Cells and Tissues

Cellular Structures and Functions

• CELL: smallest unit of living structure capable of independent
existence, composed of a membrane-enclosed mass of protoplasm
and containing a nucleus.

• CELLS are the living structural and functional units enclosed by a

membrane.

• CYTOLOGY: the study of cellular structure and function

Important Events in the History of Cell
• 1665 - Robert Hooke looks at cork under a microscope
Cell Theory
• Cell is the basic unit of biological structure and function.
• (1838) Mathias Schleiden
• (1839) Theodore Schwann
• (1858) Rudolf Virchow
Organismal Theory
• Entire organism is not merely a group of independent units but rather a
living unit subdivided into cells, which are connected and coordinated
into a harmonious whole.
• (1879) Anton de Bary
Important Events in the History of Cell
Cell Theory (Modern Form)
• All organisms are composed of one or more cells
• Chemical reactions of living organisms, including its
energy-related processes and its biosynthetic
processes occur within the cell
• Cell contain the hereditary information of the
organisms of which they are part.
Two Major Classes of Cells
• 1. Prokaryotic Cells
• First to arise in biological evolution
• Generally solitary with the nuclear material unenclosed in a membrane

• 2. Eukaryotic
• Multicellular and provided with a nuclear membrane
• Larger and more complex, with a wider range of diversity and differentiation
Prokaryotes VS Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Organisms Bacteria Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals

Organelles Few or None Nucleus, Mitochondria, ER

DNA Circular Chloroplast, Linear/Circular

RNA and protein Synthesized in the same RNA synthesized in nucleus

compartment Protein synthesized in the
cytoplasm
Cell division Binary fission Mitosis / Meiosis
Cell Functions
• Basic Unit of Life
• Protection and Support
• Movement
• Communication
• Metabolism and energy release
• Inheritance
Physiologic Properties of Cells
• Excitability
• Conductivity
• Contractility
• Absorption and Secretion
• Excretion
• Respiration
• Growth and Reproduction
• Organization
Principal Parts of the Cell
• A. Cell Membrane

• B. Cytoplasm

• C. Nucleus
A. Cell Membrane
• flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm
of a cell.
• fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and
separates them from the surrounding environment.
• The fluid mosaic model - the arrangement of molecules within the
membrane resembles a sea of lipids containing many types of
proteins.
• The lipids act as a barrier to certain substances.
• The proteins act as “gatekeepers” to certain molecules and ions
Cell Membrane Functions
• Gives shape to the cell
• Separates the cell from its environment
• Serves as recognition sites
• Serves as selective barrier
Membrane Proteins
• A. Integral protein
• extend into or through the lipid bilayer among the fatty acid tails and are firmly
embedded in it.
• B. Peripheral protein
• attached to the polar heads of membrane lipids or to integral proteins at the inner or
outer surface of the membrane.
• C. Glycoprotein
• Membrane proteins with a carbohydrate group attached that protrudes into the
extracellular fluid
• D. Glycocalyx
• “sugary coating” surrounding the membrane made up of the carbohydrate portions
of the glycolipids and glycoproteins
Membrane Permeability

• The cell is either permeable or impermeable to certain substances.

• ** Permeable – means that a structure permits the passage of substances
through it.
• ** Impermeable – means that a structure does not permit the passage of
substances through it.
• The lipid bilayer is permeable to small, nonpolar, uncharged
molecules (eg. oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and steroids), but
impermeable to glucose.
Gradients Across the Plasma Membrane
• Concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a
chemical between one side of the plasma membrane and the other.

• Electrical gradient is the difference in concentration of ions between

one side of the plasma membrane and the other.

• Together, these gradients make up an Electrochemical gradient

Transport Mechanisms Across the Plasma
Membrane
I. Passive Process
• Diffusion
• Simple diffusion
• Channel – Mediated Facilitated diffusion
• Carrier – Mediated Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
II. Active Process
• Active Transport
Vesicular Transport
I. Passive Process
• A. Simple diffusion
• Net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area
with lower concentration, that is along their concentration gradient

• B. Osmosis
• Simple diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
I. Passive Process
• C. Facilitated Diffusion
• Same as simple diffusion but the diffusing substance is attached to a lipid
soluble carrier

• D. Filtration
• Movement of water and solutes through a semi-permeable membrane from
an area with higher hydrostatic pressure to an area with a lower hydrostatic
pressure, that is, along a pressure gradient
II. Active Process
• A. Active transport
• Movement of substance through a membrane against a concentration or
electrochemical gradient and requires a membrane carrier protein

