STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS THEORY AND APPLICATIONS JOSEPH W. TEDESCO Department of Civil Engineering Auburn University WILLIAM G. McDOUGAL Department of Civil Engineering Oregon State University C. ALLEN ROSS Graduate Engineering Research Center University of Florida vy ADDISON-WESLEY An imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Menlo Park, California + Reading, Massachuseus * Harlow, England Berkeley, California» Don Mills, Ontario * Sydney + Bonn * Amsterdam » Tokyo + Mexico CitySenior Acquisitions Editor: Michael Slaughter Associate Editor: Susan Slater Production Manager: Pattie Myers Senior Production Editor: Teri Hyde ‘Art and Design Supervisor: Kevin Berry Composition: Lachina Publishing Services IMlustrations: Scientific Illustrators Cover Design: Juan Vargas Cover Image: Joseph W, Tedesco ‘Text Design: R. Kharibian & Associates ‘Text Printer and Binder: World Color Book Services Cover Printer: Phoenix Color Corp. Copyright © 1999 Addison Wesley Longman, Inc: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, or stored in a database or retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America, Printed simultaneously in Canada. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and Addison-Wesley was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or in all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ‘Tedesco, Joseph W. ‘Structural dyamies : theory and applications / Joseph W, Tedesco, William G. MeDougal, C. Allen Ross. pcm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-673-98052-9 1. Structural dynamics. I. McDougal, William G. II, Ross, C. Allen, Ill. Title TA6S4.T43 1998 624.17--de21 98-2880 cP Instructional Material Disclaimer “The programs presented in this book have been included for their instructional value, ‘They have been tested with care but are not guaranteed for any particular purpose. Neither the publisher or the authors offer any warranties or representations, nor do they accept any liabilities with respect to the programs. “The fall complement of supplemental teaching materials is available to qualified instructors ISBN 0-673-98052-9 123456789 10-RNT—02 01 00 99 98 ‘Addison Wesley Longman, Ine. 2725 Sand Hill Road Menlo Park, California 94025Contents Preface ix Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 1 1.1 Introduction to Structural Dynamics 7 1.2 Types of Dynamic Loads 2 1.3. Sources of Dynamic Loads 2 1.4 Distinguishing Features of a Dynamic Problem 4 1.5. Methodology for Dynamic Analysis 5 1.6 Types of Structural Vibration 9 1.7 Organization of the Text. 10 18 Systems of Units 12 References 12 PARTI Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) Systems 13 Chapter 2 Equation of Motion and Natural Frequency 1S 2.1 Fundamental Components of a Vibrating System 15 2.2 D'Alembert’s Principle of Dynamic Equilibrium 16 23 The Energy Method 2/ 24 The Principle of Virtual Displacements 24 References 40 Notation 40 Problems 40 Chapter 3 Undamped Free Vibration 45 3.1. Simple Harmonic Motion 45 3.2 Interpretation of the Solution 50 3.3. Equivalent Stiffness 56 34 — Rayleigh Method 66 References 71 Notation 72 Problems 72 212036 a iiv & Convents Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Damped Free Vibration 78 4.1 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping 78 4.2 Logarithmic Decrement 86 4.3. Hysteresis Damping 9/ 44 Coulomb Damping 96 References 100 Notation 100 Problems /0/ Response to Harmonic Excitation 105 5.1. Forced Harmonic Response of Undamped Systems 105 5.2 Beating and Resonance 110 5.3 Forced Harmonie Vibrations with Viscous Damping 1/6 5.4 Effect of Damping Factor on Steady-State Response and Phase Angle 121 5.5 Harmonic Excitation Caused by Rotating Unbalance 125 5.6 Base Excitation 128 5.7 Vibration Isolation and Transmissibility 131 References 135 Notation 135 Problems 136 Response to Periodic and Arbitrary Dynamic Excitation 140 6.1 Response to Periodic Excitation 140 6.2 Response to Unit Impulse 148 63 Duhamel Integral 150 64 — Response to Arbitrary Dynamic Excitation 151 6.5 Response Spectrum 162 References 166 Notation 167 Problems 167 Numerical Evaluation of Dynamic Response 172 7.1 Interpolation of the Excitation 172 7.2. Direct Integration of the Equation of Motion 177 7.3 Central Difference Method 177 7.4 Runge-Kutta Methods 183 7.5 Average Acceleration Method 189 7.6 Linear Acceleration Method 194 7.1 Response to Base Excitation 198 7.8 Response Spectra by Numerical Integration 202 References 204 Notation 204 Problems 205PARTI Contents A v. Chapter 8 Frequency Domain Analysis 207 8.1, Alternative Forms of the Fourier Series 207 8.2. Discrete Fourier Transform 2/4 8.3 Fast Fourier Transform 217 8.4 Discrete Fourier Transform Implementation Considerations 223 85 Fourier Integral 229 References 232 Notation 232 Problems 233 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom (MDOF) Systems 235 Chapter 9 General Property Matrices for Vibrating Systems 237 9.1 Flexibility Matrix 237 9.2 Stiffness Matrix 243 9.3. Inertia Properties: Mass Matrix 252 9.4 The Eigenproblem in Vibration Analysis 255 9.5 Static Condensation of the Stiffness Matrix 267 References 271 Notation 271 Problems 272 Chapter 10 Equations of Motion and Undamped Free Vibration 278 10.1 Hamilton’s Principle and the Lagrange Equations 279 10.2 Natural Vibration Frequencies 288 10.3 Natural Vibration Modes 290 10.4 Orthogonality of Natural Modes 296 10.5 Systems Admitting Rigid-Body Modes 297 10.6 Generalized Mass and Stiffness Matrices 304 10.7 Free Vibration Response to Initial Conditions 308 10.8 Approximate Methods for Estimating the Fundamental Frequency 314 References 32/ Notation 327 Problems 322 Chapter 11 Numerical Solution Methods for Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 327 11.1 General Solution Methods for Eigenproblems 327 11.2 Inverse Vector Iteration 329 11.3. Forward Vector