structures to improve slope stability – Rigid and
flexible systems
Hill roads are formed mostly by cutting into the hill and thereby disturbing natural stability of slopes.
Watercourses along the slope cause erosion affecting road stability. Soil movement along slopes tends to
disturb the road formation. All these have to be effectively countered by the provision of structures to act as
restraining, retaining, and protective structures.
5.6.1 Restraining structures
Methods to increase the resisting forces of a slide surface can be broadly classified based on the two basic
principles such as restraining structures which apply a resisting force at the toe of the sliding mass or
increasing the strength of the material in the failure zone. Multiple methods are available to the engineer to
increase the resisting forces at the toe of the sliding mass. One of the effective methods of stabilising an
unstable natural slope is to increase the resisting forces by installing a buttress at the toe of the slope failure.
The buttress placed at the toe of sliding mass can take various forms such as riprap rock buttress, earth
buttress, rigid and flexible gravity retaining walls, reinforced soil systems, pile systems and anchored wall
systems etc. One of the most common buttresses is constructed out of locally available rubbles which may be
suitable for low heights as shown in Fig. 5.24. The earth buttress can be either a simple earth embankment or a
reinforced soil embankment, both should be installed in layers.
While designing the buttress restraining structure, the foundation must be adequate to support the weight of the
structure. The combination of structures and the slope shall be analysed for overall stability. These structures
shall be checked for stability against overturning and sliding along its base. Particular attention shall be given to
the changes in groundwater behind the buttress. If the buttress is a reinforced soil embankment, internal
stability shall also be checked. The stability of the slope shall be considered during all phases of construction.
The construction may have to be timed to a period when the water level and other parameters are at the least
critical point. The buttress may have to be designed to allow construction in stages so that the entire toe of the
slide is not removed at one time. Each of the various stages of construction shall be subjected to separate
stability analysis. Buttress construction considerations include the stability of temporary excavation.
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Fig. 5.24 Rock buttress used to control unstable slopes

5.6.2 Retaining structures
In cases with limited access and right- of - way, rock and earth buttresses may not be feasible. Various types of
retaining wall systems can be used in the above situations (limited access and right of way) to provide the
resisting force. Retaining structures are used frequently to support stable or unstable earth masses. Such
systems shall be properly designed based on a proper investigation. The retaining systems can be rigid or
flexible as described in subsequent sections.
For the selection of a type of retaining walls for a hill, area refer to IRC SP 48 (Hill Road Manual) and IS 14458
Part-1, design and construction of various retaining walls. For further specification for steel sheet piling
sections, reference shall be made to IS 2314.
5.6.2 a) Rigid retaining structures
As water plays a major role in the stability of slopes, drainage concerns must always be addressed. Measures
shall be taken particularly during construction in monsoon seasons. A filter layer of geotextile shall be placed at
the back and sides of the structures to retain the soil and allow the water to drain off. Geotextile selection
criteria shall include soil gradation, groundwater recharge rate, and construction shall be as per IRC SP 59 and
MoRTH 700. Details of various drainage measures are given in clause no.5.4 of this document.
The following are the types of rigid retaining structures based on the mechanism and type of construction.
1. Rigid gravity retaining structures - Brick/UCR/RR stone masonry wall, concrete retaining wall,
2. Rigid RCC Cantilever retaining wall
3. Rigid RCC Counterfort retaining wall
4. Rigid RCC Diaphragm walls
5. Concrete crib works
5.6.2 a1) Rigid gravity retaining structures
• Gravity retaining wall depends on its self-weight only to resist lateral earth pressure. Commonly, gravity
retaining wall is massive because it requires significant gravity load to counteract soil pressure (Fig. 5.25).
• Sliding, overturning, and bearing forces shall be taken into consideration while this type of retaining wall
structure is designed.
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• It can be constructed from different materials such as concrete, stone, brick and masonry units (, Fig. 5.26).
• For a selection of a type of retaining walls for a hill, area refer to IS 14458 Part-1, design and construction
of various retaining walls (Design of retaining/breast walls, Construction of dry-stone walls, Construction of
banded dry stone masonry walls and Construction of cement stone masonry walls) reference shall be made
to IS 14458 Part 2, 3, 4 and Part 5.
• A photograph showing PCC retaining wall with temperature reinforcement is given in Annexure-A1, clause
no. A1.2.
Fig. 5.25 Gravity retaining structures applicable to both cut and fill slopes, Fig. 5.26 Different types of
gravity retaining structures
5.6.2 a2) Rigid RCC cantilever retaining walls
• RCC walls shall be considered for high volume roads, high cut slopes and terraces as per IS 14458 Part-1.
• RCC Cantilever retaining walls are usually of reinforced concrete and work on the principles of leverage. It
has a much thinner stem and utilize the weight of the backfill soil to provide most of the resistance to sliding
and overturning.
• For the design of RCC Cantilever retaining walls, reference shall be made to IRC HRB 15 and BS 8002.
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Fig. 5.27 Provision of cantilever retaining wall in a hilly area - Commonly used to control movements of
small soil masses or sidehill fill sections
5.6.2 a3) Rigid RCC counterfort retaining wall
• RCC counterfort walls are cantilever walls strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the back of the
wall slab and base slab. The counter-forts act as tension stiffeners and connect the wall slab and the base
to reduce the bending and shearing stresses. To reduce the bending moments in vertical walls of great
height, counterforts are used, spaced at distances from each other equal to or slightly larger than one-half
of the height. Counter forts are used for high walls with heights greater than 8 to 12 m.
• For the design of counterfort retaining walls, reference shall be made to BS 8002.
Fig. 5.28 Provision of counterfort retaining wall

5.6.2 a4) Rigid RCC Diaphragm walls
Diaphragm walls are made of reinforced concrete sections constructed in situ in slots mechanically excavated
below the ground surface; their stabilizing action is similar to that of pile walls, although, in contrast to these,
diaphragm walls are continuous structures.
A diaphragm wall is a structural concrete wall constructed in a deep trench excavation, either cast in situ or
using precast concrete components. Diaphragms walls are often used on congested sites, close to
existing structures, where there is restricted headroom, or where the excavation is of a depth that would
otherwise require the removal of much greater volumes of soil to provide stable battered slopes. For further
details on diaphragm walls, reference may be made to IS 9556 “Code of Practice for Design & Construction of
Diaphragm walls".
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5.6.2 a5) Concrete crib works

Concrete crib works are one of the useful and effective countermeasures for surface protection of cut slopes in
Japan. The objectives of concrete crib works are to secure the long-term stability of the cut slopes by
preventing surface weathering, scouring and erosion as well as to control rock falls and small-scale slope
failures. It is a classical approach of erosion control and stabilization of slope and a brief mention of the Crib
Wall and Crib-block Wall is already included in the IRC SP: 48 (Hill Road Manual) and IRC SP:106
(Engineering Guidelines on landslide mitigation measures for Indian Roads). However, this technology has not
yet been implemented on the hill roads of India.
A more detailed account of the concrete crib works is provided in the Capacity Development Project for
Highways in Mountainous Regions, “Guideline for Slope Protection and Embankment with Advanced
Technology”, March 2020, a draft version prepared by JICA for the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MoRTH), under collaborative research with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
Broadly, the concrete crib works are classified into three types depending on their construction methods, i.e. i)
concrete block crib works, ii) shotcrete crib works and iii) cast-in-place Concrete crib works. Each type of crib
works has different features (which are described in Table 2-37 and Table 3-6 in the aforementioned
Guideline). The suitable type for the given construction site has to be determined on a case-by-case basis
depending on site conditions and construction objectives.
As is the case in precast concrete elements used for other purposes, attention should be paid to avoid any
harmful effects on precast concrete elements for concrete block crib work during transportation. The harmful
effects include cracks, damages, substantial bending moment/shear force, etc. In this regard, the size of
precast concrete elements for concrete block crib work should be properly determined to transport the elements
safely from precast concrete factories to construction sites. For information, one-meter-square (approximately
one-meter in height and approximately one-meter in width) is one of the common sizes of precast concrete
elements for concrete block cribwork in Japan, used by JICA. Suitable measures and size may be adopted for
the local conditions where it is used.
As shown in Fig. 5.29 and Fig. 5.30, Concrete crib works consist of grid frames with sizes from 200 mm to 600
mm at the interval of 2 to 5 m. Each intersection of the grid is fixed to the ground by using suitably designed
anchor bars. Spaces inside the grid frames are filled and protected by stone pitching, mortar spraying or
vegetation.
Appropriate types of concrete crib works are determined by the designers according to the conditions of the cut
slopes. While concrete block crib works are mainly used in gentle slopes, Shotcrete crib works, and cast-in
place concrete crib works apply to steep slopes. Shotcrete crib works and cast-in-place concrete crib works are
mainly used in the cases where the long-term stability of the cut slopes is not clear and the collapse of the cut
slopes is likely to be induced on weathered and jointed rocks with spring water. Additionally, while concrete
block crib works provide no resisting strength toward the driving force of unstable slopes, shotcrete crib works,
and cast-in-place concrete crib works contribute to some resisting force depending on the size and space of the
crib. Precast concrete crib works are provided to prevent erosion of slopes and retaining of material within
frames. Shotcrete spray crib works and cast in situ concrete crib works are used for preventing a collapse of
slope surface under some earth pressure and preventing detached rock (For further formation, Table 3-11 in
the aforementioned Guideline may be referred for important points on spraying shotcrete for cribwork.)
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Rock bolts are applied with concrete crib works to stabilize small-scale surface landslides of approximately 3 to
5 m in thickness by installing tension force to the ground. Horizontal drainage borings are conducted to control
landslides by draining groundwater as the groundwater is responsible for activating landslides.
As per JICA, the application of expansion joints is determined on a case-by-case basis in the concrete crib
works. Many factors should be considered such as site conditions, type and size of cribwork, design concepts,
and other countermeasures conducted together with cribwork (ground anchors, rock bolts, etc.). Thus, standard
rules may not apply to the incorporation and application of expansion joints. It is urged that the designer
considers it during holistic design.
Seismic design for concrete crib works is not fully developed at this moment. It should be, however,
emphasized that in the cases where concrete crib works are tightly fixed to stable grounds or bedrocks, the
structures are to work with relatively high resistance force against earthquakes. According to the damages
observed in existing structures after earthquakes in Japan, slope protection works, which are fixed to the stable
grounds revealed minor cracks in concrete but no severe damage. However, in an active seismic zone, its use
without proper seismic design, proper spacing of anchor bars, etc., should be avoided.
Examples and typical sketches of concrete crib works are shown in Fig. 5.29 and Fig. 5.30, respectively.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.29 (a) Shotcrete crib work (b) Cast-in-place concrete cribwork
Fig. 5.30 Brief Sketches of Cast-in-place Concrete Crib Works
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The details of design, construction and maintenance of these two methods are respectively included in the
Chapters 2, 3, and 4 of the Capacity Development Project for Highways in Mountainous Regions, “Guideline for
Slope Protection and Embankment with Advanced Technology”, March 2020 (Draft stage).
For the construction sequence of shotcrete crib work, Figure 3-21 through Figure 3-29 of the aforementioned
Guideline may be referred. Several exhibits of concrete block crib work are also available in the following
Japanese website given under the references.
5.6.2 b) Flexible retaining structures
The following flexible retaining structures are generally provided.
• Flexible Gabion retaining structures
• Reinforced soil system
• Composite/Shored reinforced soil system
• Anchored/Nailed retaining wall
5.6.2 b1) Flexible Gabion retaining structure
• Gabion retaining structures are commonly used retaining wall in hilly areas because of its flexibility and
sustainability against dynamic forces like seismicity, seepage forces and flash floods. These shall be
preferred in case of poor foundation or seepage conditions and can take considerable differential
settlement and some slope movement.
• Gabion retaining structures are multi-celled, rectangular mechanically woven steel wire mesh boxes,
uniformly partitioned into internal cells, interconnected with other similar units, filled with rock/boulder or
other suitable materials at the project site to form flexible, permeable and monolithic structures. For
material specifications of mechanically woven gabions, reference shall be made to clause no. 5.0 point no.
(2) of this document.
• It is employed for the construction of erosion control structures, drainage toes and for making retaining
walls/breast walls and is used to stabilize steep slopes by working in a combination with other solutions.
• While using gabions for gravity wall applications for treating slope instabilities for natural slope, the main
strength requirements of mesh panel and connections are tensile strength of wire mesh panel in both
parallel to twist and perpendicular to twist directions, Strength of connection to selvedges, the strength of
panel to panel connection using lacing wire or fasteners and punch strength test (refer MoRTH 2500,
clause no. 2503.3.1). The significance of these parameters is that such strength values will give assurance
of monolithicity and resistance to dynamic forces in a hill area where different hydro geo forces are
predominant.
• The durability of galvanization and the polymeric coating shall be as per IS 16014 and IRC SP 116. For
gabions, the coating wire requirements for a different working life of structures shall be available in Annex A
(Table A.1) of IS 16014. Salt spray test, So2 exposure test and abrasion test as per IS 16014 shall be used
to ensure the durability parameters of gabions.
• Design of gabion walls follows the same principles of gravity wall design. However, layer by layer internal
stability analysis and overall stability are having significant importance for gabion structures. For design
principles and installation methodology for gabion gravity walls, IRC SP 116 and shall be referred
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Fig. 5.31 Gabion Wall to protect hill slope

5.6.2 b2) Reinforced soil systems-walls and slopes
• Reinforced soil structures are alternatives for new construction and reconstruction where the cost of fill,
right-of-way, and other considerations may make a steeper slope desirable. By placing tensile reinforcing
elements in the soil, the strength of the soil can be improved significantly. Use of a facing system to prevent
soil ravelling between the reinforcing elements allows very steep slopes to be constructed safely.
• These structures are more suitable as soil-retaining structures with increasing height of soil to be retained
and poor subsoil conditions due to their adaptability to dynamic loading and ground conditions. In such type
of foundations and with increased height of retention, the cost of reinforced concrete retaining walls
increases rapidly. A reinforced soil structure can tolerate much larger settlements than reinforced concrete
walls.
• Types of facia for reinforced soil retaining system include wrap-around facing using geosynthetics, gabion
facing, Metallic facing, prefabricated in different shapes including welded wire grid and woven steel wire
mesh, precast reinforced concrete panels, precast concrete blocks and precast concrete hollow blocks as
given in MoRTH 3107.3. Wrap around facia using prefabricated geosynthetic bags shall be used in the
construction of reinforced soil slopes or slope angles less than 450 as mentioned in MoRTH 3107.3.1.
Where facia such as wrap-around or welded wire and woven steel wire mesh facings have been used and
where climatic conditions are appropriate, a green finish shall be provided as per MoRTH 3107.5. Facing
shall enable the construction within specified tolerances of vertical and horizontal alignment and it should
perform over the design life. The facing system should be able to meet the functional requirements such as
rigidity, flexibility, aesthetics, environmental considerations, etc. depending on location, purpose, and use of
structure. For specification requirements of reinforcing element, facia material, a connection between facia
and reinforcement, reference shall be made to relevant clauses of MoRTH 3100.
• For reinforced soil slopes of permanent nature, the durability of basic material for facing shall be ensured. A
suitable filter should be provided behind the woven or welded steel wire mesh elements when they are
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provided in the wrap-around form. For steeper slopes in high rainfall intensity and/or high seismicity areas,
a combination of woven and welded steel wire mesh elements with additional stiffening elements and filter
cloth shall be used to achieve flexibility, erosion prevention, and stiffness requirements.
• When vegetation is used as the facia cover of slope (for slope not steeper than 70 degrees with horizontal),
the face should provide a suitable medium like coir or jute or geosynthetic erosion control mat for the
establishment and continued growth of vegetation as per MoRTH 700. For a vegetated face, several
interrelated aspects need to be considered, including the climate, water requirements of plants and water
availability, site location aspect, altitude, amount and frequency of precipitation, exposure, form of facing
and erosion resistance capability to ensure permanent vegetative covering throughout the design life. If the
characteristics of backfill soil are not adequate to support vegetation, suitable topsoil may be placed at the
front face separated from the fill by an appropriate separator.
• Refer Chapter-7 for definitions, material specifications, design and construction procedures on the
reinforced soil system
5.6.2 b3) The composite soil reinforcement system
• Soil reinforcement systems are now more and more getting adopted in hilly terrains. However, in many of
these projects, the actual field conditions demand a combination of different types of facias, different types
of reinforcements and different types of RS systems itself. There are systems where geogrids or polymeric
products of different grades are used as primary and secondary reinforcements.
• Systems where different material types are used as primary and secondary reinforcement as per MoRTH
3100 and FHWA NHI 10-024 and 25.
• A system where reinforced soil wall and the slope is combined is shown in Annexure-A1, clause no. A1.3.
5.6.2 b4) Hybrid/Shored reinforced soil system
• The systems where nailed strata are combined with reinforced soil system which is known as Shored
Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) wall. Chapter-7 of this document gives the details of Shored MSE wall
and FHWA-CFL/TD-06-00 shall also be referred for more details.
5.7 Treatment/Training of slopes subjected to hydraulic forces from water bodies
There are two types of structures coming under this category.
5.7.1 Longitudinal structures to protect river/stream bank slopes
There are many instances that valley side slopes of roads are parallel to rivers. Where the riverbank side
slopes are steep; or where fill material from the road extends into the river, there is always the danger of
material eroding from the toe of the slope as well as the bed scour holes affecting the equilibrium of the bed
and bank slopes. The process will gradually or instantly reduce the stability of the slope by reducing the
resisting forces. The bank slope can get affected by the hitting of boulders or debris carried by river water. River
training measures like pitching, aprons and spurs etc. are required to be provided at the toe of downhill slope of
road to prevent erosion and subsidence of roadbed. The materials used for bank protection along rivers shall
be flexible structures like riprapping the toe of the slope or provide mechanically woven steel wire mesh gabion
boxes/mattresses or it shall be fabric form mattress. Riprap is relatively easy to construct and is effective on
many types of eroding banks where hydraulic forces are not severe and stones of required weight are locally
available. Heavy riprapping as per IRC 89 and CIRIA manual shall be used as pitching and when it is keyed
into the slope, it will acts as a permeable toe buttress, increasing resistance to failure.
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Generally, it has been observed that riprap alone may not work effectively especially as the high flow of stream
water is very strong to dislodge the disintegrated stones and disturbs the stability of the structure. It is therefore
recommended that stones of suitable size be enclosed in confining structures like gabions/mattresses
(mechanically woven double twisted hexagonal steel wire mesh gabion boxes or mattresses as per MoRTH
2500, clause no. 2503.3.1) to protect the stones from dislodging against damage due to impact of boulders.
These structures shall be designed as per the stability criteria like tractive shear force criteria, velocity criteria
and deformation criteria as per IRC 89 (Guidelines for Design and Construction of River Training and Control
works for Road Bridges). For material specifications of gabions and revet mattresses for bank protection,
aprons and river training works, reference shall be made to clause no. 5.0 point no. (2) of this document. . For
design methodology and construction procedure of gabions and revet mattresses subjected to anti scour and
bank protection works, reference shall be made IRC 89 and IRC SP 113.
Alternatively, a uniform protection system by fabric form mattress may be used. Fabric form erosion and scour
protection concrete mattress are comprised of a double layer of strong synthetic fabric sewn into a series of
pillow-shaped compartments that are connected internally by ducts and filled with a concrete grout that flows
from compartment to compartment via the ducts. The fabric mattress shall be fabricated at a factory as per site
geometry and supplied at site. This process improves the quality and speed of installation. These mats are
typically sewn together or otherwise connected by special zips, straps, or ties before filling. When setting the
grout form a mat made up of a grid of interconnected blocks. Fabric form mats are reinforced by cables laced
through the mat before the concrete is pumped into the fabric form, creating what is often called an articulating
block mat (ABM). This mattress with cable is recommended at apron location to facilitate launching during
scouring. Depending on the criticality of the condition, the mattress type (with a cable or without cable) shall be
decided. Flexibility and permeability are important functions for stream instability and scour countermeasures.
Therefore, systems that incorporate filter points or weep holes (allowing for pressure relief across the mat)
combined with relatively small-diameter ducts (to allow breakage and articulation between the grout blocks) are
the preferred products. For the specifications of materials i. e. geotextile form, cables, grout and grout filled mat,
quality criteria, design and installation, reference shall be made to FHWA-NHI-09-112 (HEC 23).
The above protection measures ultimately resulting in a slope not affected by high-speed streams as shown in
Fig. 5.33, and
Fig. 5.34 as a monolithic unit preventing damage of the structure. Gabion or revet mattresses/fabric form
mattress shall be used as revetments to prevent surface erosion only on geotechnical stable slopes. In the case
of slope instability, suitable stabilization measures shall be carried out first and then protection structures shall
be installed. Some typical project site photographs showing slope toe protection using gabion boxes/mattresses
and fabric form mattress on a riverbed are shown at Annexure-A1, clause no. A1.4.
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Fig. 5.32 Rip-rap toe protection on river stream5 Fig. 5.33 Typical section of gabion retaining wall
with launching apron on a river stream bed6
Fig. 5.34 Typical section of fabric form mattress with launching apron on a river stream bed7
5.7.2 Transverse river/stream training structures by reducing driving forces against slope stability
5.7.2 a) Check dams in a mountainous water body to reduce water velocity
Check dams will be useful to reduce the stream /channel water velocity of a mountainous water body which
may be on the hillside slope or the valley side slope or at the foot of the valley side slope of a vulnerable hill
road.
Fig. 5.35 Typical cross-section and photograph of check dam
5
Source: FHWA-NHI-09-112 (HEC 23) Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures: Experience, Selection, and Design
Guidance-Third Edition
6 Source: FHWA-NHI-09-112 (HEC 23) Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures: Experience, Selection, and Design
7
Source: FHWA-NHI-09-112 (HEC 23) Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures: Experience, Selection, and Design
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Check dams are small, sediment storage dams built in the channel of steep gullies to stabilize the channel
beds. They are commonly used to control channelized debris-flow frequency and volume. Check dams serve
following purposes when installed in the channels.
• For streams on the hillside slope or valley side slope, it will retard the velocity and thus deep erosion and
gully formations will be stopped.
• For streams parallel to the roads, the check dams or weirs will reduce the dynamic forces, balance the bed
load and prevent scouring of bed and erosion of side slopes.
• To mitigate the incidence of failure by reducing the channel gradient in the upper channel.
• To reduce the volume of channel-stored material by preventing down cutting of the channel with
subsequent gully sidewall destabilization and by providing toe support to the gully slopes.
• To store debris-flow sediment, when installed in the lower part of the channel.
When installed on debris slides, the dams store ravelled material, which eventually creates small terraces on
the slide, reducing the surface slope. Check dams can be constructed of reinforced concrete, gabion
boxes/mattresses, geocells filled with concrete along with locally available pervious infill material, log cribs. For
material specifications of gabion boxes/mattresses, reference shall be made to clause no. 5.0 point no. (2) of
this document. . For material specifications of geocells, reference shall be made to MoRTH 700. Concrete
mortared rock dams do not usually exceed 8 m in height, whereas log crib dams must not exceed 2 m. The
spacing of dams depends on channel gradient and dam height. A check dam should be designed for hydraulic
stability and geotechnical stability, IRC SP 113, CIRIA Manual (CIRIA C683), FHWA NHI-09-111 and 112 (HEC
23), FHWA NHI-05-114 (HEC 15), Pilarczyk and IRC 89 shall be referred for more details.
5.8 Improvement in internal stability of slope by soil nailing, rock anchoring, rock bolting, grouting, and
micro piling etc.
5.8.1 Soil Nailing/Rock Bolting/Rock Anchoring and Facia Stabilization
In this system, if the slope is geotechnically stable then the nails/bolts/anchors are provided only up to a
design depth sufficient enough to hold the facia unit. In several situations, when the slopes are geotechnically
unstable and if the face of the slope is also erodible then the facia with deep nails/anchors are provided.
Generally, two types of facia are common i. e. rigid and flexible. With rigid facia, the surface may be
shotcreted.
Soil nailing/rock bolting/rock anchoring with flexible vegetative facing elements technique uses soil nailing/rock
bolting/rock anchoring as mechanical elements (soil nailing/rock bolting/rock anchoring and reinforced
synthetic geomats) in combination with biological elements (plants) to prevent and arrest slope failures and
erosion. This type of slope protection is used to reduce the environmental consequences of landslide-
mitigation measures.
A soft facing system consisting of high strength reinforced synthetic erosion control mats anchored by soil nails
that hold in place soil hydro-seeded with grass is shown in Fig. 5.36. If the facing system consists of steel
mesh system along with erosion control mesh, it can be termed as a flexible facing system. Reference can be
made to EN 14490 for a different type of facing systems. For further details on soil nailing/rock anchoring for
stabilization of natural slopes, chapter-6 of this document shall be referred.
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Fig. 5.36 A typical photograph of soil nailing with flexible facia (vegetated facia)
5.8.2 Anchored Retaining Wall
• This type of retaining wall is employed when space is limited, or a thin retaining wall is required.
• It is an in-situ reinforcement method that can be used as a remedial measure to treat unstable natural
slopes. The technique involves the insertion of reinforcing elements into the slope along with the facia
element on the surface. The nails enhance the stability of the slope and help to connect the unstable
surficial layers with the stable mass of the slope. The facia protects the exposed surface from erosion.
• A considerably high retaining wall can be constructed using this type of retaining wall structure system.
• Deep cable rods or wires are driven deep sideways into the earth, then the ends are filled with concrete to
provide an anchor.
• Anchors (tiebacks) acts against overturning and sliding pressure.
• For further reference for design and construction of such walls, reference may be made to FHWA NHI 14-
007, BS 8006-Part 2 and CIRIA Manual C637.
• For details of ground anchors, chapter-6 of this document shall be referred.
5.8.3 Micropiles
Micro piles are used in the same way as soil nails, but the behaviour of micropile is influenced by their
geometric array. A detailed description of miroples is given in chapter 8.
5.9 Rockfall mitigation measures
Rockfall can range from a few fist-sized rocks to large cliff sections and boulders which, depending on size and
shape, can roll, bounce, and fall down slopes, landing in areas at great distances (Fig. 5.37). When recreation
areas such as beaches near cliffs, parks and open spaces or pilgrim/religious places are affected by rockfall,
and people are frequently exposed to these hazards, it will become a significant concern for the society. A
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variety of engineering techniques can be implemented to mitigate the effects of rockfalls as detailed in IRC SP
106 clause no. 8.2.1 and the relevant rockfall mitigation measures are discussed briefly here. As per IRC SP
106, there are four types of rockfall mitigation measures i. e. prevention measures, protection measures,
retention measures and warning measures as indicated in Fig. 5.38 in the form of flow chart. In some cases,
more than one type of engineered solution is the best, and a combination of these mitigation measures shall be
applied as discussed in the subsequent sections.
Fig. 5.37 Typical rock slope failure on highways
Fig. 5.38 Methods of rockfall mitigation/ stabilization- Prevention, Retention, Protection and Warning
measures as per IRC SP 106, clause no. 8.2.1
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5.9.1 Drapery systems