• B. Exocytosis
• Secretion or ejection of substances enclosed in a membrane vesicle which
fuses with the plasma membrane and ruptures
II. Active Process
• C. Endocytosis
• Engulfed extracellular substance are brought to the cytoplasm in a
membrane-limited vesicle

• D. Phagocytosis
• Cell eating; insoluble substances are engulfed and are enclosed in a vesicle
known as “phagosome”
II. Active Process
• E. Pinocytosis
• Cell drinking; engulfment of small amount of fluid enclosed in pinocytic
vesicles

• F. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis

• External substances binds to membrane receptors and are engulfed with their
receptors
B. Cytoplasm
• The protoplasm outside the nucleus which contains the different
organelles and inclusions

• Divided into an outer gel-like ectoplasm and an inner more liquefied

endoplasm

• Cytosol: the clear fluid portion in which the particles are dispersed
Formed Elements of the Cytoplasm
• I. Organelles
• Metabolically active internal organs carrying out specific essential functions

• II. Inclusions
• Metabolically inert accumulations of cell products

• III. Cytoskeleton
• Responsible for the gel-like consistency of the cytoplasm
• Forms the structural support or framework of the cell
I. Organelles
• A. Mitochondria
• B. Ribosomes
• C. Endoplasmic Reticulum
• D. Golgi complex
• E. Lysosomes
• Centrosome
• Cilia and Flagella
II. Inclusions
• A. Glycogen
• Storage form of carbohydrates in animal cells
• B. Lipid
• Serves as energy source
• For synthesis of membranes
• C. Pigments
• D. Crystals
• Least common among the inclusions
III. Cytoskeleton
• A. Microfilaments
• help generate movement and provide mechanical support
• thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton
• Composed of actin&myosin
• B. Intermediate filaments
• thicker than microfilaments but thinner than microtubules
• C. Microtubules
• largest of the cytoskeletal components and are long, unbranched hollow
tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin
C. Nucleus
• Control center of the cell

• Repository of genes which are the carriers of hereditary traits of an

individual

• DNA is the principal nucleic acid of chromatin

• Chromosome
• a single molecule of DNA associated with several proteins, contains thousands
of hereditary units called genes.

• • Genes
• control most aspects of cellular structure and function.
Cell Division
• Shortest period of the cell cycle

• Nuclear division and Cytoplasmic division

Tissues
• Tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common origin in an
embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities.

• Tissues may be hard, semisolid, or even liquid in their consistency, a

range exemplified by bone, fat, and blood.
Tissues
• Histology – is the science that deals with the study of tissues.

• Pathologist – is a physician who specializes in laboratory studies of

cells and tissues to help other physicians make accurate diagnoses.
Types of Tissues
• 1. Epithelial

• 2. Connective

• 3. Muscular

• 4. Nervous
Cell Junctions
Tight Junctions
Adherens Junctions
• Adherens junctions contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the
inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane
proteins and to microfilaments of the Cytoskeleton.

• **Cadherins transmembrane glycoproteins that joins the cells.

• In epithelial cells, adherens junctions often form extensive zones

called adhesion belts because they encircle the cell similar to the way
a belt encircles your waist.
Desmosomes
• Desmosomes contain plaque and have transmembrane glycoproteins
(cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent
cell membranes and attach cells to one another; the plaque of
desmosomes does not attach to microfilaments.

• A desmosome plaque attaches to elements of the cytoskeleton

known as intermediate filaments, which consist of the protein
keratin.
Hemidesmosomes
• Hemidesmosomes resemble desmosomes, but they do not link
adjacent cells. The name arises from the fact that they look like half of
a desmosome

• However, the transmembrane glycoproteins in hemidesmosomes are

integrins rather than cadherin.
Gap Junctions
• Gap junctions allow the cells in a tissue to communicate with one
another.
• Gap junctions, membrane proteins called connexins form tiny fluid-
filled tunnels called connexons that connect neighboring cells.
Epithelial Tissues
Origins of Epithelium
• A. Ectoderm
• Epidermidis, glandular appendages of the skin

• B. Mesoderm
• Vascular endothelium, kidneys, reproductive tracts

• C. Endoderm
• Intestinal tract, liver, pancreas and lungs
Structure of Epithelial Tissues
• Apical (free) surface –receives
cell secretions; they may or may
not contain cilia or microvilli