Iteration 339 114 Generalized Jacobi Method 344 11.5 Solution Methods for Large Eigenproblems 352 References 353 Notation Problems 353 354vi & Contents Chapter 12 Analysis of Dynamic Response by Mode Superposition 357 12.1 Mode Displacement Method for Undamped Systems 357 12.2 Modal Participation Factor 366 12.3. Mode Superposition Solution for Systems with Classical Damping 369 12.4 Numerical Evaluation of Modal Response 373 12.5 Normal Mode Response to Support Motions 378 12.6 Response Spectrum Analysis 384 12.7 Mode Acceleration Method 386 References 397 Notation 392 Problems 393 Chapter 13 Analysis of Dynamic Response by Direct Integration 398 13.1 Basic Concepts of Direct Integration Methods 398 13.2 The Central Difference Method 399 13.3 The Wilson-@ Method 407 13.4 The Newmark Method 4/7 13.5 Practical Considerations for Damping 420 13.6 Stability and Accuracy of Direct Integration Methods 427 13.7 Direct Integration Versus Mode Superposition 428 References 429 Notation 430 Problems 431 PART IIL Continuous Systems 435 Chapter 14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems 437 14.1 Longitudinal Vibration of a Uniform Rod 438 14.2 Transverse Vibration of a Pretensioned Cable 443 14.3. Free Transverse Vibration of Uniform Beams 445, 14.4 Orthogonality of Normal Modes 458 14.5 Undamped Forced Vibration of Beams by Mode Superp. 460 14.6 Approximate Methods 467 References 488 Notation 488 Problems 489 PART IV Nonlinear Dynamic Response 495 Chapter 15 Analysis of Nonlinear Response 497 15.1 Classification of Nonlinear Analyses 498 15.2 Systems With Nonlinear Characteristics 503 15.3. Formulation of Incremental Equations of Equilibrium 506Contents 15.4 Numerical Solution of Nonlinear Equilibrium Equations 508 15.5 Response of Elastoplastic SDOF Systems 517 15.6 Response of Elastoplastic MDOF Systems 532 References 544 Notation 544 Problems 546 PART V Practical Applications Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Elastic Wave Propagation in Solids 16.1 Stress and Strain at a Point 552 16.2 Constitutive Relations 555 16.3 Equations of Motion 563 16.4 Stress Wave Propagation 563 165 Applications 571 References 582 Notation 582 Problems 583 Earthquakes and Earthquake Ground Motion 17.1 Causes of Earthquakes 584 172 Faults 586 17.3 Seismic Waves 587 174 Earthquake Intensity 589 175 Barthquake Magnitude 592 17.6 Seismicity 594 17.7 Barthquake Ground Motion 596 178 — Barthquake Damage Mechanisms 599 References 599 Notation 600 Earthquake Response of Structures 18.1 Time-History Analysis: Basic Concepts 602 18.2 Earthquake Response Spectra 610 18.3 Earthquake Design Spectra 6/6 18.4 Response of MDOF Systems 632 185 Generalized SDOF Systems 648 18.6 In-Building Response Spectrum 660 18.7 Inelastic Response 665 188 Seismic Design Codes 673 References 675 Notation 676 Problems 678 a vil 5ST 584 601vill A Contents Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Blast Loads on Structures 682 19.1 Sources of Blast Loads 682 19.2 Shock Waves 683 19.3. Determination of Blast Loads 689 19.4 Strain-Rate Effects 695 19.5. Approximate Solution Technique for SDOF Systems References 706 Problems 707 Notations 708 Basic Concepts of Wind Waves 20.1 Linear Wave Theory 710 20.2 Nonlinear Waves 719 20.3 Wave Transformations 722 20.4 Wave Statistics 730 20.5 Wave Information Damping 747 References 748 Notation 749 Problems 750 Response of Structures to Waves 21.1 Morison Equation 753 21.2 Force Coefficients 760 21.3 Linearized Morison Equation 768 21.4 Inclined Cylinders 772 21.5 Transverse Lift Fores 776 21.6 Froude-Krylov Theory 778 21.7 Diffraction Theory: The Scattering Problem 779 21.8 Diffraction Theory: The Radiation Problem 788 References 794 Notation 794 Problems 795 Appendix A 797 Appendix B- 799 Index 801 7ot 710 752Preface ‘The dynamic analysis of complex structures has experienced impressive progress since the 1970s. Among the reasons for this trend are the advent of digital computers and the development of sophisticated numerical analysis tools, particularly the finite element method. As technologies in these areas continue to advance, practical dynamic analyses, both linear and nonlinear, of extremely complicated systems are becoming more com monplace, Therefore, it is imperative that engineers familiarize themselves with these modern numerical solution techniques and their implementation on digital computers. ‘The motivation for this book is to provide engineers with an understanding of the dynamic response of structures and of the common analysis techniques employed to evaluate these responses. Although the book emphasizes numerical solution techniques for a range of applications in structural dynamics, a comprehensive treatment of the classical analytical methods is also included. Among the special topics addressed in the book are the response of structures to earthquake excitation, the analysis of blast load- ing, wave forces on structures, wave propagation in clastic media, and nontinear dynamic response. Moreover, the solution techniques demonstrated throughout the text are versatile and not limited to these topics, and are appropriate for many other applica- tions in civil, mechanical, and aerospace engineering, ‘The book contains material for several courses on structural dynamics. The mate- rial includes a wide range of subjects, from very elementary to advanced, arranged in increasing order of difficulty. To systematize presentation of the material, the book is organized into five parts: I. Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) Systems; iI, Multi- Degree-of-Freedom (MDOF) Systems; Ill. Continuous Systems; IV. Nonlinear Dynamic Response; and V. Practical Applications. The material in Part Iis suitable for an elementary introductory course in structural dynamics at the junior or senior level, A more comprehensive course in introductory structural dynamics, taught to advanced seniors and first-year graduate students, can be offered from the material in Parts T and TL. An advanced graduate level course in structural dynamics can include the material in Parts III and IV, and several selected topics from Part V. ‘Throughout the book, detailed derivations and implementation of numer’al solu- tion techniques are presented. Indeed, many of the end-of-chapter homework pro! require a PC computer solution. Depending on a student's level of sophistication, they may write their own computer routines or use commercially available software packages such as MATLAB, MATHCAD, and MAPLE to solve the problems. As a convenience, a suite of computer programs written in FORTRAN for a PC that may be employed for the problem solutions are available on the authors’ website at ‘www. Structural-Dynamics.com. This book has been written to serve not only as a textbook for college and univer- sity students, but also as a reference book for practicing engineers. The analytical for- mulations and numerical solution techniques presented throughout the book underlie ‘most computer programs used by engineers in analyzing and designing structures sub- ject to dynamic loadings.x & Preface ‘The contents of this book are the result of teaching courses in structural dynamics and wave mechanics at Auburn University, Oregon State University and the University of Florida. The content was strongly influenced by our research experience. Organiza- tions that have supported our research include the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Wright Lab- oratory Armament Directorate, Wright Laboratory Air Base Survivability Section, Office of Naval Research, SeaGrant, the Federal Highway Administration, and the Ala- bama Department of Transportation. We are indebted to the colleagues with whom we worked at these organizations, We are very appreciative to the following individuals for their careful reviews of the manuscript and for their constructive suggestions: Thomas Baker, University of Virginia; James F. Doyle, Purdue University; Faoud Fanos, Iowa State University; Winfred A. Foster, Auburn University; Ronald B. Guenther, Oregon State University; Robert T. Hudspeth, Oregon State University; Barry T. Rosson, University of Nebraska; Parthe Sakar, Texas Tech University; Avi Singhal, Arizona State University; Bozidar Stojadinovic, University of Michigan; Theodore Toridis, George Washington University; Penny Vann, Texas Tech University; A. Neil Williams, University of Houston; Solomon C.S. Yim, Oregon State University; and Norimi Mitzutani, Nagoya University. We are also thankful to:many former students who assisted in the solutions of the in-text examples and the end-of-chapter homework exercises, especially Mah- moud El-Mihilmy, Sanjoy Chakraborty, Prabhakar Marur, Dennis Tow, Johnathan Powell, Molly Hughes, Nathan Porter, and Robert Williams. Joseph W. Tedesco William G. McDougal C. Allen Ross1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS Basic Concepts 1.1 Introduetion to Structural Dynamics | 1.5 Methodology for Dynamic Analysis 5 1.2 Types of Dynamic Loads 2 1.6 Types of Structural Vibration 9 1.3 Sources of Dynamic Loads 2 1.7 Organization of the Text 10 14 Distinguishing Features of a Dynamic 1.8 Systems of Units 12 Problem 4 ‘This text is concerned with the analysis of structures subjected to dynamic loads. In this context, dynamic means time varying. That is, the application and/or removal of the loads necessarily varies with time [1].' Moreover, the response (i.e, resulting deflec- tions, internal stresses, etc.) of a structure resisting such loads is also time dependent or ‘dynamic in nature, In reality, no loads that are applied to a structure are truly static. Since all loads must be applied to a structure in some particular sequence, a time variation of the force is inherently involved. However, whether or not a load should be considered dynamic is a relative matter. The most significant parameter influencing the extent of the dynamic effect a load has upon a structure is the natural period of vibration of the structure, 7. Briefly stated, the natural period of vibration is the time required for the structure to go through one complete cycle of free vibration. If the application time for the load is large compared to the natural period of the structure, then there will be no dynamic effect, and the load can be considered static. If, on the other hand, the applica- tion time for the load is in close proximity to the natural period of the structure, it will induce a dynamic response. Situations in which dynamic loading must be considered are quite numerous. Examples include: the response of bridges to moving vehicles; the action of wind gusts, ‘ocean waves. or blast pressures upon a structure: the effect of landing impact upon air- craft; the effect on a building structure whose foundation is subjected to earthquake excitation; and the response of structures subjected to alternating forces caused by oscillating machinery [2]. Under these types of loading conditions, either the entire structure or certain components of the structure are set in motion (ie., caused to vibrate). Therefore, it is necessary to apply the principles of dynamics rather than those of statics to evaluate the structural response. It will be demonstrated throughout this text that the maximum deflections, stresses, strains, and various other response quanti- ties exhibited by a structure are generally more severe when loads of a given amplitude are applied dynamically rather than statically. 