Drapery systems will be a significant component of most of the protection, retention and prevention systems.
Many times, their function will be to act as facia systems where prevention or retention is mainly done through
long nails/anchors/bolts or surfaced nails/anchors/bolts. A typical example showing different types of products
and their specification standards are given in Fig. 5.39.
The common products used for facia of drapey systems are single twist mesh, simple rockfall netting, ring net
with 4 points and 6-point, mono-oriented reinforced mesh, bi-oriented reinforced mesh, cable panels with knot
and clips. The standards giving the material specifications are WSDOT manual (for single twist mesh, mono
oriented steel reinforced mesh, bi-oriented reinforced mesh), IS 16014 (for simple rockfall netting), ISO 17745
(for ring nets), ISO 17746 (for cable panels with knot and clips). Washington State Department of
Transportation manual (WSDOT) provides design guidelines, generalized plans and specifications for slope
protection systems that can be applied by a geotechnical specialist to a broad range of field conditions. ONR
24810 can also be referred for design and maintenance guideline. ISO 17745 specifies the characteristics of
steel wire ring net panels for retaining of unstable slopes controlling and preventing rockfalls and loose
stone/debris flow/debris fall along roads and highways from metallic-coated steel wire or advanced metallic
coating. The shape of the net can be either ring or square or omega or any other shape like triangular or jersey
or rhomboidal etc. ISO 17746 specifies the characteristics of steel wire rope net panels and rolls for retaining of
unstable slopes controlling and preventing rockfalls and loose debris flow along roads and highways, and for
snow avalanche protection. IS 16014 covers the specifications of rockfall netting produced from double twisted
wire mesh produced in different classes based on the type of coating. The corrosion protection shall be as per
IS 16014 or ISO 17745 or ISO 17746 or EN 10244 Part-2 as per the service life requirement. The standard test
methods to evaluate the performance of a different type of mesh system shall be as per IS 16014 or ISO 17745
or ISO 17746 or European Assessment Document – EAD 230025-00-0106.
(b) Simple rockfall netting

as per IS 16014 (c) Typical ring net layout with 4 point and 6-
(a) Single twist mesh as per point connection as per ISO 17745
WSDOT manual
(d) Mono-oriented reinforced mesh as per WSDOT (f) Cable panels with a knot as per ISO 17746
manual
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(e) Bi-oriented reinforced mesh as per WSDOT (g) Cable panels with a clip as per ISO 17746
manual
(h) Example of single twist mesh as per EAD

230025-00-0106 (i) Typical Omega shape mesh
Fig. 5.39 A typical example of different types of drapery systems used for rockfall mitigation measures
5.9.2 Rockfall prevention measures
The following measures can be taken to increase the resisting forces or minimizing the disturbing forces
causing the Rockall and prevent any detachment and movement of rocks.
5.9.2 a) Removal of potentially unstable rock (Scaling and Trimming)
Stabilization of rock slopes can be accomplished by the removal of potentially unstable rock. In general, rock
removal is a preferred method of stabilization because the work will eliminate the hazard, and no future
maintenance is likely to be required. However, the rock should be removed only where it is certain that the
new face will be stable, and there is no risk of undermining the upper part of the slope.
It would be safe to remove the outermost loose rock, provided that the fracturing was caused by blasting and
only extended to a shallow depth. However, if the rock mass is deeply fractured, continued scaling will soon
develop a cavity that will undermine the upper part of the slope. Removal of loose rock on the face of a slope is
not effective where the rock is highly degradable, such as shale. In these circumstances, exposure to a new
face will just start a new cycle of weathering and instability. In all such cases, these operations should be
observed and carefully controlled to prevent the creation of unsupported or overly steep slope areas.
Stability of rock slopes can be achieved by removing weight from the upper part of the slope and unstable
material as shown in Fig. 5.40 and also by flattening and benching of slopes. Overhanging rock is either
removed or trimmed back to a stable part of the face. Scaling operations are usually carried out by workers
suspended by ropes or other means. These operations can be time-consuming and expensive (sometimes
dangerous) and on active slopes may need to be repeated every few years, or as needed. Scaling is highly
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skilled work and can be dangerous; scaling crews should be trained, and the work should be performed under
supervision expert/ professionals. For definitions, uses, types of scaling and its limitations, reference may be
made to chapter-5 of FHWA-CFL/TD-11-002.
Fig. 5.40 Rock removal methods for rock slope stabilization

5.9.2 b) Reinforcing rock slope by anchors/bolts/nails for prevention of rockfalls with a suitable drapey
system as facia
Anchor/bolts/nails are tools composed of steel rods/tendons/cable anchors that reinforce and tie together a
rock/soil boulder mix face to improve its stability (Fig. 5.41). Anchors are active or passive members used to
support large blocks of rock, whereas bolts are shorter and support surface rock. Dowels are similar to bolts but
are not post-tensioned. Reinforcing a rock slope with anchors/bolts/nails requires a specialist’s knowledge of
rock stability analysis of grouting techniques and testing procedures. The determination of the orientation of the
potential failure surfaces is crucial to a successful anchor system and requires a considerable amount of
engineering experience. For definitions, materials, applications, feasibility evaluations, mechanism, design,
construction steps, performance monitoring, corrosion protection etc. for soil nailed walls/anchored walls,
reference shall be made to FHWA-NHI-14-007 (soil nailing), BS: 8006 Part-2 (soil nailing), FHWA-IF-099-015
(ground anchors) and BS 8081 (ground anchors). The different types of facia used with the above
nail/anchor/bolt system are given in clause no.5.9.1. Fig. 5.41 and Fig. 5.42 shows the cross-sectional drawing
and site photographs of rock bolt along with facia installation along Mumbai-Pune expressway.
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Fig. 5.41 Typical cross-section of reinforcing rock slope by anchors/bolts/nails
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Fig. 5.42 Rock bolts on a rock face as reinforcement with drapery systems like steel mesh, rope netting
and rope panels as facia for rockfall protection along Mumbai-Pune expressway
5.9.2 c) Drainage systems to prevent rockfall
Water in a rock slope often contributes to slope instability, as excessive pore pressure acts on the rock mass
and lowers the shear strength along any discontinuities. Water also contributes to rock degradation and fracture
expansion and during the process of freeze-thaw weathering. Slope stability can also be improved through the
installation of drainage systems, which most often consist of horizontal weep drains. Therefore, adequate
drainage of water is the most important element of a slope stabilization scheme, for both existing and potential
landslides. Drainage is effective because it increases the stability of the rock strata and reduces the weight of
the sliding mass. Drainage can be either surface or subsurface. Surface drainage measures require minimal
design and costs and have substantial stability benefits. The two objectives of surface drainage are to prevent
erosion of the face, reducing the potential for surface slumping, and to prevent infiltration of water into the soil,
thereby reducing ground-water pressures. Subsurface drainage also shall be effective but can be relatively
expensive. For drainage measures for rock slopes, reference shall be made to FHWA-CFL/TD-11-002 and
clause no. 5.4 of this document.
5.9.2 d) Buttresses to retain and protect areas of weak rock and prevent rockfall
Where a rockfall or weathering has formed a cavity in the slope face, it may be necessary to construct a
concrete buttress in the cavity to prevent further falls. The buttress fulfils two functions: first, to retain and
protect areas of weak rock, and second, to support the overhang. Buttresses should be designed so that the
direction of thrust from the rock supports the buttress in compression. An indicative sketch of the buttress is
shown in Fig. 5.43. In this way, bending moments and overturning forced are eliminated and there is no need
for heavy reinforcement of the concrete or tiebacks anchored in the rock. If the buttress is to prevent relaxation
of the rock, it should be founded on a clean, sound rock surface. If this surface is not at right angles to the
direction of thrust, then the buttress should be anchored to the base using steel pins to prevent sliding. Also,
the top of the buttress should be poured so that it is in contact with the underside of the overhang. To meet this
second requirement, it may be necessary to place the last pour through a hole drilled down into the cavity from
the rock face and to use a non-shrink agent in the mix. An indicative sketch of the buttress is shown in Fig.
5.43. In the design of shear keys and buttress support, the strength of the anchor places the prominent role,
which shall be designed as discussed in clause 5.9.1 b) of this document and Chapter-6 of this document
dealing with nails/anchors/bolts.
Fig. 5.43 Buttresses
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5.9.3 Protection Measures

The protection measures may not entirely affect or prevent the process of rock detachment on slopes. They
guide the falling rock and control the distance and direction in which the falling rock travels thus protecting the
area prone to hazards. A common feature of all these protection structures is their energy-absorbing
characteristics in which the rock detachment is either stopped over some distance or is deflected away from the
facility that is being protected and the damage is minimised.
5.9.3 a) Berms/ Benching as rockfall protection measures
It is a popular technique used where a break in slope is required to restrict rockfalls, especially in cut roads.
These are very effective means of reducing the energy of rockfalls and are frequently used on permanent
slopes. Benches are flat catchment areas typically constructed at regular intervals. Benches are generally
constructed at the base of durable strata with variable width ranging from 6-8m and the angle of the face
depends upon the type of rock and its existing condition. Slope stability analysis using any of the standard
techniques has to be performed to check the stability of the whole slope as well as the individual slopes made
in the cut section. The choice of height, slope and width of bench depends upon the geology and shear
parameters of the site and also the availability of space between the top of the slope and the road. For principle
and general guidelines of benching for rock slopes, reference shall be made to clause no. 5.3.3 of this
document and FHWA-CFL/TD-11-002.
5.9.3 b) Ditches
Trenches are engineered and made at the toe of the slope to contain the falling rocks from the slope. Enough
space availability is the critical parameter to be ascertained before adopting ditches as the permanent rockfall
mitigation system. The selection criteria and analysis and design shall be as per chapter-6 of FHWA-CFL/TD-
11-002. A typical sketch showing rockfall ditch as shown in Fig. 5.44.
Fig. 5.44 Cross-section a typical rockfall ditch design
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5.9.3 c) Rockfall Embankments

Typical rockfall embankments are to protect infrastructure and roads, located at the foot of natural cliffs, in
places where it is not possible to protect the whole slope (length or dimension of the structure, presence of
vegetation)(refer Fig. 5.45). The embankment can also be used in areas where debris flow, mudflow or
landslides may occur. It is suggested to use flexible systems capable to absorb kinetic energy and impact for
rockfall embankments. To make steep and high embankments, the common technology in use are double-
faced reinforced soil system and self-supported gabion gravity wall offsetting to both sides. The location
(distance from the slope), the height and the size of the embankment are evaluated concerning the slope
morphology, the characteristics of the area and the kinetic energy of the falling rocks. Various types of rockfall
embankments used for rock slope protection are given in chapter-6 of FHWA-CFL/TD-11-002. Rockfall
embankments testing against impact and its realization is given in UNI 11167 (Rockfall Protective Measures -
Ground Walls - Impact Test Method and Construction. For reinforced soil general details, chapter-7 of this
document shall be referred with MoRTH 3100. For more details of self-supported gabion wall offsetting to both
sides, IRC SP 116 shall be referred. Overall reinforced soil embankments are very effective protection
structures capable of withstanding high kinetic energies from repeated rockfall impacts. Different types of
flexible facings recommended by MoRTH 3100 shall be adopted as facia. A design process evaluates both
maximum slips along reinforcing layers using momentum conservation theory and maximum penetration. The
penetration is related to the estimated peak stopping force developed within the block and the density of the
earthen material within the block.
Fig. 5.45 Rockfall embankment to protect infrastructure and roads, located at the foot of a natural cliff
5.9.3 d) Rock Sheds
In areas of extreme rockfall hazard where stabilization of the slope would be very costly, construction of a rock
shed or even relocation of the highway into tunnels may be justified (Fig. 5.46 & Fig. 5.47). When the rockfalls
have a steep trajectory, the shed has a flat roof/portals with slab /arch shape covered with a layer of energy-
absorbing material such as gravel. Sheds are constructed with reinforced concrete with steel reinforcement
designed to withstand the worst-case impact loading at the edge of the rock. The design should also consider
the stability under impact loading of the foundations for the outer columns that are often located at the crest of
steep slopes. For further details on rock sheds, reference may be made to Chapter-11 of Rockfall Engineering
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by Duncan C. Wyllie. Rock sheds shall be constructed with a sloping roof that is designed to deflect rolling rock
over the railway. Because such sheds do not sustain direct impact they can be of much lighter construction.
Rock sheds are effective with high capacity of energy absorption and maybe an only suitable option in certain
cases.
Fig. 5.46 Example of an open rock shed
Fig. 5.47 Example of rock shed using the precast arch structure
5.9.3 e) Simple drapery System as protection measures
Drapery systems are used to cover and protect rock surfaces and thus taking care of the infrastructure below
from the risk of damages from rockfalls. The simplest material popularly used as drapery system against
rockfall is a steel netting/mesh. In this system, the mesh/panel is draped or laid over the slope with
anchoring/anchor trench at the top of the slope with or without bottom anchors as shown in Fig. 5. 48 and Fig.
5. 49. It allows rockfall to occur between the slope and the mesh, controlling its descent into a catchment area
at the base of the slope or the mesh terminus. It is most appropriate for rockfalls consisting of a single block, or
for small-volume failures composed of relatively small block sizes, less than about 1.2 m in dimension. For
general practice using more common meshes, if anticipated modes of slope instability would result in block
sizes characteristically exceeding 1.2 m, additional or alternative mitigation measures should be considered.
Evaluation of block sizes or potential debris volumes per event should entail not only direct observation but also
anecdotal information from past events. Fig. 5.50 shows such a system on a hill slope provided on a National
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Highway section. The different types of netting/meshes along with the design standards used for drapery facia
are provided in clause no. 5.9.1.
Fig. 5. 48 Simple drapery system with top anchoring only
Fig. 5. 49 Simple drapery system with top and bottom anchoring
Fig. 5.50 Simple drapery system consisting of steel mesh without any surface nails, but with top and
bottom anchoring
5.9.3 f) Rockfall Barriers
These barriers intercept and stop falling rock and boulders from moving further down the slope. Barriers are
designed based on various factors (e.g.: boulder size, slope parameters, rockfall simulations, etc.) and area
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adapted to the ground conditions. The requirement of all barriers is its flexibility upon impact. Barriers absorb
impact energy by deforming, and systems with high impact energy capacity are both flexible and are
constructed with materials that can withstand the impact of sharp rocks without significant damage. The
following is a brief description of some commonly used barriers.
• Concrete Barriers are best suited to control low-impact energies and rollout from the ditch. Due to
their extreme stiffness, higher impact energies can locally shatter the concrete (sometimes violently) on both
sides of the barrier.
• Earthen Berms improves the effectiveness of the available containment area by creating a steepened
for slope. It can provide considerable energy dissipation due to its large mass and loose surface
characteristics. Factors that influence the containment effectiveness of earthen berms, such as their position,
width, shape, and substrate composition, shall be evaluated and optimized with rockfall modelling. Earthen
berms are generally shaped with steep side slopes and a typical base width-to-height ratio between two and
three. The base width can be reduced by incorporating large rocks or structural elements. However, at present,
the impact capacity of earthen berms has not been well quantified.
• Flexible Rockfall Barrier is specially designed where it may not be possible to install rockfall drapery
protection or surface stabilization mesh due to technical, topographic or economic issues. In these cases, a
cost-effective solution is often provided by installing a dynamic rockfall barrier on the slope. These dynamic
barriers are positioned to intercept and stop falling block and boulders. They are often supplied by specialized
manufacturers a kit form for a specific height, length, and energy absorption capacity. It consists of an
interception net or facia made of Cable panels / Ring Net Panels, which can be of different shapes like circular
or omega shape etc. along with a secondary mesh for small boulders or combination of meshes along with the
additional retaining layer of simple rockfall netting. Mesh is to be placed on the downslope side of the barrier.
The posts shall act independently of the interception nets. The system should be so designed that even if a
post is hit by falling block and damaged, the adjacent posts should be able to take the additional forces,
ensuring that the catching performance of the rockfall barrier system is not compromised. During an impact, the
system should ensure that the energy of the falling rock/debris is dissipated and prevented from moving any
further. The lateral and upslope anchoring cables shall have energy dissipaters/braking system which should be
able to absorb the applied energy by deformation and not by friction, thereby guaranteeing a better and longer-
lasting performance. The advantage of the flexible barrier is that the barrier can withstand higher energies of
impact up to 10000kJ due to its flexibility and standard testing methods have been developed to test the
performance of these barriers. Figure 8 shows such a system in place on a highway.
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Fig. 5.51 Flexible rockfall barriers

The details of earthen berms, concrete barriers are given in Chapter-6 of FHWA-CFL/TD-11-002. Specification
of interception net or facia made of Cable panels or Ring Net Panels shall be following the specification
provided in ISO 17746, ISO 17745respectively. The testing shall be done as per EAD-340059-00-0106 (by
EOTA). The selection criteria, testing, analysis and design, specifications and installation techniques of flexible
rockfall barriers shall be following UNI11211 part 4 Rockfall protective measures.
• Rockfall attenuator and Hybrid Barriers are a combination of rockfall protection drapes/rockfall
nettings and flexible rockfall protection barriers without bottom supporting ropes. They are used as passive
protection measures: The barrier breaks the falling rocks and the drape enables them to roll under control into
the catch zone. Several hybrid barriers can be installed in succession. Rockfall attenuators are used to
decrease velocities of falling rocks before their potential impact on the rockfall barriers that are located further
downslope.
Fig. 5.52 Rockfall attenuators and Hybrid Barriers

5.9.4 Retention measures
The measures in this category will not nullify or prevent the detachment of rock and tendency to move.
Measures are taken to contain or retain the rock masses which are on the verge of movement.
5.9.4 a) Secured drapery
The main purpose of Secured Drapery system is to stabilise the superficial portion of the rock by nails and keep
in place the unstable/loose rock pieces by the mesh. In secured drapery system, simple mesh, reinforced
mesh, cable panels and ring nets are used as a facia on the slope and the top loose surface of the rock mass
along the length of the slope shall be strengthened with surface nails, bolts and anchors. The different types of
facia systems used for secured drapery systems along with the design standards are provided in clause no.
5.9.1. The goal of secured drapery systems is to retain rockfalls within the mesh system in cases where no
catchment/storage area is available at the base of the slope. Secured draperies typically provide active
reinforcement and resistance to the initiation of rockfall events. Fig. 5.53 shows such a system on a highway
project in India.
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Fig. 5.53 Secure drapery system for rockfall mitigation

5.9.4 b) Shotcreting and Grouting
Shotcrete can be defined as mortar or concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high
velocity on to a surface. The force of the jet impinging on the surface compacts the material. Shotcrete and
grout the type of concrete is applied by air-jet directly onto the surface of an unstable rock face. Shotcrete is an
all-inclusive term to describe the spraying of concrete or mortar either by a dry- or a wet-mix process. This is a
rapid and relatively uncomplicated method commonly used to provide surface reinforcement between blocks of
rock and also to reduce weathering and surface scaling. Shotcrete contains aggregate up to 20mm in size and
layer thickness varies from 70mm to 100mm. Before shotcrete, the surface should be thoroughly scaled of
loose rock pieces. Sometimes, a steel wire mesh is bolted to the slope face before shotcreting is done. It is
desirable to insert pipes into the soil-rock slope to provide drainage and avoiding built of pore water pressure
after shotcreting is done on the slope. Fig. 5.54 shows the work of shotcreting in progress and Fig. 5.55, shows
the surface of soil/rock face slide covered with shotcrete. IS 9012 can be referred for shotcreting application.
Grouting is used to improve weathered slopes from which rock or boulders may be falling. The proper type of
grout and safe injection pressure has to be determined carefully. Stringent quality control has to be exercised
on mix proportions, water content and grout pressure etc. during grouting operation. For further details for
shotcreting and grouting, reference may be made on FHWA-CFL/TD-11-002.
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Fig. 5.54 Covering of slope with a net before shotcrete Fig. 5.55 Finished view of slope covered
with shotcrete
5.9.5 Warning measures
Fences and warning signals that are triggered by falling rock are often used to protect highways and
occasionally railroads. The Geological Survey of India (GSI) in consultation with a British company is
extensively working to develop early warning systems for some parts of the country on a trial basis. Once
the trails are successful, it will be developed for other parts of the country also. For further information,
reference may be made to the GSI website8.
5.10 Debris-Flow mitigation measures
A debris flow is a fast-flowing mixture of water and a high proportion of solids (stones, blocks, boulders,
timber) which moves downhill in channels in the form of a wave. A debris flow has a destructive potential
comparable with rockfall.
The following are some of the structures which can be used to mitigate the effect of debris flows on hill
roads.
5.10.1 Debris Flow Barriers
Debris Flow Barriers made of flexible ring nets withstands high static and dynamic loads. It separates the
water from debris thus reducing the destructive force. Debris flow barriers are often used where the high
static and dynamic loads are expected due to the high flow of debris. The main inputs required for the
design of debris flow barrier are the average inclination of gully/slope, the mass density of debris,
constant height of debris flow, impact velocity of debris, apparent friction angle, etc.
Flexible ring net barriers are installed to effectively contain the debris and thus preventing the severe
damages caused by the dynamic forces due to the fast movement of debris and water. These can be
Reference:https://www.gsi.gov.in/webcenter/portal/OCBIS?_afrLoop=34299982628265532&_adf.ctrlstate=18qfnq4rmo_1#!%40
8
%40%3F_afrLoop%3D34299982628265532%26_adf.ctrl-state%3D18qfnq4rmo_5
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installed with a low outlay of material and man-hours, greatly reducing costs and construction time. The
testing shall be done as per EAD-340020-00-0106 (by EOTA). For further details on debris flow barriers,
reference may be made to IRC SP 106, GEO Report No. 333 (Enhanced Technical Guidelines for Design
of Debris-Resisting Barriers etc.
Fig. 5.56 Debris flow barrier

5.10.2 Debris-flow basins
These catchment basins are commonly built at the base of slopes where debris flows are frequent. They
are used especially in areas where the debris must be contained so that soil and debris are stopped from
flowing into sensitive ocean or river shorelines areas or where there are structures at the base of the slope
that is vulnerable to debris-flow damage. These basins will eventually fill with the debris-flow deposits and
must be emptied periodically, else they will overflow. Commonly, large pieces of equipment such as dump
trucks and power shovels are needed to empty the debris and carry it away. However, small basins can be
emptied manually. They should be designed to be able to contain the maximum flow volumes of an area to
prevent overtopping during a flow event and it should be checked for stability against geotechnical and
hydrodynamic forces. These basins may be made with a material which is having high abrasion and impact
resistance.
5.10.3 Weirs/Deflectors for debris flow mitigation
Weirs/deflectors are small low drop structures built across a gully or channel to prevent it from deepening
further. These structures decrease the slope gradient and reduce the velocity of water flow and the erosive
power of the runoff. They also promote the deposition of eroded materials to further stabilize the gully or
channel. Weirs and deflectors are very effective in controlling debris flow. It captures the incidental
discharge of sediment. Reduces channel downcutting by slowing flow velocities within channels, promotes
runoff infiltration and sediment deposition at each weir and deflectors. It also reduces peak stormwater
runoff.
The deflectors should be designed for high energy absorption and dissipation. They should be able to
contain the maximum flow volumes of an area to prevent overtopping during a flow event and it should be
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checked for stability against geotechnical and hydrodynamic forces. These basins may be made with a
material which is having high abrasion and impact resistance.
5.10.4 Debris-flow retaining walls
These are structures that can be built on various kinds of materials. They are designed to stop the
progress of the debris fall, either by blocking the flow or diverting it around a vulnerable area. These
structures should be carefully designed as any deflection of the material may be unintentionally redirected
into additional vulnerable areas.
5.11 Emergency measures
5.11.1 Umbrella Structure
Umbrella structure is a steel modular structure (Fig. 5.57) with a pyramidal geometry which can be provided
as an emergency measure for superficial soil stabilization, scarp road works, as retaining walls, bank
protection, snow avalanche mitigation and as an active emergency intervention against debris flow. It
consists of a mono-anchoring nail, very lightweight, versatile and easy to be installed. The foundation
system for these umbrella structures can either be a concrete plate/block or a traditional nail according to
the geological in-situ conditions. Main components of these types of umbrella structures are:
• 2 no. of cross beams of steel with one of the beams divided into two parts for ease of
transportation
• Tubular tie with a spherical joint to connect with the 2 no. of frontal cross beams that make the
structure isostatic
• Panels + mesh attached to the 2 frontal cross beams
• Foundation system, either in the form of a concrete slab or ground nail
Backfill provided behind

umbrella structure
Umbrella structure to
provide lateral support
Affected area (washed
away)
Fig. 5.57 Application of Umbrella structure as an emergency roadside restoration measure

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5.12 Avalanche mitigation measures

In addition to landslides, the snow avalanche is another natural hazard involving mass movement that is
experienced at high altitudes in the Himalayan terrain during the late winter season when the snow starts
melting. Snow avalanches are not landslides in a strict sense of the term, but when snow and ice slides.
Avalanche is a hurtling mass of snow with ice and debris, descending along a mountain slope with
tremendous momentum.
Types of avalanches, causes, forecasting possibilities, the control strategies i.e. preventive, mitigation and
protective measures are given in Chapter-12 of IRC SP 48-Hill Road Manual.
5.13 Precast cut and cover tunnels
Precast Cut and Cover Tunnels shall be used to bypass section based on their distinct advantages over
the conventional cast-in-situ cut and cover box section. These advantages are based on the time
constraints, ease of erection, short working seasons and extreme weather condition for the casting of
concrete. These segmental precast arches are made up of RCC and form a three-hinged arch structure.
The hinge points are at the crown of the arch and the bottom of the arch. The span of the arches ranges
from 3.5 m to 22m span resting on a rigid foundation which consists of the raft which has an average
thickness varying from 200 to 500 mm, to take care of the low bearing capacity and uneven settlement.
The geometry and loading on the segmental arch should be evaluated with a fill and cushion of minimum 1
m above the surface. The selection of the appropriate shape is based on finite element modelling, which is
to minimize the tensile forces in the arch shape, thus creating an axially loaded structure. This has been
achieved by evaluating the arch as a funicular curve.
The finite element analysis has to be done on a finite element program to model the soil & arches together.
The program must use six different types of materials: concrete arch, foundation soil, general backfill
around the arch, backfill immediately surrounding the arch, soil/concrete contact elements, and hinge
elements (at footing and crown).
The output of the segmental arches suited for the section is the following minimum criteria shall be followed
during the design and execution of the structure
• A minimum grade of concrete shall be M45 or higher.
• Precast segment structure shall be designed as a precast compression member, only.
• The final design shall be done by using the finite element method during the varying depth of
backfill over the arch.
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Fig. 5.58 Precast cut and cover tunnel

