c, .
.—
Analytical Techniques for Recognizing Water-
Sensitive Reservoir Rocks
Abstract
The permeability damage that cer-
tain reservoir rocks undergo when
infiltrated by fresh water is well rec-
‘ognizcd in the petroleum industry.
Two causes of damage, swe[ling of
clays and phigging by rearrangement
of ittdigenous particles, result jrotn
inherent properties of some rocks and
can be determined by [aboratory
analysis. The presence, cause and
magnitude of water sensitivity io most
reservoir rocks can be recognized by
a combination oj the following tech-
niques: /“
1. Single phase permeability nzeas-
urernents with gas and a serie,r of
brines of decreasing saiinity on ex-
tracted core piugs to determine if per-
meability varies with saiinity.
2. X-ray difiractioq analysi.i to de-
tect sweliing clays (montmorillonite,
mixed-layer clays and certain types of
illite).
3. Physicai swei[ing tests to deter-
mine ihe actuai sweliing capacity of
indigenous clay minerals.
4. Microscopic examination of rock
{bin sections to determine the distri-
bution of clay minerals relative to the
pore system.
Typical analyses are given for res-
ervoir rocks that are (a) not sensitive,
(b) water sensitive from sweliing clays
and (c) water sensitive from particie
piugging.
Introduction
. Resewoir rocks that are susceptible
.—:. ..-— to-~ermetibiiit~-damrtge-durin~ “diill- ~---:
Ori Inal mtmuscrlpt received in Society of
f
petro eum Engineers othse AprlI 29, 196S.
Paper presmwed at the SPE Rocky Mountnln
R&m@ Meeting, MW !47-2S, 106S, in 1).snyer,
1... . . . . . .
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..4...-._.. .
-._:._,Q--::*..- --.——---— ~—>.= ....,-:—..
:----.:.. _.=$, .,-. ..<>..:.::9:?::’::?-” ‘::.; ”.”.,.:.....2” >..<..... +.’ . . ..... ::? ..------.+- :- ‘: =’--?. :?:”.-;..’:--- }!’ :.-.’-..”<- “-”
T-.’=
—..-
.—.
-. .
CHARLES H. HEWITT
ing, completion, stimulation ;and work-
over operations, are well kf ,,n in the
petroleum industry?”” Pe % eability
damage around a well bore can pre-
vent the detection of oil zones in a
wildcat well or lower productivity of
completed wells, In secondary recov.
ery operations, a damaged reservoir
may mean the difference between eco-
nomic success or failure. Research
aryi development work. on secondary
and tertiary oii recovery processes
must consider the susceptibility of a
reservoir rock to permeability damage
in evahsating the recovery
A whoIe hcst of physical and chem-
ical processes are responsible for res-
ervoir damage. Some types of damage
occur because of the particular min-
eralogical and textural properties of
the reservoir rock; other types of
damage occur as a result of a partic-
ular. production operation.
The causes ‘of ““darnagc that are
related to rock properties are:
1. swelling nf indigenous clays that
constrict the ~a~es;
2, dispersion of htdigenous, non-
swe[ling particles, rearrangement of
the particles during fluid flow, and
plugging of the pore system; and
3. a combination of swelling and
dispersion; slight swelling promotes
loosening and mobility of fine par-
ticles.
Causes of damage that originate
from a specific production operation
are:
-1. invasiofi of solid particles from
drilling, mud ,or injeeted fluids;
itivasicmcm -of- solid”-particles-
oil welI cementing operations;
3. precipitation of salts from. the
reservoir brine in the zone .of rela.
%fe~nm~ qiven at. end of ptmer.,
.—:.___
..... _..-.—.--—
.. .-,_._: ,: .=_.>?_---:.
“,. gpe n+
RESERVOIR ROCK ‘
ANALYSES
m
L
‘
.
I MARATHON 011 CO.
Lf171ETON, COtO.
??
tively lower pressure around the well
bore:
4. water block or emulsion bIock;
5, direct or indirect effects of bat-
.teria; apd
6. completion practices not suit-
able for a specific reservoir.
Any porous medium, regardless of
its inherent properties, could undergo
permeability damage by conditions in
the second category. The first catt?l
gory of reservoir damage, however,
is possible only in rocks that are in-
process. herently water sensitive as a result of
their mineralogy and texture. In either
case, reservoir damage ~produces the
same symptom: reduced well produc-
tivity. Before the damage can he re-
paired, or before damage to a similar
reservctir can be prevented, the cause
must be determined.
The analytical methods presented
in- this paper Were deveIoped to rec-
ognize wa~er sensitive reservoir rocks,
The philosophy of developiiig this
type of analysis is as follows. If dam-
age is suspected @ a reservoir, core ‘
samples can be analyzed for water ,
sensitivity, If the analysis indic rites ‘-”
sensitivity, then production operation?
can perhaps be modified to prevent
additional .damag& If the resuits of
the analysis indicate no sensitivity,
attention can then be focused on the. -. :
production operations rather than on
the reservoir rock.
.-
Present Investigation
Investigation of water sensitive ies-
from - -.ervoir-
.—-. rocl- ..=-—.
- 9- n--——..
.-. .;.—— ks
was-begun.. at ti,e Mara-.
------ D-’.T.:1:iz--iz-. ..A— -
-;
then Oli C.U., U.IWW W,SG.LW -u-
ter six years ago. The objectives of
this work have been: (1) to deter-
mine the causes of water sensitivity
. (2) todevelq
-.
tech,niq!~ that. woU!? .. ..
.-. . . .. .... . ..... ~..;’..,.
-.=_ —-—_- —,.-e- ..Z----
~“-:,._.-_,_-:- ——--------
._:.---- :s$-:-:-.>.,.,
_——. ..—.--.
&.. -:–.--–— .— -,----------
-. 2-–.–-:<:: :.Z..:.:.
.,.:-: . ~V-.L
-.:..—... :..-...
---