4 Numbers in brackets refer to end-of-chapter references2 & CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts 4.2 TYPES OF DYNAMIC LOADS 4.3. SOURCES OF DYNAMIC LOADS The response of a structure to dynamic loads may be categorized as either deterministic or nondeterministic [3]. If the magnitude, point of application, and time variation of the loading are completely known, the loading is said to be prescribed, and the analysis of the structural response to this prescribed loading is defined as a deterministic analysis. However, if the time variation and other characteristics of the loading are not com- pletely known, but can be defined only in a statistical sense, the loading is referred to as random, and the corresponding analysis of the structural response is termed nondeter~ ministic. This text emphasizes the deterministic response of structures to prescribed dynamic loading, ‘To expedite the dynamic analysis of structures, it is convenient to classify dynamic loads as either periodic or nonperiodic. Periodic loadings repeat themselves at equal time intervals. A single time interval is called the period Ty. The simplest form of peri- ‘dic loading can be represented by a sine function as shown in Figure 1.1a. This type of periodic loading is referred to as simple harmonic. Another form of periodic load is itlustrated in Figure 1.1b. This loading is termed periodic, nonharmonic. Most periodic loads may be accurately represented by summing a sufficient number of harmonic terms in a Fourier series. Any loading that cannot be characterized as periodic is non- periodic. Nonperiodic loads range from short-duration impulsive types, such as a wind gust or a blast pressure (Figure I.1¢), to fairly long duration loads, such as an earth- quake ground motion (Figure 1.10). Sources of dynamic loads on structures are many and varied, However, the origin of the majority of significant dynamic loads can be attributed to one of the following sources: (1) environmental, (2) machine induced, (3) vehicular induced, and (4) blast induced. Undoubtedly, the single most common source of dynamic loads on structures is environmental in nature. Some typical examples of environmentally induced dynamic loads on structures include wind loads, earthquake loads, and wave loads 2 : 3 5 Time Te 7 Te te nl o o © Figure 1.1 ‘Types of dyramic loadings: (a) simple harmonic; (b) periodic, nonharmonic; (c) nonperiodi Jong duration, short duration; (4) nonperiodic,Figure 1.2 ‘Typical wind velocity record. 41.3. Sources of Dynamic Loads A 3 Wind loads on structures are a function of wind velocity, height of the structure, and shape and stiffness characteristics of the structure. Aerodynamic forces in the form of drag and lift forces can be computed from a mean wind velocity record similar to that shown in Figure 1.2. Earthquakes are another environmental phenomenon that can induce significant dynamic loads on structures. Earthquake forces that develop in struc tures result from the acceleration of the structure’s base by a highly irregular and corn: plex earthquake ground motion as illustrated in Figure I.1d. In the design of coastal and offshore structures, wave-induced Joads represent the primary design criterion, Wave forces include components due to drag, inertia, lift, and buoyancy to estimate the total hydrodynamic loads acting on the structure, Another significant source of dynamic loads on structures, commonplace in indus- trial installations, is that attributed to equipment or machinery such as reciprocating and rotating engines, turbines, and conveyor mechanisms. The nature of machine- induced dynamic loading is usually periodic. Vehicular-induced vibrations represent still another source of dynamic loading, and they can be categorized as either internal or external. A common example of an extemally induced vehicular dynamic load is that caused to a highway bridge from speeding trucks traveling across it, Similarly, the same truck traffic may induce vibrations that cause cracks in plaster and other minor damage to buildings located close to the highway. Oftentimes, equipment located within a vehicle must be isolated from forces generated by internal vehicular vibration, For instance, sensitive navigational equipment mounted within aircraft must be isolated from dynamic forces induced by take-offs and landings or in-flight turbulence. Another major source of dynamic loads is attributed to blasts, either from explosive devices or accidental chemical explosions. Blast-induced loads on structures have been a Jongtime concer in the design of military installations. In recent years, however, there thas been a heightened awareness within the civilian sector of the susceptibility of govern- ment and institutional facilities to terrorist bombings. ‘The dynamic loads induced to a structure from blasts manifest themselves primarily in the form of an overpressure, as illustrated in Figure 1.1c, but in some instances the loads may instigate significant ground shaking, as illustrated in Figure 1.3. The blast overpressure is most devastating to struc- tures in close proximity to the explosion; however, the ground-shaking component result- ing from a large underground detonation may affect structures many miles away. w) /~dw, Standard deviation 1, Mean velocity4 & CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts Figure 1.3 ‘Typical ground motion records produced by an underground explosion, Blast Vibration Analysis by G.A. Bollinger, Copyright © 1971. Reprinted by permission of Southern Ilinois University Press, Carbondale, IL. in/see) Ground veloc Ground displacement fin.) Time (see) 4.4 DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF A DYNAMIC PROBLEM A structural dynamics problem differs from its static counterpart in two essential aspects [4]. The first and most obvious difference is the time-varying nature of the excitation (applied loads) and the response (resulting deflections, stresses, etc.). That is, both are functions of time in a structural dynamics problem. This precludes the existence of a single solution. The analyst must investigate the solution over a specific interval of time to fully evaluate the structural response. Thus, a dynamic analysis is, inherently more computationally