5.14 Combination of countermeasures/mitigations
Types of the countermeasures as mentioned above should be selected based on a comprehensive
understanding of the properties of each landslide type which may be involved, and the design should be
safe. Also, from topographical, geological, and hydrological viewpoints, properties of cut slopes are not the
same and may vary place by place. Thus, a single type of countermeasure may not be sufficient for such
complicated conditions. Annexure A1, clause no. A1.5 shows a case history of landslide rehabilitation in
Uttarakhand, under a project of Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, wherein various rehabilitative
measures were adopted to completely stabilize the slope.
5.14.1 Rehabilitation of failed slope/New construction of steep slope due to road widening
Slope failures or landslides typically occur where a slope is over steep, where fill slope is not compacted, or
where cuts in natural soils encounter groundwater or zones of weak material. When failures do occur, the
slide area should be stabilized by removing the slide material, flattening the slope directly or through the
provision of benches, adding drainage, or by constructing flexible retaining structures. Fig. 5.59 and Fig.
5.60 illustrate a typical problem generally encountered on a hill slope and a proposed solution consisting of
a reinforced soil system and a flexible gravity retaining structure as a passive measure to stabilize the
downhill slope for widening the road towards the valley side. The uphill side slope has been stabilized by
flattening the slope to a suitable degree.
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Fig. 5.59 Typical hill slope failure
Fig. 5.60 Typical proposed solution for hillslope stabilisation-illustrating combination of multiple
solution system9
9
Source: Low Volume Roads Engineering – Best Management Practices Field Guide
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5.15 Conclusions and recommendations

In this chapter, various solutions for slope stability problems in soil and rock slopes are briefed. The
situations where multiple solutions need to be combined are illustrated. Few of the methods were requiring
more detailing and hence chapter 6, 7 and 8 are cross-referred. Wherever, the Indian or International
popular reference has already covered the matter, those standards are given as cross-references. The
technical details about reinforced soil system, nailing /anchoring and micro piles which are being used
either as such or with a combination of other countermeasures (as discussed in various subsections of this
chapter) are further described in Chapters 6,7 and 8 respectively.
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CHAPTER 6
NAILS AND GROUND ANCHORS FOR SOIL AND ROCK SLOPE STABILIZATION
6.0 Scope
This chapter presents recommendation and guidance for nailing and ground anchoring works to stabilize
the soil and rock slope. These are semi-rigid inclusions inserted into the ground to resist mainly tension
forces, but also shear forces. Soil nailing & Ground anchoring are in-situ ground improvement techniques to
stabilize existing unstable slope due to change of geotechnical conditions by nature and/or human
activities.
Both ground anchors and nails can be used as components of soil nailing system (for global instability) and
of rockfall mitigation system (for surficial instability, securing individual rocks, etc.). In this chapter, the
explanation is limited to the application as part of soil nailing and ground anchor system (for global
instability).
6.1 Definition of Nail/rock bolt and Ground anchor
Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are passively reinforced by
the insertion of relatively slender elements – normally steel reinforcing bars. Such a structural element
which provides load transfer to the ground through the bond strength between the grout and soil in
excavation application is called a nail. Soil nails are usually installed at an inclination of 10 to 20 degrees
with horizontal and are primarily subjected to tensile stress. In this technique, tensile stress is applied
passively to the nails in response to the deformation of the retained materials during the subsequent
excavation process. Soil nailing is typically used to stabilize existing slopes or excavations where top-to-
bottom construction is advantageous compared to the other retaining wall systems. As construction
proceeds from the top to bottom, suitable facia is also installed on the excavation face to provide continuity.
Soil Nailing increases the shearing resistance of soil by acting in tension.
Even though both nails and anchors are similar in structure, there exists a significant conceptual and
structural difference between them. In general, the term “nails” are used to represent un-tensioned
reinforcing elements used in soil and rock which is a passive element. The term “Ground Anchor” is used to
represent the tensioned reinforcing element which is an active element.
Ground anchors are also called tiebacks and rely on long prestresses steel tendons (strand or bar) bonded
in a stable mass at a greater depth and distance to provide tensile resistance to the unstable mass near the
slope surface. The tensile force induced by prestressing of the steel tendons provides additional normal
stresses to a critical slip surface so that the shear strength along the critical surface is increased, thus
resulting in a higher factor of safety against sliding. Soil nailing relies on shorter but closely spaced passive
structure inclusions to stabilize the existing unstable ground. The tension in soil nails is mobilized during the
soil movement. Therefore, soil movement is necessary for soil nails to be effective. While the tension in the
ground anchors is mobilized mostly by the prestressing and limited soil movement adds more tension to the
anchor. Another major difference between ground anchors and soil nail is the bonded length between the
steel tendon and the surrounding soil. Ground anchors have the bond length in the stable mass while soil
nails have the bonded lengths in the stable and unstable masses. Both ground anchors and soil nails
provide tensile resistance to the unstable ground.
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6.1.1 Nails
Nails/Soil nails are reinforcing, passive elements that are drilled and grouted sub-horizontally in the ground
to support excavations in soil, or soft and weathered rock.
A ground anchor is a tension element used to apply a restraining force to a structure by anchoring the distal
end of the anchor in the ground. Ground anchors have been used to restrain structures in intimate contact
with the ground surface to provide stability to these structures and control deformations caused by active
ground pressures.
Soil nail
Ground Anchor
Critical failure
`
plane
Fig. 6.1 Types of in-situ ground improvement techniques a) ground anchor, b) soil nailing
6.2 Difference between soil nailing & ground anchoring
The table below explains the features of both the works.
Table 6.1 Difference between ground anchors and soil nailing/rock bolts
Items Ground Anchors Soil Nailing / Rock Bolt
Purpose To impart global stability To impart global stability
Pre-stress / Tension to be Pre-stress / tension is applied to the Not applied.
applied tendon part.
Effect to Stabilize Slopes Retaining and tightening effects by Shear strength and rigidity of
prestressing. Prevent deformation material composite installed in the
and post-movement ground limited by allowable
strength/stress of the composite.
Arrangement Aligned in rows at particular zone, Arranged in entire slope surface.
usually between the middle to toe of
slopes/landslides.
Surface Anchor head with wedge structure to Nuts and plates to fix reinforcing
Structure retain pre-stress. Special threaded materials
anchor heads are also provided for
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future maintenance or re-stressing

Free length Necessary for pre-stress No free length
Reinforcing materials are fixed for
the entire length
Anchor length Cement grouting, injected by Cement grouting
pressure
Type The tendon for pre-stressed concrete Reinforcing bars for reinforced
concrete (for giving
(for applying tension)
reinforcement)
Material
Anti-corrosion The multilayer protection system is Galvanizing or epoxy coating
used and should be designed as per
durability.
Borehole φ90mm～φ165mm φ45mmm～φ130mm
diameter
Machinery Rotary percussion drilling machine Jackhammer, rock drill, drill
with double tube drilling function equipped on a crane, portable
drilling machine or portable
percussion drilling machine
Drilling Self-drilling rock bolt is available.
Scaffolding Necessary Not necessary always
Width of 4.5 meters or more Using small platform which can
be either anchored on the ground
or hanged or lifted by Crain
Width of 2.0 meters or more for
portable drilling machine
6.3 Applications, suitability, merits & demerits of nails and ground anchors
6.3.1 Nails
• Soil nailing has been used successfully for the following applications Vertical or near-vertical
excavations
• End slope removal to widen existing bridge abutments
• Repair or stabilization of existing earth retaining structures
• Repair or stabilization of existing natural slopes
The favourable soil conditions for soil nailing installation are
• Stiff to hard fine-grained soils
• Dense to very dense granular soils with some apparent cohesion
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• Weathered rock with no weak plane

• Glacial soils
• The ground that can stand unsupported on a vertical or sloped cutoff 1-2m for 1-2 days
The unfavourable soil conditions for soil nailing are
• Dry, poorly graded cohesionless soils
• Soils with high groundwater
• Soils with large boulder or cobbles
• Soft to very soft fine-grained soils
• Organic and highly corrosive soils
• Weathered rock in unfavourable weak planes
Advantages/Merits
• It is suitable for cramped sites with difficult access because the construction plant required for soil
nail installation is small and mobile.
• It can easily cope with site constraints and variations in ground conditions encountered during
construction, e.g., by adjusting the location and length of the soil nails to suit the site conditions.
• During construction, it causes less environmental impact than cutting back and retaining wall
construction as no major earthworks and tree felling are needed.
• There could be time and cost savings compared to conventional techniques of cutting back and
retaining wall construction which usually involves substantial earthworks and temporary works.
• It is less sensitive to undetected adverse geological features, and thus more robust and reliable
than unsupported cuts. Besides, it renders higher system redundancy than unsupported cuts or
anchored slopes due to the presence of a large number of soil nails.
• The failure mode of a soil-nailed system is likely to be ductile, thus providing warning signs before
failure.
Disadvantages/Demerits
• The presence of utilities, underground structures or other buried obstructions poses restrictions to
the length and layout of soil nails.
• Permission has to be obtained from the owners of the adjacent land for the installation of soil nails
beyond the lot boundary. This places restrictions on the layout of soil nails.
• The presence of high groundwater levels may lead to construction difficulties in hole drilling and
grouting, and instability problems of slope surface in the case of soil-nailed excavations.
• The effectiveness of soil nails may be compromised at sites with past large landslides involving
deep-seated failure due to disturbance of the ground.
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• The presence of permeable ground, such as ground with many cobbles, boulders, highly fractured
rocks, open joints, or voids, presents construction difficulties due to potential grout leakage
problems.
• The presence of ground with a high content of fines may lead to problems of long-term deformation
due to creep movement between the grout and surrounding ground surface.
• Long soil nails are difficult to install, and thus the soil nailing technique may not be appropriate for
deep-seated landslides and large slopes.
• Because soil nails are not prestressed, mobilization of soil-nail forces will be accompanied by
ground deformation. The effects on nearby structures, facilities or services may have to be
considered, particularly in the case of soil-nailed excavations.
• Soil nails are not effective in stabilizing localized steep slope profiles, back scarps, overhangs or in
areas of high erosion potential. Suitable measures, e.g., local trimming, should be considered
before soil nail installation.
Ground anchors can be used for the following applications
• Lateral earth support during excavations
• Stabilize unstable slope
• Provide uplift resistance to the foundation below a groundwater table
• Improve resistance to overturning, sliding and earthquake loading
• Ground anchors have been used for earth support before permanent structures are installed
Ground anchors are suitable for a variety of geotechnical conditions. They can be used in in-situ soils,
rocks or other geomaterials. Different techniques may be used to install ground anchors in different
geomaterials. Caution should be exercised when anchors are used in organic soils or soils with high
plasticity.
6.4 Nails for soil and rock slope stabilization
6.4.1 Types of nailing
Soil nail installation techniques in practice are: (i) drilled and grouted soil nails, (ii) self-drilled soil nails and
(iii) driven soil nails (iv) launched nails. Grouted nails are recommended for all types of soil nail walls
applications, and in particular, for walls with vertical height more than 7m. Driven nails shall only be used
when wall heights are smaller (less than or up to 7m). The major difference between the two is the pullout
resistance of the soil nails and grouted soil nails are expected to have higher pull-out resistance compared
to driven nails. The pull-out test is desirable to check the values of pullout resistance which is useful in soil
nail design. Self-drilled soil nails are applicable for weak strata which are collapsible during the nailing
operations. In the case of self-drilled soil nails, grouting shall be carried out simultaneously through the
hollow drill bar during the drilling operation. For installation of launched nails, nails are launched into the
ground with very high speed, using compressed air launcher. This method is very rapid, flexible and
economical. Nails are installed at speed of around 320 km/h. A typical soil nailing structure is shown in Fig.
6.2.
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Fig. 6.2 Typical cross-section and basic elements of a soil nail wall
6.4.2 Materials
Following covers the general materials required for the construction of typical nailing structure.
6.4.2 a) Reinforcement bar (nail or tendon)
The reinforcing element (tendon) shall be high strength steel reinforcing bar with a characteristic tensile
strength of 500 MPa or higher which shall be fully threaded bars at the end to allow proper attachment of
the coupler, bearing plate and nut as and where required. The tendon shall be of High Yield Strength
Deformed Bars or Alloy steel.
Tendons used for soil nails are threaded-which may be a continuous, spirally deformed ribbing (continuous
thread bars). If threads are cut into a non-threaded bar, it is necessary to consider the reduction in steel
cross-section area in the threaded portion of the bar during design and such type of bar shall be used only
for the temporary/short term works. Continuously threaded bars are applicable in case of a permanent
structure, longer design lengths, where the adjacent segments can be connected with couplers (which
offers the nominal tensile resistance of the bars) without any reduction in steel cross-section area. Minimum
recommended diameter of reinforcement bar (tendon) is 16 mm. For permanent structures, the
reinforcement bar shall have corrosion protection coating as specified in section 6.5.8.
6.4.2 b) Nail Head
The nailhead shall comprise of following main components: the bearing plate, nuts (hex nut, domed nut or
eye nut, etc.), washers; and the headed stud (for hard facing). The bearing plate with a central hole (with a
diameter greater than reinforcement bar) shall be of Mild steel or Carbon Steel with a characteristic tensile
strength of 235 MPa or higher.
The bearing plate for hard facing shall be typically square with 200 to 250 mm side dimension and 8 to19
mm thickness depending on the design. The bearing plate for flexible facing shall be typically square with
150 to 250 mm side dimension and 8 to 12 mm thickness.
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Washers and nuts shall be made of steel with a grade consistent with that of the nail bar. Nuts may be
tightened with a hand wrench. The headed-stud connection may consist of four headed studs welded near
the four corners of the bearing plate to provide anchorage of the nail head into the permanent facing. For
temporary walls, the bearing plate shall be on the outer face of the facing element.
6.4.2 c) Grout
Grout for soil nails is required to fill the annular space between the nail bar and the surrounding ground,
and for shotcreting of the temporary facing. Grout for soil nail walls is commonly a neat cement grout with
the water/cement ratio typically ranging from 0.4 to 0.5. Grout mix shall be prepared following IS: 9012.
Grout shall have a minimum 28 days characteristic strength of 20 MPa. For filling up nail holes, grout shall
be pumped shortly after the nail bar is placed in the drill hole to reduce the potential for hole squeezing or
caving. In solid nail bar applications, the grout may be injected by tremie methods through a grout pipe,
which is previously inserted to the bottom of the drill hole, until the grout fills the drill hole.
6.4.2 d) Centralizers
These are the devices to maintain the tendon centrally in the borehole or within the encapsulation.
Centralizers are devices made of polyvinyl chloride or other synthetic materials installed at various
locations along the length of each nail bar to ensure that a minimum thickness of grout completely covers
the nail bar. For nail length less than or equal to 1m, 1 no. of centralizer shall be provided at the centre. For
nail lengths more than 1m, minimum 2 no. of centralizers shall be provided per nail. In this case,
centralizers shall be installed at regular intervals, typically not exceeding 2.5 m, along the length of the nail
and at a distance of about 0.5 m from each end of the nail.
6.4.2 e) Facing types
A major role of the facing is to stabilize the surface. It provides lateral confinement for the retained soil
between the nail head locations. Progressive shallow failure will occur if the facing does not stabilize the
surface of the ground between the soil nails. Soil nail walls can be classified in terms of flexibility of the
facia adopted into majorly as follows
6.4.2 e1) Flexible facing
Flexible facings are designed to provide the necessary restraint to the areas of slope between the bearing
plates, as well as erosion control. The selection of flexible facing is dependent upon slope angle, soil
friction angle values, slope height and predicted loading. Flexible facing can be of soft facing or flexible
structural facing.
• Soft facings
Soft facings perform no long-term role but provide stability until vegetation gets established. The primary
purpose is to retain the vegetation layer and topsoil and prevent surface erosion. However, the need to
protect topsoil from wash out in the short-term limit most soft face installations to 450 or less slope.
Materials commonly used for this purpose are geosynthetic mat, light metallic mesh/fabric or biodegradable
coir mats. The criteria and specifications of erosion control geosynthetic mat and natural geotextile like coir
shall meet the requirements as mentioned in MoRTH 700, Table 700-13 and 14.
• Flexible structural facings
Flexible structural facings provide long-term stability of the face of the soil-nailed structure by transfer of the
soil load from the mesh layer to the nail head. Flexible facings are normally recommended for slopes
between 450 to 700 Slope. Materials commonly used for this purpose comprise of geosynthetic mats or
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natural coir geotextile with appropriate metallic meshes welded or woven, with or without wire ropes which
are considered “continuous” in the design process and as per EN 14490. The specifications of a
geosynthetic mat or coir geotextile shall meet the requirements as mentioned in MoRTH-700, Table 700-13
and 14.
6.4.2 e2) Hard (or rigid) structural facing
Hard facings may be used to provide the same function as flexible structural facing but require far less
deformation to mobilize their strength and may be designed for faces up to 90°. Hard facings may be
formed from reinforced concrete (sprayed, cast in situ or pre-cast panels). Existing retaining walls which are
to be strengthened/stabilized by soil nailing may also be considered to act as a hard facing.
Where hard facings systems are adopted, they require additional drainage arrangements like weep holes
as shown in Fig. 6.2which is not required for a more permeable facing system.
Hard structural facings are often used where steep, or vertical, soil-nailed slopes are required because of
the face loading to be resisted. Cost and aesthetic considerations, particularly for sprayed concrete, have
limited their use on less steep soil-nailed slope faces where flexible structural facing can be used. Unlike
flexible structural facings, which usually are permeable, water pressures can readily build up behind the
hard-structural facing, so weep holes need to be included within the facing and/or a drainage system
installed behind the facing.
Permanent facing may be constructed as cast-in-place reinforced cement concrete conforming to IS: 456,
precast concrete or any suitable material to achieve desired strength and aesthetics. Reinforcement in the
permanent facing may be adopted in the form of welded wire mesh or reinforcement bars in either direction.
Permanent facing shall be connected to the temporary facing using headed studs (usually four numbers per
plate) welded on the bearing plates installed during construction temporary facing. Minimum thickness of
permanent facing shall not be less than 200 mm.
6.4.3 Soil investigation
Reference shall be made to chapter 3 in this guideline. However, for favourable and unfavourable soil
conditions for soil nail systems, reference shall be made to section 2.7 of FHWA-NHI-14-007 and section 3
of BS 8006 Part-2
6.4.4 Bond strength
The bond strength is the mobilized shear resistance along with the soil-grout interface. The bond strength
adopted for the design of soil nails is commonly based on conservative estimates obtained from field
correlation studies and local experience in similar conditions. The pullout capacity of a soil nail installed in a
grouted nail hole is affected by the size of the nail (i.e., perimeter and length) and the ultimate bond
strength, qu. Consequently, soil nails shall be load tested according to standard procedure (pullout tests) in
the field to verify bond strength used in the design.
From experience, it is observed that for drilled and grouted nails, the bond strength is affected by ground
conditions around the nail (soil type and conditions), nail installation including Drilling method, grouting
procedure, grout nature, grout injection (e.g.; gravity or under pressure) and the size of the grouted zone.
Typical values of ultimate bond strength for drilled and grouted nails installed in various soils and rocks
using different drilling methods are presented in Table 6.2, Table 6.3 and
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Table 6.4. The values in these tables correspond to gravity grouting only. Although covers a wide variety of
rock/soil types, drilling methods, and ground conditions, the database used to develop the table does not
cover all the possible case combinations. The data mentioned in these tables shall be verified on-site
based on the results of the field pullout test. The given minimum and maximum bond strength values
correspond approximately to the least favourable and most favourable conditions for each combination. The
design engineer must estimate bond strengths based on soil descriptions and other factors, such as the soil
shear strength and overburden. The bond strengths from Table 6.2, Table 6.3 and
Table 6.4 or any other source to be used in the design must be confirmed in the field by soil nail load testing.
Table 6.2 Estimated bond strength for soil nails in coarse-grained soils1
Ultimate bond strength qu
Drill-Hole drilling method Soil type
(kPa)
Rotary Drilled Sand/Gravel 100 - 180
Rotary Drilled Silty Sand 100 - 150
Rotary Drilled Silt 60 – 75
Rotary Drilled Piedmont residual 40 - 120
Rotary Drilled Fine Colluvium 75 - 150
Driven Casing Sand/Gravel w/low overburden (1) 195 - 240
Sand/Gravel w/high
Driven Casing overburden (1) 280 - 425
Driven Casing Dense Moraine 380 - 480
Driven Casing Colluvium 100 - 180
Augured Silty sand fill 20 - 40
Augured Silty fine sand 55 - 90
Augured Silty Clayey Sand 60 - 135
Note: (1) Low and high overburden are defined as effective overburden pressure being, respectively, less than and greater than
145 kPa
Table 6.3 Estimated bond strength for soil nails in fine-grained soils2
Drill-Hole drilling Ultimate bond
Soil type
method strength qu (kPa)
Rotary Drilled Silty Clay 35 - 50
Driven Casing Clayey Silt 90 - 135
Augured Loess 30 - 75
Augured Soft Clay 20 - 30
Augured Stiff Clay 40 - 60
Augured Stiff Clayey Silt 40 -100
1
Source: FHWA-NHI-14-007: Soil Nail walls – Reference Manual
2
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Augured Calcareous Sandy Clay 90 -135
Table 6.4 Estimated bond strength for soil nails in rock– drilling method: rotary drilled3
Ultimate bond strength
Rock type qu
(kPa)
Marl/ Limestone 300 - 400
Phyllite 100 - 300
Chalk 500 - 600
Soft Dolomite 400 - 600
Fissured Dolomite 600 - 1000
Weathered Sandstone 200 - 300
Weathered Shale 100 - 150
Weathered Schist 100 - 175
Basalt 500 - 600
Slate/Hard Shale 300 - 400
6.4.5 Installation technique for grouted soil nailing

Soil nails can be installed by different methods. The installation procedure discussed below is focused on
the most commonly used grouted nails. Fig. 6.3 shows the basic procedure for soil nailing installation.
3
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Fig. 6.3 Installation sequence of soil nails4

1. Excavate a small cut. Typically, the cut is limited to 1–2m (mostly the initial cut is limited to 1.0–1.2 m),
depending on the geotechnical conditions. The designer shall check the safe unsupported height of
excavation for a temporary period.
2. Drill a nail hole to a designed length. Nail holes can be drilled by a down the hole (DTH) hammer, self-
drilling method, using rotary, percussion, auger, or rotary drilling method. The most commonly used drill
method is the open-hole installation using auger drilling or rotatory percussive methods using air flush.
Casing shall be used for some installation methods to maintain the stability of the hole or self-drilling
bars are used. Alternatively, the consolidation grouting method using packers can also be adopted for
collapsible strata.
3. Install and grout the nail, including the installation of perforated drains. Nail bars are inserted into
predrilled, straight-shafted drill holes, which are filled with clean cement grout, mostly by gravity.
Injection or re-grout under pressure using packers may be adopted sometimes to increase the bond
strength, especially in poor or weak or collapsible geomaterials. Simultaneously, drilling is done to
install semi-perforated pipes wrapped with non-woven geotextile to improve the dissipation of excess
4 Source: Jie Han (2015), Principles and Practice of Ground Improvement
Version-10, 04/10/2020 11
pore pressure. At the same time, Geocomposite drains (as per IRC SP 59 or MoRTH section 700) can
be installed with the geotextile side against the geomaterial to avoid contamination of the shotcrete
(applicable for rigid facia) as shown in Fig. 6.2. In some situation, 600mm drainage gallery filters can
also be adopted.
4. Place flexible/rigid facing: Flexible/rigid facing has been described in section 6.5.2e). Bearing plates,
dome nuts, and washers are installed to connect the nails with the facing. Repeat the preceding
procedure until the whole wall is constructed as shown in steps 5 and 6 in Fig. 6.3.
While determining the suitability of nailing, the designer should consider various factors such as, natural or
manmade ground, characteristics properties of the strata to be nailed, nature of underlying soil/rock,
chemical and mechanical processes that are occurring or have occurred at the site, any source of
contamination, pre-existing slope failures, groundwater conditions etc.
Following are the in-situ conditions considered favourable for the prospective use of soil nailing technique.
a) Strata shall be able to stand unsupported to a depth of about 1 m – 2 m high vertical or nearly vertical
cut for 12-24 hours.
b) Groundwater table shall be sufficiently below the level of the lowermost soil nail at all cross-sections.
Alternatively, adequate drainage arrangement shall be designed to ensure that the water table is lower
during the construction activity.
c) Favourable strata: Hard rock, stiff to hard fine-grained soils, dense to very dense granular soils with
some apparent cohesion, weathered rock with no weakness planes and glacial soils.
6.4.6 Effects of groundwater on soil nailing
For most soil types, soil nails should be installed from a dry excavation as far as possible. Groundwater can
have an adverse effect on bond, durability of the nail and the integrity of the grout, stability, and durability of
the facing, stability of temporary excavations and the overall stability of slopes. Seepage of groundwater
through the unsupported cut face can lead to instability of temporary excavations, particularly in
predominantly granular soils or cohesive soils containing pockets of granular material. The swelling of clay
soils in the presence of groundwater can result in softening of the clay and progressive slumping at the face
in the long term as shown in Fig. 6.4. Groundwater control measures with proper sub-surface drainage
arrangement shall be used to provide a stable, dry face for the design life of the soil-nailed structure.
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Fig. 6.4 Effect of Groundwater on wall facing5

6.4.7 Drainage measures
Drainage system for soil nails shall be designed in such a way that the water pressure/phreatic profile on
the reinforced structure shall be equal to what the designer has considered in the design and shall be
maintained for the design life of the structure.
Water in the form of a storm, surface runoff, sub-surface water, flood or in combination is also one of the
major triggering factors for causing or initiating landslide. Hence, any construction activity without designing
an effective drainage system for the zone of influence can cause a landslide. Development of pore water
pressure also causes landslide; hence suitable sub-surface drainage arrangement is vital for long term
performance of any hill slope. Hence, adequate sub-surface drainage system shall be designed to dissipate
developed pore water pressure by providing deep weep holes. The weep holes are provided using semi-
perforated PVC/HDPE pipes wrapped with a non-woven geotextile filter. The pipes used in the system shall
conform to relevant specifications as provided in the IS code (refer chapter 5). The depth of the weep hole
shall be designed to intercept the existing phreatic line as shown in Fig. 6.5. The typical arrangement is
shown below.
The surface drainage shall also be designed to ensure proper collection of water and the network of
surface drainage arrangements shall be starting from top of the structure to the toe of the structure. The
intermediate outlets shall also be provided at various levels so that there is no single point accumulation of
water. This arrangement will ensure maximum collection and quick discharge as required for such a
structure. The hill toe cutting/erosion during flood/surface runoff due to inadequate protection against
damage of toe structure is also one of the major factors for a landslide. Hence toe protection shall also be
taken care of by the designer. The various drainage measures which can be adopted to reduce pore water
5 Source: BS 8006 Part-2: Code of Practice for Strengthened/Reinforced Soils
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pressure within the slope mass reference may be made to chapter-5 of this guideline wherein several
drainage measures are described. In addition to the measures as discussed in the Chapter-5, the designer
may also adopt a drainage system as deemed suitable for the given site condition. The typical arrangement
to prevent the development of pore pressure is shown in Fig. 6.5.
Phreatic Line
Soil Nails
Ground
Anchors
Semi Perforated Pipe Wrapped
with Non-Woven Geotextile