—. .
reveal the presence, kind and- amount
of water sensitivity; and (3) to rec-
ommend production practices that are
compatible with water sensitive reser-
voir rocks. As a part of tids study,
samples “were collected from reser-
voirs that are known to exhibit some
degree of. water sensitivity, Approxi-
mately 250 core samples representing
26 reservoirs were analyzed. Of the
26 reservoirs, 22 are sandstones and
four me carbonates; 12 are from the
Rocky Mountains, two from Cali-
fornia, seven from the Illinois Basin,
one from Texas, and four frorm out-
side the United States. The techniques
that ~were evolved during the analyses
of these cores are reported in this
paper.
Review of. Water Sensitivity
The term ‘;water sensitivity” refers
in this report to the phenomenon of
reduction in permeability caused by
the swelling of indigenous clays or
by the dispersion and movement of
indigenous particles. Certain clay min-
eral species will swell when contacted
by fresh water. Because these clays
are commonly dist’ributeci so that they
line the pores of a sandstone, anY
pore fluid is in contact with clay.
Before thedrili enters a reservoir, the
clay ‘minerals are in sweliing equi-
librium with the-reservoir water or
brine, Any-change in the composition
or reduction in the concentration of
the brine may upset the equilibrium
and cause the clays to expand, This
effect is shown schematically in Fig,
i (left). The expanded clays restrict
the pores and channels and conse-
quently. reduce permeability.
In addition to the constrictionof
channels, addkional damage is caused
by the general loosening of matrix
material. Fine particles of any min-
erai composition become disiodged
and may subsequently piug channeis.
The common sweiiing clay minerals
are the montmorilionites, mixed-layer
clays and certain types of iiiite. In
general, the amor.mt of sweliing of
each clay increases with a decrease
‘in saiinity of the surrounding fluid.
Therefore, a concentrated brine wotiid
cause the least damage; fresh water
would cause the most.
PartfcIe Pl,ugging
Ciay-sized particles are flocculated
when the individual particles are held
together in ciumps by electrostatic
forces. In areser.voir rock, clay min-
erais and clay-sized particies are usu-
;:,:
.-_. aily..
.:._-- in flocculated
.= __- ..._. equilibrium
_. ..._—o-- with
I formation brines. The@~duc%on--6”F-
sodhtm or the reduction of cation
1 ~~
concentration by diiution promotes
dispersion.” Dispersed particles are
Jree to “move with the .surroyi$w
-.
iluidiiniil thi~reac haconitdciion-in
the pore system and biock the chan-
neis. .4 schematic diagram of this
process is shown in Fig. 1 (right).
Requirements for a Water
Sensitivity Anaiysis
Laboratory techniques have been
reported for recognizhg water sensi-
tivity. The most common techniques
and the information they give are
iisted below,
1. Singie phase ‘brine and water
permeability measurement?:’”s An ini-
tial gas permeability is measured to.
estabiish an undamaged vaiue. A se-
ries of iiquid permeabilities in order
of decreasing saiinity are then meas-
ured on the sanie core. piug to deter-
mine if permeability changes with
brine saiinity. The ratio of water or
brine permeability to initiai air per-
meability is used as an index of sensi-
tivity, These measurements do not
differentiate the effects of sweiling
clay from those of mobiie particles.
2. Oii permeabiiit y measurements :’
Singie phase air permeability and
water permeability are measured as
above. Oii permeability is then meas-
ured on the same. plug and compared
with the air and water permeability.
This technique demonstrates
amount of increase in permeability
when oii flows through a waterdam-
aged rock.
3. Irreducible water saturation wdi-
ues: Baptist and White’* found that
high vaiues of ,irreducible water sat-
uration characterize strongiy water
sensitive sandstones and low values
characterize weakiy sensitive sand-
stones. The high vaiues of irreducible
water saturation are caused by a com-
bination of sweiling clay and rela-
tively large amounts of fine materiai
in the sandstone. ‘
4, Identification of ciay mineraI
species:3.7 Sweliing ciays are usualiy
identified by X-ray diffraction,’-’ dif-
ferential theirnai anaiysis~ or dye
staining. Clay identification gives no
information about the tendency of the
PARTICLE PLuGOISG
SWELLINGCLAY
Ezcl
r
nm
I I
--- mm -mm= -—-. --=-FRESP-M$R.—
NIL 1.— ScJmma!ic7 diagrani of two
cnuses of water sensitivity in sund-
stoma (grains are outim .SJ , clays are.
hiack), Left — swelling day; right -
particle plugging.
. . . .. . .
. ‘B
‘rock-“-for–-phftlcle piugging- or aboiit- “–”-
the distribution of the clay minerals.
S. Physical sweiling test:’ A dry
volume of dis-aggregated rock is
measured and compared with the vol-
ume of the same sample after it has
