Ann. ocatp. Hyg^ VoL 30, No. 4, pp 445-454, 1986. 0003-4878/86 $3.00+0.

00
Printed in Great Britain. Pergunon Journals Ltd.
© 1986 British Occupational Hygiene Society.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS FROM ROAD

CONSTRUCTION AND SEALING WORK

F. W. DARBY,* A. F. Wiixisf and R. V. WINCHESTER

'Southern Regional Occupational Health Unit, P O Box 25-099, Christchurch, New Zealand and
^Northern Regional Occupational Health Unit, P O Box 5442, Auckland, New Zealand

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Abstract—Measurements of exposure of road workers to silica-containing dusts, hydrocarbon
solvents, lime and cement dusts, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons showed that, in general,
exposures were within permissible limits for these materials. Certain occupations, notably road
sweeping, cement spreading and spraying of coal tar and bitumen, require respiratory protection, the
provision of which was not always adequate. Possible effects of exposure to all materials were
mitigated by a work pattern of less than 8 h daily exposure for only about half of each year.

INTRODUCTION
AN ENQUIRY made to the Department of Health in 1982 concerning a possibly increased
cancer incidence in a group of roadworkers in the Kaikoura area prompted a study of
the exposure of roadworkers to chemicals and environmental materials during their
work. The study was not restricted to suspected carcinogens; it included measurements
of exposure to silica-containing dusts, hydrocarbon solvents, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) from tar and bitumen, lime, cement and bitumen adhesion
agents and was carried out in various areas of New Zealand. A study of the workers'
health was carried out concurrently (O. H. UNITS, 1984). This paper presents a
summary of the environmental results and compares them with established standards
for work with the various materials.

ROAD WORK OPERATIONS

The processes of road-making can be summarized as follows. A road is initially
formed using earthmoving equipment, but the study was not concerned with this aspect
of road construction. The road base, especially in areas of clay soil, may require
strengthening by 'stabilization' (DUNLOP, 1977), a process in which lime (calcium oxide)
or cement is mixed into the road formation. During the spreading of these materials on
to the road considerable exposure to their dusts can occur. Immediately before being
sealed, the road is swept with a mechanical sweeper, the driver of which may also be
exposed to road dust.
Road sealing can be carried out either by hot-mix laying or by chip-sealing. In the
former, 'hot-mix' consisting of a mixture of bitumen, diesel and aggregate (stone chips)
of small size is laid uniformly on the road by a slow-moving 'paving' machine. The hot-
mix is normally made at a depot and transported to the worksite by truck; the paving
t Previously at Central Regional Occupational Health Unit, PO Box 38-046, Wellington, New Zealand.
§ Present address: Chemistry Division, DSIR, Private Bag, Auckland, New Zealand, to whom requests for
reprints should be addressed.

445
446 F. W. DARBY, A. F. WILLIS and R. V. WINCHESTER

machines incorporate diesel-fuelled burners to keep the mix at the correct temperature
until it is laid. The paver driver, screeder (who operates the controls regulating the
width and thickness of the deposited hot-mix layer) and rakers (who follow the paver on
foot and tidy the edges of the paved area) may be exposed to bitumen fumes and
hydrocarbons from the hot-mix and to combustion products from the burnt diesel fuel.
The truck drivers often clean their trucks with a spray of diesel oil and may be exposed
to hydrocarbons from this source.
With chip sealing, bitumen from a tanker is sprayed directly on to the road, and
aggregate (of a larger size than used for hot-mix) is spread directly on to the bitumen
from a truck. The bitumen can be sprayed, using either a hand-held lance or from a
'gang-bar' fitted across the back of the tanker, and controlled either by a 'gang sprayer'

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riding on the tanker or remotely from the driver's cab. Gang and hand sprayers may be
exposed to fumes from hot bitumen, which may also include hydrocarbon solvents
(kerosene or diesel) added to 'cutback' the bitumen to the correct viscosity, and to
adhesion agents (see later). Deposition of aggregate on to the sprayed bitumen is
controlled by the 'fantail operator', who walks beside the truck and adjusts the
spreading mechanism as required. He may be exposed to dust from the aggregate. Both
types of sealing can be carried out both on new formations and on previously sealed
roads; in the latter case dust hazards from stabilization or sweeping will not usually be
present.