• Lateral surface – contains the

cell junctions

• Basal surface – deepest; adhere

to extracellular matrix such as
the basement membrane
Types of Epithelial Tissue
• Covering and lining epithelium forms the outer covering of the skin
and some internal organs.
• It also forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, and body cavities, and
the interior of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

• Glandular epithelium makes up the secreting portion of glands such

as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and sweat glands.
Covering and Lining Epithelium
Based on Arrangement of Layers
Based on Cell Shapes
Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Transitional Epithelium
Glandular Epithelium
• Function for secretion, which is accomplished by glandular cells that
often lie in clusters deep to the covering and lining epithelium.
• Endocrine glands secretes hormones that enter the interstitial fluid
and then diffuse directly into the bloodstream without flowing
through a duct; ductless glands; secretion is inside
• Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that empty onto the
surface of a covering and lining epithelium such as the skin surface or
the lumen of a hollow organ; secretion is outside
• Organs with Exocrine and Endocrine glands: pancreas, ovaries, and
testes,
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE
GLANDS
• 1. Unicellular glands are single-celled glands.
• **Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that secrete
mucus directly onto the apical surface of a lining epithelium.

• 2. Multicellular glands are common in exocrine glands composed of

many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure or
macroscopic organ.
CLASSIFICATION OF MULTICELLULAR EXOCRINE
GLANDS
A. Branched or Unbranched
• Simple Gland – if the duct of the gland does not branch.
• Compound Gland – if the duct branches.
B. Shape of the secretory portions of the gland
• Tubular Glands – glands with tubular secretory parts
• Acinar Glands – those with rounded secretory portions; also called alveolar
glands.
• Tubuloacinar glands – have both tubular and more rounded secretory parts
C. Functional Exocrine Glands
 Simple Exocrine Glands
• A. Simple tubular. Tubular secretory part is straight and attaches to a single
unbranched duct.
• Example: glands in the large intestine
• B. Simple branched tubular. Tubular secretory part is branched and attaches to a
single unbranched duct.
• Example: gastric glands
• C. Simple coiled tubular. Tubular secretory part is coiled and attaches to a single
unbranched duct.
• Example: sweat glands
• D. Simple acinar. Secretory portion is rounded and attaches to a single unbranched
duct.
• Example: glands of the penile urethra
• E. Simple branched acinar. Rounded secretory part is branched and attaches to a
single unbranched duct.
• Example: Sebaceous glands
Compound Exocrine Glands
• Compound tubular. Secretory portion is tubular and attaches to a
branched duct.
• Example: bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands.
• Compound acinar. Secretory portion is rounded and attaches to a
branched duct.
• Example: mammary glands
• Compound tubuloacinar. Secretory portion is both tubular and
rounded and attaches to a branched duct.
• Example: acinar glands of the pancreas
Functional Classification of Exocrine Glands
• A. Merocrine Glands – are synthesized on ribosomes attached to
rough ER; processed, sorted, and packaged by the Golgi complex; and
released from the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis. Eg.
• B. Apocrine glands - accumulate their secretory product at the apical
surface of the secreting cell. Then, that portion of the cell pinches off
by exocytosis from the rest of the cell to release the secretion Eg.
• C. Holocrine Glands – their cells accumulate a secretory product in
their cytosol; As the secretory cell matures, it ruptures and becomes
the secretory product because the cell ruptures in this mode of
secretion. Eg.
Connective Tissues
• Connective tissues are one of the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues in the body.
• Functions:
• They bind together, support, and strengthen other body tissues;
• Protect and insulate internal organs
• Compartmentalize structures such as skeletal muscles
• Serve as the major transport system within the body (blood, a fluid
connective tissue)
General Features of Connective Tissues
• Basic Elements of Connective Tissues
• 1. Extracellular Matrix - is the material located between its widely
spaced cells.
• Secreted by connective tissue cells
• It consists of protein fibers and ground substance, the material between the
cells and the fibers
• Controls the watery environment via specific proteoglycan molecules.

• 2. Cells
Connective Tissue Cells
• 1. Fibroblasts (fibro-fibers) are large, flat cells with branching
processes. They are present in all the general connective tissues, and
usually are the most numerous.