6.4.8 Corrosion protection
Corrosion potential of the soil must be evaluated for all permanent soil nail walls and, in some cases, for
temporary walls. Corrosion protection measures: (a) Specify a minimum grout cover of 25mm between the
reinforcement nail bar and the soil; (b) recommend an epoxy coating of minimum thickness 0.4 mm (c) hot-
dip galvanization (Zn coating) of minimum thickness 0.086 mm d) adopt other site-specific suitable
corrosion protection measures on the nail bars by the manufacturer before shipment of nails to the
construction site or before the installation, which is, subsequently to be encased in grout cover. Permanent
soil nail walls are typically designed for a service life of 100 years.
6.4.9 Design and Analysis of soil nail system
6.4.9 a) Design
6.4.9 a1) Wall layout
Establish the layout of the soil nail system, including: (1) wall height; (2) length of the wall; (3) back slope;
and (4) Slope angle (for flexible facing) or wall face batter (hard facing). Wall face batter typically ranges
from 0° to 10°for hard facing. The slope angle is typical up to 70° for flexible facing. The evaluation of the
wall layout also includes developing a longitudinal profile of the wall, locating wall appurtenances (e.g.,
traffic barriers, utilities, and drainage systems), and establishing ROW limitations.
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6.4.9 a2) Soil nail vertical/horizontal spacing and cross-sectional area of nail bar
Typically, same nail spacing can be adopted in both horizontal S h and vertical Sv directions. Nail spacing
ranges from 1 to 2 m (commonly 1.5 m) for conventional drilled and grouted soil nails, and as low as 0.4 m
for driven nails. As a general rule, soil nail spacing in the horizontal and vertical direction must be such that
each nail has an influence area Sh×Sv ≤ 4 m2.
The required cross-sectional area of the nail bar and the yield strength for the bar shall be provided based
on design. The typical values of different bars are provided in Appendix-A of FHWA-NHI-14-007.
6.4.9 a3) Soil nail pattern on a wall face
The soil nail pattern on wall face may be adopted as one of the following: (1) square (or rectangular); (2)
staggered in a triangular pattern; and (3) irregular (at limited locations) depending upon the ease of
construction and site-specific constraints.
6.4.9 a4) Soil nail inclination
Soil nails are typically installed at an inclination ranging from 0 to 30 degrees from horizontal with a typical
inclination of 10-20 degrees and most commonly at 15 degrees. Nail inclination smaller than about 10
degrees should not be used because the potential for creating voids in the grout increases significantly.
Alternatively, special grouting methods shall be adopted like pressure grouting or in an extreme condition
when grouting is done against gravity pressure grout with packers shall be adopted.
6.4.9 a5) Soil nail length and distribution
The distribution of soil nail lengths in a soil nail wall can be selected as either uniform (i.e., only one nail
length is used for the entire wall), or variable (i.e., different nail lengths may be used for individual soil nail
levels within a wall cross-section).
Following are the recommendations which may be followed considering the design:
• Select uniform length pattern whenever possible since it simplifies construction and quality control.
• Select longer nails than required by the target factor of safety as a means to reduce wall deformations
in the upper portions of the wall.
• Avoid the use of “short” nails in the top portion of the wall, which can significantly reduce the
deformation of the wall.
• Avoid the use of too “short” nails in the lower portion of the wall. Evaluate if shorter nails in bottom rows
installed incompetent ground satisfy sliding stability requirements. The minimum design length shall be
3m.
• Non-uniform nail length patterns may be used if soil layers with very dissimilar conditions are
encountered.
• For feasibility evaluations and preliminary estimation, soil nail length can be initially assumed to be 0.7
H, where H is the height of the wall. The length of the nails may be changed if large slope surcharge
exists on top depending on a final design.
• For further details, Clause 6.3.3d of FHWA-NHI-14-007 should be referred.
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• To design soil nail wall, design charts for preliminary determination of nail force and length can also be
computed using design charts developed by Lazarte et. al. (2003) as provided in Appendix-B & C of
FHWA NHI-14-007.
6.4.9 b) Analysis
The following checks must be considered for service, strength and extreme limit states in the design of soil
nail walls. The various failure modes of soil nail wall are shown in Fig. 6.6. The various checks which are
required to be made for the analysis of soil nail wall are discussed in the following subsection. The design
and analysis of soil nail wall should consider two limiting conditions and other design aspects as follows.
However, for complete design methodology and analysis, reference shall be made to FHWA-NHI-14-007.
6.4.9 b1) Strength limit states
• External failure modes
a) Global stability failure (Fig. 6.6 (a))
b) Sliding stability failure (Fig. 6.6 (b))
c) Bearing capacity failure (Fig. 6.6 (c))
• Internal failure modes
d) Nail-soil pullout failure (Fig. 6.6 (d))
e) Bar grout pullout failure (Fig. 6.6 (e))
f) Nail tensile failure (Fig. 6.6 (f))
g) Nail bending and shear failure (Fig. 6.6 (g))
• Facing failure modes
o Facing flexure failure (Fig. 6.6 (h))
o Facing punching shear failure (Fig. 6.6 (i))
o Head-stud failure (Fig. 6.6 (j))
6.4.9 b2) Service limit states
• Excessive wall deformation
6.4.9 b3) Other design considerations
• Seismic design
• Drainage behind the wall
• Corrosion protection of soil nails
• Frost protection
• Support of a dead load of temporary facing
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Fig. 6.6 Principal modes of failure of the soil nail wall system6
6 Source: FHWA-NHI-14-007: Soil Nail walls – Reference Manual
Version-10, 04/10/2020 17
6.4.10 Testing
6.4.10 a) Field pull-out testing
Field pullout testing of soil nails shall be conducted (a) to verify that the nail design loads can be carried
without excessive movements and with an adequate safety factor for the service life of the structure, and
(b) to verify the adequacy of the contractor’s drilling, installation, and grouting operations before and during
the construction of production soil nails. Depending upon the type of test being performed, the maximum
test load, the load increments, and the time that each load increment is held shall be determined. To
prevent chances of explosive failure of the steel, in no case, the soil nail tendon is stressed to more than 90
per cent of the minimum yield strength for grade Fe 500 steel. For details of pull out testing, reference can
be made to IS: 11309 and IRC-HRB -Special Report 23 section 4.2.1.
6.4.10 b) Verification test
A verification test on soil nail is performed: (a) to determine the ultimate bond capacity (if carried to pullout
failure); (b) verify the design bond factor of safety, and (c) to determine the soil nail load at which excessive
creep occurs. Verification tests are generally conducted on non-production “sacrificial” nails as the first
order of work before construction.
6.4.10 c) Proof test
A proof test is typically performed on a specified number of the total number of production soil nails
installed. Typically, successful proof tests shall be performed on 5 per cent of the production nails in each
row or a minimum of 1 test per row. Proof tests provide information necessary to evaluate the ability of
production soil nails to safely withstand design loads without excessive structural movement or long-term
creep over the structure’s service life.
6.4.10 d) Creep Test
Creep tests are generally performed as part of a verification or proof test to ensure that nail design loads
can be safely carried throughout the service life of the structure.
Quality control for soil nailing installation typically includes the following procedures:
• Verification of the quality of all the materials used
• Inspection of corrosion protection of nails
• Inspection of nail bars free of damage and required length
• Verification of the stability of excavated wall facing
• Verification of the size and length of drill holes
• Verification of nails installed at the desired inclination, spacing, and length
• Verification of sizes and locations of centralizers
• Measurement of the quality of grout used in each hole
• Verification of shotcrete placed to the required thickness
• Verification of proper placement of welded wire mesh,
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• bearing plates, and other connection parts

• Verification of proper installation of drains
Quality assurance during construction should ensure the following items (FHWA-NHI-14-007)
• Construction completed as per approved with plans and specifications
• No excavation height exceeding an allowable value
• Not caved nail drill holes during nail installation
• Nail bars of the right size and type (i.e., steel grade, length, diameter)
• Appropriate corrosion protection systems
• Properly grouting, installation of facing rebar and mesh, and shotcrete
• Sufficient grout strength from grout cubes
• Sufficient shotcrete strength from cores
• Nail pullout capacity from field testing meeting the requirements
• Drainage properly installed
6.5 Ground anchors for soil and rock slope stabilization
Ground anchors are cement-grouted prestressed tendons (strands or bars) installed in in-situ soil or rock by
transmitting applied tensile loads into the ground to stabilize earth retaining structures or to provide uplift
resistance to structures. Ground anchors are also referred to as “tiebacks” in practice. Fig. 6.7 shows the
basic components of a typical ground anchor, which includes three parts:
• Anchorage set, which consists of an anchor head, a bearing plate, and a trumpet
• Unbonded prestressing steel tendon
• Bonded steel tendon with grout
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Fig. 6.7 Components of ground anchor 7

The anchorage component is to transmit the prestressing force from the prestressing steel to the ground
surface or the supporting structure. The unbonded steel is prestressed and can have elastic elongation and
transfer the resistance from the bond length to a structure. A smooth plastic sleeve as a bond breaker is
placed over the steel tendon to separate the prestressing steel from the surrounding grout. The bonded
steel with grout can provide a tensile load into the ground; therefore, the bond length should be behind a
critical slip surface. The term “tendon” refers to the prestressing steel strands or bars. Sheaths are smooth
or corrugated pipes or tubes to protect the prestressing steel in the unbonded length from corrosion.
Centralizers are used to ensure the steel strands or bars in the centre so that there is enough grout around
them. Spacers are used to separate the strands or bars so that they are properly bonded with grout.
Portland cement is commonly used as a hardening agent for the grout.
6.5.1 Applications of ground anchors for slope stabilization
Ground anchors have been used permanently or temporarily in anchored systems. Permanent ground
anchors are typically designed for a service life of 75–100 years. Temporary anchored systems are mostly
used for earth support before permanent structures are installed. The service life of temporary anchored
systems depends on project needs but commonly ranges from 18 to 36 months.
Ground anchors are commonly used to provide lateral earth support during excavations, stabilize unstable
slopes, and provide uplift resistance to foundations below a groundwater table. Besides, ground anchors
can provide resistance to overturning, sliding, and earthquake loadings. Typical ground anchored systems
include:
• Flexible anchored walls
7
Source: FHWA-IF-099-15: Ground Anchors and Anchored Systems
Version-10, 04/10/2020 20
• Ground anchor-stabilized slopes

• Structures by tie-down anchors
Ground anchors are often used in combination with walls, horizontal beams, or concrete blocks to stabilize
slopes and landslides. Soil and rock anchors permit relatively deep cuts to be made for the construction of
new highways or widening of existing highways. Ground anchors can be used to provide a sufficiently large
force to stabilize the mass of ground above the landslide or slip surface (Fig. 6.8). This force may be
considerably greater than that required to stabilize a vertical excavation for a typical highway retaining wall.
Horizontal beams or concrete blocks may be used to transfer the ground anchor loads to the ground at the
slope surface provided the ground does not “run” or compress and can resist the anchor reaction forces at
the excavated face. Cost, aesthetics, and long-term maintenance of the exposed face will affect the
selection of horizontal beams or blocks.
Fig. 6.8 Application of ground anchors and anchored systems for slope stabilization8
6.5.2 Types of Ground Anchors
There are four types of ground anchors commonly used in practice as shown in Fig. 6.9:
• Straight shaft gravity-grouted ground anchors
• Straight shaft pressure-grouted ground anchors
• Post grouted ground anchors
• Under-reamed anchors
For further explanation on different types of ground anchors, reference shall be made to FHWA-IF-99-015.
8
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Fig. 6.9 Types of ground anchors9

6.5.3 Mechanism of the anchored wall system
6.5.3 a) Load Transfer
When soil is excavated on a slope to create a vertical facia, it creates an unbalanced force. The
unbalanced force comes from lateral earth pressure on one side but no pressure on another side. The
unbalanced force tends to induce soil movement. This restraint becomes effective when the wall facing
element is connected to the prestressed steel tendons by the anchorage assembly of the ground anchor,
which provides tensile resistance to the wall facing element. At the same time, the unbonded steel tendon
is subjected to a tensile force. With an increase of the unsupported wall height, the required tensile force in
the prestressed steel tendon increases it extends from the top of the bond length to the end of the bond
length. At the same time, the bond shear strength between the grout and the surrounding soil within the
bond length is mobilized. The bond shear strength is first fully mobilized near the top of the bond length and
may decrease to a residual strength due to stress softening.
As a result, more load is transferred to the next portion of the bond length. This load transfer process can
continue toward the end of the bond length with an increase of the prestress applied. When the shear
strength at the end of the bond length is fully mobilized, the anchor approaches failure and no more load
can be carried by the anchor. When prestressed ground anchors are used to stabilizing unstable slopes
and landslides, they can provide thrusts to the potential slip surface and increase the normal stress on the
potential slip surface. As a result, the shear strength is increased, and the stability of the slopes is
enhanced. Limit equilibrium methods for slope stability are used for this analysis.
9
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6.5.4 Materials
6.5.4 a) High tensile strands
Physical properties and dimensions, tolerances and mass of wire strands are given in IS 14268 ‘Uncoated
Stress Relieved Low Relaxation Seven-Wire (Ply) Strand for Pre-Stressed Concrete-Specification’ and
PREN 10138, Part 3.
6.5.4 b) Anchor Head
The anchor head shall allow the tendon to be stressed, proof loaded and locked-off and, if required,
released, destressed and restressed. The Anchor head shall be derived from an appropriate PT system
and these mechanical devices are as per ETAG-013 -2002 as per re-stressable tendon system.
The anchor head shall comply with ENV 1992-1: Eurocode 2 unless the required deviation is justified.
The anchor head shall distribute the tendon load to the main structure or the ground as per the overall
design of the structure through designed or tested components. The anchor head (i.e. the connection
between the anchor tendon and the structure) shall be able to adjust to deformations which may be
expected during the design life of the structure.
6.5.4 c) Spacer and other components in the borehole
All installed tendons and encapsulations shall be provided with a minimum of 10 mm grout cover to the
borehole wall. This may be achieved by the use of spacers or centralizers. Any component installed and
remaining in the borehole should be spaced and located so that it does not reduce the bond capacity of the
anchor. To ensure correct positioning of the tendon(s), the tendon components, the corrosion protection
components and any other component in the borehole, spacers should be located such that minimum grout
cover requirements and complete filling of open volume by grout are provided. Spacers and centralizers
shall not impede grout flow.
When used outside an encapsulation in a permanent anchor spacer should be manufactured from
corrosion-resistant materials. The design of centralizers shall consider the shape of the hole, e.g. the
presence of under reamed bells, the weight of the tendon and the susceptibility of the ground to
disturbance during insertion of the tendon.
6.5.4 d) Cement grout and admixtures
Cement grouts used in the encapsulation and contact with prestressing steel tendons shall conform in
general with BS 445, BS 446 and BS 447. When selecting the type of cement for grout placed in contact
with the surrounding ground, account shall be taken of the presence of aggressive substances in the
environment, e.g. carbonic acid and sulphates, of the permeability of the ground and the design life of the
anchor. High sulphide content cement shall not be used in contact with prestressing steel. Admixtures may
be used for improving workability or durability, for reducing bleed or shrinkage, or for an increasing rate of
strength development. The use of admixtures with prestressing steel shall be approved by the Client's
Technical Representative. Admixtures shall be free from any product liable to damage prestressing steel or
the grout itself. No admixture that contains more than 0,1 % (by mass) of chlorides, sulphides or nitrates
shall be used.
6.5.5 Soil/rock investigation
Refer to chapter 3 for general soil and rock investigation. However, for anchor installation reference shall
also be made to chapter-3 of FHWA-IF-099-015 and BS 8081.
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6.5.6 Corrosion protection of steel tendon and stressed steel components

For the details of corrosion protection for temporary and permanent anchors, reference shall be made to
BS 8081, FHWA-IF-099-015 and IRC SP 80.
It is difficult to predict with sufficient precision corrosion rates of steel embedded in the ground. All steel
components need to be protected against corrosion for their design life. Corrosion protection elements shall
be capable of sustaining and transmitting tendon loads, as required.
Generally, the standard of corrosion protection is classified by the anchor design life:
• Temporary ground anchors are defined as those which are required to be in service no longer than two
years;
• Permanent ground anchors are defined as those which are to have a design life of more than the
permanent service life of the structure as per MoRTH specification.
6.5.6 a) Corrosion protection systems for temporary anchors
The corrosion protection system shall be designed by experts duly considering the material, soil, and
climatic conditions of exposure. The protection against corrosion has been described in detail in BS EN
1537 for the following components:
• Tendon bond length - The tendons shall be provided with a minimum 10 mm cement grout cover
and for aggressive ground, conditions enhanced protection system like the use of a single
corrugated duct around the tendon(s).
• Tendon free length - The protection system shall allow movement of the tendon within the borehole
having low frictional properties. This may be achieved by the provision of one of the four options
described in the above guideline.
The transition between anchor head and free length (inner anchor head) and anchor head shall also be
protected.
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Fig. 6.10 Typical corrosion protection of tendon bond length of strand tendon using a single
corrugated sheath and cement grout10 (Dimensions are in mm)
6.5.6 b) Corrosion protection systems for permanent anchors
The permanent ground anchor requires additional layers of protection system and the same has to be
designed based on material, soil, exposure conditions, etc. Relevant IRC codes can be referred to. The
detailed protection system has also been given the latest version of BS EN 1537 and BS 8081. The same
can be referred for guidance.
10
Source: BS 8081: Code of Practice for Ground Anchors and Anchored Systems
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Fig. 6.11 Typical corrosion protection of tendon bond length of strand tendon using a double
sheath and cement grout11 (Dimensions are in mm)
6.5.7 Installation
The details of the installation procedure for each type of ground anchor may be slightly different from each
other, however, the general procedure is the same, which includes the following steps:
• Drill a hole.
• Insert a steel tendon.
• Grout the hole within the bond length.
• Install the anchorage assembly.
11
Source: BS 8081: Code of Practice for Ground Anchors and Anchored Systems
Version-10, 04/10/2020 26
• Prestress the steel tendon.

For further details, refer to section 9.5.4 of FHWA-IF-99-015.
6.5.8 Failure modes of an anchored wall system
6.5.8 a) External stability of anchors/failure modes
Fig. 6.12 shows the possible failure modes of an anchored wall system, which include internal, facing, and
external failure modes. Internal failures happen when the anchor ruptures or is pulled out. When the steel
tendon is too weak, it will rupture as shown in Fig. 6.12 (a). The pullout of the steel tendon may occur at the
interface between the grout and the surrounding soil or rock (Fig. 6.12 [b]) or between the steel tendon and
the grout (Fig. 6.12 [c]) due to short bond length and/or low bond strength.
The facing failures may occur: (1) when the wall facing (such as sheet piles) does not have sufficient
bending strength and/or stiffness (Fig. 6.12 [d]), (2) the wall facing does not have sufficient embedment
depth so that there is a passive failure (Fig. 6.12 [e]), (3) the unanchored wall facing portion on the top fails
(Fig. 6.12 [f]), and (4) the wall facing has an axial bearing or penetration failure (Fig. 6.12 [g]).
The external failures may happen as the anchored mass acts as a rigid body. The possible external failures
include overturning (Fig. 6.12 [h]), sliding (Fig. 6.12 [i]), and global or deep-seated rotational failure (Fig.
6.12 [j]).
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Fig. 6.12 Possible failure modes (external)12

6.5.8 b) Internal stability of anchors
In a typical anchored wall, there are active, passive, and stable zones as shown in Fig. 6.13. The active
zone is right behind the wall facing but in front of the stable zone, while the passive zone is right in front of
the embedded wall facing. The active zone and the stable zone are divided by a critical failure surface. The
12
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unbonded length of the anchor is mostly located within the active zone. The entire bond length of the
anchor should be within the stable zone to provide tensile resistance to the active zone. The passive zone
provides toe resistance to the wall. When there is sufficient toe resistance, the potential failure surface
develops from the base of the excavation. When the toe resistance is low (i.e., there is a potential passive
failure), however, the potential failure surface extends down to the effective embedment depth (Da, to be
determined based on laterally loaded piles) or the whole embedment depth and toward the bond length.
The bond length should be beyond the potential failure surface due to insufficient toe resistance. Typically,
anchors are inclined from the horizontal direction below.
Fig. 6.13 Internal stability of an anchored wall13

6.5.9 Design parameters and procedure
6.5.9 a) Design Parameters
The design parameters for ground anchors may include the following parameters (mainly for anchored
walls):
• Type of application (temporary or permanent, critical or noncritical)
• Project requirements (tolerable settlement, a factor of safety against slope failure)
• Construction constraints
• The geometry of the project (such as depth of excavation)
• Type of wall facing
• Site subsurface conditions (type and properties of geomaterial, groundwater table, aggressive or
nonaggressive for corrosion)
• Loading conditions (traffic surcharge as per IRC 6, water pressure or seismic)
• Number of ground anchor levels
13
Source: Jie Han (2015), Principles and Practice of Ground Improvement
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• Method of installation of anchors

• Length and inclination of anchors
• Depth of the upper level of ground anchor
• Bond length
Fig. 6.14 shows the typical design cross-section of an anchored wall system. This design section is based
on the condition that the embedded vertical facing element has sufficient toe resistance against passive
failure. The diameter of drill holes for anchors is typically smaller than 150 mm. When the stability of holes
becomes an issue, hollow-stem augers are used to install anchors with a typical hole diameter of
approximately 300 mm. The total lengths of most anchors range from 9 to 18 m. AASHTO (2012) suggests
that the unbonded length should be at least 4.5 m. The bonded length should start beyond the critical
failure surface at a distance of𝜒=greater of 1.5 m or H/5 (H=design height) as shown in Fig. 6.14. The
overburden cover above the bond length should be at least 4.5 m.
For ultimate bond stress for ground/grout interface along anchor bond zone reference shall be made to
Table 7 of FHWA-IF-099-15.
Fig. 6.14 Typical design cross-section of an anchored wall system14 (Reference: Jie Han; Ground
Improvement)
The anchor bond lengths in soils typically range from 4.5 to 12.0 m. Longer bond length than 12m may not
gain much additional capacity because of the stress softening in the upper portion of the bond length with
increased displacement. The anchor bond lengths in rocks typically range from 3 to 10 m. Ground anchors
are installed with inclination angles of 100 to 450 but commonly ranging from 150 to 300 below the
horizontal direction. AASHTO (2012) suggests that the minimum horizontal spacing between adjacent
14
Source: Jie Han (2015), Principles and Practice of Ground Improvement
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anchors should be the larger of 3d (d=diameter of the bonded zone) and 1.5 m. The vertical spacing of
anchors is typically 1.8 to 3.0 m. The typical design load of a ground anchor is between 260 and 1160 kN
(Sabatini et al., 1999).
6.5.9 b) Design procedure
The detailed design procedure for designing anchored wall system is provided in FHWA-IF-099-15 Section
5.7 “Anchored Slopes and Landslide Stabilization Systems” and BS 8081.
The following are the basic steps for the design procedure.
1. Establish project requirements including the type of project (temporary and/or permanent), project
geometry, external loading (water, surcharge or seismic), performance criteria, and construction
constraints (right-of-way limitations, nearby structures, and existing utility lines).
2. Evaluate site subsurface conditions and relevant properties of in situ geomaterials.
3. Establish design requirements, including factors of safety and level of corrosion protection.
4. Based on the type of geomaterial, select lateral earth pressure distribution behind the wall. Add
water pressure and surcharge for total lateral pressure calculation if they exist.
5. Calculate horizontal ground anchor loads by adjusting vertical anchor locations to achieve the
optimum wall bending moment distribution.
6. Determine required anchor inclination based on construction constraints and geotechnical
conditions.
7. Calculate a vertical force component and a force along with the anchor from each horizontal
anchor load
8. Evaluate horizontal spacing of anchors based on wall type and experience. Calculate individual
anchor loads.
9. Select the type of ground anchors.
10. Evaluate the embedment depth and cross-section of the wall by calculating vertical and lateral
capacities of the wall below the excavation base
11. Calculate factors of safety for internal and external stability of the anchored system and check
them against design requirements.
12. Estimate maximum lateral wall movements and ground surface settlements. Revise design if
necessary.
If any of the calculated values in Steps 10, 11, and 12 do not meet the design requirement, adjust design
parameters of anchors and/or the wall and repeat the above design procedure.
For corrosion protection and testing of anchors, reference shall be made to chapter-6 & chapter-7 of
FHWA-IF-099-15.
All the materials to be used for the anchors should be inspected and verified before installation, including
• Prestressing steel strand or bar
• Anchorage and trumpet
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• Spacers
• Centralizers
• Portland cement
• Bearing plates
• Corrosion protection materials
BS: EN 1537-2000: Execution of special geotechnical works-Ground anchors allows the initial drilling
alignment to be deviated within±20 from the desired axis of the borehole and the drilling to have deviated
within 1/30 of the anchor length.
During the grouting operation, the following information should be recorded:
• Type of mixer
• Water/cement ratio
• Types of additives (if any)
• Grout pressure
• Type of cement
• Strength test samples (if any)
• The volume of first and second stage grout
Grout strength should be measured and confirmed by cube samples before any load test is performed.
Grout typically should have its required strength of 20–30 MPa in 7–10 days.
For anchored walls, each anchor should be tested for its load capacity and load-deformation behaviour
after installation. AASHTO (2012) requires all production anchors should be subjected to load testing and
stressing. The test load is typically 125–150% of the design load of the anchor. At the end of each load
testing, the anchor should be locked off to remove any slack in the anchored wall system to minimize
postconstruction displacements. The acceptance or rejection of ground anchors relies on the results of
three different tests: (1) performance test, (2) proof test, and (3) extended creep test. Proof tests are most
commonly adopted in the field.
A performance test involves several load cycles with increasing magnitudes until the test load. After each
load cycle, elastic and residual deformations of the anchor are recorded. At the test load, the load is held
for 10 min to evaluate the time-dependent deformation (i.e., creep) of the ground anchor. This test is used
to verify anchor capacity and establish load-deformation behaviour.
A proof test applies loads in several increments until the test load, which is held for 10 min before unloaded
to the initial alignment load. This test is used to examine whether a test anchor is acceptable for
applications.
An extended creep test is to evaluate creep deformations of an anchor under different load intensities for
certain durations. Each test typically lasts 8 h. This test is done for cohesive soil with PI>20 or LL>50.
This chapter describes the applications, components, specifications, design procedures, and quality control
& assurance measures of soil nailing and ground anchor systems for soil and rock slope stabilization. The
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description of design calculations given are in brief and any further detail referred guidelines can be
followed. The next chapter deals with Reinforced Soil Systems.
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CHAPTER 7
REINFORCED SOIL SYSTEM
7.0 General
Reinforced soil systems can be defined as the inclusion of planar reinforcements arranged in nearly
horizontal planes in the reinforced soil/fill to resist outward movement of the reinforced soil/ fill mass.
Reinforced Soil Walls (RSW) and Reinforced Soil Slopes (RSS) are the two major classifications of the
reinforced soil system. Both reinforced soil walls and slopes, the main components are reinforcing element,
facia, structural fill, drainage arrangement, and backfill. Reinforced soil structures with slope face angles
steeper than 70° are categorized as reinforced soil walls and those with slope face angle less than and
equal to 70° are considered as reinforced soil slopes. Both reinforced soil walls and reinforced soil slopes
have flexible soil-retaining structures, which can tolerate much larger settlements as compared to rigid
retaining systems like reinforced concrete walls, RR masonry walls, diaphragm walls, etc. By including
tensile reinforcing elements in the soil, the strength of the soil can be improved significantly. The use of a
facing system provides confinement to the fill material and the reinforcing elements that allow very steep
slopes and vertical walls to be constructed safely. The design, specifications, construction and
maintenance aspects of reinforced soil walls are covered in IRC SP 102, MoRTH 3100, BS 8006 Part-1
and FHWA NHI-10-024. This chapter deals with the design, specifications, construction, and maintenance
aspects of reinforced soil slopes (RSS). A typical cross-section of the same is shown in Fig. 7.1. The
illustration in Fig. 7.1 indicates the advantage of steep reinforced slopes in increasing usable land for the
widening of road embankments.
Fig. 7.1 Available land for unreinforced vs reinforced slopes
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7.1 Reinforced soil system

