Maria Christine N.

Halili

Store

Philippine Copyrlght, 2004

by Rex Book Store, Inc.
Philippine History
First Edition 2004
ISBN 971-23-3934-3
Classificati0%: Textbook (04-ss-00003>
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Acknowledgment

Above all, the author Fishes to (ha.lü the Ahighty God for
the blessings and guidance He has given her.
For the realization of this venture, she would like to
express her sincere gratitude to the following authors Whose
works were referred to in the text: Dr. %nia Zaide, Professor
Renato Constantino. Professor Teodoro Agoncülo, Professor
Milagros Guerrero, Dr. William Henry Scott, Dr. Raymundo
Punongbayan, and Mr. Heelðr Santos, as well as to New Day
Publishers for allowing hel to include in this book, the topic
about the Code Of Kalantiaw.
Special thar•s to Atty. Pantaleon Oumlao, Mrs. Liberty
SantosDumlao, Mr. Daniel Ortega, Mr. Ray Naguit and Ms.
Julita Javier for providing some data materials for the book as
well as to Dr. Norma Morala, Dean of the College Of and
Sciences of Bulacan State University for her unelding Support.
Special mention given to her relatives and friends
particularly Mr. Angel Recto, Ms. Mary Mayoyo, Ms. 'osefina
Ochoa, Ms. Jessica Thosas, Ms. Marissa Enriquez, and Mr.
Ricardo Capule for their invaluable help in various ways. Fina
lly, to her parents. Mr. Romeo and Attv. Lolita Halili; her
brothers, Antonio and Frederick; her Sisters, Annabelle and
Merhama for inspiration and prayers.

M.C.N.H
 Preface

Knowing the impressiong left by past generations tells us that

valuable lessons can be learned from history. The transition of the
Filipino society from the early phases of technological development
up to its pmparation towards globaliyation definitely reflects the
character of the l'xal inhabitants as well as the culture that hag been
developed after a long period of time-
This college text titled Philippine History traces the early
beginnings of the country's natural environment. its people and
culture, shaped and changed by socioecononuc and geopolitical
conditions.
This book intends to incorporate the notable events that
took place in our country, unfurling the aspirations Of the
PéX1ple and unfolding the passibilities of the future
Scholars of history have already written quite a number or
specialized studies about the Philippines. The purpose of this
book is to introduce the past. based on recent researches.
Specificaüy, this modest contribution to study ofthe
nation's history has its trussion Of disseminating the ideals
prevailing in the society under varied citcumstances and
promoting the nationalistic spirit among people, to fulfill the
concept of What a Filipino should be as defined and Lived by
our noble heroes

M.C.N.H
Guiguinto, Bulacan
 Course Outline
Objectives
A. General Objectives
At the end Of the coutse, the students are expected
to:
I. Gather information about Philippine history marked
by important events, places. dates and pergong
forming the growth Of and distinction of
culture;
2. Understand the internal and external pressures
involved in the transition Of societies and culture
found in the country at different periods of time;
3, Appreciate the açxmmpusk.men felhw
counäymen for the welfare Of the nation;
4. Realize and avoid the mistakes ccmJrótted in the
past to guide the present and prepare the future;
and
5. Develop a Sense Of identity and pride in being a
Specific Objectives
At the end Of the midterm period, the students
expected to:
Find out the meaning and the task of history;
2, Be awareof the theories in und etstandinghistory
and to relatc them to past events and current
issues;
3. Determine the sources of history and the historical
errors;
4. Know the brief history Of Philippine atxha.eology;
 5, Be familiar with the country•g geological formation,
geography, and natural resources;
6.
Be able to identify and describe the vast majority
and the indibenous people the archipelago; and
7. Identify the circumstances surrounding the
colonization cf the archipelago and the influences
brought about by foreign interaction.
At the end Of the final term, the students are
expected to:
1. Become aware of the values and beliefs of the people
shaped and changed bv socioeconomic and geopoliticaI
innuences blvughtby western colonizers;
2. Analyze the factors that gave birth to Filipino
nationalism;
3. Understand the struggle of the people for reforms and
national independence during thc Spanish colonial
era;
4. Know the historical basis for the country's claim on
North Borneo;
5. Lonk into the circumstances surrounding the birth Of the
Filipino nation;
6. Understand the reasons behind the formation of
militant groups;
7. Discuss Ésues and problems of the country a the
recognition of the country's sovereignty;
8. Reevaluate the policies of the past administrations;
9. Relate the events in other countries with the
 Philippines; and
10. Assess the socioeconomic and cultural development of
the country through the years,
Course Contents
A. Knowing Philippine History
1. Meaning of History
2. The Task of History
3. Theories in Understanding listory
4. Sources Of History
5. Brief History of Phihppúle Archaeology
6. Persisting Problems
7, Unhistorical Data
B. The Natural Setting and Its People
How the Earth was in the Beginning
1.1 Based on Phthppine I .egcnds and Myths
1.2 Scientific Explanation
2. Geulot,ical Foundation
2.1 Geology and Prehistory.
22 J and Formation
3. The Archipelago'S Name
3.1 pre-Spanish to Pre:ænl
4. Geography and Resourœs
Location
4.2 Climate
4.3 Topography
Flora and Fauna
5. The Filipino
5.1 Traits and Values
 5.2 Theories on the Origin of (he Filipinos