• 2. Macrophage (macro- large; -phages eaters) develop from

monocytes.
• Fixed Macrophage – reside in a particular tissue; Eg. Alveolar macrophages in
the lungs or splenic macrophages in the spleen
• Wondering Macrophage – have the ability to move throughout the tissue and
gather at sites of infection or inflammation to carry on phagocytosis.
Connective Tissue Cells
• 3. Plasma cells are small cells that develop from a type of white blood
cell called a B lymphocyte.
• Secrete antibodies, proteins that attack or neutralize foreign substances in the
body.
• Most plasma cells reside in connective tissues, especially in the
gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.
• 4. Mast cells are abundant alongside the blood vessels that supply
connective tissue. They produce histamine, a chemical that dilates
small blood vessels as part of the inflammatory response, the body’s
reaction to injury or infection.
Connective Tissue Cells
• 5. Adipocytes also called fat cells or adipose cells, are connective
tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats).
• They are found deep to the skin and around organs such as the heart and
kidneys.

• 6. White blood cells are not found in significant numbers in normal

connective tissues. However, in response to certain conditions they
migrate from blood into connective tissues.
• Neutrophils gather at sites of infection
• Eosinophils migrate to sites of parasitic invasions and allergic responses
Extracellular Matrix
• The ground substance is the component of a connective tissue
between the cells and fibers. The ground substance may be fluid,
semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified.
• It supports cells, binds them together, stores water, and provides a
medium for exchange of substances between the blood and cells.

• Component:
• Water and an assortment of large organic molecules (polysaccharides and
proteins.
Ground Substance
• The polysaccharides include:
• a. Hyaluronic acid
b. Chondroitin sulfate
c. Dermatan sulfate
• d. Keratan sulfate
• Collectively, they are referred to as glycosaminoglycans or GAGs.

• Except for hyaluronic acid, the GAGs are associated with proteins
called proteoglycans.
Ground Substance
• Hyaluronic acid is a viscous, slippery substance that binds cells together,
lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of the eyeballs.
• White blood cells, sperm cells, and some bacteria produce hyaluronidase, an enzyme
that breaks apart hyaluronic acid, thus causing the ground substance of connective
tissue to become more liquid.
• Chondroitin sulfate provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone,
skin, and blood vessels.
• Dermatan sulfate found in the skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart
valves.
• Keratan sulfate found in the bone, cartilage, and the cornea of the eye.
Ground Substance
• Adhesion proteins are responsible for linking components of the
ground substance to one another and to the surfaces of cells.

• fibronectin, main adhesion protein of connective tissues which binds to both

collagen fibers and ground substance, linking them together.
Protein Fibers
• A. Collagen fibers

• B. Elastic fibers

• C. Reticular fibers
• A. Collagen fibers (colla = glue) are very strong and resist pulling
forces (tension), but they are not stiff, which allows tissue flexibility.
• The properties of different types of collagen fibers vary from tissue to tissue.
Eg.

• B. Elastic fibers are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers, branch

and join together to form a fibrous network within a connective
tissue.

• C. Reticular fibers (reticul = net), consisting of collagen arranged in

fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein, provide support in the
walls of blood vessels and form a network around the cells in some
tissues, such as areolar connective tissue (areol- small space), adipose
tissue, nerve fibers, and smooth muscle tissue.
Protein Fibers
Classification of Connective Tissues
Mature Connective Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues
Types of Mature Connective Tissues
• Dense connective tissues contain more fibers, which are thicker and
more densely packed, but have considerably fewer cells than loose
connective tissues. There are three types: dense regular connective
tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, and elastic connective
tissue.
• Cartilage consists of a dense network of collagen fibers and elastic
fibers firmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate, a gel-like component of
the ground substance.
• Cartilage can endure considerably more stress than loose and dense
connective tissues.
• The strength of cartilage is due to its collagen fibers, and its resilience is due
to chondroitin sulfate
Cartilage
• Chondrocytes (chondro-cartilage), cells of mature cartilage occur
singly or in groups within spaces called lacunae (sing. Lacuna) in the
extracellular matrix.
• Perichondrium (peri-around) covering of dense irregular connective
tissue, surrounds the surface of most cartilage and contains blood
vessels and nerves and is the source of new cartilage cells.
• Three (3) types of Cartilage:
• 1. hyaline cartilage
• 2. fibrocartilage
• 3. elastic cartilage
Types of Mature Connective Tissues
• Bones are organs composed of several different connective tissues,
including bone or osseous tissue, the periosteum, red and yellow
bone marrow, and the endosteum