been piaced in a iiquid that promotes
sweiling. A comparison of the two
volumes is used as an index of sweil-
ing, This test aione does not give any
information about particiei mobiiity
or about the distribution of sweliing
clays.
6. Water vapor adsorption: Johan-
sen and Dunning” found that the
amount of adsorption and the hystere-
sis of isotherms correlate with the
degree of water sensitivity. These
measurements actually reflect surface
area and the presence of various
species of clay minerals.
An analysis that is to determine the
‘ presence, kind and amount of water
sensitivity must answer aii of the foi-
iowing questions:
1. Is fluid permeability reduced by
a reduction in the salinity of the fluid?
2, Is the rock so constituted thut
the fine silt and ciay particies are
susceptible to dispersion and rear-
rangement? -
3. Dots the rock contain sweiiing
the ciays?
4. How much do these ckys swell?’
5. How are the ciays distributed
relative to the pore system of the
rock?
A series of permeability measurem-
ents can answer the first question.
However, permeability measurements
alone do “not differentiate between
damage from sweiiing ciays and dam-
age from particie plugging, If water
or brine permeability is markediy
iower,than air permeability for a rock
‘that is known to contain swelling
ciays, then the cause of the pernle-
abiiity reduction is known. If the
same permeability behavior occurs in
a rock that is known to contain no
swelling ciays, then it is quite certain ~
that particie mobiiity and plugging
are iowering the permeability. The
presence of sweiling clays can be de-
termined by X-ray diffraction anaiysis.
However, this anaiysis gives oniy gen- ‘
eral information concerning the
amount of clay sweiiing. Some type
of physical sweiling test is wquhed
to determine the actuai SWCdIhl~ ~- -
pacity of the ciays. Even after it has
been established that a rock contains
sweliing ciays, this information does
not always indicate that a rock is’
J water sensitive. Some sandstones. and.
— .–. :— :.= .-..
carbanat=tocks--conti—-tti- shalc=--
breaks or laminations of ciay min-
erais that are effectively isokited from
the poresystem, A microscopic exe
amination of thin sections of the res-
. ... - -,. . ..
 .-—- -- --- --,-.
ervo]r rock mtss~ W pi%fofmeif tss
reveal the distribution of the clay
minerals relative to the pores,
The combination of analytical fcch-
niques recommended to meet the re-
quirements of a complete water sen-
sitivity smalysis is:
1. a series of permeability meas-
urements before and after damage;
2, X-ray analysis to identify clay
minerals;
3. a swelling test to determine the
presence and amount of swelling; and
4. microscopic examination to de-
termine the distribution of clay min-
erals relative to the pores,
Two aspects of sampling are im-
portant in a water sensitivity analysis.
One of these is the necessity of thor-
ough verticei and lateral sampling of
a reservoir to get representative data.
Water sensitivity is controlled by min-
eralogy and texture; these two prop-
erties can vary widely throughout a
reservoir depending on the deposi-
tional environment of the reservoir
rock. Therefore, the number and
spacing of samples should be dictated
by the distribution of various rock
types itt the reservoir.
The second sampling consideration
is the necessity of having identical
samples from each piece of core’ for
each of the four analyses. If the rock
contains shale laminations, bedding or
cross bedding, the core plug and the
two adjacent broken pieces must in-
clude the same laminations.
A 3-in. diameter core approximately
4 in. long is selected for the analysis.
Drilling mud is cl~aned from the out-
side of the core using a belt sander
if necessary. The sampling scheme is
shown in Fig. 2, A V4 -in, core plug
is drilled from the central part 0$ the
core as shown; one half of the plug
is used for permeability measure-
ments; ‘the other half is thin sectioned
for microscopic analysis., The parts
of the core adjacent to the area from
which the plug was drilIed are broken
out of the core, examiised for drilling
mud, and sanded if necessary. One
piece is used for clay mineral analysis,
the other for the swelling test,
Laboratory Measurements
,.
Permeability Messsstrentent
A %-in. cylindrical core .phtg is
trimmed LO 1 in. length with a dia-
mond saw, the ends are brushed free
. of any loose particles, and the plug i?
‘exffi~td--~if~-tol~~~b--i~- a%oxhletv--
cleaner. Klinkenberg permeability is
used as the initial undamaged per-
meability; it is obtained by measuring.
gas permeability with nitrogen at three
. ..- .. . .. . . .
diff~ie%it-inean”pfessxiiei ‘Thti”follOw~’
ing liquid permeability procedure was
modified from the procedure of the
U.S. Bureau of Mines,i” Three liquid
permeabilities are measssred in the
following order; 16,500 ppm NaC1;