intensive than a static analysis. However, the most important feature differentiating a dynamic problem from the corresponding static problem is the occurrence of inertia forces when the loading is dynamically applied. Consider the vertical cantilever structure shown in Figure 14. If a force F is applied statically at the tip of the cantilever, as illustrated in Figure 1.4a, the resulting shear force V, bending moment M, and associated stresses and deflections in the structure can be computed from the basic static structural analysis principles, and are directly proportional to the force F. If, however, a time-varying force F(t) is applied to the tip of the cantilever, as illustrated in Figure 1.4b, the structure is set in motion, i vibrates and experiences accelerations. Inertia forces proportional to the mass then develop in the structure that resist these accelerations. The significance of the contribution ‘made by inertia forces to the shear force V(?), bending moment M(2), and related stresses and deflections in the structure determines whether a dynamic analysis is warranted.Figure 1.4 Cantilever structure subjected 10 (a) 2 static load; (b) a dynamic load, 1.5 METHODOLOGY FOR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 1.5 Methodology for Dynamic Analysis A 5 t a M r @ FP . i Inertia forces GR Mo OO) Typical of any problem in engineering mechanics, an appropriate methodology for conducting a dynamic structural analysis is essential to achieve a viable solution. One such methodology is summarized in Figure 1.5, which defines three basic phases of a dynamic analysis: (1) identification of the physical problem, (2) definition of the ‘mechanical model, and (3) solution of the mechanical model. Phase 1 entails recognition of the problem as it exists in nature, This includes accurately identifying and describing the physical structure, or structural component, and the source of the dynamic loading. Phase 2 requires an interpretation of the physi- cal problem into a form conducive to available analysis techniques. This involves defining a mechanical model that accurately represents the dynamic behavior of the physical problem in terms of geometry, kinematics, loading, and boundary conditions, The idealization of the physical problem to a mechanical model conducive to available analysis techniques generally involves some simplifying assumptions, which influ- ences the formulation of the differential equations governing the structural response. In Phase 3 the governing differential equations are solved to obtain the dynamic response. The solution is only as accurate as the representation provided by the mechanical model. Therefore, this step generally requires an assessment for accuracy. If the predefined accuracy criteria are met, the mechanical model has then been solved6 & CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts Figure 1.5 Methodology for conducting a dynamic analysis. With a satisfactory level of confidence, and the analysis results can be interpreted in a ‘meaningful manner. For complex structures, it may be necessary to refine the analysis by considering a more detailed mechanical model or to introduce design improvements for structural optimization, which leads to further analyses involving several iterations The complexity of the analysis depends largely on the physical problem under consideration and on the mechanical model that must be employed to obtain a suffi- ciently accurate response prediction. A linear analysis can be a routine task, although a fully three-dimensional solution may require a significant amount of human effort and computing resources. On the other hand, a nonlinear dynamic analysis can represent a ‘major challenge to the ingenuity of the analyst and require very significant resources. Indeed, the most important step in the dynamic analysis procedure is defining a mechanical model that accurately represents the physical problem. Theoretically, all structures possess an infinite number of degrees of freedom (DOF). In other words, an infinite number of independent spatial coordinates are required to completely specify the position of all points on the structure at any instant of time [6]. However, most practical analyses are conducted on mechanical models having a finite number of DOF. For each DOF exhibited by a structure, there exists a natural frequency (or natural period) of vibra- tion, For each natural frequency, the structure vibrates in a particular mode of vibration, For most large, complex structures, however, it is not necessary to determine all the system natural frequencies, since relatively few of these vibration modes contribute appreciably to the dynamic response. Therefore, the mechanical model should beFigure 1.6 @ 4.5 Methodology for Dynamic Analysis & 7 defined in such a manner that only those vibration modes that significantly contribute to the dynamic response are accurately represented. In general, the mechanical model can be categorized as either continuous or dis- crete. The type of mechanical model employed for an analysis affects the nature of the ‘governing differential equations and their subsequent solution. For @ continuous model, the mathematical formulation of the problem results in a system of partial differential equations. However, for a discrete system the mathematical formulation yields a set of ‘ordinary differential equations, one for each DOF. Analytical solutions for partial dif- ferential equations and for large systems of ordinary differential equations are quite cumbersome, if not impossible in many cases. ‘Therefore, in most practical applications numerical solution techniques must be employed. Consider the transverse vibration of the multistory building structure illustrated in Figure 1.6a. In reality, the structure manifests distributed mass and stiffness characteris- tics along its height. The continuous model