• Classification of bone tissue

• Compact bone
• Spongy bone
Compact Bone
• Osteon or Haversian system – basic unit of compact bone

• Parts of an Osteon:
• Lamellae
• Lacunae
• Canaliculi
• Central haversian canal
• Lamellae (sing. lamella) are concentric rings of extracellular matrix
that consist of mineral salts (mostly calcium and phosphates),
• Gives bone its hardness and compressive strength, and collagen fibers, which
give bone its tensile strength.
• Lacunae (sing. lacuna) are small spaces between lamellae that
contain mature
• bone cells called osteocytes
• Projecting from the lacunae are canaliculi (little canals), networks of
minute canals containing the processes of osteocytes.
• Provides routes for nutrients to reach osteocytes and for wastes to leave
them
• Central (haversian) canal contains blood vessels and nerves.
Compact Bone
• Spongy bone lacks osteons. Rather, it consists of columns of bone
called trabeculae (little beams), which contain lamellae, osteocytes,
lacunae, and canaliculi.

• Spaces between trabeculae are filled with red bone marrow

Mature Connective Tissue: Bone Tissue
• Description: Compact bone tissue consists of osteons (haversian
systems) that contain lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, canaliculi, and
central (haversian) canals.

• Location: Both compact and spongy bone tissue make up the various
parts of bones of the body.
• Function: Support, protection, storage; houses blood-forming tissue;
serves as levers that act with muscle tissue to enable movement
Liquid Connective Tissue
• Blood tissue (or simply blood) is a connective tissue with a liquid
extracellular matrix and formed elements. The extracellular matrix is
called blood plasma.

• The blood plasma is a pale yellow fluid that consists mostly of water
with a wide variety of dissolved substances—nutrients, wastes,
enzymes, plasma proteins, hormones, respiratory gases, and ions.
Blood
Membranes
• Membranes are flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of
the body.
• Epithelial membrane - majority of membranes consist of an epithelial layer
and an underlying connective tissue layer.
• Principal epithelial membranes
• mucous membranes
• serous membranes
• cutaneous membrane or skin
• Synovial membrane – lines joints and contains connective tissue but
no epithelium.
Epithelial Membranes
• Mucous Membranes
• A mucous membrane or mucosa lines a body cavity that opens directly to the
exterior. Mucous membranes line the entire digestive, respiratory, and
reproductive tracts, and much of the urinary tract.

• The epithelial layer of a mucous membrane is an important feature of

the body’s defense mechanisms because it is a barrier that microbes
and other pathogens have difficulty penetrating.

• Lamina Propria:
Serous Membranes
• A serous membrane or serosa lines a body cavity that does not open
directly to the exterior (thoracic or abdominal cavities), and it covers the
organs that are within the cavity.
• Parietal layer – layer attached to and lining the cavity wall;
• Visceral layer – layer that covers and adheres to the organs within the
cavity
• Serous fluid, secreted by mesothelium; it is a watery lubricant that allows
organs to glide easily over one another or to slide against the walls of
cavities.
• Pleura. serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and covering the lungs.
• Pericardium. serousmembraneliningtheheartcavityandcoveringtheheart
• Peritoneum. serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and covering the
abdominal organs
Epithelial Membranes
Muscular Tissues
Muscular tissues consist of elongated cells called muscle fibers or
myocytes that can use ATP to generate force.
• Functions:
• Body movements
• Maintain posture
• Generate heat
• Protection
• Classification of Muscular Tissue
• Skeletal Muscular Tissue
• Cardiac Muscular Tissue
• Smooth Muscular Tissue
Nervous Tissue
• Principal types of cells: neurons and neuroglia.
• 1. Neurons (neuro-nerve) or nerve cells, are sensitive to various
stimuli. They convert stimuli into electrical signals called nerve action
potentials (nerve impulses) and conduct these action potentials to
other neurons, to muscle tissue, or to glands.
• Most neurons consist of three basic parts
• a. Cell body
• b. Dendrites
• c. Axons
• Cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles

• Dendrites (dendr-tree) are tapering, highly branched, and usually

short cell processes (extensions). They are the major receiving or
input portion of a neuron.
• Axon (axo-axis) of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical process that
may be very long. It is the output portion of a neuron, conducting
nerve impulses toward another neuron or to some other tissue

• Neuroglia (-glia-glue) do not generate or conduct nerve impulses,

these cells do have many important supportive functions.