C. Filipino Society and Culture During the pre-Spanish

Period
1. Early Periods of Derelopment
11 Stone Age.
12 Metal Age
.3 Age or Contact
D. Spanish Conquest and the Colonization of the
Philippines
In Search of New L'nds
2. Magellan's New Route to the East
Rediscovery of the Philippines
4. Magellan's Voyagc to the Archipela¥0
5. Post-Maw)an Expeditions
6. Towards the Pacification Of the Natwes
7. Farlv Spanish Settlements
8. Instruments Of Exploitation
9. Political Reorganization
Towards the Ilispanization of the Natives
l. Economy
2. Education
3. Arts and Science
4. Rehgion
E Foreign Affairs
1. Sino-Philippine Relations
2. Dutch Attempts
3. British Occupation
G. Struggle for Rights and Freedom
Revolt of Lakandula and Sulayman
 2. First Pampanga Rcvolt
3. Masat Sa lamat and the Tondo Conspiracy
4. Magalat•s Revolt
5. Revolt of the Irrayas
6. Revolt Of Tamblot
7. Revolt Of Bankaw
8. Revolt Of Ladin
9. Revolt Of Dabao 10, Maniago's Revolt ll.
Malong•s Revolt
12. Revolt Of Gurnapos
13. Revolt Of Pedrc Almazan
14. Sumorofs Revolt
15. Tapar"s Revolt
16. Dagohoy's Revol
17. Silang's Revolt
18. Palarig's Revolt
19. Rcwolt Ln Defense of the Spanish Constitution
20 Revolt of the Bayot Brothers
21. Religious Revolt of Hermano Puùe
22. Wars
23. Factors that Gave Rise to Nationalism
24. Movement
23, The Katipunan
26. Revolution Of 1896
27. Rivalry in the Katipttnan
28. The Biak-na-Bato Republic
29- Spanish-American War
Filipino-American Collaboration
The Birth Of a Nation
1. Proclamation Of Philippine Independence
 2. "Battle" of Manila
3. The Rcpttbhc
The American Rule
War of Philippine Independence from the United Sta

2. The Philippines under the American Civil

Government
3. Our American Heritage
4. Philippine Independent Church
5. Thc Colorums
6. Land Tenure System
7. The First Labor Groups
8. Communist party Of the Phllippines
9. Sakdali_sm
10. Philippine Polities Dkiring the Era
Commonwealth Period
I. The Transition
2. Lk•cades of Unrest
3. Entry Of Japanese Imperial Forces
K. The Japanese Occupation
Japanese Martial Law
2. The Second Philippine Republic
3. Resistance and Resft)ration
L. The Conditions of the Republic Under Different
Administrations
Manuel A. Roxas
Elpidio Quirino
3. Ramon Magsaysay
4. Carlos P- Garcia
 Diosdado Macapagal
G. Ferdinand E. Marcos
7. Corazon C Aquino
8. Fidel V. Ramos
9. Joscph Estrada
Gloria Macapngal-A rrayo
Chapter Test No- 2.... 36

3 Pre•colonial Philippines
Cultural Evolution Of the Early Filipinos .40
2. Traditional Filipino Communities . . .55
Chapter Test No. 3 . .. 65
 xiii
4 The Spanish Era
In Search of New Lands 69
2. Magellan's New Route to the East .70
3. Rediscovery of the Philipp .72
4. -Ihe Spanish Conquest Of the Islands .......................„. .78
5. -Inwards the Hispanization cf the Natives .86
6. Chinese in the Philippines . . 97
7. More Europears in the Islands.... 100
Chapter Test No. ......„ 104