representation of the structure is shown in Figure 1.6b. The mathematical formulation of the continuous model incorporates the dis- ibuted mass, m(y), and stiffness, k(y), characteristics of the structure. Moreover, the independent displacement variable x(y,0) isa function of both position y and time t ‘Therefore, the resulting equations of motion must be partial differential equations. Dis- crete model representations of the same structure are illustrated in Figure 1.6¢ and d. ‘These models are commonly referred to as lumped mass models because the system is ‘assumed to be represented by a small number of localized (or lumped) masses. The repre- sentation portrayed in Figure 1.6c is a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system, in ‘which the entire mass m of the structure is localized (lumped) at the top and the structure has constant stiffness k. The independent displacement variable a(?) of the mass is a fune tion of time alone. Thus the single resulting equation of motion is an ordinary differential equation. The lumped mass representation shown in Figure 1.6d is a three-DOF system in which the mass of the structure is localized at three locations. Each localized mass, m™,, ‘mi, and ms, has its own displacement variable, x,(), x4(), and x3(), respectively. This ‘model also exhibits three discrete stiffness terms, k;, kz, and ks, The resulting equations of motion for this model are a set of three simultaneous ordinary differential equations. t a tony mi (OD : » © @ ‘Mechanical models for multistory building structure: (a) physical representation; (b) continuous model; (c) SDOF discrete model; (4) three-DOF discrete model.8 A CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts Practical dynamic analysis of large, complicated multidegree-of-freedom (MDOF) structures is generally accomplished through a computer-implemented numerical anal- ysis technique known as the finite element method (FEM). In FEM analyses, con- tinuous systems are characterized as discrete MDOF systems. Many commercially available, general purpose FEM computer programs, such as ADINA [7], have been used successively in modeling very complex problems in various areas of engineering. FEM models possessing tens of thousands of DOF are not uncommon. The complexity and detail of the FEM model used in a particular analysis is highly dependent on the ‘unique aspects of the response the analyst seeks. Consider, for example, the multigirder steel highway bridge illustrated in Figure 1,7. The steel girders shown in the plan view (Figure 1.7a) serve as the primary load- oo a G8) f- BS GT Pe 66 Ps . Gindes 7 G4 i G3 BB ni G2 Ph a. PL $4 pans 0.13 m = 284 9 —__ _] @ zim 0330 —4 L140 $@244m~195m Figure 1.7 Multigirder steel highway bridge: (a) plan view; (b) typical cross section,1.6 Types of Structural Vibration A 9 Figure 1.8 Isometric view of FEM mode! for bridge. carrying members. The structural system is typically tied together by a reinforced con- crete deck slab and transverse steel members, or diaphragms, that span transversely between the girders as shown in the bridge cross-section illustration (Figure 1.7b). To assess the effectiveness of the diaphragms in distributing truck traffic loads transversely among the girders, a detailed FEM model of the bridge is required. An isometric view of the FEM model for the bridge structure of Figure 1.7 is illustrated in Figure 1.8. This ‘model exhibits over 50,000 active DOF. 1.6 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL VIBRATION ‘There are several types of structural vibration. A structure can be caused to vibrate by imposing upon it some initial conditions, or disturbances [8]. Initial conditions gener- ally manifest themselves as an energy input such as a velocity imparted to the mass of the structure (kinetic energy) or a displacement configuration imposed upon the struc~ re (potential energy) that is suddenly removed. The resulting structural vibration occurs in the absence of any externally applied forces, and is termed free vibration. Free vibration usually occurs at the fundamental natural frequency (lowest frequency) of the structure, Since there is no external excitation acting on the structure, the vibra- tions diminish with time as the energy input to the structure from the initial conditions eventually is dissipated, or damped out. ‘The vibrations of a structure under the influence of external excitation are called {forced vibrations. If the source of the excitation is periodic, the vibration consists of a steady-state response and a transient response. The steady-state response transpires at the frequency of the excitation, When the excitation frequency coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the structure, a condition known as resonance exists. At res- ‘onance, the amplitudes of the vibrations become exceedingly large and are limited only by the damping in the structure.10 & CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts The transient response is due to the initial energy stored in the structure and is manifested as oscillations generally occurring at the fundamental natural frequency of the structure. The transients are usually completely damped out after several cycles of vibration, are insignificant in comparison to the steady-state vibrations, and can be ignored, However, if the structure is excited by a suddenly applied nonperiodic force (such as a blast), the subsequent response is also a transient response, since steady-state oscillations are not produced. Similar to free vibration, the transient oscillations occur at the natural frequencies of the structure. The amplitude of the transient response var- ies in a manner dependent upon the nature of the excitation. 4.