TAR AND BITUMEN

The carcinogenic properties of coal-tar (i.e. the residue remaining after the
production of gas from coal) have been known for many years (IARC, 1973), but this
material is now very rarely used for road sealing in New Zealand. Almost all sealing
now uses bitumen, which is derived from oil, and is readily available from the Marsden
Point refinery. The use of coal tar is restricted to a few small areas of the South Island
where gas-works are still operating, or where stockpiles are still held, and has probably
ceased even in those areas since the survey ended.
Some of the carcinogenic agents in coal tar are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
or PAHs. These are organic molecules containing three or more fused rings and are
formed by incomplete combustion of organic material containing carbon and
hydrogen (ILO, 1983). Small amounts occur naturally almost everywhere. PAHs are
present in bitumen, but to a much lesser degree than in coal tar.

ADHESION AGENTS
These materials are sometimes added to the bitumen to assist its adherence to the
aggregate. They are known by various trade names, including Redicote, Duomeen and
Diamin, and contain a range of fatty diamines (i.e. amines derived from difunctional
fatty acids). Some are dissolved in a liquid base from coal tar, while others are available
in pellet or flake form. The boiling points of the diamines are generally above 200°C.
Irritant effects of amines on the skin are well known (KEY et al., 1977).

METHODS
(1) Dust
Personal samples of road dust and aggregate dust were collected using Casella
 Health hazards from road construction 447

cyclones at a sampling rate of 1.9 1. min"'. The amounts of both respirable ( < about
5 /im dia.) and non-respirable fractions ( > 5 //m) were determined by weight. The
amount of respirable crystalline quartz (silica) in the respirable fraction was determined
by X-ray diffraction, as was the quartz content of bulk aggregate samples. Cement and
lime dust were collected at the same sampling rate using open-face filters. Cement dust
was determined by weighing and lime dust by dissolution of the (cellulose acetate) filter
and determination of calcium by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (NIOSH,
1977, pp. S205-1-S205-6).
Because of irregular work patterns it was often difficult to collect samples for a full
working day. Most samples were taken for 3-4 h and are considered to represent the
daily exposure with reasonable accuracy except where the work was intermittent.

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(2) Hydrocarbon solvents
Fumes from sealing operations were collected using charcoal absorber (Supelco
2-0267 or similar) tubes and Casella SP-15 personal sampling pumps and were
analysed by standard gas chromatographic methods (NIOSH, 1977, pp. S382-1-
S382-9).

(3) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Because of the low Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for these materials (D.O.H.,
WELLINGTON, 1983), workplace concentrations are generally very small. This
necessitates the collection of a large volume of air, which precludes personal sampling
except over a very long period. Short-term samples (5-10 min) were taken in the
vicinity of exposed workers using a 24-V battery-powered pump (Staplex) operating at
approximately 0.5 m 3 m i n " l . Samples were collected on 110 mm filter papers which
had been pre-washed with acetone. Analyses were carried out by Chemistry Division,
D.S.I.R., Christchurch, using published methods (SWALLOW, 1976). Bulk samples of
tar and bitumen were analysed similarly.

RESULTS
(1) Dust
Dust concentrations measured during road sweeping and sealing, lime spreading
and cement spreading are shown in Tables 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

(2) Hydrocarbon solvents

Results are shown in Table 4.

(3) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Samples were collected as follows: 13 from chip sealing with bitumen, two from chip
sealing with coal tar and two from hot-mix laying with bitumen. The air sample volume
varied from 0.66 to 7.8 m 3 and the amount of particulate collected varied from 0.88 to
398 mg, giving a concentration range of from 0.2 to 248.8 mg m " 3 of particulate
material (mean 38.2, S.D. 70.6 mg m~ 3 ). The hot-mix and coal tar samples produced
some of the lowest particulate figures. From subsequent analyses it became apparent
that not all of the particulate collected was PAHs and that the filters had collected
variable amounts of dust, soot and other extraneous materials. Three filters (the two
448 F. W. DARBY, A. F. WILLIS and R. V. WINCHESTER

TABLE 1. DUST EXPOSURE IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION WORK

Dust concentration Quartz (%) in TLV

Sample Sampling (rugm"3) respirable respirable Quartz (%)
No. Task time (min) respirable total dust (ragm" 3 )* in aggregate!