5 Struggle for Rights a nd

Freedom

Revolt of Lakandula and Sulayman . - 110

2. First Pampanga Revolt 110
3. The Tondo Conspiracy 111

4. Magalat's Revolt
5- Revolt of the rgorots 112

6. Revolt of Irrayas . . 112

7. Revolt Of Tamblot . 113

8 Bankavv's Revolt 113

9. The Revolt of Ladia 114

10. Revolt Of Dabac 114

Slnmoroy's Revolt . 115
12, Maniago's Revolt . 115
13. Andres Malong's Revolt 116
The Revolt of Gumapos. . 117
15. Revolt Of Pedro Almazan .117
16, Tapar's Revolt „
17 Dagohov's Revolt . 118
Sdang's Rcvoll 119
Chapter Test No.6
 LandTenure Svstem.
174
179
188
192
193
195
7. The 19
First
6
.19
Labor
Groups 819
. 9
8. The Communist party of the
9. Sakdalism .
Chapter Test No.

TestNo.S...
Chapter 220
„..

9 The Japanese OccupaHon

 Japanese Martial Law .
2.Life During the Wartime Years
3,Reforming the Philippine Government
4. The Rep"blic or the Philippines
5. Resistance and Restoration „
Chapter Test NO. 245

The Republic

Roxag Administration
(1946-48) .
2. Quirino
Administration (1948-
53) .. ....
3. Maggaygay
Administration (1953-57) 4. Garcia
Administration (1957-51 ) .
5,Macapagal Administration (1961-65)
6. Marcos Administration (1965-1986i....
265
7. Aquino Administration (1986-1992)
8.Ramos Administration (1992-1998) . 283
9. Estrada Administration (1998-2001) .