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXT This book was conceived as an introductory text for both undergraduate and graduate courses in civil engineering. It includes a variety of topics in the theory of structural dynamics as well as applications of this theory to the analysis and response of struc- tures subject to earthquake excitation, blast loading, and wave forces, The book also addresses wave propagation phenomena in elastic media, Although the applications of structural dynamics in civil engineering are different from those encountered in ‘mechanical engineering, engineering mechanics, and aerospace engineering, the princi ples and solution techniques are basically the same. Therefore, this text emphasizes these principles and solution techniques (especially numerical solution techniques), and illustrates them with over 135 worked-out examples, over 460 homework prob- ems, and approximately 800 illustrations, The book is organized in five parts: I. Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) ystems; I. Multidegree-of-Freedom (MDOF) Systems; II. Continuous Systems; IV. Nonlinear Dynamic Response; and V. Practical Applications. Although the empha- sis of the book is directed toward linear problems in structural dynamics, techniques for solving a limited class of nonlinear structural dynamics problems are also introduced. Because of the wide variety of topical coverage presented in this text, many of the ‘mathematical symbols and other notation have multiple representations. Therefore, to maintain consistency and clarity of presentation, a separate notation section is provided at the end of each chapter. art I, which includes Chapters 2 through 8, addresses the vibration of SDOF sys- tems. SDOF systems are studied in great detail because many practical problems can be solved with this formulation and many of the solution techniques developed for SDOF systems can be easily modified and extended to the solution of MDOF systems. Chap- ter 2 discusses the formulation of the equations of motion for SDOF systems by appli- cation of Newton's second law, the energy method, and the principle of virtual placement. Chapter 3 addresses the undamped free vibration of SDOF systems, and Chapter 4 discusses the free vibration of SDOF systems possessing viscous, hysteresis, ‘or Coulomb damping. Chapter 5 examines the response of SDOF systems to harmonic excitation, Some of the most important fundamental concepts in structural dynamics are discussed in this chapter, such as resonance, force transmission, and vibration isola~ tion. Chapter 6 discusses the response of SDOF systems to periodic (nonharmonic) excitation as well as the response to arbitrary dynamic excitation by implementation of the Duhamel integral method; this chapter also introduces the concept of response spectrum. Chapter 7 presents numerical techniques for evaluating the dynamic response of SDOF systems. Part I concludes with Chapter 8, a discussion of frequency domain solution techniques for SDOF systems1.7 Organization of the Text. A 11 art II, which includes Chapters 9 through 13, addresses the dynamic response of dis- crete MDOF systems. These chapters examine general MDOF systems, whose dynamic response can be characterized by a finite number of DOF. Chapter 9 discusses some fun- ‘damental properties of MDOF vibrating systems, such as the mass and stiffness matrices, and formulation of the system eigenproblem. Chapter 10 examines the basic concepts and procedures for the free vibration analysis of MDOF systems, and also presents several ‘approximate methods for estimating the fundamental frequency of MDOF systems. Chap- ter 11 presents several commonly employed numerical solution techniques for extracting the natural frequencies (eigenvalues) and mode shapes (eigenvectors) for MDOF systems. Chapter 12 discusses the evaluation of the dynamic response of MDOF systems by the mode superposition method, and Chapter 13 examines the dynamic response of MDOF systems by direct numerical integration, and presents a discussion of the relative advan- tages of the mode superposition and direct numerical integration methods. Part III of the text, Chapter 14, concerns the vibrations of systems having distrib- tuted mass and stiffness properties, or continuous systems. Continuous systems possess an infinite number of DOF and their equations of motion must be expressed in the form of partial differential equations. Chapter 14 examines the free vibration of uniform rods, cables, and beams, as well as the undamped forced vibration of beams, and dis- ‘cusses approximate solution techniques that effectively transform continuous systems into equivalent discrete systems. Part IV of the text, Chapter 15, is devoted to nonlinear dynamic response. Chapter 15 examines the various types of nonlinearities and discusses the incremental formula tion of the equations of motion for systems possessing nonlinear characteristics. This chapter also presents several commonly employed numerical solution techniques for nonlinear equilibrium equations as well as a rigorous analysis of both SDOF and MDOF elastoplastic systems. Part V, Chapters 16 through 21, deals with several practical applications of various aspeets of basic structural dynamics theory discussed in Parts I through IV. Chapter 16 addresses one-dimensional wave propagation in elastic media and discusses applications to stress wave velocities in uniform rods and collinear impact of bars. Chapter 17 pre- sents a brief seismological background on causes and characteristics of earthquakes, as well as a discussion of earthquake ground motions, Chapter 18 presents deterministic procedures for evaluating the response of structures to earthquake ground motions and addresses both the time-history and response spectrum methods of analysis. Chapter 19 discusses the basic concepts that define blast loads on structures and the corresponding structural response, Chapter 20 discusses the basic theories to describe water waves ancl methodologies to select design waves. Finally, Chapter 21 discusses