There are two types of reinforced soil systems i. e. reinforced soil wall and reinforced soil slopes as
explained below.
7.1.1 Reinforced soil wall (RSW)
Reinforced soil structures that are within 20° of the vertical shall be designed as reinforced soil walls. The
detailed guidelines for the design and construction of reinforced soil walls are given in IRC SP 102, BS
8006 Part-1, and FHWA-NHI-10-024. For material specifications and general guidelines, section 3100 of
MoRTH specifications for road and bridge works should be referred.
7.1.2 Reinforced soil slope (RSS)
Reinforced soil slopes are structures that are ≥ 200 to vertical. The facia system for reinforced soil slope
shall be one of the following types a) wrap-around facing using Geosynthetics b) gabion facing c) metallic
facing, prefabricated in different shapes including welded wire grid and woven steel wire mesh d) precast
reinforced concrete panels d) Precast concrete blocks and precast concrete hollow blocks as per MoRTH
3107.3. Reinforced soil slope is a form of reinforced soil system in which planar reinforcing elements
(typically geosynthetics) are incorporated in an embankment at different vertical spacing, which facilitates to
construct steeper slopes as shown in Fig. 7.2a. Normally two reinforcing elements are used in construction
i. e. primary reinforcement and secondary reinforcement. The primary reinforcement increases the stability
of the slope, whereas the secondary reinforcement may be provided for improved compaction and surficial /
facing stability as shown in Fig. 7.2b. Reinforced soil slope structures are cost-effective alternatives for new
construction and reconstruction where the cost of fill, right-of-way, and other considerations may make a
steeper slope desirable.
Fig. 7.2 Generic cross-sections of reinforced slope structures, illustrating primary, secondary and
surficial reinforcements used to (a) increase stability of a slope; and (b) provide improved
compaction and surficial stability at the edge of slopes
7.2 Suitability of Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS)
The following are some of the major uses of reinforced soil slopes
• Easy to construct as compared to rigid retaining walls like a reinforced concrete wall or RR
masonry walls or diaphragm walls etc.
• Right of way savings especially in urban areas as compared to normal embankments
• Such structures can tolerate a higher level of settlement as compared to reinforced concrete walls
• Use of vegetated facings of reinforced soil slopes blend with the natural environment.
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7.3 Use and Application of Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS)

Reinforced soil slopes are used in a wide variety of situations, such as
a) Construction of new embankments (Fig. 7.3a)
b) as an alternative to the existing wall (Fig. 7.3b)
c) Widening of existing slopes (Fig. 7.3c)
d) Slide Repair (Fig. 7.3d)
e) To construct a steep slope above a retaining wall.
Other applications of reinforced soil slopes can be
• Decreased bridge spans.
• Temporary road widening for detours.
• Prevention of surface sloughing during periods of saturation.
• Embankment construction with wet, fine-grained soils that meet the codal provision of selected fill
material as per MoRTH section 3100.
• Permanent levees with adequate erosion and scour protection.
• Temporary flood control structures with adequate toe protection and erosion control measures.
Fig. 7.3 Application of reinforced soil slopes
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7.4 Components of Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS)

7.4.1 Reinforcing element
The reinforcement element enhances the stability of the reinforced fill mass by mobilizing the axial tensile
strength of the fill reinforcement by soil interaction over its total length. It is typically a tension element
made of steel or polymer in the form of a strip, strap, sheet, grid, or mesh and is usually placed in discrete
layers as per MoRTH 3100 (Clause No.3103.7).
Generally, synthetic reinforcement materials made of PET, HDPE, PVA, PP and Polymer composites in the
form of grid or strip or strap or combination of metallic and synthetic or any other proprietary material
approved by the Engineer can be used. Any type of steel or geosynthetic material used as a reinforcing
element for the construction of a reinforced slope shall meet all the requirements provided in the relevant
clause of MORTH Section 3100 (Clause No.3103.7).
7.4.2 Facing/Facia systems
Steep slopes require a suitable facing to hold the reinforcement in-place as well as to protect the slope from
local instability and erosion adjacent to the face. In the case of flatter slopes (≤450) also, facing may be
called for, if the area is subjected to heavy rainfall or if the vegetation growth is difficult due to soil type or
climatic conditions. Depending upon the properties of the fill and local climatic conditions of the area,
suitable slope erosion protection measures need to be adopted. The facia of reinforced soil slope shall be
as per MoRTH 3107.3. The connection between the facia and reinforcement of reinforced soil slope shall
be as per MoRTH 3107.4 and BS 8006 Part-1.
Where wrap around facia is used for high slopes, the suitable batter needs to be provided as per the design
requirement. This batter may also be achieved through stepped offsets in placing the facia elements if
required as per the designs. It is desirable to avoid offset as it will consume more land and maybe a
constraint in choosing this technology. However, the berm shall be provided as per MoRTH or IRC SP 102
requirements.
Facing shall enable the construction within specified tolerances of vertical and horizontal alignment and it
should perform over the design life. The facing system should be able to meet the functional requirements
such as rigidity, flexibility, aesthetics, environmental considerations etc. depending on location, purpose
and use of the structure as indicated in MoRTH 3100.
For reinforced soil slopes of permanent nature, the durability of basic material underexposed condition for
facing shall be ensured. A suitable filter should be provided behind the facia elements to avoid loss of
selected fill material through the apertures or gaps of the facia. For steeper slopes in high rainfall intensity
and/or high seismicity areas, a combination of woven and welded steel wire mesh elements with additional
stiffening elements and filter cloth shall be used to achieve flexibility, erosion prevention and stiffness
requirements as mentioned in MoRTH 3100.
Where geosynthetics are used as facing (wrap-around system) for permanent reinforced soil slope (RSS)
structures, outer facia elements are required to be protected against UV degradation from sunlight. When
vegetation is used as the facia cover, the face should provide a suitable medium like coir, jute or synthetic
mat or combination of it as per MoRTH Section 700 or IRC 56 for the establishment and continued growth
of vegetation. For the specifications of erosion control mats reference shall be made to relevant clauses
and tables of MoRTH Section 700 to select the appropriate one as per steepness of slope and rainfall
intensity. For a vegetated face, several interrelated aspects need to be considered, including the climate,
water requirements of plants and water availability, site location aspect, altitude, amount and frequency of
precipitation, exposure, form of facing and erosion resistance capability to ensure permanent vegetative
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covering throughout the design life. If the characteristics of backfill soil are not adequate to support
vegetation, suitable topsoil material may be placed at the front face separated from the fill by an
appropriate separator or hydroseeding may be adopted.
The contractor shall provide facing for the reinforced soil slope as approved by the designer and shown in
the drawing plan.
7.4.3 Reinforced Fill
Reinforced soil slopes are normally not constructed with rigid facing elements. Slopes constructed with a
flexible facia can thus readily tolerate minor deformations that could result from settlement, freezing and
thawing or wetting-drying of the backfill.
The fill material used as the reinforcing fill in the reinforced soil slope shall meet Section 3100 of MoRTH
requirement. However, in the absence of selected fill material following fill material (Table 7.1) can be used
after mixing suitable granular fill material to meet the MoRTH requirements.
Table 7.1 Reinforced fill specifications for Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS)
Sieve Size Per cent Passing
75mm – 20mm 100
Gradation 4.75mm 100-20
0.425mm 0-60
0.075mm 0-15 (50)*
Plasticity Index (%) ≤ 6 (<20)*
The angle of internal friction (degree) ≥28
Notes:
The above fill material can be used after mixing an adequate percentage of granular fill material like gravel,
sand, stone dust, etc. to achieve PI < 6 as per MoRTH requirement. The use of any mechanical mixing method
is not mandatory, mixing at a site or stoking yard using grader or excavator is an acceptable method.
*FHWA NHI-10-024 permits Fines up to 50 % and PI up to 20 with ^careful design considerations.
^Note on careful design considerations:
Wherever the frictional material is unavailable and blending may not be practically feasible, in such cases, soil
containing fines up to 50 % and PI up to 20 can be selected as reinforced fill material. In such cases, internal,
external and global stability analysis need to be carried out for structural fill and backfill as per the expected
level of saturation.
In addition to that, the drainage measures need to be designed appropriately. With good drainage measures
such as the provision of additional intermediate horizontal drainage systems along with chimney drain, careful
evaluation of soil and soil-reinforcement interaction characteristics, field construction control, and performance
monitoring, most indigenous soil can be considered. Surface water infiltration into the retained fill and
reinforced fill should be minimized by providing an impermeable membrane and adequate slopes to nearby
surface drainpipes or paved ditches with outlets to storm sewers or to natural drains. For further reference
regarding the different types of drainage measures, reference can be made of IRC SP 42.
The fill material must be free of organic matter and other deleterious substances, as these materials
generally result in the poor performance of the structure and enhance the degradation of reinforcement.
The materials containing mica, gypsum, smectite, montmorillonite, or other soft materials should be
carefully evaluated as large strains are typically required to reach peak strength and pull out capacity
resulting in larger lateral and vertical deformations than with higher quality granular fills. Wherever large
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lateral or vertical movements are predicted in a permanent important structure, FEM (Finite Element
Analysis) analysis and field monitoring using instrumentation are recommended.
The fill soil in the unreinforced zone shall conform to the requirements for embankment construction as
specified in Section 300 of MoRTH or as specified in the design.
7.4.4 Drainage arrangement
Normally, reinforced soil systems are not designed for hydrostatic pressures on the assumption that the
major components like structural fill and facia are free-draining, and drainage accessories like chimney
drain will be provided. However, where the fill material has high PI value as per FHWA then special
drainage arrangements shall be designed as per the design requirement and incorporated in the structure.
Also, where hydrostatic pressures are likely to occur due to submergence, the design should account for
such pressure. To ensure that these conditions are realised in the field, adequate drainage measures need
to be designed and implemented as per IRC SP 42. Wherever drainage geo-composites and Geosynthetics
filter or separator are adopted, that should be designed and implemented as per IRC 34, IRC SP 59 and
MoRTH Section 700. n. The chimney drain should be designed to carry the discharge and should be
provided at the back of the retained fill and continued in a horizontal extent to a depth well below the toe of
the Reinforced soil systems practically feasible and lead to toe drain meant to carry the discharge away
from the Reinforced soil systems. To ensure that the runoff and subsurface water is drained, a drainage
bay should be provided between the retained soil and the reinforced soil to ensure proper drainage which is
commonly referred to as a chimney drain. A chimney drain of a minimum 600 mm width is commonly used
for conventional filter drain. There shall be a filter media (non-woven geotextile) on either side of drainage
material, which shall conform to the specifications of the filter media as per MORTH Section700 and IRC
SP 59. A typical cross-section of a chimney drain which may be provided behind the reinforced fill is shown
in Fig. 7.4.
Alternatively, drainage geocomposite may be used as specified in IRC SP 59, IRC 34 and MORTH-Section
700 as a single composite product replacing 600 mm gravel and two geotextile components. Any drainage
material shall be designed as per IRC SP 59 satisfying hydraulic criteria and mechanical strength criteria to
avoid loss of reinforced fill or adjacent soil into the drain and to maintain its functionality under the forces it
will be subjected to. The drainage material shall conform to the specifications of the filter media as per
Clause no 2504.2.2 MoRTH, IRC SP 59 and IRC 34 Specifications.
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a)
b)
Fig. 7.4 Subsurface drainage considerations - a) Groundwater and drainage b) drain details1
7.5 Design of Reinforced Soil Slope
7.5.1 Failure Modes
There are three failure modes for reinforced slopes:
• Internal, where the failure plane passes through the reinforcing elements.
• External, where the failure surface passes behind and underneath the reinforced zone.
• A compound, where the failure surface passes behind and through the reinforced soil zone.
1 Source: FHWA-NHI-10-025 Volume-II Design and Construction of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil
Slopes
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Fig. 7.5 Failure modes for reinforced soil slopes including internal failure within the reinforced soil
zone, external failure entirely outside the reinforced soil zone, and compound failure starting
behind and passing through the reinforced soil zone
7.5.2 Design of Reinforcement for Steepening Slopes and Slope Repair
The design for steep reinforced slopes (face inclination >45 up to 700 to horizontal) and slope repair is
based on modified versions of the classical limit equilibrium slope stability methods as shown in Fig. 7.6.
Various potential failure surfaces must be considered (refer Fig. 7.6), including deep-seated surfaces
through or behind the reinforced zone.
Fig. 7.6 Limit Equilibrium approach2

For the internal analysis, the critical slope stability factor of safety is taken from the internal unreinforced
failure surface requiring the maximum reinforcement. Detailed design of the reinforced zone is performed
by determining the factor of safety with successively modified reinforcement layouts until the target factor of
safety is achieved. The external and compound stability of the reinforced zone is then evaluated.
For slope repair applications, it is also very important to identify the cause of the original failure to make
sure that the new reinforced soil slope will not have the same problems. If a water table or erratic water
flows exist, attention has to be paid to drainage. In natural soils, it is also necessary to identify any weak
seams that might affect stability.
2
Source: FHWA-NHI-10-025 Volume-II Design and Construction of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil
Slopes
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Fig. 7.7 External failure modes for reinforced soil slopes3

The external stability of reinforced soil slopes depends on the ability of the reinforced zone to act as a
stable block and withstand all external loads without failure. Failure possibilities as shown in Fig. 7.7
include wedge and block type sliding, global/compound/ deep-seated overall instability, local bearing
capacity failure at the toe (lateral squeeze type failure), as well as an excessive settlement from both short
and long-term conditions. The reinforced zone must be sufficiently wide at any level to resist wedge and
block type sliding. Evaluation of deep-seated failure does not automatically check for bearing capacity of
the foundation or failure at the toe of the slope. High lateral stress in a confined soft stratum beneath the
embankment could lead to a lateral squeeze type failure. The shear forces developed under the
embankment should be compared to the corresponding shear strength of the soil. A settlement should be
evaluated for both total and differential movement. While the differential settlement of the reinforced slope
within permissible limit depending on the type of facia is not of concern, adjacent structures or structures
supported by the slope may not tolerate such movements and global design of the reinforced soil slope
structure should take care of this phenomenon. Differential movements can also affect the selection of
facing elements. In areas subject to potential seismic activity, a simple pseudo-static type analysis should
also be performed. If any of the external stability safety factors are less than the required factor of safety,
suitable improvement options shall be considered.
3
Slopes
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The design approach principally assumes that the slope is to be constructed on a stable foundation. The
method presented in this chapter uses the classic rotational, limit equilibrium slope stability method. The
parameters to be considered in the design of reinforced soil slopes are given below.
7.5.2 a) Establish the geometric, loading, and performance requirements for the design
(I) Geometric and loading requirements (refer Fig. 7.8)
• Slope Geometry- H, θ (Height and slope angle as shown in Fig. 7.8)
• External (surcharge) loads:
o Surcharge load, q
o Temporary live load, Δq
o Design seismic acceleration, Am
• Project Specifications (MORTH/IRC specifications based on project)
• Traffic Barrier (refer MORTH-Annexure to Section 3100)
(II) Performance requirements
• External stability (Static and dynamic) and settlement
- Sliding: F.S. ≥ 1.3
- Deep-seated (overall stability): F.S. ≥ 1.4 as per IRC 75
- Sudden drawdown and steady seepage as per Table 3.1 of IRC 75
- Local bearing failure (lateral squeeze): F.S. ≥ 1.3
- Dynamic loading: F.S. ≥ 1.1
- Settlement-post construction magnitude and time rate based on project requirements
• Compound failure: F.S. ≥ 1.3
• Internal slope stability: F.S. ≥ 1.3
7.5.2 b) Determine the engineering properties of the in-situ soils
• The foundation and retained soil (i.e., the soil beneath and behind reinforced zone) profiles
• For failure repair, identify the location of the previous failure surface and cause of failure.
• Strength parameters for each soil layer of the retained soil and the foundation soil:
- Total / undrained soil strength parameters: cu and Φu, or effective /drained soil strength
parameters: c´ and Φ´ for each soil layer.
- γwet and γdry
- Consolidation parameters (Cc, Cr, cv, and σ´p).
- Location of the groundwater table dw, and piezometric surfaces.
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Fig. 7.8 Requirements for the design of reinforced soil slopes4

7.5.2 c) Determine the properties of reinforced fill
• Gradation and plasticity index
• Compaction Results
• Compacted lift thickness
• cu and Φu, or c´ and Φ´ for each soil layer.
4
Slopes
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• Electrochemical properties of reinforced fill

- For geosynthetic reinforcement: pH
- For steel reinforcement: pH, resistivity, chlorides, sulfates, and organic content
7.5.2 d) Evaluate design parameters for the reinforcement
Allowable design strength for Geosynthetics (Refer MORTH-Annexure to Section 3100)
The long-term allowable design strength (Tal) of the geosynthetic reinforcement shall be evaluated as per
Annexure to section 3100 of MORTH Specification.
7.5.2 e) Checks for unreinforced stability, reinforcement design to provide a stable slope, external
stability checks for reinforced soil slope
Manual calculations for unreinforced stability checks, reinforcement design to provide a stable slope
(calculation of total reinforcement tension per unit width of a slope, determination of total design tension per
unit width of a slope, distribution of reinforcement, determine reinforcement vertical spacing, determine the
reinforcement lengths required, checks for design lengths of complex designs), external stability checks
(sliding resistance, deep-seated global stability, local bearing failure at the toe, foundation settlement),
seismic stability checks are exhaustively given in FHWA NHI-10-025 Volume-II. However, the most
commonly accepted method for reinforced soil slope design is to use a slope stability computer program
which has been explained in clause no. 7.6.2 g).
7.5.2 f) Evaluate requirements for subsurface and surface water runoff control
• Subsurface water control
- The design of subsurface water drainage features should address flow rate, filtration, placement, and
outlet details.
- Drains are typically placed at the rear of the reinforced zone as shown in Fig. 7.4. Geocomposite
drainage systems or conventional granular blanket and trench drains/lateral and longitudinal drainage
pipes could be used.
- The lateral spacing of outlets is dictated by site geometry, estimated flow, and existing agency
standards. Outlet design should address long-term performance and maintenance requirements.
- Geosynthetic drainage composites can be used in subsurface water drainage design. Drainage
composites should be designed with consideration of:
o Geotextile filtration/clogging
o Long-term compressive strength of the polymeric core
o Reduction of flow capacity due to creep and the intrusion of geotextile into the core as per ASTM D
7931 or equivalent.
o Long-term inflow/outflow capacity
o The Geo-composite specifications shall be as per MORTH section 700.
- Slope stability analyses should account for interface shear strength along a geo-composite drain. The
geo-composite/soil interface will most likely have a friction value that is lower than that of the soil. Thus,
a potential failure surface may be induced along with the interface.
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- Geotextile reinforcements (primary and intermediate layers) must be more permeable than the
reinforced fill material to prevent a hydraulic build up above the geotextile layers during precipitation.
- Special emphasis on the design and construction of subsurface drainage features is recommended for
structures where drainage is critical for maintaining slope stability. Redundancy in the drainage system
is also recommended for these cases.
• Surface water runoff.
- Surface water runoff should be collected above the reinforced slope and channelled or piped below the
base of the slope. Standard Agency drainage details should be utilized.
- Wrapped faces and/or intermediate layers of secondary reinforcement may be required at the face of
reinforced slopes to prevent local sloughing. The intermediate reinforcement should extend 1.2m (min.)
back into the fill from the face.
- Select a long-term facing system to prevent or minimize erosion due to rainfall and runoff on the face.
- Calculate flow-induced tractive shear stress on the face of the reinforced slope by:
where:
λ = tractive shear stress, kPa
d = depth of water flow, m
γw = unit weight of water, kN/m3
s = the vertical to horizontal angle of slope face, m/m
For λ < 100 Pa, consider vegetation with temporary or permanent erosion control mat
For λ > 100 Pa, consider vegetation with permanent erosion control mat or other armour type systems
- Select vegetation based on local horticultural and agronomic considerations and maintenance.
7.5.2 g) Computer-Aided Design
The most commonly accepted method for reinforced slope design is to use a conventional slope stability
computer program that has been modified to account for the stabilizing effect of reinforcement. Such
programs should account for reinforcement strength and pullout capacity, compute reinforced and
unreinforced safety factors automatically and have some searching routine to help locate critical surfaces.
An alternative to reinforcement design is to develop a trial configuration of reinforcement and analyze the
reinforced slope with a computer program. The configuration includes number, length, design strength, and
vertical distribution of the geosynthetic reinforcement. Analyze the reinforced soil slope with the trial
geosynthetic reinforcement configurations. The most economical reinforcement configuration must provide
the minimum required stability safety factors for internal, external, and compound failure planes. External
stability analysis will include an evaluation of local bearing capacity, foundation settlement, and dynamic
stability. The direct sliding checks can also be carried out by using such a computer program.
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7.6 Shored reinforced soil structure/Shored MSE Wall (SMSE wall)

This type of retaining wall is employed when space is limited, or a sleek retaining wall or slope is required.
Such type of retaining structure offers a perfect balance between cut and fill. This system is used to
stabilize steep slopes, road widening in valleys, landslide restoration, rehabilitation, etc. When a
Reinforced Soil (RS) system and Nailing system combined are used on a project, there are long-term
retaining benefits provided by the shoring wall, including reduction of lateral loads on the RS wall mass and
significant contributions to global stability. This type of hybrid system is popularly known as “Shored MSE
wall” or Shored Reinforced Soil system as shown in Fig. 7.9 below.
Fig. 7.9 Generic cross-section and different components of an SMSE Wall System
7.6.1 Design Considerations of Shored MSE wall
One shall refer to FHWA Publication No. FHWA-CFL/TD-06-001, Chapter-5 for design methodology of
MSE wall component and Chapter-6 for shoring components design considerations of an SMSE wall
system.
7.6.2 Types of Shored MSE walls or Shored RS system
Shored MSE walls may be done with different types of nailing wall and reinforced soil combinations.
However, there are few general considerations which are common for all different types of SMSE systems
and are provided in Annexure A-II. Annexure A-III provide some typical examples.
7.7 Construction
The construction of the reinforced soil slope system is considerably simpler as compared to reinforced soil
wall construction. As the reinforcement layers are easily incorporated between the compacted lifts of fill, the
construction of reinforced slopes is very similar to normal slope construction. The elements of construction
consist of simply:
1. Placing the soil
2. Placing the reinforcement
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3. Constructing the face

They are summarised as follows:
• Site Preparation
- Clear and grub site.
- Remove all slide debris (for slope reinstatement projects).
- Prepare a level subgrade for placement of the first level of reinforcement.
- Proof-roll subgrade at the base of the slope with a roller or rubber-tired vehicle.
- Observe and approve a foundation before fill placement.
• Construct subsurface drainage features
- Place drainage features chimney/back drain directly behind or on the sides of the reinforced
section, as required. The trench drain or subsurface drainage pipes (lateral and longitudinal) are
laid in the required angle and inclination.
• Place reinforcement layer
- Reinforcement should be placed with the principal strength direction perpendicular to the face of
the slope.
- Secure reinforcement with retaining pins to prevent movement during fill placement.
- A minimum overlap of 100 mm is recommended along the edges perpendicular to the slope for
Geosynthetics reinforcement.
• Place backfill on reinforcement
- The reinforcing elements shall be laid free from all kinks, damage, and displacement during
placing, spreading, levelling and compaction of the fill. The programme of filling shall be such that
no construction equipment moves directly on the reinforcement.
- All construction plant having a mass exceeding 1500 kg shall be kept at least 1.5 m away from the
face of slope or wall.
- In the area up to 1.5 m from the face of slope or wall, the following compaction plant shall be
used:
o Vibratory roller having a weight per metre width not exceeding 1300 kg with a total weight
not exceeding 1500 kg
o Vibratory plate compactor of maximum weight 1000 kg
o Vibro tamper having a weight not exceeding 75 kg
o Before allowing the movement of vehicles over the reinforcement, a minimum compacted
thickness of 150mm shall be provided over the reinforcement and the speed of the vehicles
shall be restricted to 10 km/hr.
- During the construction of reinforced fill, the retained material beyond the reinforcement at the
rear of the structure shall be maintained at the same level as reinforced fill.
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• Fill shall not be placed on a surface that contains mud, organic soil, or area that have not met
compaction requirement. Compaction Control
- The thickness of the compacted layer shall not be more than 200 mm, compacted to 95 per cent
of modified proctor density/80 per cent of relative density measured as per IS: 2720 (Part 8).
• Face Construction
- Slope facing requirements will depend on soil type, slope angle, and the reinforcement spacing,
and as per manufacturer details. Some of the typical facia systems being used to provide
different kinds of slopes are shown in Fig. 7.10. These cross-sections and isometric views of the
wrap-around face are only for information and guidance. The contractor may design his system
suiting to the site, soil, and type of reinforcement.
(a)
(b)
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Fig. 7.10 Example of typical face support showing a) smooth inclined face, and b) vegetated face
• Place subsequent facing, reinforcement, and reinforced similarly fill layers as explained above until the
finished top level of the slope is reached.
• Construct surface drainage features (eg: toe drain, drains at slope top, etc.)
• Steel reinforcement shall be appropriately designed and treated for corrosion protection as per the
provisions of IRC SP 80, IRC 112, and BS EN 1537 specifications depending upon the type of steel
reinforcement, exposure conditions, soil properties, etc.
The chapter described the importance of reinforced soil structures for building various types of retaining
structures and at the same time improves the overall stability of a slope. The chapter also describes the
design method, importance of drainage system, foundation and typical construction process. The
foundation and slope stability can also be improved by using vertical micro piles which are described in the
next chapter.
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CHAPTER 8
SOIL SLOPE STABILIZATION BY MICRO-PILES