321
xvn
 Knowing Philippine History
1. Understanding History
In its broadest history is the Study of past events. It
generally the known past. What is unknown is yet to be
IYtTieved. The recording and analysis of exlNriences of a
society comprise the totality of a people's history.
As a historical being, man responds to the situation placed
before him and thus his acts arebascd onhis thoughts. The
society's way of facing the challenges depending gpon its
capabilities uncovers the pattern of the the British
historian Arnold Joseph rooted on this presumption.
The 12-volumc series of A Study ofHistory (1934-61 ) IS
based on Toynbee's thesis that history reflects the progress Of
Civilizations and societies. He viewed the past as a succession
Of civiti?ations rather than political entities. Based On his
hypothesis, the failure of a civilization to survive was the result
of its inability to respond to challenges,
Mankind's approach in 'coping with challenges determines
historv, Under various cirv:umstanccg, a powcr will wish to extend its
influenœ at the expense Of another power. The threatened power will
then reevaluate the challenge and adopt the course of action to curb
the strategy Of the opposing power.
To illustrate. in the struggle of dauntless Filipinos to regain
lost rights and freedom during the Spanish era, the propagandists
and revolutionaries responded to colonial oppression by
resisting. The challenge posed by the colonial Subjugation of the
Filipinos, generally characterized by in'ustice and corruption.
The response was defiance to the prevailing rule.
 Man's actions are not just involuntary movements
especially when time allows him to plan his next action. These
responses pass through the process Of reasoning and analvsis.
Often. he deals with other people to discuss on how to answer
a Ccrtain situalion.
Associated with the aforementioned premises, the
exchange theory of31yin may be carefully thought about. His
exchange theory refers to the Systematic statement of principles
that govem the exchange of goods between individuals,
between groups. between organizations and even between
nations. This is based on the idea Of
are some motivational forcesfound in the society
affecting the actions Of people involved in the silualion. A case in
point is the early form Of trading among the native iahabitants called
barter. Alliances of people, communities as well as nations are also
tooted in the idea of Interchange
One Of the most prominent thinkers Of the 19th century was
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. (1770-1831), a German idea¶ist
phllosophcr. Hegel conceived the sttbiect matter philosophy to be
œalily as a whole. This realitv he referred to as the Absolutc SpiritFer
hint. the task of philosophy is to chart the development of the
Absolute Spirit.
Hegel's ofhistorical man follows a principle. which he
called Wettgiest or world spirit, which embodies ideals lake
patriotism. heroism and unity. Since historical individuals are
ideals and man follows his ideal, this thought which is guided
by a particular ideal becomes What Hegel called as
Geisteswissi•nckaftett or the world of spirit of thought This
area of thought is the thesis. Thig combines with a Situation or
matter called Naturtvrssenchåften, the antithesis or the
complete opposite of the Geisteswissenc.haftën. By the
combination Of thesis and antithesis, man achieves the
synthesis, which is the historical reality.
Applying this theory in history, there were guerilla fighters in
World War Il who werc guided by their sense of duty and
responsibility to lead the people during the warfare. The Situation
2
was the Japanese invasion. Tne combination Cf their thoughts like
patriotism and heroism resulted to their historical acts, manifested
through their deeds and exploits in the battles that were fought
against the Japanese forces during the war eva.
Ln understanding historv,ånot be considered is theory
Of Karl MA, anotl r aerrnan philosopher. He asserts that the
prevailing economic system determines the form of societal
organization and th_c political and intellectual history of the epoch,
which thus attribute actions and events in history to econom.ic
motives. The struggle to maintain life is the most enduring
motivation for any hu man activity.
To cite an instance, the intensification Of inter-island contacts
and the increasing specialization in craftsmanship by early dwellers
were brought about by economic consideration. Centuries Of trade
and personal relations With Southeast Asian neighbors led to the
enrichmcnt Of Filipino life and culture. As more dwellers traded with
foreign merchants, influences in the field of commerce, science.
religion, language and the arts became evident as they weœ
transmitted to other members of the society.
Another example is the Spanish colonial era. has Iren said
that the three primary motives for vastexploration of lands were
tor God, gold and glory, but the main incentive whs for
economic reasons. Colonies are important sources of raw
materials and opportunities for investment. Spain was at the
height Of its power in the century since it exercised political and
econormc control in its several colonicA
The Connntotist Manifesto written by Marx which contains the
statement Of principles of thc Communist League. embodies the
materialist or historical materialism. The Maniß•s/o
states that the history Of society is a history Of struggles between the
ruling class and the oppressed masses. This is based on the theory
scientific social evolution of Marx, wherein he stated that when
society was still primitive, there wag social equilibrium bul Wilh the
introduction of new_ideas an4 tools of doing .things, man became
greatly concerned with materral wealth. This led to a class strugg}e
between the workers (proletariat) and the capitalists (bourgeoisie).
From these premises, Marx concludcd that the capitalist clasyg would
3
be overthrown by the working class through revolution and replaced
by a classless society.
Another approach to historical studies is the method
historiography developed by Fernand Braudel (1902-1985),
considered the father of historical structuralism. According to
Braudcl, to achtevc a "total history," au aspects Of man's past are
to bc integra ted. This new approach involvcg the study of
history in its total view made possible by examining the.
circumstances underlying such political, economic, scKial, and
cultural events.
Philippine history is a people's history. As defined b,'
Renato Constantino, history is "the recorded Of people for ever
increasing freedom and for newer and higher realization Of the
human person." it is not about thc story of man as lhe indivxìua\,
but man as the man. Man interacts with nature and
with other men, thus consciously changing his own perspective
and to some extent, the system of environment.
Based on Ccmstantino's supposition that Philippine higtâru is
Q story of struggle, the study has to bc reassessed with a nationalist
perspectivc in the interest of objectivity. This is to allow the modern
Filipino to form a clear picture of his ancestors' conditions and
sentiments from the point of view of Filipino writers to correct some
historical made by colonial historiography.
History is not merely the work of heroes and men as elucidated
by Constanäru_) in hig book, The Philippines: A Past Revisited. He
pointcd 0131 thal the masses of individuals as well as the forces
generated by coliective lives and struggles have to be included- Men
must struggle {ogether survive the exigencies of natural or social
forces intervening their development. The associated man, as part of
the society, through their collective lives make history Without a
society, history ig highly improbable.
Constantina further mentioned Ihat history-is not neœssari]y
presenting a long, unbroken chain of evenly. It must-rates rno•.ernent
of people and ideas over and space. They may even be in conflict
with one another. is the lask oí the historian to weave particu)ar

4
events into a total view so that these experiences can be summed up
and analyzed.
Thus, the study Of history can as a guide ta present and
succeeding generations In facing the challenges of the times. By
proieciing the people's aspirations, a people's history will enable us
to grasp the direction of the country's development and identifv the
factors that impede real Truly, the need for a real people's
becomes more urgent as we Filiplnos search for trulv Filipino
solutions to the problems bcsctting Our country.