1 Sweeper 184 11.9 75 0.2 5

driving!
2 Sweeper 214 1.5 | 24 0.4 29
driving?
3 Fantail 176 0.9 7.8 7 1.1 19
operating
4 Fantail 313 0.5 | 18 0.5 32
operating
5 Fantail 198 0.3 | 18 0.5 32

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operating
6 Fantail 225 0.2 | 6 1.3 43
operating

* Calculated from the formula TLV = 10/(% respirable quartz + 2). If the percentage ofrespirablequartz
is < 1% the dust is classified as a 'nuisance' dust, with a TLV of 5 mg m" 3 (respirable). (See D.O.H.,
WELLINGTON, 1983, p. 32.)
f Sources of aggregate. Sample 2: Ryans Quarry, Heretaunga. Sample 3: Stevensons Quarry, Drury.
Samples 4,5: Wellington City Council Quarry, Kiwi Point Sample 6: Firths, Hutt River.
t Sweeping previously unsealed road.
§ Sweeping previously laid basecourse.
| Not determined.

TABLE 2. LIME DUST EXPOSURE IN ROAD STABILIZATION WORK

Series 1 Series 2
Sampling time lime Sampling time lime
Task (min) (mgnT 3 ) (min) (ingm" 3 )

Lime truck driving 28 18.4 110 0.5

111 0.5
Water tanker driving* 191 0.9 — —
179 0.4 — —
Supervising! 167 78.5 131 1.0
130 0.5
Lime loading! 12 314 — —
Traffic directing 120 55.7 — —
Roller driving§ — — 153 1.2

* Driving the tanker which deposits water on the lime after it has been spread on the road.
t Walking alongside lime truck and adjusting spreading mechanism if necessary.
X From stockpile to truck, using a front-end loader. In series 2 this task was carried out by the lime truck
drivers.
§ Rolling of road after the lime had been mixed into the road surface.

from hot-mix laying and one from chip sealing with bitumen) collected insufficient
paniculate for PAH analysis.
In total eight PAHs were determined. This did not represent the total PAH content,
as it included only molecules with four, five and six rings, but did include those
compounds with suspected carcinogenic properties. Table 5 gives a summary of results
for those PAHs with established carcinogenicity to mouse skin (HENRY, 1947).
Analyses of bulk samples of coal tar and bitumen showed, as expected, far higher
 Health hazards from road construction 449

TABLE 3. CEMENT DUST EXPOSURE IN ROAD STABILIZATION WORK

Sampling Cement dust

time (min) (ragra" 3 )

Bag handling on truck 80 25.5

Bag breaking and emptying 34 15600*
38 17500
Supervising 80 22.8f
Rotary mixer driving^ 91 0.6

• Some cement was lost from this filter.

t Consisted of 5.2 mg m~ 3 of respirable dust and 17.6 mg m~ 3 of
oversize ('non-respirable") dust.

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{ This machine, used for both cement and lime stabilization, mixes
the materials into the top 20-30 cm of the roadbase.

levels of PAHs in the coal tar. For example, coal tar contained, on average, slightly over
4000 /ig g" 1 of (benzo(a)pyrene + benzo(e) pyrene), while bitumen contained around
20 /ig g"' of these substances. More detailed results of the PAH analyses are given in
O.H. UNITS (1984).

DISCUSSION
(1) Dust
(a) Sweeper drivers. The two samples were taken under different conditions, but
both yielded results above the TLV for dust containing respirable quartz. In sample 1,
although the quartz level was very low, the TLV for nuisance dust was exceeded. This is
likely to be the normal situation when previously unsealed roads are swept, as the dust
is mainly dry earth and clay and should not contain appreciable quartz. The results
suggest that all sweeper drivers should use suitable respiratory protection, either
disposable masks or respiratorsfittedwith the appropriate dustfilter.The only form of
protection seen in use during the study was lengths of cloth or scarves wound around
the nose and mouth; this provides inadequate protection.

(b) Fantail operators. While these results show that dust exposures above the
TLV were not found on these particular jobs, there are probably some situations where
higher dust exposures may occur. This would be most likely where an aggregate of high
quartz content was used. Sample No. 3, taken on a road not previously sealed and
using a low-quartz aggregate, gave a result only a little below the TLV; with a high
quartz level, the TLV may well have been exceeded. The remaining samples were taken
on resealing jobs and, although the dust exposure in one sample equalled the TLV, this
occurred with relatively high-quartz aggregate and could be considered as a 'worst
possible' exposure for this type of task. [It should be noted that the quartz content of
the bulk aggregate is not always a reliable guide to the quartz content of the respirable
fraction, as the latter is dependent on the size of the quartz particles.] Overall it appears
that there is a slight possibility of fantail operators being exposed to excessive amounts
of quartz-containing dusts, but, as the work is carried out only for part of each day and
for about half of the year, theriskis minimal. Dust exposure can be reduced by ensuring
that quarries wash the aggregate adequately to remove fine material.
 450