8.0 General
Micropiles are small diameter drilled and grouted friction piles. Each pile includes steel elements that are
bonded into the bearing soil or rock – usually with cement grout. Micropile is a steel and grouted pile with a
steel pipe of diameter less than 300 mm driven by a boring machine. The use of micro piles/small diameter
piles have come into favour for slope stabilization projects because micropile construction is relatively
simple and requires a small work area and micro piles can be readily installed in areas with limited
equipment access, such as for landslides located in hilly, steep, or mountainous area. However, the
implementation of these systems still requires a specialist contractor. The other advantages offered by
micro piles include reduced excavation as compared to earth retaining systems (i.e., the system is
constructed from the top-down, no excavation is required to construct a wall or install anchor supports),
improved aesthetics as the system is completely buried and there is no visual evidence of an active
structural stabilization within the ground. Further, the Micropile can be installed on an inclined slope, it
provides the designer with an option to achieve the desired lateral capacity in it.
8.1 Introduction
Micropiles are small diameter piles, which can be either drilled or grouted or simply driven piles. The pile
diameter is generally between 200mm to 300mm inclusive of metallic/non-metallic or without casing and
depth varies. To stabilize slopes, micro piles are designed to provide the required restraining forces to
stabilize the slope. Micro piles generally consist of a continuously threaded hollow reinforcing tendon as a
load-carrying steel member together with concrete or grout of cement which allows the transfer of tensile
and compressive forces mainly through the friction of threaded tendon via grout into the surrounding soil.
Due to high-pressure grouting, there is insignificant shrinkage between the piles and the soil. The
penetration of the fluid part of the cement mix into the surrounding soil creates a transitory zone between
the body of micropile and the soil leading to a strong grout/ bond. Micro piles have been successfully used
in soil reinforcement for slope stabilization/earth retention projects.
Micro piles can withstand axial and lateral loads and may be considered as a substitute for conventional
driven piles or drilled shafts or as a component in a composite soil pile mass depending upon the design.
Typical arrangement of micro piles for slope stabilization is illustrated in Fig. 8.1.
1
Ver 9 Dt 09 Sept 2020
Fig. 8.1 Micropiles for slope stabilization (Source- FHWA NHI-05-039)1

Micropiles are installed by methods that cause minimal disturbance to the adjacent structures. Micro piles
can be installed at an angle also using the same type of equipment used for the installation of ground
anchors and grouting projects. A micropile is constructed by drilling a borehole, placing steel reinforcement,
and grouting the hole as illustrated in Fig. 8.2. The casing is a steel tube introduced during the drilling
process in overburdened soil to temporarily stabilise the drill hole. It is usually withdrawn as the pile is
grouted, although in some cases the casing is retained in place to reinforce unbounded length.
Fig. 8.2 Micropile construction sequence (Source-FHWA-NHI-05-039)2

For structural and geotechnical design and construction of micro piles or mini piles, reference shall be
made to IRC SP 109 ‘Guidelines for Design and Construction of Small Diameter Piles for Road Bridges’,
FHWA NHI-05-039 ‘Micropile Design and Construction’ and British standard BS EN 14199 ‘Execution of
special Geotechnical works-Micro piles’.
8.2 Impact of micropile elements in design considerations
To restrain the forces acting against the system (micropile), elements provided have to be competent
enough. The major elements used in the construction of micropile have an impact on the design. Hence the
1 Source: FHWA NHI-05-039, Micropile Design and Construction

2
Source: FHWA NHI-05-039, Micropile Design and Construction
2
designer should be aware of the systems and their influence on the behaviour of micropile and their
capacity. The elements comprise are given below.
8.2.1 Grouting
Grouting has a major effect on the micropile capacity i.e., resistance is derived from the grouted zone
against uplift or shear. Primary Grout-Portland Cement-based grout injected in the Micropile hole before or
after installation of reinforcement to direct the load transfer to the surrounding ground. Secondary grout is
the injection of additional grout into the load transfer length of a micropile after Primary Grout has set. It is
also known as Regrouting.
Grout/ground bond capacity varies with the grouting method adopted which influences the capacity. Hence
grouting has been classified as A to D (Fig. 8.3) based on placement and the applied pressure for grout
flow during construction.
Grout mix shall be of neat cement mix or Cement -sand mix with other admixtures based on the strength
requirements.
Fig. 8.3 Different types of grouting (Source-FHWA-NHI-05-039)3

Type A: The most commonly used technique for the micropile is gravity grout which is placed under a
gravity head. Cement -Sand mixes or neat cement can be used in this case
Type B: Grouts are placed under pressure, which is typically ranging from 500 kPa to 1000 kPa to avoid
any hydrofracking /hydraulic fracturing the surrounding ground, as temporary drill casing is withdrawn
3
3
Type C: Grout is placed under gravity initially then between 15 to 25 minutes later and before hardening of
the primary grout similar grout at high pressure is injected at the bond zone interface with a pressure >1000
kPa. This increases the interlock of grout with soil producing higher bond strength values.
Type D: This is a similar kind of type C grouting where the secondary grout is injected at much high
pressure (through a sleeved pipe) such that the location can be treated several times with pressure varying
from 2000to 8000 Kpa (20 bar to 80) bar which eventually forms a column of larger dia.
Table 8.1 Summary of typical 𝜶𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 (Grout-Ground bond) values for micropile design (Source-
FHWA-NHI-05-039)4
4
4
*Note: The values adopted for bond strength from the above table for the design shall be verified at the site using proof tests or
verification test mentioned below.
8.2.2 Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the second element which is determined by the loading it supports and the stiffness
required to limit elastic displacements.
Types of Reinforcement:
1. Steel Bars: Standard Steel bars conforming to IS 1786/ASTM A615, with a yield strength of
FE415/500/550 is typically used with bars varying from 25 to 63 mm. A single bar can be used typically,
but if a group of bars is used can be separated by a spacer. The use of a Single bar is also popular in
some countries. Hence the diameter of a single bar will be larger than mentioned in IRC SP 109. The
provisions for micro piles in this chapter is for stabilisation of natural slopes
2. Continuous-Thread Steel bars: The threaded bar will be a common choice as a micropile reinforcement
due to its coarse pitch, continuous ribbed thread with diameters ranging from 19 mm to 63 mm of yield
strength FE500/550. The thread on the bars not only ensures grout-to-steel bond but also allows the
bar to be cut at any point and joined with a coupler to restore full tension/compression capacity.
3. Continuous threaded Hollow steel bar: Steel reinforcing bars that have a hollow core and a continuous
full-length thread. The advantages of the hollow core steel bars offer continuous thread a drill bit
mounted on the tip of the bar, and the bar is drilled in with grout flush pumped to the bit through the
hollow core.
4. Steel pipe casing: As the micropile tends to support higher loads at low displacements and for the
requirement to sustain lateral loads, steel pipe reinforcement has become more common. Pipe
reinforcement can provide significant steel area for high loading and this can be placed either using as
a drill casing as permanent reinforcement or by providing small diameter pipe inside the drill casing.
The combination of the steel bars and pipe casing can be used as a reinforcement. The casing is
typical of API or IS 2062 or ASTM A519, A106 standards.
8.3 Design approach
The design method described herein for micro piles is based on the assumption that the portion of micro
piles below the potential slip surface “tie” the slope mass above the potential slip surface to the more
competent or stable ground below the potential slip surface. In this sense, the micro piles serve as dowels.
Also, the design assumes that concentrated deformation occurs at the location of the potential slip surface.
With this assumption, maximum bending moment and shear forces in the micropile occur near the location
of the potential slip surface. Design engineers considering the use of micropile for slope stabilization project
must review the surface and subsurface information and if available, review instrumentation data on slope
movement. The design methods as provided in the FHWA NHI-05-039 document considers the use of
micropile, assuming that the movements are occurring at a well-defined critical potential slip surface. For
example, Fig. 8.4 shows concentrated lateral movements at an approximate depth of 8 m (approx. 24 ft.)
which was obtained through instrumentation data on slope movements on a particular landslide. The
guidelines clearly state that where the slope movements are less localized or where more than one
potential surface may exist or expected via review of subsurface information, other slope stabilization
measures such as nailing/anchoring shall be considered.
5
Fig. 8.4 Concentrated movements recorded from inclinometer at the slip surface (Source-FHWA-
NHI-05-039)5
Micro piles are designed to provide the required restraining forces to stabilize a slope using the approach
as indicated below.
Battered micro piles are installed through the unstable slope to a specific depth below the potential slip
surface. In this approach, micro piles are affixed at the ground surface to a concrete cap beam (see Fig.
8.5). With this method, the individual micropile provides resisting forces through the mobilization of axial,
shear, and bending resistance. The spacing of the micro piles along the slope length is evaluated by
considering the number of micro piles necessary (per lineal meter) to provide the minimum required
stabilizing force. The minimum required stabilizing force is typically that force required to increase the
stability of the slope to a prescribed minimum factor of safety.
5
6
Fig. 8.5 Micropile System (Source-FHWA-NHI-05-039)6

8.3.1 Design concepts for micropiles used for soil slope stabilization
These guidelines provide the concept of micropile used for slope stabilization and the design steps. The
details of the same are provided in FHWA NHI-05-039.
8.3.1 a) Identify performance requirements
The primary performance requirement for slope stabilization is to meet or exceed a target slope stability
factor of safety concerning static and seismic slope stability. Typical static factors of safety range from 1.3
to 1.5 and for seismic slope stability analyses (based on pseudo-static analysis), a target value of 1.1 is
typically used. Other performance (and/or design) requirements will include a prescribed level of corrosion
protection for the micro piles, permissible variation in groundwater levels during construction, maximum
loads that can be carried (as part of load testing), and allowable stresses for steel and concrete.
8.3.1 b) Evaluate the factor of safety of the existing slope
Using the information from Clause no. 8.3.1.a), slope stability analysis methods are used to evaluate the
slope stability factor of safety for the slope that is to be stabilized. Presumably, this slope is at a slope
stability factor of safety of approximately 1.0 (if the slope has undergone significant movements) or maybe
at a slightly higher factor of safety. From this evaluation, the minimum factor of safety (F Smin) is evaluated.
As a result of the analysis, the location of the critical potential slip surface is evaluated.
At this stage in the design process, an existing slope is either unstable or marginally stable with a
calculated slope stability factor of safety less than a target value. The remaining steps of the design
process comprise designing a micropile system to improve or otherwise stabilize the slope.
8.3.1 c) Evaluate additional force required to obtain the target factor of safety
Micro piles used for slopes are designed to prevent downward movement of the slope mass above the
potential slip surface. The micro piles must be capable of providing the force required to stabilize the slope.
This force is the force required to increase the factor of safety of the slope from existing value to a target
value. Slope stability analysis programs are used to determine this additional force (H req). The slope
stability analyses are performed in three stages: (1) a location is chosen for the micro piles; (2) the micro
piles are modelled explicitly in the slope stability analysis to determine the required restraining force; and
6
7
(3) the stability of the slope away from the micropile is evaluated by performing additional slope stability
analysis.
Fig. 8.6 Single Vertical Micropile Model for Design Analyses, (b) Relationship Between Hreq and
Cohesive Strength for Micropile Analysis Model (Source- FHWA-NHI-05-039)7
8.3.1 d) Load Transfer in Micro piles
Micro piles resist unstable slope forces through a combination of axial resistance developed at the grout-to-
ground interface both above and below the potential slip surface and structural (i.e., shear and bending)
resistance. The capacity of individual micro piles used for slope stabilization can be increased significantly
by designing the micro piles to be inclined or “battered” relative to the critical potential slip surface.
8.3.1 e) Select Micropile Cross Section
8.3.1 e1) Estimate Length of Micropile
Total length (Ltotal) of the micropile, Ltotal = Labove + Lbelow, where Labove is the length of micropile between the
ground surface and the critical slip surface, Lbelow is the length of the micropile below the critical slip
surface. The ultimate side resistance of the micropile above the failure surface is Pult and can be calculated
as
, Pult is calculated using Pult = α bond-above × L above × π ×d
Pult
L below is calculated as, Lbelow = α X FS
bond−below ×π×d
7
8
α bond-below is the grout to ground ultimate bond strength below the critical slip surface and can be
estimated using values given in FHWA NHI-05- 039, Table 5.3. The recommended FS is 2.0 as per FHWA
guidelines
8.3.1 f) Evaluate Shear and Bending Capacity of Single Vertical Micropile
To evaluate the shear resistance of a single micropile, the ultimate bending moment (M ult) of the single
micropile is checked. Since the bending moment capacity of a micropile (or any other structural section)
varies depending on the applied axial load, the bending moment capacity of a single micropile is checked
for two limiting axial load conditions: (1) axial load equal to zero, P = 0; and (2) axial load equal to the
ultimate side resistance of the micropile, P = Pult.
8.3.1 f1) Evaluate the shear capacity of single vertical micropile
The maximum shear force that the micropile can carry corresponds to the shear force applied at the
elevation of the slip surface that results in a calculated maximum bending moment in the micropile which is
equal to Mult. This maximum bending moment is affected by the stiffness (i.e., p-y response) of the ground
above and below the potential slip surface and the flexural rigidity of the micropile.
• Laterally loaded pile analysis
Lateral load analysis is performed iteratively for obtaining the shear capacity of a single micropile.
The Shear resistance of a micropile is evaluated corresponding to the ultimate bending moment of the
single micropile.
The Procedure for the evaluation of maximum shear be calculated using ultimate moment for P=0 and P=
Pult using up and down analysis and the process is described below.
1. Select the structural properties of pile such as pile diameter, grout, and reinforcement properties.
2. Material properties such as soil and rock parameters used for the slope stability analysis are
considered for generating p-y curves for up and down analysis. ( P-Y Curves: Definition. The p-
y analysis is a numerical model that simulates the soil resistance as predefined
nonlinear springs, where p is the soil pressure per unit length of the pile and y is the
pile deflection. The soil is represented by a series of nonlinear p-y curves that vary
with depth and soil type)
3. Input trial estimate of the shear force Q and a trial estimate of the internal bending moment (M is
Negative for up analysis and positive for down analysis) along with the calculated axial load (case 1
P=0). The trial estimates for Q and M are arbitrary. If the initial estimate of Q is less than the Q which
corresponds to Mult, the solution will converge and vice versa.
4. Perform laterally loaded pile analysis for up and down analyses. The pile head slopes shall be equal if
not rerun the analysis by varying the magnitude of the initially estimated M. If slopes of pile head are
equal from both analyses, note the calculated maximum bending moment from each analysis.
5. Compare Mmax (greater of Mmax values from up and down analyses) with previously calculated bending
moment capacity (Mult) for the corresponding axial load.
6. If Mmax is approximately equal to Mult then Q is determined and analysis for the axial load case is
completed. If Mmax is not equal to Mult change the magnitude of initially estimated Q and rerun the
analysis.
7. Repeat the same procedure from steps 1 to 4 for P=Pult case.
9
For both axial load conditions, Mmax is approximately equal to Mult, and the up/down analyses are
considered to be complete.
The above evaluation can be performed using laterally loaded pile analysis for single elements such as that
provided in LPILE software (also recommended by FHWA-NHI-05-039).
8.3.1 g) Evaluate the shear capacity of the battered micropile group
A maximum lateral force that the battered micropile group or pair (i.e., upslope micropile leg and downslope
micropile leg as shown in Fig. 8.7 (Hult-pair) can resist at the location of the critical slip surface is evaluated. It
includes the inclination angle ψ is defined as the angle between the axis perpendicular to the slip surface
and the micropile axis or as the angle between the axis perpendicular to the micropile axis and the slip
surface (Fig. 8.8).
Fig. 8.7 Micropiles with battered upslope leg and battered downslope leg (Source- FHWA-NHI-05-
039)8
Where ψus is the inclination angle for the upslope micropile and ψds is the inclination angle for the
downslope micropile.
Fig. 8.8 Definition of inclination angle when (a) slip surface is horizontal and (b) slip surface is not
horizontal (Source- FHWA-NHI-05-039)9
For the design example, the batter angle for the upslope micropile leg (Ψus) is selected as 30 and the batter
angle for the downslope micropile leg (Ψds) is selected as 210.
8
9
10
For 0 < 𝜓 ≤ 10o → Hult = Qp=0

For 0 < 𝜓 < 30o → Hult is interpolated from Fig. 8.9
Fig. 8.9 Relationship between adjusted capacity of individual micropiles and inclination angle
(Source- FHWA-NHI-05-039)10
The combined capacity of the upslope and downslope micropile (the maximum lateral force that the
micropile pair can resist at the location of the critical slip circle) is determined as:
Hult−pair = Hult(ψus ) + Hult(ψds )
• Calculate spacing required to provide the required force to stabilize the slope
The magnitude of resisting force provided by the micro piles per unit length of the cap beam must be at
least equal to Hreq. Also, the distance between individual micropile along the cap beam (S offset) must be
large enough to permit ease of construction of the micropile elements. The shear capacity of the battered
upslope micropile (Hult(Ψus)) and battered downslope micropile (Hult(Ψds)) is evaluated using The combined
capacity of the upslope and downslope micropile (Hult-pair) is calculated. From this, Smax) may be
evaluated as:
𝐻𝑢𝑙𝑡−𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = , In the design example
𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑞
• Check potential for soil flow between micropile

If micro piles are spaced too far apart and/or if the soil above the slip surface is very weak, there is a
potential for soil material to move in-between adjacent micro piles (Figure X). This failure mechanism has
been termed plastic flow. The lateral force per unit thickness of soil acting on the micropile, q is calculated
as
10
11
1
1 −( )
q= A×c×( × {B − (2 × E) − 1} + F)) − c × ({D1 × F} − {2 × D2 × N∅ 2 })
NØ tanØ
γZ
+ × {(A × B) − D2 }
N∅
Where c = cohesion of the soil, γ = unit weight of soil, φ = friction angle of soil, Z = depth from the ground
surface, D1 = Smax, D2 = opening between micro piles
(1⁄2)
D1 [N∅ tan∅+N∅ −1]
A = D1 × ( )
D2
D1 − D2 π ∅
B = exp [ × N∅ × tan∅ × tan ( + )]
D2 8 4
(1⁄2)
E = N∅ tan∅
⁄2)
(2 × tan∅) + (2 N∅(1⁄2) ) + N∅−(1
F=
E + N∅ − 1
Fig. 8.10 Plastically Deforming Soil between Two Adjacent Micropiles (Source - FHWA-NHI-05-039)
8.4 Load test on Micro piles
8.4.1 Ultimate test
Ultimate tests (if used) are performed on non-production, “sacrificial” micro piles and provide the following
information:
12
• Determination of the ultimate grout to ground bond capacity (if carried to failure)
• Verification of the design grout to the ground factor of safety
• Determination of the load at which excessive creep occurs
8.4.2 Verification test
The verification test is conducted to confirm/verify the selected design bond strength for the micropile
(Grout-Ground Bond). The verification test confirms that the installation equipment, methods, and
procedures are capable of producing the required grout to ground bond nominal strength. The verification
test pile is usually a sacrificial pile tested before the installation of production piles.
8.4.3 Proof test
The proof test is intended to confirm the adequacy and consistency of pile installation procedures for
production piles and to confirm that the production piles will carry the required design service loads without
excessive, long term deflection. Proof tests are typically performed on permanent production piles.
8.4.4 Creep test
If micro piles are to be bonded in creep susceptible cohesive soil, creep tests are typically performed as
part of the ultimate, verification, or proof test. The creep test consists of measuring the movement of the
Micropile at constant load over a specified period. Creep testing is conducted at a specified, constant test
load, with movement recorded at specified time intervals. A maximum creep rate of 2 mm per log cycle of
time is a common acceptance criterion. This test is to assess whether pile design loads can safely carry
during the entire project service life.
8.4.5 Frequency of tests
The flowing are suggested guidelines to establish micropile load-testing requirements for a structural
foundation project. These guidelines are based on flowing assumptions.
• Micro piles are required for foundation support of critical structures
• Project execution requires pre-qualified micropile experienced contractors
• Micropile proof load testing is in critical loading direction only.
• For slope stabilisation- 2% of total Micropile production to a test load of 2 times Pult
Table 8.2 Frequency of tests of micropiles (Source - FHWA-NHI-05-039)
Number of micro piles
Number of verification test Number of proof test
proposed for the project
1-249 1 5%
250-499 2 5%
Greater than 500 3 5%
8.4.6 Test load magnitude
Recommended value of test loads for verification test and proof test for nonseismic load groups are as
below: ( Refer- FHWA-SA-97-070, Micropile Design, and Construction Guidelines)
Verification test 2.50 DL
13
Proof test 1.67 DL

Where, DL=Design load (un-factored design load)
8.4.7 Method of testing
If the micro piles are designed for tension and compression loads, then both loading conditions should be
tested. If the same micropile is to be tested in both tension and compression it is suggested that the tension
test be conducted first. This will allow the pile to be re-seated during compression testing in the event some
net upward residual movement occurs during the tension test.
The method of applying the load can vary, either in one cycle, incrementally advancing to the required
capacity, or in multiple cycles where the load increments are applied and removed gradually until the
maximum load is attained. The use of multiple cycles may be preferable if an attempt is made to reach the
ultimate capacity of the pile.
It is usually not necessary to conduct the load test on an inclined pile.
8.4.8 Acceptance criteria
a) The verification test pile shall support a load in tension and/or compression equal to 250 % of the
specified service design loading (i. e. 2.5xDL) without failure.
b) The proof test pile shall support a load in tension and/or compression equal to 167 % of the
specified service design loading (i. e. 1.67xDL) without failure.
c) Pile failure is defined as continued pile top displacement without supporting an increase in support
load.
d) The test pile shall support the service design load values with a total pile cap displacement of not
greater than the design displacement of the structure. For combined tension and compression
testing, the total displacement shall be measured relative to the pile top position at the start of initial
testing
For a detailed load test on micro piles, reference shall be made to FHWA-NHI-05-039.
8.5 Durability
The structure designed should be able to serve its service life of the project. Hence it shall be ensured that
the micropile metallic elements would be able to sustain the long-term durability of the micropile. The
chances of corrosion potential depend on many variables which includes
1. pH
2. Chlorides and Sulphides
3. The resistivity of the ground
4. Saturation conditions.
8.5.1 Criteria
Refer to the table mentioned below for assessing the Ground Potential.
Table 8.3 Criterion for assessing ground corrosion potential
Strong Corrosion AASHTO Test
Test Units
Protection/Aggressive Method
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pH _ <5, >10 T289