8,250 ppm NaCl; distilled water. All
liquids are freshly prepared with dis-
tilled water, analytical reagent sodium
chloride, and -25 ppm mercuric chlo-
ride as a bactericide, The use of a
bactericide and particle-free water is
necessary to prevent changes in per-
meability from the growth of bacteria
or from turbid water,
The plug is saturated with ‘the ffrst
brine and allowed to remain in the
brine for 24 hours. The plug is then
mounted in: a Hassler holder and at-
tached to a fluid permeameter. Sev-
eral pore volumes of brine are al-
lowed to flow through the phsg and
the first brine permeability is meas-
ured, The second brine is placed in
the permeameter and is used to dis-
piace the ‘first brine from the core
plug. The plug is removed from the
Hassler holder smd’ placed in a con-
tainer of the second brine for 24
hours. The plug is returned to the
Hassler holder, several pore volumes
of the second brine are ailowed to
flow through the plug, and the per-
meability is measured. This same
procedure of displacement, soaking,
flowing, and measurement is used to
obtain the permeability to distifled
water.
During the testing of this method,
some runs were made in which the
direction of flow of the fluid was re-
versed between measurements. This
technique is particularly useful for
detecting damage from mobiie par-
ticle5.
Clay Mineral Identification
The rock is gently dis-aggregated
to grain size with a porcelain buck-
board and muller. Approximately 30
gm of the dis-aggregated sample are
selected and weighed. The clay min.
erals in many sandstones are much
coarser than the 4 micron upper limit
of the clay-size fraction. Experimental
work indicated that a size fraction
including particles as coarse as 16
Ea———
OMOOIWGA1[
I This examination is . most useful if
SWELLING PETROCiRAPHIC. CdRE X+AY..
n ._r_TEW_.–r.ARALY$[S.F -ARALYSISAANALY$l+_
PE8CKST
SWLLINO
CLA~
OISTRIEUTON
PESMEAWLtTY IDENTIFY
UC4SVREMENTSIXh? WNERALS
Fig. 2 — Sampling scheme mid flow
sheer for water seneitivky sinalysis of
core samsdes.
‘rnicroni”‘Is–’n%-c&sary-to FecEver most -
of the clay niinerals in many reser-
voir rocks, This fine fraction is sepa-
rated from the sample in a rising
current liquid elutriator’i and its
weight is calculated as a percentage
of the total sample weight. The fins
fraction is dried, pressed irrto a pellet,
and X-rayed. The amounts of clay
and non-clay components are deter-
mined by comparison of the X-ray
traces with traces of known mixtures,
Swelling Test _
The comparison of a dry volume of
dis-aggregated rock with the volume
of the same sample in water was
found to be unreliable because of the
difference in settling and packing of
the grains in air as opposed to fluid.
The method that was found to be
more reproducible requires the use of
duplicate measured voiutnes, One
volume is placed in a liquid that pre-
vents clay swelling; the other is placed
in water to promote sweiiing. The
settling and packing of the grains in
the two” iiquids are quite comparable,
so any differences in volume can be
attributed to clay swelling.
The dis-aggregated stimple is blenLf-
ed by stirring with a plastic tea-
spoon. A Ievel spoonful is obtained
by scooping the spoon through the
material and scraping excess material
away with a spatula. Care must be
taken not to tamp or<pfess the sampie
into the spoon. The measured mater-
ial is poured onto paper for transfer
to 30 ml graduated test tubes that
contain approximately 10 ml of fluid.,,
One measured volume is poured into
Phillips Soltrol; the other is poured
into distilled water that contains a
wetting agent (21A per cent Triton
X-100). Care must be taken so that
the grains pass slowly through the
fluid interface and do not trap air
bubbles. Any clay that adheres to the
transfer paper is brushed into the test
tube. The walls of the test tubes are
washed clean, After the samples have
set for 24 hours, the volumes are
read and compared, .
Microscopic Examination
The microscopic examination is
performed on a conventional thin sec-
tion of the rock. The rock is impreg-
nated with a. colored plastic to em:
phas”ize the “pores, mounted on glass,
ground to a. thickness of 0,03 mm, “”
and covered with glass, A qualitative
observation is made of the position of
clay minerals relative to the pores.
performed. by, an .experieticed petr%
.gTaPhBr–w~o ai$- fafiliarwfih--the~-~g -~
tical properties of the “common sedi-
mentary minerals and the textural re-
.Iations common in sandstones and
carbonate recks.
 - ‘– Resulti-md”Inte@~eM~n-of Analyses
Four sandstones having different
degrees of water sensitivity were se-
lected to demonstrate the kinds of
data that are obtained from the four
analyses. The examples are:
Muddy sandstone, Wyo, ~ slight
sensitivity;
Stevens sandstone, Calif.—moderate
sensitivity from swelling clays;