TABLE 4. HYDROCARBON EXPOSURE DURING ROAD SEALING

Decanes* Higher Fraction

Octanes Nonancs (mgm~3) Toluene Xylene aromaticst ofTLV|

Paver drivers (n = 6)
mean 0.1 0.2 0.7 1.1 0.2 0.3 0.007
range 0-0.2 < 0.1-0.4 < 0.1-20 0-6.0§ 0-0.8 0-0.8 < 0.002-0.017
Screeders (n = 3)
mean 0.3 0.9 1.9 0.4 0.7 0.01 •n
range 0.1-O.5 0.2-20 0.1-5.1§ 0-1.0 0-20 <0.0008-0.014
Rakers (n = 7)
mean < 0.1 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.005
range ol 1 <o i < 0.1-0.25 < 0.1-20 0-0.4 0-0.8 0.0004-0.013
DARBY, ,

>•

Hot-mix truck driven (n = 3)

mean 0.4 0.2 71
<a, 0.1 0.2 0.0035
range <0.1-0.1 0.1-0.7 < 0.1-0.3 < 0.1-0.3 <0.1-0.3 0.0015-0.005
Hand sprayers (n =• 5) r
mean 0.4 1.2 5.0 0.2 0.4 2.3 0.03
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a
range <0.1-0.9 0.3-3.0 0.8-14.0 <0.1-0.6 0.1-1.0 0-6.0 0.005-0.07 0.

Gang sprayers (n = 8)
mean 8.3 23.0 79.4 20 3.2 21.7 0.30
range 2.3-33 4.9-75 128-256 0.3-6.7 0.8-10 3.8-54 0.07-0.84
Miscellaneous tasks|J
mean 0.1 0.5 1.0 0.4 0.6 0.008
range 0-0.2 0.2-1.0 0.4-20 0.1-0.6 0.1-20 0.0017-0.02
TLV 1450 1050 875 375 435 125 1
• Includes aliphatic compounds higher than decane, for which there is no official TLV. The TLV used for decane is that proposed by MCDERMOTT and
KILUANY(1979).
t Mainly trimethyl benzenes.
I The sum of the fractions C/T where C = concentration of a component in a mixture whose TLV is T, provided that the effects of each component are similar. If
the sum of the fractions is > 1 the TLV for the mixture is exceeded. (See D.O.H. WELLINGTON, 1983, p. 44).
§ These three samples are believed to have become contaminated with toluene between sampling and analysis. The true values are likely to be lower.
I Includes lane marker/traffic director (4X roller driver (1).
 Health hazards from road construction 451

TABLE 5. PAH EXPOSURE IN ROAD SEALING WORX

Substance* BA/C BF BeP BaP DjA InP

Carcinogenicity ratingf + ++ + + + + + + +
Concentration [fig m~3)
Coal tar chip sealing
(n = 2) 1.2-17.8 1.1-11.4 0.7-5.4 0.9-9.0 0.2-1.6 0.7-6.3
Bitumen chip sealing

mean 6.4 Z0 1.6} 0.04 0.3

range 0.02-51.8 0.02-14.0 0.09-10.9 0-0.4 0.02-1.4
S.D. 14.6 3.9 3.0 0.1 0.4

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= benzo(a)anthracene + chrysene, BF = Benzo(b + j + k) fluoranthene, BeP = ben-
zo(e)pyrene, BaP = benzo(a)pyrene, DjA = dibenz(aj)antnracene, lnP = indeno(l,2,3-cd)pyr-
ene.
t Relative activity on mouse skin.
X BaP and BeP could not be separated in six of these samples. For the remaining six the
separate results were (ji% m~3): BeP mean 1.1, S.D. 1.6, range 0.3-4.4; BaP mean 1.7, S.D. 2.4,
range 0.15-6.5; the percentage of BaP in the mixture varied from 32.7 to 68.8% (mean 57.6%).