the response of structures to wave forces, as well as formulations for wave forces on small bodies and large bodies, with applications to both fixed structures and moving structures. Many of the worked out examples and end-of-chapter problems presented in Chapter 18 require the north-south ground motion component of the 1994 Northridge, California earthquake as input. Numerical values for this ground acceleration record (ie,, digitized accelerogram) are available on the author's web site: www.Structural- Dynamics.com. ‘A major emphasis of this text is the development of numerical solution techniques for a wide variety of structural dynamics problems. Therefore, listings for a number of, computer algorithms are presented throughout the text in the solutions of various in. text examples. A suite of computer programs that may be employed for the solution of many of the end-of-chapter problems are described on the author’s web site. Both the source and executable codes for these computer programs are available on the web site2 TABLE 1.1 Systems of U CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts ‘The problems in this text are written primarily using the English system of units. However, in recognition of the fact that there will eventually be a change from the English system of units to the International System of Units (SI), and realizing that the two systems will coexist for some years, a limited number of problems are presented in ST units. Table 1.1 shows some quantities typically used in structural dynamics in both English and SI units, as well as conversion factors for transforming from English units to ST units. Quantity English System S1System Conversion Factor Length foot (ft) meter (m) 0.3048 inch (in) meter (m) 0.0254 Force pound (1b) newton (N) 4.4482 kip (1000 1b) newton (N) 4448.2 Mass slog (Ib-sec*/ft) kilogram (kg) 1459 pound-mass (Ibm) kilogram (kg) 0.045359 Mass dersity omit kgim’ 16.02 bmn? kgim’ 27680.0 Stress or pressure IDM (psf) Nim? (Pa) 47.88 If? (psi) Nim? (Pa) 6894.8 Acceleration fusec? msec? 3048 infsec? msec? 0.0254 Velocity imisee 0.3048 imisee 0.0254 Volume m 0.028317 Moment or torque Nem o.n3 Nem 1356 REFERENCES Ivine, HM., Structural Dynamics for the Practicing Engineer, Allyn and Unwin, Boston, 1986. ‘Tauchert, TR., Energy Principles in Structural Mechan- ies, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974. Clough, RW. and Penzien, J., Dynamics of Structures, ‘MoGraw-Hill, New York, 1975, Craig, RR, Structural Dynamics, An Introduction 10 Computer Methods, Wiley, New York, 1981 Bathe, KJ, “Some Advances in Finite Element Proc ‘dures for Nonlinear Structural and Thermal Problems Proceedings of the Symposium on Future Directions of Computational Mechanics, Winter Annual Meeting, 1986. Beards, CF, Structural Vibration Analysis: Modelling, Analysis and Damping of Vibrating Structures, Wiley, New York, 1983, 10 ADINA, “A Finite Element Computer Program for Auto- matic Dynamic Incremental Nonlinear Analysis,” Report ARD 90-1, ADINA R&D, Inc., Watertown, MA, 1990. Tse, FS. Morse, LE., and Hinkle, R-T., Mechanical Vibrations, Theory and Applications, 2nd ed., Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1978, Stallings, J.M., Cousins, T.E., and Tedesco, J.W., “Fatigue of Diaphragm—Girder Connections,” Final Report RP 930-307, Aubum University Highway Research Center, Auburn University, AL, 1996. Tedesco, J.W., Stallings, JM. and Tow, D.R., “Finite Element Method Analysis of Bridge Girder—Diaphragm Interaction,” Computers and Structures, Vol. 56, No. 2, 1995, pp. 461-473.PART I —_ Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) SystemsEquation of Motion and Natural Frequency 2.1 Fundamental Components of a Vibrating 2.3 The Energy Method 2 System 15 2.4 The Principle of Virtual 2.2 D’Alembert’s Principle of Dynamic Displacements 24 Equilibrium 16 In reality, all structures possess an infinite number of degrees of freedom. That is, an infinite number of independent spatial coordinates are necessary to completely define a structure’s configuration—the geometric location of all the masses of the structure or system [1]. A system for which only one spatial coordinate is required to define the configuration is a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system. Although a SDOF model ‘may not provide accurate representation for detailed analysis of many structures, infor- ‘mation obtained from the investigation of a SDOF system may be adequate for a pre- liminary analysis of a complicated structure, Moreover, a thorough understanding of the basic principles of vibration of a SDOF system is essential before a dynamic analy- sis of a more complex multidegree-of-freedom (MDOF) system can be undertaken. ‘This chapter deals with SDOF systems, that is, systems described by a single, second-order ordinary differential equation, This mathematical expression, which defines the dynamic equilibrium of a system, is called the equation of motion of the structure. An important result from the solution of the equation of motion is the displacement-time history of a structure subjected to a prescribed time-varying load, Quite often, the formulation of the equation of motion represents one of the most important phases of a dynamic analysis. In this chapter several methods for formulating that equation for SDOF systems are discussed, including d’ Alembert’s principle, the energy method, and the principle of virtual displacements. The concept of natural fre- quency is also introduced in this chapter. 2.4 FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS OF A VIBRATING SYSTEM Before establishing methodologies for formulating the equations of motion for SDOF systems, it is important to define the basic components comprising the vibrating sys- tem. These include mass, stiffness, damping, and forcing. Damping is the energy loss mechanism, and forcing is the source of excitation. 15