BOW Island sandstone, Alberta—
strong sensitivityy from swelling clays;
Nugget sandstone, Wyo, — strong
sensitivity from particle” plugging.
Permeability Metnnwements
Fig. 3 shows the results of Klinken-
berg and three fluid permeability
measurements for one sample of each
of the Muddy, Stevens and Bow
Island sandstones. The fluid permea-
bilities are calculated as a percentage
of Klinkenberg permeability. This
percentage is plotted against fluld
;alinfty ~o obtain the cu~ves shown
in Fig. 3.
The severity of water sensitivity is
indicated by the position and shape
of these curves. Data from slightly
water sensitive samples plot near the
top of the graph. The lower the curve
falls on the graph, the stronger is the
water sensitivity of the sample. Gen-
erally, curves with ,~teep slopes also,
indicate strong senslt~vity. The per-
,’ meability percentages plotted against
salinity are shown in “Ftg. 4 for four
samples of the Nugget sandstone
which contain no swelling clays, but
are strongly water sensitive, Permea-
bility data from samples that are sen-
sitive” from particle plugging com-
monly show a less regular reduction
in permeability with decreasing salin-
ity rather than the progressive de-
100
( amount of swelling clay or fine par-
80 -
g
x
x. t
\
~
g 40 -
X3
.,.
20
(1 i“ I I
o 5 10
SALINITY
(twin NaCl x 103)
“ Fig.%q~iagmg .gf=k&.@sl
- ‘-’--==-”100 as a function OT saliiiWy of
NaCi. Muddy ,sandston~light sensi-
tivity~ Stevens sandstone — moderate
mmsitivity from swelling, eiayst Bow
bland sandstone — strong sensitivity
fromsweiling clays...
,,----- .. . . . . - . .“
m’ewsethat is ‘characteristic--of -samples-
containing swelling clays,
The results of an extended sari@
of permeability Measurements on a
single core plug of Nugget sandstone
are shown in Fig, 5, This behavior
is characteristic of sandstones that
are susceptible to particle plugging,
As the salinity of the fluid decreases,
the fine particles become dispersed
and mablle and the permeability de-
creases, A reversal of the direction
of flow causes a marked increase in
permeability, but the permeability de-
creases with continued flow and is in-
dependent of the composition of the
fluid,
For comparison of a large number
of samples, it is convenient to plot
the values of water permeability
against Klinkenberg permeability on a
log-log scale as shown in Fig. 6.”4’The
farther a sample plots above the
k,, = k= tine, the greater is its sensi-
tivity. An empirical scale of water
‘“or--l
80
0 amount of swelling clay. Within a
g’ t
‘8 60 -
x the amount of swelling clay increases,
\
$ q~ _
xi
20 4
0 5 P 15
SALINITY
(Ppm NoCIx 105)
Fig. 4-Varlalion of kl tq.iJk~l [Ilkcnbers
X 100 as a function of mdinity of
NaCi. Nugget sandstone-strong sen.
sitkit y from particle piugging.
PERMEABILITY md
15 20
J
luke!kc;~.. ...- __._-._L
-:.-~-_~.~D{**fegr@t##.
Fig. ~Bar diagram of siequentiai per-
meability measurements in a core plug
of Nugget sandstone, .Notiee reversal
of flow diredon” ufter the fourth
measurement.
‘.- .’. .. . . .. . . .. . . .
‘sensitivity- was ‘developed- to- designat~ – ----
rocks of slight, moderate and Strew.
sensitivity, The divisions between
these three degrees of sensitivity were
selected after examinhtg the flow be-
havior of field performance of the
reservoirs under investigation. The
values selected are:
slight sensitivity—
kW/kW 0,7 to 1,0;
moderate senshivity-
,’ k,JkW 0.3 to 0,7;
strong sensitivity—
k,,/k~ less than 0.3.
This scale is shown in Fig. 6, Water
and Klinkenberg permeabilities for
Muddy, Stevens and Bow Island sand-
stones are shown plotted on this scale
in Fig. 2.
Clay Identification
The amounts of clay minerals deter-
mined for the Muddy, Stevens, Bow
Island and Nugget sandstones are
shown in Figs. 8 through 11. No
general quantitative relationships were
apparent between the amount of water
sensitivity and either the amount of
1
material finer than 16 microns or the
group of similar samples of the same
f~rmation, it is generally true that as
the sensitivity increases, Similarly,
within a group of samples from the
same formation, “an increase in the
amount of. fine material causes in-
creasing sensitivity to particle phtg-
ging. However, a comparison of
samples from different “formations
20 shows that ‘some samples containing
only trace amounts of swelling clay
are strongly sensitive. Some samples
that contain no swelling clay and only
a few per cent of particles finer than
1.6 microns. are moderately sensitive
to particle plugging damage. The lack
pf specific correlation between the
ticles and the amount of sensitivity is
not surprising when one considers the
_______ :.j .J!!L=Z ,_ “+
WATER PERMEABILITY -MD -=-4
FiE. &Empirieal $cale of water sensi- -
tivity based on com arisen of Kifttken-
berg permeabi %ty and -water
permeability, ~
 1. !