Resistivity ohm-cm <3000 T288
Sulphates ppm (1) >200 T290
Chlorides ppm >100 T291
*Note: (1) ppm=parts per million
If the limits exceed then there is a chance of strong corrosion potential. Tests are mandatory for the
evaluation of corrosion protection. If tests are not performed then the ground should be assumed to be
aggressive.
8.5.2 Methods of Corrosion Protection
8.5.2 a) Grout Protection
Adequate grout cover shall be ensured around the reinforcement that the exposure of reinforcement to the
ground is reduced. Centralizers can be applied along the length of the bar and additional grout thickness
shall be assumed in the design than required for the bond strength.
8.5.2 b) Epoxy Coating
The minimum required thickness of epoxy coatings is typically 12 mils (0.3 mm). Thicker coatings may
reduce steel to grout bond. The epoxy coating provides physical and chemical protection, as epoxy is a
dielectric material. In transporting and handling bars, the epoxy coating may get damaged hence before bar
installation the gaps/holidays need to be touched up with an epoxy coat.
8.5.2 c) Galvanized Coating
The process of galvanization is performed by applying zinc coating along the steel surface. i.e., hot dipping
bars and other metallic pieces with Zinc. Galvanization shall meet relevant ONORM or ASTM, A153
standards.
8.5.2 d) Encapsulation
This method is best suited for the corrosion protection and requires much-experienced designer as the
encapsulation of bar is done in the HDPE pipe and it shall be ensured that sufficient friction generated
between the sheath and the Grout for proper load transfer mechanism.
This chapter covers the provisions of Micropile as one of the measures to avoid the failure of a natural
slope.
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CHAPTER-9
PREPARATION OF DETAILED PROJECT REPORT (DPR) FOR ENGINEERING OF NATURAL SLOPES
9.0 Introduction
Often it has been observed that while preparing DPR for slope stability projects in hilly areas, detailed
information is not provided on unstable slopes and measures to mitigate such problems including
additional drainage measures required would be inadequate. As a result, the provision of mitigation/
remedial measures required to minimise slope failures, as per actual site conditions are generally not
appropriately considered in the project estimate. Design and cost of mitigation measures depend on
many factors, such as an available right of way (ROW), drainage, steepness of the cut slope and rock
condition (soft/ hard/ weathering), etc. As a result, when project implementation is taken up, mitigation
measure cost may alter the total project cost from about 40 per cent to more than 100 per cent. Apart
from this, such a situation may lead to an immense change of scope, alterations in project completion
time, and resources required to deal with recurring or non-recurring landslides/slope failures. It can
also result in contractual problems, leading to arbitration/ court cases. Hence, while preparing DPRs
for slope stability/slope protection measures, proper design, and estimation of slope stability, landslide/
rockfall mitigation measures must be made and all necessary approvals and permissions from various
Government Departments should be obtained before tendering the works.
Further, land acquisition estimates may not completely account for the additional area required for a
safe cut slope. Due consideration will have to be given for the working space as well. Many times
mitigation measures required would have to be located in the adjoining forest areas, wherein men and
machinery movement would be restricted. This should be taken into consideration while deciding on the
access routes for the machinery to reach the work sites. Greening of cut/ fill slopes, muck dumping
areas are to be identified as a part of the project design stage itself to integrate the dump yard with the
surrounding without it turning into an eyesore. Necessary protection measures for such areas are also
to be included in DPRs for slope protection projects.
This chapter provides necessary considerations to be made while preparing DPRs for slope protection
projects. These guidelines are in addition to guiding principles/ procedures for DPR preparation given
in IRC SP:19 and other related documents. An outline/ guidelines for slope stabilisation/ landslide
mitigation work have also been given here. It may, however, be noted that this outline/ guidelines for
landslide mitigation plans are for guidance only and may be modified as per the requirement of specific
site conditions. While doing so, adequate attention should be paid to geological/geotechnical features
of the project site. Similar investigations are required for rockfall sites also. In case, there are any
avalanche prone sites in the project area, IRC SP:48 can be referred to, and advice from expert
agencies can be sought.
As per the recent Govt orders, the consultant/ firm hired for preparing DPR for slope stability/slope
protection measures should have registered at 'INFRACON' (www.infracon.nic.in) website. Otherwise,
before submitting the proposal the consultant/firm shall mandatorily register and enlist themselves (the
firm and all key personnel), on the MoRTH portal “INFRACON” and furnish registration details. Apart
from this, a firm should have completed DPR preparation for any slope stabilisation DPR project of
around 80 per cent of the estimated DPR preparation cost for the present assignment, or two works of
50 per cent of the estimated DPR preparation cost for the present assignment, or 3 works of 40
present of estimated DPR preparation cost for the present assignment. The DPR preparation team of
the firm must include a Geotechnical Engineer and a Geologist. Their educational qualification should
be at least Post-graduate in Geology/ Geotechnical Engineering with a minimum of five years of
experience in dealing with landslide mitigation work. Additionally, Geologist and Geotechnical Engineer
should have registered at 'INFRACON' as an individual consultant. Based on landslide intensity and
frequency of occurrences, hills in our country can be classified into four groups: (i) Himalayan
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Mountains (ii) Hills of North-East India (iii) Western Ghats (iv) the Eastern Ghats. Depending upon the
location of the Project for which DPR preparation has been taken up (i.e., whether the road is in
Himalayan mountains or North-East or the Western Ghats or the Eastern Ghats), additional marks may
be given during technical bid evaluation for firms having DPR preparation experience in the same hills.
9.0.1 Geology and Geotechnical Aspects
While preparing DPR for Slope stability, the services of Geologist and Geotechnical Engineer should be
invariably obtained both during field survey and design stage. An in-depth study of available geological
and meteorological maps, soil and geomorphological maps, and aerial / satellite/ drone imageries,
showing physiographic features of the terrain under investigation should be made for verifying the
suitability of the area for project construction. The information gathered from such studies is to be
supplemented with data collected during the field survey. Data about the following geological features
in the study area should be collected:
(i) Geological Data -Rock and soil types and landform in the study area
(ii) The geomorphological data-The hardness of these rocks
(iii) Dip and strike, Folding or bending, Joints, fractures, faulting in the rocks, etc
iv)- Hydrological
v) Land Slide Inventory
Stability evaluation of terrain should be made for selecting the best possible combination of slope
protection measures. Locations where the movement of landmass (landslides) are expected, and
cracks, fissures, and weak planes in the rocks which may lead to rockfall, seepage points which may
disturb slope stability should be identified and suitable remedial measures should be designed.
9.0.2 Reconnaissance Survey

The primary tasks to be accomplished/ data to be collected during the reconnaissance survey include:
(a) Details of terrain (steep or mountainous), cliffs and gorges, vegetation cover, etc. Special attention
to be paid to locating moisture-loving plants like banana, which indicates an abundance of water or
possible seepage.
(b) The general elevation of the site and surroundings including details of the approach road
(c) Climatic conditions, i.e. temperature, rainfall data, snowfall data, fog conditions, unusual weather
conditions, etc., which prevail in that area during the year
(d) Geologically sensitive areas like major slip prone areas and landslides, the extent of the area
which has affected by slope instability, locations having ground cracks, trees being bent due to
slope movement, dwellings having cracks, areas with loose rocks, rockfall sites, snowdrift areas,
avalanche activity, erosion-prone locations, the extent of slope erosion on hill and valley side, etc
(e) Drainage measures, roadside drain details, surface, and sub-surface drains, catch water drains,
stepped chutes if any, condition of such drains, failure of such drains, blockage of drains, etc
(f) Inventory and condition surveys including of existing protective/control measures for slope
stabilisation, erosion control, landslide control/protection, avalanche protection, etc., details and
types of protective structures and their effectiveness, erosion and landslide control/protection
measures, snowdrift control measures, avalanche protection/control measures, etc. A thorough
inspection of all existing CD structures is necessary to identify CD structures having defects such
as blockage/ misalignment of pipes, etc., which are often unnoticed during inventory survey.
These details should be marked on a map as well as notes should be prepared to give a general
description of the area and its condition. It would be good practice to prepare sketches showing such
features at the site so that they can be referred back to while conducting a detailed survey.
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9.0.3 Design Stage Requirements

Detailed designs for natural slope protection/slope stabilisation DPR include:
i. Slope stabilisation and erosion control measures.
ii. Drainage measures to avoid saturation of slope surface and to direct the run-off and seepage
water safely away from the slope. This would involve the design of a surface and sub-surface
drains; catch-water drains, etc., as may be required. Additionally, drainage measures required
during construction stage/steps to be taken for uninterrupted flow of hill streams (chainage
wise) during the construction stage should also be spelt out, since during execution stage,
workers often unknowingly block the natural flow of small streams which may seriously affect
hill slope stability.
iii. CD structures if required according to site conditions.
iv. Design of protection/control structures for subsidence, slip prone and unstable areas, landslide
locations, rock-fall, and rock slide sites, snowdrifts, icing, scour, avalanche activity, etc.
v. Any special treatments if required/ suitable pavement for the road stretch in the unstable areas
vi. Embankments including protection work if required according to site condition.
While designing the above-mentioned structures, specific aspects relevant to regions like terrain and
topographic conditions, weather conditions, altitude effects, etc. should be duly considered and suitably
incorporated in the design so that designed structures would perform well for the intended service life.
Effects of factors like heavy rainfall, frost action, intensive snow and avalanche activity, thermal
stresses due to temperature difference in day and night, damage by tracked vehicles during snow
clearance operations, etc., must also be considered.
The topography of hills generates numerous watercourses and this coupled with continuous gradients
of project approach roads in hills and high intensity of rainfall calls for effective drainage of the area.
The drainage system should be designed to ensure that the water flowing towards the project
site/instability affected area would be diverted and guided to follow a definite path by the suitable
provision of side drains, interceptors, catch water drains, etc., and flow on valley side is controlled so
that stability is not affected. Further, adequate provision shall be made for sub-surface/ subgrade
drainage to take care of seepage through the adjacent natural slope face of the project area and
underground water flows. Special attention should be paid for drainage of partially cut and partially filled
up a portion of the area (where a cut portion is predominantly rocky and the rest of the area is on the
filled ground), in which water tends to seep along the rocky face and saturates the fill, leading to failure
of retaining structures.
9.1.4- Geotechnical modelling and analysis of Data- The landslide hazard mitigation measures should
be listed. The measures or slope monitoring after correction needs to be listed. Various landslide
management issues shall be mentioned based on the experience of the other projects in the area.
9.1 Structure of DPR for Engineering of Natural Slope Projects-

DPR for the engineering of natural slope projects should comprise of two parts:
• Summary of Detailed Project Report (DPR)
• Detailed Project Report (DPR) with Annexure(s).
The following is the list of the salient features of the project, which shall be provided in DPR.
• Location of the project with longitude, latitude, and altitude with a reference to District Head
Quarters, nearest highway/railway station/locality, and names of the landslides (if any), etc.
• District/ Districts
• State
• Nature of scheme/project
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• Purposes
• The total estimated cost of the project
• Basis of rates (Like CPWD / state PWD SOR, etc.)
• Terms of reference (TOR) / Deliverables / Timeline of the project.
• Name of Department / Expert Agency etc., who has sponsored the preparation of DPR and
associated members/organisation/ advisory agencies, etc.
• Name of State Government/Competent Authority through which DPR is submitted, if applicable
• Implementing Department / Agency of the project.
• Monitoring Department / Agency for the project.
In some slope protection projects, it may be necessary to construct an access road for moving men,
materials, and machinery. The need for constructing a temporary access road should be carefully
considered during DPR preparation and adequate provision of cost for constructing such temporary
access roads should be made in the DPR. DPR should also contain an adequate number of site
photographs taken during reconnaissance/ detailed surveying cum fieldwork. It may also be necessary
to provide utility corridor when road reconstruction/ repair is being taken up as part of the slope
protection works. This aspect should be adequately considered during DPR preparation. Based on
previous experience in that area, adequate provision should be made for clearing debris/ falls/ slides/
excess cutting which occurs during the construction of slope protection works.
Concerning each slope failure/landslide location, DPR should contain details of mitigation measures for
a landslide to avoid re-occurrences and prevention of potential landslides. DPR should highlight
problematic areas, possible causes, remedial measures, monitoring, and whether the deployment of
the Early Warning System (EWS) is required. Piezoelectric sensors may be one such technology for
EWS, which can be deployed at different vulnerable locations during the construction phase, and it can
be monitored regularly, especially during rains when the stretch is more prone to landslides. DPR
should also bring out details of any innovative method/cost-effective technique or material to be used
as part of remedial measures along with details of its successful implementation in other similar
projects. For details, IRC SP:106, 'Engineering Guidelines on Landslide Mitigation Measures for Indian
Roads' can be referred. The next important component to be included would be the cost of the project,
component-wise, including the cost of a road diversion, construction of new approach roads,
rehabilitation of habitats, etc. if any.
9.2 Guidelines for Landslide Investigation and Mitigation Design
In the case of the natural slope protection projects, the Detailed Project Report should contain the
following landslide specific information and details about mitigation works to be taken up. Similar details
are to be prepared for rock-fall sites also.
9.2.1 Introduction to the area
• Background and Location: Background must include details of studies/ investigations made by
different agencies on landslides which are located in the project area, and any scheme/programme
already undertaken for their mitigation and whether the same has been completed.
• Details about the problematic landslides in the proposed project site, vulnerability to elements at
risk, such as human habitation, trade routes, communications, roads, tourist/pilgrimage routes and
state other specific factors like border areas, etc., with photographs (past and present) indicating
loss of life and infrastructure.
• Slope morphology/geometry (i.e., slope dimension, slope aspect, slope angle, etc.), terrain
analysis with the help of remotely sensed data showing Digital Elevation Model (DEM) or Digital
Terrain Model (DTM) (at least 1:10000 scale) with land use and land cover (temporal) information.
• Drainage / Hydrology i.e., surface and sub-surface hydrology, water seepage, water discharge, etc.
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• Climatic conditions i.e., total annual rainfall, and its monthly pattern, daily maximum rainfall,
humidity, temperature variation, etc. Source of climate data, whether from IMD or any other source
should be invariably mentioned.
• Demography including population and transport affected by the landslide.
• Hazard and risk maps of the area with source, if available.
• A mechanism for long term monitoring of the mitigation measures indicating period, depending
upon the nature of the slope, should be given.
9.2.2 Detailed investigations for landslide-prone locations
• Type of landslide and triggering factors of landslide occurrence (i.e., whether earthquake, heavy
rain, land subsidence, unstable slope, etc.) with its initiation, history, evolution, recurrence, etc.
• Size and composition of slope mass involved in the movement with thickness of overburden and
characteristics of discontinuities.
• Regional geological setting including seismo-tectonic setting (i.e., rock types, faults/ thrust/
lineaments, etc.) and seismic records (Source of data, whether from IMD or any other source
should be invariably mentioned).
• Geological investigation details of the landslide sites (i.e., rock type, soil type, soil depth,
hydrology, discontinuities, etc.).
• Landslide morphology (i.e., its dimension/morphology at scarp, crown, head, toe, foot, tip, flank,
etc.) with photographs and field sketches and photos.
• Site-specific detailed mapping of Slope failure/landslide-prone locations
i) Contour Map/base map: Contour map of the slide area preferably in 1:500 to 1:1000 scales
with one to two-metre contour intervals. Detailed mapping of the landslides should be carried out
on 1:500 to 1:1000 scale with one to two-metre contour interval through geodetic surveying
through field traverse using Total Station / DGPS / Drone surveying / Lidar.
ii) Geological Map: Geological map showing exposed rocks, soil, debris along with important
features such as cracks, bulging, etc. Geological features such as shear zones, joints, and other
discontinuities of considerable persistence can be suitably indicated in the map. In the case of
rock-fall and debris flows, its influence areas or areas likely to be affected should be included.
Cross-sections showing the disposition of lithology and discontinuities may be prepared for the
mapped landslide.
• Land use/land cover map.
• Drainage map
• Geophysical investigations (if required)
i) Resistivity and Engineering Seismograph survey to unfold a subsurface structure up to
bedrock depth.
• Geotechnical investigations
i) Soil / Debris slope - Soil sampling (Collecting disturbed and undisturbed soil sample from a
sufficient number of locations to draw meaningful conclusions about soil properties). The tests
on collected soil samples are to be conducted in the laboratory as per relevant IS codes.
a. Location of a sample(GPS coordinates) and date of collection
b. Depth of sample from a surface
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c. Drilling borehole to determine sub-surface strata up to the overburden soil depth

d. in-situ density and in-situ moisture content of the soil at a sufficient number of locations
e. Grain size analysis, Atterberg’s limits (liquid and plastic limit), specific gravity
f. Shear Strength Parameter (Drained /Undrained) at field density: Cohesion (c) and
friction angle (Ø).
g. Permeability test/field permeability test
ii) Rock slope- Laboratory tests on rock samples to be conducted as per relevant IS codes
a. Rock sampling.
b. Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
c. Discontinuity parameters, such as joint spacing, joint conditions, seepage conditions
d. Rock Mass classification (RMR, etc.)
e. Slope Mass Rating (SMR)
f. Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) etc.
g. Shear properties of vulnerable discontinuity/ joint plane
9.2.3 Slope Stability Analysis
Using the geotechnical properties of slope forming material (determined from field and laboratory
studies) and the geometrics (morphology) of the slope determined from survey maps, slope stability
analysis should be carried out. Details of procedure to be adopted for slope stability analysis for soil
slopes and rock slopes have been explained in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4. Slope stability analysis
should consider the dry/ saturation status of the slope (depending upon rainfall, groundwater, and
seepage) as well as earthquake forces as per IS code for that area. Appropriate slope stabilisation
measures (structural, bioengineering, and drainage) should be designed and included in the DPR. This
exercise should be carried out for all vulnerable natural slopes in the proposed slope protection project.
Instrumented monitoring by using inclinometers, piezometers, wire extensometers, crack meter, etc.,
provide a better understanding of the slope movement. Depending upon the site condition and
requirements, instrumented monitoring can be suggested in the DPR. IRC SP:106, IRC HRB:15, and
IRC SP:48 may be referred for this purpose.
9.2.4 Proposed Mitigation Measures
• Site Preparation and selection of suitable sites for debris disposal (Muck dumping)with details of its
costing
• Proper alignment of the road, if needed
• Remedial and Control Measures
i) Scheme of design details for preventive measures supported by scaled drawings, maps, and
cross-sections
ii) Drainage Measures
a. Designed surface and sub-surface drainage measures along with drawings and maps
b. Dimensions and other details including maps, drawings, etc for check dam, spill dam,
culverts, drainage canals, diversion details, etc.
iii) Retaining structure details
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a. Type of retaining walls such as gabions wall, concrete cladding, reinforced soil wall, cement
concrete or masonry retaining structure, crib wall, etc., and other retaining structures with
relevant and effective design, drawings/ plans, cross-section, calculation, and
codes/standards which have been referred to.
iv) Slope reinforcement
b. Soil nailing with flexible/rigid facia, rock anchoring, rock bolting, cable anchoring, micro-
piling, including relevant corrosion protection measures, etc.
c. Use of Geo-synthetic materials like Geotextiles, Geogrids, Geocomposites, Geomats, etc.
v) Bio-engineering measures
a. Bio-engineering measures supported with engineering measures for vegetation growth on
the barren slopes according to local conditions.
vi) Details of River training works
a. Use of gabion wall, revet mattress, stone pitching or any other suitable measures
The DPR should bring out the scheme (or combination) of mitigation measures required and method
statement for their implementation, clearly explaining the sequence in which the proposed mitigation
measures are to be constructed and the proper method for their construction, quality control tests
required, etc., including references to specifications and codes/ guidelines to be followed for the
materials and construction methodology.
 Monitoring mechanism as per requirement
 DPR should also specify that the Contractor / sub-contractor who undertake slope protection
measures must have experience of carrying out similar slope stabilisation works. Details of
experience and personnel required for such works should also be indicated in the DPR.
9.2.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental impact assessment of the mitigation plan should be prepared as a part of DPR if such a
requirement is mandated by the implementing agencies. Additionally, the Environmental Management
Plan should be prepared for slope protection DPRs, to guide the implementing agencies to ensure the
implementation of mitigation measures in an environmentally acceptable manner. Environmental
concerns during the project implementation shall be identified in the DPR. Alignment shall be marked
on the map. Relocation of utilities, tree cutting, clearance of land, diversion of forest land if any, location
of the labour camp, storage yards, procurement of machinery and equipment its storage, identification
of sources of material, designated place for disposal of waste all need to be identified and considered
while preparation of EIA. Issues like tree plantation, topsoil conservation, drainage, pollution prevention
measures, safety shall be mentioned and considered in the EIA, cost estimation.
9.2.6 Timelines of various activities

For each activity, and for the complete project as a whole, a schedule in the form of a bar chart shall be
provided to estimate the scheduled completion of the project realistically.
9.2.7 Cost Estimation
• Component wise cost estimation with detailed calculation as per Schedule of Rates (SOR) and
details of codes as applicable. The price level of cost estimate with project completion dates.
• Detailed bill of quantities, technical specifications for materials and workmanship
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• Resettlement and Rehabilitation studies and social surveys, if required, are to be carried out and
its details should be given in DPR.
• Land acquisition requirements are to be provided in DPR, as per site conditions, and for
implementation of designed remedial measures.
• Environmental and Forest clearances to be obtained, if required.
• Financial feasibility report of the scheme.
9.3 List of Annexure (To be enclosed with DPR)
Annexure 1:
Estimation and calculation of rate based on SOR.
Annexure 2:
Engineering design drawings for landslide mitigation and drainage improvement, location maps,
regional geomorphological and geological plan (if available), topographic and geological map of the
entire project site (1:1000 or 1:500 scale as specified) showing one to two-metre interval contours,
geological sections, Hazard/risk maps (if available), land use, land cover, vegetation maps, drainage
map, etc available in the public domain, etc. Designs, drawings, maps, etc. to be given as per large
scale i.e., 1:500 to 1:1000 depending on the dimension of the landslide.
Annexure 3:
Plans showing the detailed scheme of preventive or mitigation measures envisaged/planned. Detailed
design of preventive, mitigation measures of the landslide site to be put and also the constructional
plans and drawings including diversion or detouring, etc., if any.
Annexure 4:
Enclosure related to a financial feasibility report
Annexure 5:
Any other annexure to be added about Summary of DPR or various Chapters of Detailed Project
Report.
9.3.1 Details to be provided in DPR for mitigation measures proposed
a) A report containing details of location, metrological data, details of fieldwork and laboratory
investigations conducted, etc
b) Materials test report giving details of test results
c) Design Report for mitigation measures
d) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report, including the Environmental Management
Plan (EMP)
e) Resettlement Action Plan (if required)
f) Technical Specifications for the mitigation measures
g) Rate Analysis (based on Data Book of MoRTH/ SOR of the concerned state)
h) Cost Estimates
i) Bill of Quantities
j) Design Drawings
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k) Additional details, if any, which are to be included in bid documents
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Annexure-A1
A1.1 (refer clause no. 5.4.4 Public drainage system in hillside areas and hillslope stability)
The following figures (Fig. A1.1) show some typical examples causing the saturation of the slope mass due
to infiltration of rainwater collected from the properties and habitation on hill slopes. Due to the flat area,
stormwater does not run off the site but ponds on the platform and starts to infiltrate into the soil causing
seepage. The infiltration creates the wetting front such that the unsaturated zone (vadose zone) becomes
saturated resulting in superficial failure and finally the overall slope fails.
Fig. A1.1 Typical examples of improper drainage causing saturation of slope mass due to
infiltration of rainwater collected from the properties and habitation on hill slopes
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It is recommended that hill slopes where there is a lot of habitation, the public drainage system (surface
and sub-surface drainage) should be designed to drain the rainwater collected from roof and properties and
attenuated through on-site detention be properly discharged as shown in the Fig. A1.2. To design such a
system, a systematic hydrological study of the area shall be carried out. For the hydrological study of rain
and snowfall, measurement of rainfall, computation of runoff, determination of water velocity and discharge,
etc. and various types of surface water control, reference may be made of IRC: SP:48. Hill Road Manual.
Fig. A1.2 Recommended property drainage system as a solution to a problem which is given in Fig.
A1.1.
A1.2 (refer clause no. 5.6.2 a1) Rigid gravity retaining structures)
Fig. A1.3 Example of a rigid retaining wall-The photograph of PCC wall with temperature
reinforcement
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A1.3 (refer clause no. 5.6.2 b3) Composite soil reinforcement system)
An illustrative sketch of a composite soil reinforcement system with a combination of different types of facia
and different types of reinforcement for valley side retention is given in Fig. A1.4.
Fig. A1.4 Typical sketch of composite soil reinforcement system

A1.4 (refer clause no. 5.7.1 longitudinal structures to protect river/stream bank slopes)
The following Fig. A1.5 shows bank protection using gabion boxes/mattresses (specifications as per
MoRTH 2500 and IS 16014) to prevent severe erosion of river bank slope. The 500mm thick (typical)
gabion mattress acting as bank erosion protection and the same is continued as apron against scour. Fig.
A1.6 shows bank protection using fabric form mattress along a bridge abutment respectively. For 100mm
thick (typical) fabric form mattress, the reference shall be FHWA NHI 09-112 (HEC 23).
Fig. A1.5 Gabion boxes/mattresses for toe protection and bank protection on river stream, Fig. A1.6
fabric form mattress for bank protection on river stream
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A1.5 (refer clause no. 5.14.1 Rehabilitation of failed slope/New construction of steep slope due
to road widening)
The example of landslide rehabilitation, wherein a combination of various rehabilitative measures as
detailed in Chapter-5 were adopted to completely stabilize the slope. Fig. A1.7 A) shows a typical site of a
landslide at CH 423+480, Maithana, Uttarakhand, under a project of Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, wherein various rehabilitative measures were adopted to stabilize the slope. The various
measures as adopted on uphill/downhill side slopes are shown in Fig. A1.7 B) planned drawings and cross-
sectional drawings. The rehabilitative measures as adopted on the uphill side, downhill, side and for river
training works are given below. The rehabilitative measures are being provided after detailed site
investigations and slope stability analysis for both up and downhill slopes.
Hillside Measures:
• Channelization of water and diverting it to culvert by providing chute drain, cascade and roadside
drain.
• Cutting of hill slope to achieve the required road width.
• Secured drapery system for the protection of cut slope by providing surface nails and steel
meshes.
• Flexible toe wall for hill toe protection.
• Bioengineering measures for erosion control of exposed and vulnerable areas.
Valley Side Measures:
• Guiding water to the river from the culvert by providing cascade & chute drain.
• Intermediate flexible structures as flow interceptors.
• Bioengineering measures for erosion control of exposed and vulnerable areas.
River Training works
• Flexible toe wall
• Launching apron for scours protection.
Below figure depicts the typical landslide at site showing sliding on both uphill and downhill slopes.
Up hillside affected by
Road landslide
Valley side affected

by landslide
Fig. A1.7 A) Typical landslide on a hill slope at CH 423+480, Maithana, Uttarakhand

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Fig. A1.7B -1 General Arrangement Drawing Plan (Example)
Fig. A1.7B - 2 Drainage Plan (Example)
Fig. A1.7B - 3 Cross Section 1 (Example)
The site condition before and after the implementation of various landslide rehabilitative measures are
shown in, Fig. A1.9 and Fig. A1.10.
Valley side affected

by landslide
AFTER
Reinforced soil system Flexible Retaining wall for

with flexible facia for hill toe protection
valley side retention
RCC box Culvert
Chute Drain
Bioengineering measures
for Erosion control
Fig. A1.8 Downhill slope before and after rehabilitation at CH 423+480, Maithana, Uttarakhand
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BEFORE
AFTER
Secured Drapery
Flexible retaining wall

for hill toe protection
Fig. A1.9 Uphill slope before and after rehabilitation at CH 423+470, Maithana, Uttarakhand
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BEFORE
Heavy Scouring of
Toe and Erosion
River Training Works-

Flexible toe wall
Launching Apron for

Scour Protection
AFTER
Fig. A1.10 River training works before and after construction at CH 423+420, Maithana, Uttarakhand
It may be noted that these examples depicted in, Fig. A1.10 are for illustration, it is advised that a proper slope stability analysis
should be carried out to ascertain slope stability on a particular site taking into consideration the actual soil/rock and slope
parameters and the existing drainage conditions etc., and accordingly, a proper design shall be proposed.
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Annexure-A2
General Considerations for Design of Shored Reinforced Soil Structure / Shored MSE Wall
(refer clause no. 7.7.2, Types of Shored MSE walls or Shored RS Systems)
A2.1 Reinforcement length
Specification of a uniform reinforcement length is not recommended for SMSE walls with battered shoring
walls. Instead, the MSE reinforcements must extend to the shoring wall interface. A tolerance of 50 mm is
recommended for this interface. Note that reinforcements may be bent upwards along the shoring wall
interface, within the 50 mm tolerance. Where adequate construction space is available (or can be made
temporarily available), it is recommended that the upper two layers of reinforcement are extended to a
minimum length of 0.6H or a minimum of 1.5 m beyond the shoring wall interface, whichever is greater, as
illustrated in Fig. A2.1.This feature limits the potential for tension cracks to develop at the shoring/MSE
interface and resists lateral loading effects. If the extension of the upper reinforcements is not feasible, a
positive connection between the upper two or more reinforcements and the shoring wall is recommended,
as illustrated in Fig. A2.2.
Fig. A2.1 Proposed SMSE wall dimensioning when adequate space is available
Fig. A2.2 Alternative proposed geometry of the MSE wall component of an SMSE wall system
where space will not be available at the top >0.3 H
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A2.2 Interface Connections between MSE wall reinforcements and Shoring wall of SMSE System
Options for interface connections between MSE reinforcements and the shoring wall include two general
types—Mechanical and Frictional.
Frictional connection options– (1) wrapped-back MSE reinforcements, (2) stepped wall interface, and (3)
MSE reinforcements bent upward at shoring interface. Fig. A2.3 conceptually illustrates these frictional
connection options.
Mechanical connection options– (1) connect MSE reinforcement layers to the shoring wall using bodkin
joints or other means, and (2) install short MSE reinforcements near reinforcement levels in the shoring
wall, and extend or overlap the reinforcement “tails” into the MSE wall component during MSE construction.
Fig. A2.4 conceptually illustrates these mechanical connection options.
Frictional connections are likely simpler to construct than mechanical connections. By wrapping the back of
the MSE reinforcements as shown in Fig. A2.3, increased pullout resistance of the MSE reinforcements
would result. Centrifuge modelling of wrapped-back MSE reinforcements indicates improved stability of the
MSE mass compared to an unconnected SMSE wall system. Based on the geometry of a stepped wall
interface, an increase in the shearing resistance along the interface is achieved. Mechanical connections
require detailed design and construction oversight to ensure that the connections are constructed
appropriately.
Fig. A2.3 Frictional connection options for SMSE wall system
Fig. A2.4 Mechanical connection options for a SMSE wall system