(c) Lime stabilization. Lime sampling was carried out on two occasions with very
different results. The major difference in the two series was in the screen size of the lime
used; it appears that this is the critical factor in reducing exposure. If, as in the first
series, the lime contains a high proportion of small particles and dust, exposure of
nearly all workers involved in the process except water tanker drivers will be well above
the TLV of 2 mg m ~ 3 for lime. If the lime is supplied in relatively large lumps, free of
fine material, as was used in the second series of measurements, exposure can be
maintained below the TLV for all workers. The acute effects of lime on the skin and eyes
are well known (KEY et a}., 1977) and in any work involving possible exposure to lime
dust, protective clothing consisting of, as a minimum, overalls, goggles and proper
respiratory protection should be used. There is no evidence that lime is capable of
causing long-term health effects on the respiratory system (KEY et al, 1977; HUNTER,
1978).

(d) Cement stabilization. In this process the bags of cement are passed along a
truck tray to two workers who drop them onto a row of spikes contained in a spreader
towed behind the truck. The process is inherently dusty and the use of appropriate
protective equipment (goggles, respirators and overalls) to reduce exposure is the only
practical solution. As with lime, there is no evidence of long-term health effects from
exposure to cement dust (HUNTER, 1978), although some workers develop skin
sensitivity, possibly caused by small amounts of chromium oxides in the cement (KEY et
al, 1977).
Both lime and cement stabilization are at present carried out relatively
infrequently, with road workers unlikely to be exposed for more than 10 days per yr,
but this may well increase in the future.

(2) Hydrocarbon solvents

All of the results of hydrocarbon exposure except those associated with gang
spraying are extremely low. For tasks associated with hot-mix laying, exposure levels
452 F. W. DARBY, A. F. WILLIS and R. V. WINCHESTER

were around 1/50 of the TLV and for hand bitumen spraying a maximum exposure of
7% of the TLV was recorded. Gang sprayers are exposed to higher levels of
hydrocarbons, with a maximum approaching the TLV and a mean of about 0.3 times
the TLV. There are, however, several factors which reduce any hazard to the sprayers.
Firstly this task is, because of the risk of burns, rarely carried out except with complete
protective clothing, including overalls, goggles, gloves and a hood. Respiratory
protection, though, is sometimes inadequate, consisting of lengths of muslin or similar
covering the nose and mouth. A disposable mask suitable for solvent vapours should be
used for this task. As with exposure to dust, spraying is not carried out for all of each
day, and for only part of the year, so that the overall hazard from solvent vapour
inhalation is considered to be very small. Occasionally, sealing is undertaken using

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emulsified bitumen, which contains about 40% water and is applied cold. There are no
inhalation hazards from this process.

Adhesion agents. Because of the difficulty of establishing an analytical method in

the time available no actual exposure measurements of these materials were made. The
physical properties of the fatty amines, especially the high boiling-points, suggest that
these materials would not vaporize during bitumen spraying and, in fact, their purpose
would be largely negated if they did so. Their vapour concentrations in air are likely to
be even lower than those of the hydrocarbons, although there is a slight possibility of
their being present around spray operations as aerosols or attached to particulate
matter. The effects of adhesion agents containing amines on the skin are well known
and appropriate precautions are normally taken to avoid skin exposure. It is possible
for sensitization to amines to develop, in which case the effects will become apparent at
a very much lower level of exposure than will affect the average worker, but whether
such effects of higher amines extend to the respiratory system is uncertain. A case of
respiratory illness claimed to be caused by exposure to adhesion agents was brought to
our notice during this study and, although the cause could not be substantiated, neither
could the possibility be entirely eliminated and the worker received compensation for a
work-related disability. It was known that this worker had on occasions tipped the
adhesion agent from a container directly into the hatch of a bitumen tanker, with the
consequent possibility of inhalation of vapour blown back through the hatch. The use
of respiratory protection similar to that recommended for bitumen spraying while
handling the adhesion agents, especially if they are heated, should obviate the
possibility of respiratory effects of these materials.