—.
complexity of pore systems and the- preientie and kind of water kensitivlty.” Esiiisiiiiks~f-~-~lyikti-- --- – --–. .
effects of non-unifam clay distribu- The chart is arranged so that by con- Fig;. 8 through 11 show the results
tion. sidering the results of each analysis of the water sensitivity analyses for
on a “yes or no” basis and proceed- the Muddy, Stevens, Bow Island and
Sweliing Tests ing downward through the chart, A Nugget sandstones. The interpreta-
If the swelling tests are carefully conclusion is reached, Reservoir tion shown at the. top of each figure
performed, a reproducibility of plus rocks that display only slight sensitiv- can be obtained from the data pre-
or minus 5 per cent is attainable, The ity are considered as not sensitive for sented in each figure and the use of
swelling per cent, (volume or sample practical field consid&ations. The dis- the chart in Fig. 13: ,
in water/volume of the sample in Sol- tinctions made for each test are:
trol) X 100, ob~ained from rocks Muddy Sandstone (Fig. 8)
Petrography-clays are intergranu- The clay minerais occur in lami-
that have no swelhng clays will range
lar or clays are intergranular artd irr nations and in intergranular positions,
from 95 to 105.
laminations; The swelling value of 101 per cent
An examination of the swelling test
values and X-ray analyses for all of Swelling test—per cent swelling is indicates no’ swelling clays are pres-
greater than 105 or less than 105; ent. X-ray analysis reveals kaolinite,
the samples in this study indicated
that samples containing swelling clay Clay analysis-swelling clays are illite and chlorite, none of which is
have swelling percentages of 105 or present or absent; a sweIIing clay. The ratio of water
greater. This value of 105 per cent Core analysis—kW.&/k= is greater permeability to Klinkenberg perme-
was selected as the lower limit of than 0.7 or less than 0.7. ability is 0,9. The sandstone is, there-
swelling per cent that indicates swell- The arrow on the left side of Fig, fore, slightly sensitive, which is negli-
ing clays. Samples that are strongly gible for practical t3eId considerations.
13 serves to show an example of the
water sensitive from swelifng clays use of this chart. If a rock contains Steven& Sand@me (Fig. 9)
have swelling percentages as high as intergranular clay, has a swelling per clays in this sample are inter-
All
140. cent above 105, contains swelling granular; the swelling percentage of
The swelling percentages of the four clays, and has a k,,~t.,./k~ ratiO less 106 indicates swelling clays. The X-
sandstone examples are given in Figs. than 0.7, the rock is water sensitive ray analysis shows 0,4 per cent monf-
8 through 11. Notice the, progressive from swelling clays. The example morillonite which verifies the. swell-
increase in sweliing per cent with in- shown by the arrow on the right side ing test. The ratio of water to IUink-
creasing sensitivity from swelling of Fig. 13 is more difficult to inter- enberg permeability is 0.55. There-
clays. pret, A rock has clays that are both fore, the sandstone is moderately sen-
intergranular and in laminations, a sitive from swelling clay.
Microscopic Examination
swelling percentage above 105, and Boar Mand Sand@sme (Fig. 10)
Generally, it is adequate to deter-
detectable swelling clays, but the ratio The clay minerals all occupy inter-
mine if ciay minerals are ( I ) excht-
of k,..,.,/k_ .is greater than 0.7, These granular positions; the swelling per-
sively intergranular or (2) intergranu- data can be interpreted if it is recog-
lar and in clay laminations. These two centage is 118; and the rock contains
nized that the swelling clays in this
. . typtx of distributions are shown in 1,.3 per kent montmorillonite. The
rock occur only in clay laminations ratio kW.,.,/k~ is 0.05. These data
Fig. 12, Very commonly, ”rocks that and are not adjacent. to the pore sys-
contain clay laminations are not as tem, The rock is not water sensitive.
water sensitive as the clay analysis in-
‘dicates. Clay. distributions for the
sandstone examples are given in Figs,