2. Sources of Historv
Sources Of information provide the evidence from which the
historian obtains facts about the past. writing hislorv. the historian
not only relies on past thoughts rather menacts it in the context of
analyzing the documents and other records left. This is an
indispensabie condition in the quest for historical facts.
Sources of history may be cla«ified as primary and
secondary. Primary sources are those that have witnessed the
event that took place or have been part Of the incident being st-
tidied. These include written records (e.g. ttarraliyes,
manuscripts, public documents, tettezs, diaries). fossils, and
testimony fmm living witnesses. the Other hand. sou rces
have not been part cf thc event being considered such as
magazincs, newspapers, pamphlets, typescripts, and articles
wriúën about the primary sources,
Prehistory, a term given by t9"' century French scholars.
covers the human expcriences prior to the existenÑ ofwritten
records. The basic scurcc of prehistory is archaeology, which is
a subdisciplinc of anthropology (i.e., the study of alt aspects o'
human life and culture). Archaeology is the study Of past
cultures. Archaeologist5 study artifacts (material equipment
made by people 01 the past like tools, pottery. and jewelry) and
fossis (pryserved remains Of plants, animals, and people cf a
remote geological past). Archaeological excavation refers to
the systematåc recovery and study of these pieces Of material
evidence.
5
 Archaeology gives us an idca how ti-ungs might have
looked like af a part:cuiar time. Cultural artifacts may be looked
at as cuncrete expressions Of the ancient settlers • way in
dealing with the problem Of adaptation to the environment.
Their achievements in material and social cutture show much
of their behavior,. values, and beliefs as well their intellectual
maturity.
Unfortunately, the reconstruction of Philippine prehistory
will always be incomplete. Many Of the objects recovered have
disintegrated Over time, Materials like wood, barks of trees.
and clothing decompose easily parucularly in a tropical climate
such ours. Dewicesmadafston€' clav and the like, can survive
most liüeiy the socigty that created it and thus, presently known
through the efforts Of the archaeologists.
Early archaeological undertakings in the Philippines with the
first mai01 expedition a Frenchman, Alfryd the island of
Marinduqueand other sites in Central Most Of his collections are now
with the Musee de l' horn-me in Paris, and game in There were also
Sporadic Finds and pot•hunting activities in various parts Of thc
ar•dago.prior to this major archaeological excavation Feodar a
German traveler, reported having encountcrcd a priest in Naga,
Camarines Sur who collected artifacts from ancient graveyards.
Dr. Antonio de Morga, in his Sucesos de Las Islas Filipinas
Events of the Philippine islands), described the
ancient that were recovered by farmers in Luzon.
particularly in Iloeos, Pangasinan, Pampanga, and Manila.
These were clay vessels Of dark brown color and some marked
with characters. These items are no longer being manufactured
in the islands.
Jose Rizal, the country's foremastherc was noted to have
found ground and polished stone during his exile in Dapitan,
Zamboanga del Norte.
The second major archaeological exploration was carried out
by Cad Guthe from the University of Michigan from 1922 to 1925.
With his team, they conducted several test-digs in Palaw3T, Bohöl.
Northern Mindanao and Other places in Central Philippines. The
6
 purpose of this Michigan archaeological expedition was to collect
Chinese ceramics e4'0Hed to the Philippines from China, to 100k
intn the early Filipino-Chinese relationship. The collection, resulting
from the cxcavation, consisted of more than 3C cubic tons of
prehistoric artifacts. They are now kept at University of Michigan.
From 1926 to the outbreak Of the Second World War, much Of the
archaeological discoveries were done by Henry Otley Beyer (1883-
19%) born in Edgewood. Iowa who had married Lingayu Gambuk,
the 15 year-old daughter of a powerful Ihtgac chief in 1910.
The dScovery Of a major archaeological site in NovaJiches in
1926, resulting from the construction of a dam for Manila's water
supply, was Beyer's first archaeological research In the country, In
1947, Beyer published the Outline Review ofPhilippine Archaeology
by Islanûs and provinces, a pioneering research activity in Philippine
prehistory.
Larry Wilson, a mining prospector, assisted Beyer in the
exploration of numerous Pleistocene in Northern Luzon. It was
Beyer who first disclosed the importance of Palawan in the
search for early man in the Phil*'pines.
All over the archipelago, the fossilized remains of large
mammals that roamed the islands during the Middle Pleistocene
Epoch have been in the 1920s. The fossils of elephas, stegodons, and
deer have been discovered in Cagayan, Pangasinan, Rizal, Panay
Island and in Northeastern Mindanao. The elephas. stegodcn, and
rhinoceros ate now extinct in the country. [n Cabarruyan Island in
Lingayen Gulf, fOssilized tooth Of a dwarf elephant was reported to
have been retrieved. This specie of dwarf elephantwas subsequently
Identified and named Elephas beyeri after H. Otley Beyer,
considered as the Father Of PhilLppine Archaeology and Prehistory.
Von Koenigswald, a paleontologist known for his work on Java Mar.
gave the name for this specie.
After the Second World War. increased interest in
prehistoric beginnings of the Thilippines evolved. Archaeology
was later on introduced as part Of the curriculum at the
University of the
Philippines.
7
 Wilhelm C. Solheim 11 conducted the first post-war excav
ations in Masbate Island from 1951 to 1953. Alfredo
Evangelista and E. Arsenio Manuel assisted him in undertaking
the work.
Between 1950 and 1954, was the re*arch associate at the of
Archaeology and Ethnology of the University of the Philippines
and lhe librarian and curator Of thC Atncrican Historical
Collection of the U.S. embassy in Manila. His earliest works in
Philippine archaeology was in 1951, with the publications on
archaeological fieldwork in San Narcúso, Tayabas (now
Quezon). His activities included extensive held cxpcriencc in
s%utheast Asia, as well as the various islands of the Pacific
Region.
From 1958 to 1962, Robert B- Fox and Alfredo Evangelista.
both working for the National Museum cf the Philippines, undertook
series Of lest-digs in the caves of Cagrarav, Albay and Bato,
%rsogon. Tradeware ceramics from China and Thailand were
recovered in
Cala
Fox led the Tabon Caves Archaeological Project in
Southwestern Palawan, resulting in the unearthing of late Pleigtocene
human fossils and stone toots and implements. Charcoal materials
analyzed by carbon-I•1 technique œvealed the presence Of man in
the area between 22.000 to 24.000 years ago.
Human fossil of at least three individuaLs were found.
These included a large frontal bone, with the brows and part of
the nasal bones as well as fragments of a mandible and teeth.
Classified as modern man cr IIomo Sapiens, these ate the
earliest known human inhabitants Of the Philippines.
Neil McIntosh ot- the University of Sydney in
Australia undertook the analysis and X-rays of the Tabon
skullcap and mandible in 1975. Details showed the
presence Of a thin fissure on