(3) PAHs
All samples for which results are reported were taken during tar or bitumen
spraying. As the amounts of material collected during hot-mix laying were insufficient
for analysis, there is unlikely to be any hazard from this process, either from bitumen
fumes or from the diesel burners.
The only results which can be compared with any published data are those for
benzo(a)pyrene, where a concentration in air of 78 /ig m ~3 was reported during a
tarring operation with coal tar (SAWICKI et al., 1962). Results in this study for sealing
using coal tar were considerably lower than thisfigure,and the results for sealing using
bitumen were, except in one instance where a very large amount of particulate was
collected, much lower than the coal-tar figures.
 Health hazards from road construction 453

Standards for exposure to benzo(a)pyrene have been set only by Sweden (5 /ig m ~ 3,
reduced from 10 /ig m~3 in 1982) and Russia (0.15 /ig m~3) (ILO, 1977). A limit of
0.2/igm~ 3 was proposed in the United States in 1975, but this has never been
promulgated because of the difficulty of correlating BaP levels with total PAH levels
and with mutagenic properties (BjeRSETH, 1983). While Swedish standards are
generally considered in other Western countries to be relatively conservative, there is a
substantial body of opinion which regards the BaP standard as too liberal. Most of the
BaP levels measured in this study were between 0.1 and 1.5 /ig m ~ 3, but one each from
coal tar and bitumen spraying were considerably higher (9.0 and 6.5 /igm~ 3 ,
respectively). While most of the measured exposures were within the Swedish standard,
it is apparent that occasionally much higher exposures can occur, even with bitumen.

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Several countries, including New Zealand, have a TLV of 0.2 mgm" 3
(200 /ig m~3) for total PAHs as 'coal-tar pitch volatiles'. [A lower level of 40 /ig m" 3
for these materials has recently been introduced in Norway (BJORSETH, 1983.]
Compliance with this standard when working from individual PAH results is difficult
to establish, but calculations by Swallow* on the two coal-tar measurements showed
that one result was about half the permissible level and the other about 5 times the limit.
Again, it must be concluded that occasional exposures well above the present TLV can
occur in this type of work. As there is no doubt that BaP is carcinogenic both to the
respiratory system and to the skin (IARC, 1973), exposure should be kept to the
absolute minimum, by elimination of the use of coal tar and by the use of full protective
equipment whenever bitumen is sprayed. All results reported are those of measure-
ments made on workers using protective equipment; this factor, together with the work
pattern mentioned previously, suggests that provided adequate protection is always
used the risks should be small.
Published data (NAS, 1972) suggest that exposure to both PAHs and cigarette
smoke increases the risk of lung cancer synergistically (i.e. greater than the increase
expected from either factor separately). Encouragement of workers handling bitumen
and tar products to avoid smoking is therefore of major importance. A study of
roadworkers taken from the limited figures available in the New Zealand Cancer
Register concluded that there was no evidence to suggest that roadworkers in the
Kaikoura area (where the request for this study originated) were at risk from
occupational carcinogens and that smoking was a likely contributory cause to the
cancer cases reported (O.H. UNITS, 1984). However, with the very small data base, it
could not be definitely proved that the workers were not at risk.
The general health of roadworkers, details of which will be reported separately, did
not show any effects which could be specifically ascribed to their job, except for a small
number of cases of coal-tar photosensitization, and the workers showed a comparable
health status to other outdoor workers. No evidence of increased cancer incidence was
found.

SUMMARY
Results of the study show that health hazards from the majority of chemicals used in
road work are slight, provided that the appropriate protective equipment is used. The

1
Personal communication.
454 F. W. DARBY, A. F. WILLIS and R. V. WINCHESTER

major defective area is that of respiratory protection, where reliance is often placed on
crude measures such as lengths of cloth covering the nose and mouth. Although the
standards of protection required for quartz-bearing dusts, lime dust, solvent vapours
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons differ, all require at least a minimum standard
better than that seen during much of this study. The possible effects of exposure to all
these materials are, however, mitigated by exposure for generally less than 8 h daily
and for only about half of each year. Because of the nature of the work, measures other
than the use of protective equipment cannot readily be used.

Acknowledgements—The authors wish to thank M. Tyson and Dr E. Nicol for analyses of hydrocarbons and

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dust, respectively. PAH analyses were carried out by Dr W. H. Swallow and Dr R. W. Vannoort and the
authors are additionally grateful to Dr Swallow for assistance in interpretation of these results. They are also
grateful to staff of the Ministry of Works and Development, the New Zealand Contractors Federation,
several road-sealing companies, workers in the lime industry and members of the New Zealand Workers,
Drivers and Labourers Unions for their assistance with various aspects of this study.
This paper is published with the permission of the Director General of Health.

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Editor's note:
Readers may wish to refer to the paper by BRANDT, H. C. A., DE GROOT, P. C , MOLYNEUX, M. K. B. and
TINDLE, P. E. (1985) Sampling and analysis of bitumen fumes. Ann. occup. Hyg. 29, 27-80, which was not
available to the authors when writing this paper.