v
8 through 11.

Comparison of Anaiyticai Techniques L

Clay Dis!rlbutlon - lntwq[qnul$:

PERMKAplrv
1
:ZLM*HI J

The chart shown in Fig, 13 is used !000 ~:”

to compare results from the four ana- ~ Iw

X8 60
lytical techniques and to determine the E 10
\ 40
X8 1
; ,0
“’J 1 0 K.altxa # D
00 SKi15Z0
‘wATERmd SOllnltv
fooo ppm i4aCl x [03

L Fig. 8+3nmmnry of wtiter sensitivity Fig. 10+ummury of wtstersensitivity

analyses, Bow Island sandstone,
i+’ analyses, Mnddy sandstone,
$ 100
z SYEV6NS SWDS70NE - MOPE&AT6 SENSIWWV
NU46EY SAISDSYONE - STkONO SENSIIWI TY

—..._.
i! PAWICIE
CIQ Aoel@8
PLuoalNo.

purcmt SWIIIIW - .I06 W Anot?I! Percent S“dtlllq - 102

. “10
III(M 6J?
%
kaoinilc s.? x

Ctev DiMflbvti08

r=
- Inlerqraoetw cloy Dls!rlbutlea

——_—-~--.J
- lnl*rqfen,l@r
II Mlwfr* 8.5 u

P6RM6A81LIV PERMEASVIITY g ,m -r
, Iwn ,.. Iwo *Z ~< .3
Iv i$ - ; no
10 100 Iwo ; [: ~?:”
Imo :::: ““.!
~e so
WATER PERMEARIIJTY -MD ~ ,0 g% 860
\..
:=-_2jLFig, 7-Permealdlity.
. ...- -..+. data for . timec
. .. ___ -_--g. L! “z-.< .._ : _-_+—. ;_--& __:.:-’
1 ,,‘-(;
/—. ~,– -A----- :20
.. . -.“r- - ‘“- ‘-
.> -----
faiiiones plotte~b’n-’fi-tir””iirisiti~ty ,:, II)aoolwox.
K 1 lom~ #.Oo D ~ ~,5to r B
male, Muddy sandstom+slight senei- o:so15z0
‘wATER md
tivit ; Stevens sandstone — moderate KYAlenma Sallnity Sallnlfy
ppm NaCl ~ 10< ppm NaYA X 03
sass r tivity from swelling clays t Bow
Island sandstontitrong sensitivity Fig. 9—Summary of $rater sensitivity Flgi 11—ihtmmnry of wister sensitivity
from swelling clays. mialyses, Stevens sandstone.
-“+. .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ----- - . . .,. - . . . . .analyses,..Nugget. . sandstone.
. . . .. .#.
.-.. —. ... . . ——. . . . . .. . ... .. . ...- -.:--—. —.. . . ------ . . . . . ... . ..—.
AUGUST. 1963 ..:” ‘- ”-”.“ “’—. -.—
-IH7
.. . . .. . . :.. .. . . . ... . . . .. . .“. . -. q+:
.. . . . .. .. .. . . ... ... . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. ... . . . .. . . .- ..:-. . ... .... . .-. .= .. . .. . . ,.-, -,. . .. . . . ..-. —.. ...-. . . ... . . ... . ...
._. -.-.—...;_.:-_
- ——. ~ .-_. —-—.-—-. __.—.
._.::J .A . -.: ~..._ -- ..— -. —. ---- ~,,= &,_..=,_ . -.:7+..=.- ________ ,=.
..=..=:, ._. .--:-.-:.: ... .<.- :-...-..-—, . .>, =. ..-, .>. .— ..-. . . . .—-. -- .<. ..--~. —.. .,_-:. .._
.—-—-— — -__*
.. ~ ~ _.,- ~:-:.:.x..”.:> .__”’:.:!._:
-.,, ~., . -______ ”_:7_5:
......=-...-”_~<1_.. .-?:.:.
. ._: ._..-.:.<-.
..~.,
 !.,

,,e ,

Fig. 13-Interpretation of four anW-

lytieal techniques to determjne the
presence and cause of water sensitivity.
See text for explanation of arrows.

References
1. f3ertness, T. A.: “Water Damageto Oil
Well Productivity“, Oil and GUSJour.
(Aug. 3. 1953) 42,58.
2. Mrrmtghan P. H,, Salathiel, R, A.,
Morgan, $. E, and Kaiser, A. D., Jr.:
“Lalroratory Studies of Formation Dam. ‘
age in Sands Cotrtahrhrg Clays”, ?’runs.
AIME (1959) 216, 209.
.‘3. Baptist, O. C, ‘and %veeney, S. A.:
“Effect of Clays on, the Permeability
of Reservoir Sands to Various Saline
~J;5~ Wyoming”, R, 1. S180, USBM