The above recommendation is based on FHWA guideline (FHWA-CFL/TD-06-001) and using the results of
the modelling and field testing research, this design guideline recommends a minimum reinforcement
length equivalent to as little as 30 per cent of the wall/slope height (0.3H) for the MSE structure component
and provided that the MSE reinforcement length is greater than 1.5 m (whichever is greater).
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A2.3 The geometry of MSE/Shoring Interface
The face of the shoring wall defines the geometry of the MSE/shoring interface. The shoring system, and
hence the MSE/shoring interface, may be constructed at a batter, vertically, or stepped. Where shoring is
necessary, the interface surface between the two wall systems will generally be steep or vertical. The wall
designer should consider designing the shoring wall with a nominal batter (up to 10 degrees from vertical)
to reduce the risk of tension crack development. Another option, where an adequate working room is
available, is a construction of a stepped interface to strengthen the system against shear failure along with
the interface, illustrated in Fig. A2.5. Qualitatively, offsetting the steps of the stepped shoring wall a small
amount (i.e., by as little as 0.5 m) may increase the resistance of the SMSE wall system to instability along
with the interface. A slope (2H:1V or flatter) may be incorporated between shoring wall steps to nominally
reduce the shoring wall area. Whether or not a batter or stepped geometry is employed, an extension of the
upper MSE reinforcements to a minimum length of 0.6H is recommended to mitigate tension crack
development.
Fig. A2.5 Stepped shoring wall interface

A2.4 Drainage Considerations of SMSE wall
Because the SMSE wall system is designed based on the long-term performance of both the shoring wall
and the MSE wall components, wall drainage provisions for both components are crucial. Drainage for the
shoring component should be connected to the drainage system of the MSE component or extended
through the face of the MSE wall. Because the reinforced fill zone of SMSE walls is specified as a free-
draining granular material, drainage at the back of the MSE portion of the wall may not be required. Where
modular block units or other relatively impermeable facing type is used, drainage directly behind the wall
facing should also be incorporated. Fig. A2.6 illustrates a concept for SMSE wall internal drainage
(assuming a soil nail shoring wall) with an outlet for shoring wall drainage through the MSE component. For
SMSE wall construction in areas with high groundwater levels, the engineer may consider semi-perforated
drainage pipe and a drainage blanket both behind and beneath the reinforced fill zone as shown in Fig.
A2.6 below.
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Fig. A2.6 Drainage considerations for SMSE wall system
Surface water infiltration into an SMSE wall system should be limited. This is particularly important for
deicing chemicals on roadways which may cause degradation of steel reinforcements or connections. For
MSE components with metallic reinforcements supporting roadways that are chemically deiced, an
impervious geomembrane should be placed below the pavement and above the first row of reinforcements
to intercept flows containing the aggressive chemicals.
A2.5 Design of MSE wall component of an SMSE wall system
Design of the MSE wall component of an SMSE wall system should consider:
• Internal stability of the reinforced soil mass concerning rupture and pullout of reinforcing elements.
• External stability along with the MSE wall/shoring wall interface.
• Bearing capacity and settlement of the MSE wall foundation materials.
• Global stability of the composite SMSE wall system.
In contrast to the design of a traditional MSE wall, the resistance to sliding and overturning is not evaluated
as these are not critical for SMSE wall systems. Also, a different method is recommended for the design of
the MSE reinforcements to resist pullout for SMSE wall systems.
When an SMSE wall system is selected as the preferred alternative, the design process is iterative
between defining the geometric constraints of the structure and analysis of stability. Several geometric
factors for the design of the SMSE wall system should be considered, including reinforcement lengths, toe
embedment, and interface geometry. These factors are interrelated and have a combined effect on the
stability of the structure. The optimum combination will provide the most economical construction while
meeting the necessary stability criteria.
A2.6 Potential failure modes
Stability analysis of an SMSE wall system must consider failure modes associated with conventional MSE
walls and shoring walls, plus internal failure modes specific to the compound nature of the SMSE wall
system. Fig. A2.7 illustrates the various failure modes of the composite SMSE wall system.
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Fig. A2.7 SMSE wall system failure modes
A2.7 Factors of Safety
The recommended minimum factors of safety (FS) for the design of the SMSE wall system were modified
where appropriate from AASHTO, and are provided below:
• Global stability, FSg: 1.3 to 1.5.
• Compound stability, FSc: 1.3.
• Bearing capacity, FSbc: 2.5.
• Seismic stability, FSsei: 75 per cent of static FSg.
• Internal shear capacity, FSsc: 1.5.
• Interface shear stability (evaluated along with the MSE/shoring wall interface), FSis: 1.5.
• Rupture of reinforcements, FSr: 1.5.
• The pullout of reinforcements, FSp: 1.5 to 2.0 (range of FS to allow the engineer to account for potential
reduction in vertical stress in the resistant zone due to arching at the shoring wall/foundation interface).
• Connection strength, FScs: 1.5.
Factors of safety concerning sliding, overturning, and eccentricity are not provided, as these failure modes
are not considered valid for SMSE walls.
A2.8 Internal stability design
Internal stability design of the MSE component of an SMSE wall system should address the following
potential internal failure mechanisms:
• Soil reinforcement rupture (elongation or breakage of the reinforcements).
• Soil reinforcement pullout.
The step-by-step process for the internal design of the MSE component is summarized as follows:
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• Select the reinforcement type (inextensible or extensible reinforcements) and trial geometry for the
MSE wall.
• Estimate the location of the critical failure surface.
• Calculate the maximum tensile force at each reinforcement level for evaluation of reinforcement
rupture.
• Calculate the required total tensile capacity of reinforcements in the resistant zone.
• Calculate the pullout capacity at each reinforcement level within the resistant zone concerning pullout.
Refer, clause no. 5.4 for external stability, 5.5 for global stability design, 5.6 for seismic stability, 5.7 for
connection strength design and 5.8 MSE wall behaviour from FHWA -CFL/TD-06-001. IRC SP 102 shall be
referred for reinforced soil walls designs if the nailing is surficial only.
A2.9 Design of Shoring wall component of an SMSE wall system
The shoring component of the SMSE wall system must be compatible with the MSE wall component. This
is primarily a geometric concern, but global stability considerations may also govern the design, and may
even require adjustment of either the shoring component or the MSE component to provide for an effective
wall system design. This chapter provides an overview of design considerations regarding shoring walls for
SMSE wall systems, with an emphasis on soil nailing. Where soil nailing is selected as the shoring wall
component, design methodology should generally follow that outlined in chapter-6 of this document.
Table A2.1 Summary of SMSE wall system design recommendations
A2.10 Procurement and Constructability issues

One shall refer to FHWA Publication No. FHWA-CFL/TD-06-001, Chapter-8 for Procurement and
constructability issues an SMSE wall system.
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Table A2.2 Recommended SMSE wall construction tolerances (Hard facing system)
Annexure-A3
Typical Examples in India
(refer clause no. 7.7.2, Types of Shored MSE walls or Shored RS Systems)
Example -1 Shored MSE wall in Tindharia (2017 to 2019)

A completed composite structure on a highway project in India at Tindharia, West Bengal. The project
construction completed in the year 2019 and it has passed two monsoon seasons. The aspect ratio
(reinforcement length divided by wall height) at the base in this project was much less than 0.3H. The
available base width at this structure was 2.5m. The design concept of reinforced soil composite system
was used in the particular case study is to reinforce and strengthen the unstable cut slopes by the in-situ
installation of hot-dip galvanized soil nail/anchors and connecting the nails/anchors with reinforced soil
structure system to transfer the load from build-up reinforced soil mass to in-situ soil nails. Soil
nails/anchors create a reinforced soil mass that is internally stable and able to retain the groundmass within
the unstable slope against active pressure, slip circle failure, and global stability in the case study. The
height of the completed structures is 35 m from the toe of the stabilized slope. The reinforced soil structure
is constructed using the polymeric strap as soil reinforcement and hot deep galvanized welded steel mesh
along with stone packing behind act as the permanent facing system.
Connection System used in the specific case study: The connection between the reinforced soil slope and
soil nail and/ or ground anchors used shall be mechanical for the full load transfer mechanism. All steel
components of the connection are hot-dip galvanized confirmed to BS 729:1971 requirements or IS
4759:1996, except that the average zinc coat weight shall not less than 500 gm/m2.
Soil Nails: Soil Nail shall be fully threaded solid geotechnical bars which are hot-dip galvanized conforming
to IS 4759 requirements, except that the average zinc coating weight on nail surface is not less than
500gm/m2.
Ground Anchors: Depending on the soil strata, the height of the structure and slope stability design, the
excavated slope surface might need to be strengthened by permanent ground anchors for better
performance.
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Fig. A3.1 Typical cross-section
Fig. A3.2 Site photograph during construction
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Fig. A3.3 Site photograph after completion
Other references
From Literature: FHWA-CFL/TD-06-001 (Shored Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall Systems Design
Guidelines) is mentioning the rehabilitation of a damaged roadway with four different SMSE wall systems.
1. Traditional RS system/MSE wall constructed in front of a partial-height soil nail wall with no
connection between the MSE and shoring components.
2. MSE wall with shortened reinforcements (0.4H minimum) constructed in front of a permanent full-
height soil nail wall with a mechanical connection between the MSE and shoring components.
3. Traditional MSE wall constructed in front of a temporary full-height soil nail wall with no connection
between the MSE and shoring components.
4. MSE wall with shortened lower reinforcements and stabilizing rock bolts where bedrock materials
are encountered.
Example-II Slope Stabilization Works for Yadagirigutta temple
Yadagirigutta is a census town in Nalgonda district in the Indian state of Telangana. Sri Lakshmi Narasimha
temple is also known as Yadadri and Yadagirigutta temple is a Hindu temple situated on a hillock in
Yadagirigutta. Under the phase of temple renovation, there was a requirement of increasing the temple
area around the hillock of a temple with suitable retention measures which will provide a good architectural
view to the entire temple area. The maximum height of retention came around 23 m. To meet the
requirement of increasing the temple area and its premises i. e. presidential suit building around the hillock,
it was decided to go with a reinforced soil system with vegetated facia. Due to project constraints and to
limit the amount of excavation, reinforced soil systems were constructed in front of partial height shoring
walls (often called as shored mechanically stabilized earth walls) at few locations.
Reinforced Soil System: As the foundation strata are completely rocky, to avoid further excavation, RCC
pedestal with 25mm dia. dowel bar was proposed on the valley side to maintain a flat base. The dowel bars
were passing through the bottom-most reinforced soil system unit. The reinforced soil system is
constructed using vegetated facia made with mechanically woven double twisted hexagonal steel wire
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mesh base reinforcement, with a biodegradable erosion control blanket and a welded mesh panel for facing
as per IS 16014. High strength geogrids were provided as a primary reinforcement to increase the stability
of a slope. Further, at the interface of in-situ strata and structural soil, a drainage composite has been
provided to dissipate the pore water pressure developed and to assist the flow of seeping water.
Nailing/Anchoring system: Fee 500 rebars of 4m length were employed to stabilize the backslope (or back-
cut) or construction of the reinforced soil system.
Connection system: Mechanical connection was provided to connect the nailing system with reinforced soil
system and 100% load transfer mechanism was considered. The primary reinforcement of reinforced soil
system was wrapped around steel cables, which is passing through the eye nuts of the anchors/nails
installed.
Fig. A3.4 Typical cross-section of shored MSE wall
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Fig. A3.5 Interface connection of primary reinforcement of reinforced soil system with the eye nuts
of anchors/nails
Fig. A3.6 Construction is under progress
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REFERNCES
BIS standards
1. IS 280 “Mild Steel Wire for General Engineering Purposes”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
2. IS 1786 “High Strength Deformed Steel Bars and Wires for Concrete Reinforcement-Specification”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
3. IS 1835 “Specification for Round Steel Wire for Ropes”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
4. IS 1892 “Code of Practice for Subsurface Investigation for Foundations”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
5. IS 1893 “Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
6. IS 2062 “Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile. Structural Steel”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
7. IS 2131 “Method for Standard Penetration Test for Soils”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
8. IS 2132 “Code of practice for thin-walled tube sampling of soils”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
9. IS 2266 “Steel Wire Ropes for General Engineering Purposes-Specification”, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
10. IS 2314 “Steel Sheet Piling Sections”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
11. IS 2720 Part 1 “Methods of Test for Soils-Preparation of Dry Soil Samples for Various Tests”, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
12. IS 2720 Part 2 “Methods of Tests for Soils-Determination of Water Content”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
13. IS 2720 Part 3/Sec 1 “Methods of Test for Soils-Determination of Specific Gravity-Fine Grained Soils”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
14. IS 2720 Part 3/Sec 2 “Methods of Test for Soils-Determination of Specific Gravity-Fine, Medium and
Coarse-Grained Soils”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
15. IS 2720 Part 4 “Methods of Test for Soils-Grain Size Analysis”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
16. IS 2720 Part 5 “Methods of Test for Soils-Determination of Liquid and Plastic Limit”, Bureau of Indian
17. IS 2720 Part 6 “Methods of Test for Soils-Determination of Shrinkage Factors”, Bureau of Indian
18. IS 2720 Part 7 “Methods of Test for Soils-Determination of water content-dry density relation using light
compaction”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
19. IS 2720 Part 8 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of water content-dry density relation using
heavy compaction”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
20. IS 2720 Part 9 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of dry density- moisture content relation by
constant mass of soil method”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
21. IS 2720 Part 10 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of Unconfined Compressive Strength”, Bureau
22. IS 2720 Part 11 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of the shear strength parameters of a
specimen tested in unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression without the measurement of pore
water pressure”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
23. IS 2720 Part 12 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of shear strength parameters of soil from
consolidated undrained triaxial compression test with measurement of pore water pressure”, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
24. IS 2720 Part 13 “Methods of Test for Soils- Direct Shear Test”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
25. IS 2720 Part 14 “Methods of Test for Soils-Determination of density index (relative density) of
cohesionless soils”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
26. IS 2720 Part 15 “Methods of Test for Soils- determination of Consolidation Properties”, Bureau of Indian
27. IS 2720 Part 16 “Methods of Test for Soils- Laboratory determination of CBR”, Bureau of Indian
28. IS 2720 Part 17 “Methods of Test for Soils- Laboratory determination of permeability”, Bureau of Indian
29. IS 2720 Part 18 “Methods of Test for Soils- Laboratory determination of CBR”, Bureau of Indian
30. IS 2720 Part 19 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of centrifuge moisture equivalent”, Bureau of
31. IS 2720 Part 20 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of linear shrinkage”, Bureau of Indian
32. IS 2720 Part 22 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of Organic matter”, Bureau of Indian
33. IS 2720 Part 23 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of calcium carbonate”, Bureau of Indian
34. IS 2720 Part 24 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of Cation Exchange Capacity”, Bureau of
35. IS 2720 Part 26 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of pH value”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
36. IS 2720 Part 28 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of dry density of soils, in-place, by the sand
replacement method”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
37. IS 2720 Part 29 “Methods of Test for Soils- Determination of Dry Density of Soils In-place by the Core-
cutter Method”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
38. IS 2720 Part 30 “Methods of Test for Soils- Laboratory vane shear test”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
39. IS 2720 Part 31 “Methods of Test for Soils- Field Determination of California Bearing Ratio”, Bureau of
40. IS 2720 Part 35 “Methods of Test for Soils- Measurement of negative pore water pressure”, Bureau of
41. IS 2720 Part 36 “Methods of Test for Soils- Laboratory determination of permeability of granular soils.
(Constant head)”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
42. IS 2720 Part 39/Sec 1 “Methods of Test for Soils- Direct shear test for soils containing gravel, Section
1: Laboratory test”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
43. IS 2720 Part 39/Sec 2 “Methods of Test for Soils- Direct shear test for soils containing gravel, Section
1: Insitu Shear test”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
44. IS 4434 “Code of Practice for Insitu Vane Shear Test for Soils”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
45. IS 4453 “Subsurface Exploration by Pits, Trenches, Drifts and Shafts - Code of Practice”, Bureau of
46. IS 4721 “Code of Practice for Drainage and Dewatering of Surface/Underground Hydroelectric Power
Station”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
47. IS 4968 Part 3: “Method for Subsurface Sounding for Soils-Static Cone Penetration Test”, Bureau of
48. IS 4984 “high density polyethylene pipes for potable water supplies”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
49. IS 6935 “Method for determination of water level in a bore hole”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
50. IS 7746 “Insitu Shear Test on Rock-Code of Practice”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
51. IS 8403 “Code of Practice for Determination of Breaking Capacity of Shallow Foundations”, Bureau of
52. IS 8764 “Method for Determination of Point Load Strength Index of Rocks”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
53. IS 9012 “Recommended Practice for Shotcreting”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
54. IS 9143 “Method for Determination of Unconfined Compressive strength of Rock Materials”, Bureau of
55. IS 9271 “Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (upvc) Single Wall Corrugated Pipes for Drainage’, Bureau of
56. IS 10050 “Method for Determination of Slake Durability Index of Rocks”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
57. IS 10270 “Guidelines for Design and Construction of Prestressed Rock Anchors”, Bureau of Indian
58. IS 11309 “Method of conducting pull-out test on anchor bars and rock bolts”, Bureau of Indian
59. IS 11315 “Method for the quantitative description of discontinuities in rock masses”, Bureau of Indian
60. IS 12070 “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Shallow Foundations on Rocks”, Bureau of
61. IS 12634 “Rock Joints-Direct Shear Strength-Laboratory Method of Determination”, Bureau of Indian
62. IS 12955 -1, 2 “Code of practice for in-situ determination of rock mass deformability using a flexible
dilatometer, Part 1: volume change, Part 2- Radial Displacement”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
63. IS 13365 “Quantitative Classification Systems of Rockmass-Guidelines”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
64. IS 14268 “Uncoated Stress Relieved Low Relaxation Seven Wire (PLY) Strand for Prestressed
Concrete-Specification”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
65. IS 14458 Part 1 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Selection of type of Wall” Bureau of Indian
66. IS 14458 Part 2 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Design of Retaining/Breast Walls” Bureau of
67. IS 14458 Part 3 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Construction of Dry-Stone Walls” Bureau of
68. IS 14458 Part 4 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Construction of Banded Dry-Stone Walls” Bureau
69. IS 14458 Part 5 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Construction of Cement Stone Walls” Bureau of
70. IS 14458 Part 6 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Construction of Gabion Walls” Bureau of Indian
71. IS 14458 Part 7 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Construction of RCC Crib Walls” Bureau of Indian
72. IS 14458 Part 8 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Construction of Timber Walls” Bureau of Indian
73. IS 14458 Part 9 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Design of RCC Cantilever wall/Buttresses
Walls/L-Type Walls” Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
74. IS 14458 Part 10 “Retaining wall for Hill Area-Guideline-Design and Construction of Reinforced Earth
Retaining Walls” Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
75. IS 14680 “Landslide Control Guidelines”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
76. IS 15872 “Application of Coir Geotextiles (Coir Woven bhoovastra) for Rainwater Erosion Control in
Roads, Railway Embankments and Hill Slopes – Guidelines”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
77. IS 16014 “Mechanically Woven, Double-Twisted, Hexagonal Wire Mesh Gabions, Revet Mattresses,
Rock Fall Netting and Other Products for Civil Engineering Purposes (Galvanized Steel Wire or
Galvanized Steel Wire with Polymer Coating)”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
78. IS 16098 Part 2 “Structured-Wall Plastics Piping Systems for Non-Pressure Drainage and Sewarage -
Specification, Pipes and Fittings with Non-Smooth External Surface”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
IRC standards
79. IRC 6 “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges-Section -II-Load and Load
Combinations”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
80. IRC 112 “Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi
81. IRC HRB 15 “State of the Art: Landslide correction Techniques”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
82. IRC HRB 23 “State of Art: Design and Construction of Rockfall Mitigation Systems”, IRC Highway
Research Board, New Delhi.
83. IRC 34 “Guidelines on Recommendations for Road Construction in Areas Affected by Water Logging,
Flooding and/or Salts Infection”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
84. IRC 73 “Geometric Design Standards for Rural (Non-Urban) Highways”, Indian Road Congress, New
Delhi.
85. IRC 86 “Geometric Design Standards for Urban Roads in Plains”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
86. IRC SP 19 “Manual for Survey, Investigation and Preparation of Road Projects, Indian Road Congress,
New Delhi.
87. IRC SP 20 “Rural Roads Manual”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
88. IRC SP 42 “Guidelines on Road Drainage”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
89. IRC SP 48 “Hill Road Manual”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
90. IRC SP 50 “Guidelines on Urban Drainage”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi
91. IRC 56 “Guidelines on Recommended Practices for Treatment of Embankment and Roadside Slopes
for Erosion Control”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
92. IRC SP 59 “Guidelines for Use of Geosynthetics in Road Pavements and other Associated Works”,
Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
93. IRC SP 73 “Manual of Standards and Specifications for Two Laning of State Highways on B.O.T. Basis”,
94. IRC 75 “Guidelines for the Design of High Embankments”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
95. IRC 78 “Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges-Section –VII-Foundations and
Substructures”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
96. IRC 89 “Guidelines for Design and Construction of River Training and Control Works for Road Bridges”,
97. IRC SP 80 “Corrosion Prevention”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
98. IRC SP 102 “Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Reinforced Soil Walls”, Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi.
99. IRC SP 106 “Engineering Guidelines on Landslide Mitigation Measures for Indian Roads”, Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi.
100. IRC SP 109 “Guidelines for Design and Construction of Small Diameter Piles for Road Bridges”, Indian
Road Congress, New Delhi.
101. IRC SP 113 “Guidelines on Flood Disaster Mitigation for Highway Engineers”, Indian Road Congress,
New Delhi.
102. IRC SP 116: “Guidelines for Design and Installation of Gabion Structures”, Indian Road Congress, New
Delhi.
103. MORTH “Specifications for Road and Bridge Works”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
International standards
104. ISO 17745 “Steel Wire Ring Net Panels Definitions and Specifications”, International Organisation for
Standard, UK.
105. ISO 17746 “Steel Wire Rope Net Panels and Rolls-Definitions and Specifications”, International
Organisation for Standard, UK.
106. BS 8006-1 “Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills, BS.
107. BS 8006-2 “Code of Practice for Strengthened/Reinforced Soils Walls-Soil Nail Design”, BS.
108. BS 8081 “Code of Practice for Ground Anchorages”, BS.
109. BS EN 1537 “Execution of Special Geotechnical Works – Ground Anchors’, BS.
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IRC: SP: ___- 2021

GUIDELINES FOR ENGINEERING OF NATURAL SLOPES

INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

GUIDELINES FOR ENGINEERING OF

Fig. 2.1 Dip slope structure

• Faults and fractured zones

with slope), folding, and others.

detached rock rock

Vegetation (often seen at the unstable slope)

Hardness classification criteria

Weathering Classification criteria

Alteration Classification Criteria

Class Classification State

3.1.2 a2) Rock material strength and RMR classification

Spacing of joints >3m 1 to 3m 0.3 to 1m 50 to 300mm <50mm

Inflow per 10m

Tunnels 0 -2 -5 -10 -12

of the ground, surface runoff erodes the surface and

3.1.3 b) Pressured groundwater and deep-seated landslide

Fig 3.5 Destabilization of gravity deformation by pressured groundwater

Deformation in the central

Fig 3.6 Subsidence with lateral displacement

3.3.2 Damage at the boundary between cut and fill

Fig 3.7 Cracks along the boundary of cut and fill

o Indicate the types of rock met within the formation

Fig. 4.4 Contour map of slip surface of slope instability area

Fig. 4.5 Pseudo 3D Analysis Model

Fig. 4.6 Setting main profile for analysis

A. Limit equilibrium approach (slip circle analysis)

Fig. 4.12 Rockfall Phenomenon

4.4.2 Relationship between geology and classes of rock strength

Classes of Rock strength

Joints parallel to Pair of intersecting Closely fractured Weak, massive

Use discontinuity shear strength Use rock mass shear strength

4.4.4 Design methods

5. Erosion control and other surface protection measures

Fig. 5.1 Various options to improve the stability of slopes1

Rock type Range of permissible slope

1 Source: The Landslide Handbook—A Guide to Understanding Landslides

Fig. 5.2 Cross Fall of Berms

Fig. 5.3 Benching of a hill slope

*All the dimensions in the above figure are in meter

Fig. 5.5 Typical cut slopes2

Fig. 5.6 Typical fill slopes3

5.3.5 d) Slopes with abundant groundwater

Fig. 5.7 Process of Loosening or Relaxation of Slope Caused by Cutting

Fig. 5.8 Process of Loosening or Relaxation of Slope Caused by Cutting

Perforated pipe wrapped

Fig. 5.11 Interceptor Drains

Fig. 5.13 a) Typical view of chute drain provided on a hill slope

5.4.1 c) Cross drainage structures

Fig. 5.16 Arrangements of Horizontal Drainage Borings

Fig. 5.17 Cross-section of horizontal drainage boring

5.4.2 c) Deep drainage wells

Fig. 5.20 Typical hillside development impacts on runoff4

5.5.1 b) Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECP)

5.5.2 Selection criteria of erosion control system

Fig. 5.24 Rock buttress used to control unstable slopes

Fig. 5.28 Provision of counterfort retaining wall

5.6.2 a5) Concrete crib works

Fig. 5.30 Brief Sketches of Cast-in-place Concrete Crib Works

Fig. 5.31 Gabion Wall to protect hill slope