Polyethylene (PE): is a thermoplastic polymer

- Formula:C2H4
- Struture:
- Physical properties:
+ Melting point:
+ Boiling point:
- PE is not hydroscopic and does not pick up moisture. Therefore, no drying is required
unless the pellets or powder have been outside and become wet, or the resin has been
stored in a cold warehouse and brought into a hot environment, where moisture can
condense on the cold surface.
- LDPE: produced by high pressure free-radical polymerisation of ethylene, with ressures
up to 200 Mpa and temperatures up to 300°C. It is sometimes called branched
polyethylene or high pressure polyethylene, characterised by a significant level of long
chain branching (typical branch length of several hundred carbon atoms, long chain
branching frequency up to 5 per 1,000 carbon atoms), as well as short chain branching (2
to 6 carbon atoms long).
- HDPE: produced at low pressures by slurry, or gas-phase processes using Ziegler-atta
transition metal catalysts.
- LLDPE: produced by the low pressure polymerisation technology using transition-metal
catalysts, however, comonomers (butene-1, or hexene-1) are introduced into the reaction
to create small short chain branches on the linear molecule, with the effect of reducing
the density (gas-phase polymerisation process). It is a linear molecule with a higher level
of short chain branching than HDPE (specifically introduced by polymerisation with
comonomer), but without the long chain branches which characterise LDPE.
(Image)
Polypropylene (PP):
(Boiling point and melting point of polymers table)
 LDPE LLDPE HDPE
Components
Linear with little or
no branching,
Highly amorphous, chain branching
depending on
highly branched caused by the
Structure whether comonomer
(with both short and alpha-olefinic co-
was used during
long branch) monomers
the polymerisation
process.
Density (g/cm3) @
0.915-0.928 0.915-0.938 0.940-0.970
23oC
Peak Melting point 112oC 126oC 134oC
Enthalpy of melting 103(J/g) 160(J/g) 203(J/g)
Haze Low Medium High
Tensile strength Low Medium High
Elongation Medium Very High High
Tear resistance Medium Variable Low
Impact strength High High Variable
Puncture resistance Low Very High Medium
Hot tack Low High NA
Optimal working 3.1-3.5:1
compression ratio 3.1-3.5:1
screws
Degree of
55% 92%
crystalinity
Modulus of
140MPa 700 MPa
elasticity
readily dissolves in
many organic
Solubility
solvents at
about 100oC
Form of suppliance - Pellets - Pellets - Pellets (containing
- Virgin polymer (containing Stabiliser for the
 stabiliser for the
protection during
processing and protection during
- Formulated
end-use) processing and end-
polymer (containing
- Film grades use)
an antioxidant and,
may be - Grades are
for some film
formulated with formulated with
grades, slip,
slip, antiblock, additional additives
antiblock or possibly
process aid that perform unique
antistatic additives).
dditives and a functions.
basic stabiliser
package.
Melt flow 0.2 to 70 g/10 min 1.0 to 20 g/10 min 0.06 to 10 g/10 min
•Fillers –to strengthen polymer or reduce cost
•Plasticizers –to soften polymer and improve flow
•Colorants –pigments or dyes
•Lubricants –to reduce friction and improve flow
•Flame retardents –to reduce flammability of polymer
•Cross-linking agents –for thermosets and elastomers
•Ultraviolet light absorbers –to reduce degradation from sunlight
•Antioxidants –to reduce oxidation damage
Blown film machines:

* Die:
- To meter the polymer melt at constant pressure and uniform rate, and to
transform it into a thin-walled tube, while maintaining uniformity of the melt temperature
by heating process.Based on the input …, it is divided into two types: side-fed die and
bottom-fed die. Both systems comprise a metal outer body and an internal mandrel.

* Bubble cooling system:

+ To remove heat from the melt exiting the die and cool the film bubble to the
solid state, so that it can be subsequently flattened and wound-up.
+ To stabilise and support the bubble on its exit from the die and minimise gauge
variations.
+ To control the film density and a number of film properties including impact
strength, tear strength and opticals.
+ To determine the maximum output rate at which the film can be produced
without blocking problems. To prevent blocking, the temperature of the film reaching the
nip rolls should be less than 40°C.
 - Cooling ring: direct an air stream uniformly onto the exterior circumference of
the film bubble as it emerges from the die. Optimal conditions: combination of a high
volume of low pressure air at the highest practical velocity must be used.
- Collapsing frame: is made up of a pair of angled collapsing frames or boards
(sometimes called the A-frame or bat wings). These frames are built in the form of solid
or hollow construction, or in the form of rollers.
+ Light gauge film production: The angle between the frame shouldn’t exceed 45 o
to limit the possibility of wrinkles formation.
+ Heavy gauge film production: the angle between the frames can be considerably
less.
+ Related problem: Friction between the film and the surfaces of the collapsing
frame is too high will causes dragging and grabbing of the film as well as the increase in
the formation of wrinkles and creasing. The drawbacks are more serious when the film is
hot and the contact between the boards and the film is large. Slightly roughening the
surfaces or using coatings to reduce heat build-up and film drag is an effective solution
for this issue.
Gusseting assembly: is the set of wood or metal, narrow wedges or plates that are
located within the angle formed by the collapsing frames to make the film folds in on
itself. The gusseting should have smooth surfaces and rounded edges to avoid scratching
of the film.
Nip rolls: flatten the tubular film so as to trap the inflastion air inside the bubble.
The nip roll assembly comprises two rollers, typically one constructed of steel and the
other covered with a resilient material such as rubber, to take up flaws in the film.
Specifications:
+ Location:
+ Pressure:

- Film wind-up system:

- Cast film extrusion machine:
 LDPE LLDPE HDPE
Air velocities Lower than LDPE
Air volumes Higher than LDPE

* Film conversion:
- Slitting:
- Perforating:
- Cutting:
- Hole punching:
- Embossing: a procedure that is used to alter physically the surface structure of a film,
by imprinting a geometrical pattern into the film, under the action of heat and pressure.
The embossing is performed to improve the aesthetic qualities, surface characteristics or
final properties of the film.
- Printing: as the solvent evaporates, generally within a drying oven, it leaves a thin
continuous coloured layer of pigment particles adhering to the surface of the
polyethylene.
+ The printing ink: comprises essentially a pigment, a polymeric binder and an
organic solvent. The chosen ink needs to meet the following requirements: provide a
tough tenacious ink layer which is resistant to scuffing and flexing, does not affect the
contents of the package, and is not itself affected by the package contents or the additives
in the film.
+ Choices of solvent (must not affect the film): stereos; alcohols, alcohol/ketone
mixtures and esters are normally used, but hydrocarbons are unsuitable. Lately, solvent-
based systems are replaced with the water- based inks due to the environmental
awareness.
- Laminating:
- Heat sealing:
- Bag-making, wicketing:
- Wrapping and packaging:
Defects caused by non-homogeneous melt

Types of defect Description

Pinholes Tiny holes in the coating surface

Voids Small holes in the coating matrix

Large voids giving the coating the appearance of lace – this is often
Lace curtains
due to moisture or volatiles in the polymer

Thin bands in the coating extending in the machine direction and

Streaks
showing thicker and thinner areas of coating

Lines in the coating in the machine direction, often caused by

Die lines
contamination or oxidised particles in the die

Round or elongated clear spots which are raised so that they can be
Gel
felt Oxidised particles yellow-brown specks

“Applesauce” or Rough, wavy appearance in the coating, reminiscent of applesauce or

“Orange peel” orange peel.