4. Baptist, O. C. and Sweeney, S. A.:

‘*Physical Proilerties and Behavior of
the Newcastle Oil-Reservoir Sand,
WestOn County, Wyoming”, R. ~. 53*?], ‘
USBhi (1957).
5, White, E. J., Baptist, 0, C. and Land,
c. s.: ‘YIusceptihilityof Petroleum
Reservoir Sands to Water Damage,
Powder River Basin, Wyoming”, Pre.
-. Fig. 12-Photomicrographs of thin seetions of sandstone reservoir rocks. print 1514-G,35th Annual Meeting,
Magnifieationy 100X SPE, Denver, Colo. (1960).
G=gmsins, C= clays, P=pora 6. Tkgnok, W. M.: “Clay, Minerals and
Above-clays are intergrtmtilar. I’ermeahilities of A palachian Oil
Below—clays are intergranular andin a lamination (arrow). Sands”, ft. L 5379, U !lBhf (1957).
. . .. 7. Morris, F. C., Aune, Q. A. and “Gates,”’
—. G. L.: “clay in Petroleum*Reservoir
—- indicate strong water sensitivity from is adequate, but a combination of
~ Rocks: Its Effect on Permeahllity with
~ swelling clays, techniques applied to identical samples Particular Reference to Tejon.&ape.
Nugget Sandstone (Fig. 11) will reveal the presence, cause, and vine Area, Kern Count , California”,
magnitude of water sensitivity. The R. i.5425, USBM (1959;.
The Nugget sandstone contains rel-
atively large amounts of non-swelling techniques recommended for a com- & Von Engelhardt, W. and ‘Ilrnn, W. L.
plete water sensitivity analysis are: M.: ~’The Flow of Fluids ThrOugh
clay minerals that are in intergranular Sandstones”, IU, Geol. Wruey, Paper
positions and has a swellihg. percent- 1. Permeability .,measurements — 194 (.1955) .
age of 102, However, the ratio k=, k,.,w ,,,,,, N.C,~,,nq kwm ,Pm S.01 LIFIU.S,
9. Nahin, P. G., Merrill, w. D., Gren+
k~~t,.,lk~ is less than 0.05. ” The sand- k Water; A, and Crog, R. S.: “MlneralOglcnl
stone is strongly water sensitive from 2. Physical swelling tests; Studies of California Oil.Bearing For.
particle plugging, mations. I.-Identification of Ciaya”,
. . 3:X-ray identification of clay and Trans. AIME (1951 ) 192, 151.
non-clay minerals finer than 16 mi- 10, Moore, J. W.”: “An Analysis of Cla/
Summary and Conclusions crons; and Mineralogy Problems in Oil Recovery’,
4. Microscopic examination. fi~eongr., I, B.40.47; 11, “B.78.101
Reservoir “rocks are susceptible to
two distinct types of permeability
11, Baptist, O. Ct and White, E, I.:
darnage. One type of damage is catrsed “Clay Content and Capillaly Behavior
Acknowledgments
- by.. the. presence .of _swelling. clays. or of_ W oming Reservoir Sands”. Trans,
potentially rnobile particles in the rock The wr;ter wishes to thank ~tte”Mar- AIM~ (1957) 21fL 414. ,“
and is termed water sensitivity dam- athon OiI Co. for permission to pub- 12, Johan.4en, R. T, and Dunning, H.- N.:
age, The other type damage is caused fish this informiition and to ackno@- “Direct Evaluation of Water Senskivity
by particular production operations ~~~~~ir Rocks”, R. I. 5422, lJStIW’ ...
edge the cooperation and assistance
and is independent of the ,mineralogy of geologists and engineers of the
and texture of the rock, Marathon Oil Co. for supplying core 13, Frost, I. C.: “An Elutriating Tuhe for
-.. the SpecificGravitySeparation of Mist.
..2.,.*a-.=- Wstter
-.—.+.-.-,..set-iiitive
&_ ~eservobs caa.-.@ =: smyP&s.- god r~er~oir d~~a- !Or this- ~ ~~-em~..~m. Mjn!.Ll?%?L.$~~ fX~.~:_..:._;
recognized -b~-au%l@i-rig-c&Zl’rn$es. study. ~tfcG15F”Fp~T@&atitin-”is-&@e”- - ‘“-—” $ ;,, .
A recognition of the cause of water’ O. C. Baptist of the U.S. Bureau of
sensitivity is necessary before correc- Mines for many worthwhile discus- EIXTOR’S NOTE: A PICTURE AND
tive productiori operations can be de- sions and suggestions relating to water BIOORAPHICAL SKETCHOF CHARLES,H.
. . . .. signed,, No one analytical” technique. .sensitivity
.. . analysis,
. . .. . . . . . . .. . ... . .. . HEWITT
. . . ..APPEARON
. . ..-, . .. .
PAGE851.
. .. . . .,
—.-,. -- —.. . .— . ... . ... . . . .— . . —.. , . .. . .....- .....!——— —.----— .. . . .. -—-—.... .. . .-. —.. . .._.-.. .... .. ..... . . .. . . . ..—.
.-
ais .’” JOUttNAtAOF PETttOLNUM”TEcB~OLOCY
. ..... . . . . . ... :. . ...-. ...’--. —T —.’—
...-. : .. .. ... . .. ... .. . ,-.. m.. ,.- <. .... ... .... ...... . ..:.” . . ... ....... > <.-.=., -.-,.-:-.1 :.,-. .—., J.- ---- -.. .?-----.= ,’.:P-. . . .$...*,+:. .. .... . ..... . . . <=..,.- .. . .. ----
-A —-----. .’...— ..——. ..:.. ... .—..- ..=,.._ :--~_:-—$<f___..... . ...- _=. —---.-. .—.- . . . . . .. -+--.=:.- ...+ ,=.—.. —-.. ..... .. ... ... . .~.—., &_=m:-= ,---