8
the right side or the skull which according to McIntosh, may
have the of death of the individual. was probably due to a
fall or a bump the head.
Other minor and explorations followed in the 196œ,
parti£ularly in the southern regions of the and Mindanao, led by an
thropologists of the University of San Carlos in Cebu and Sil.liman
University in Dumaguete City, Negms Oriental. In 64,
Marcelino Mace-da of Sart Carlos University, technically aggigtcd
by the National Museum, conducted archaeological at
Kularnan Plateau in Bukidnon recovered a number Of limestone
burial jars. North of this place, Samuel Briones, a graduate student
a t Silhman University reported the cf limestone burial jars in
several caves he visited in 19"
Ln Cebu, Karl Huttercr and Rosa Tenazas Of San Carlos
University recovered prehistoric artifacts in the middle of Cebu
City. Tenazas carried out archaeological excavations in the Laguna
area and recovered valuable materials, mostly 10th and century
artifacts in 1968-69
In Izrnery, Batangas a group of students from Ateneo de
Manila conducted archaeological diggings from 1968 tc 1970. The
team Was cornp06ed of Cecilia Y. Locsin, Maria Isabel Ongpin, and
Socorro P.
Patemo.
In the 1970s, the National Museum Of the Philippines. led by
its chief archaeolo gist Robert B. Fox, began systematic ax-
haeological work in Cagayan Valley. This marked the a:dent quest
for prehisbråe man in the area, Comparable to those
reported animals (such ag clcphas, stegodons, and rhinoceroses),
new fossil discoveries such as thow of crocodiles, giant tortoises,
pigs, and deer were found in Cagayan.
In 1971, Karl Hutterer returned to the site he previously
explored in Bascy River in Southern Samar. The following
year. Wilhelm SOIheirn [I and Avelino Legaspl dug in the area
Of Davao del Sur. They found tools made from laige shells,
manufactured through a flaking technique similar to that used
making stone

9
 tools.

3 Cnhistorical Data
There are some narratives that have been previously accepted in
Phtlippinehistory as but later were found Out to bc lustOrica1
errors. It is to the credit of many historians who and
take position Of what they have diswvered out in their careful
research. These accounts the Maragtas Story, the Code of
Kalantiaw, and the legend of Crduja.
Maragtas is the about the ten Malay datu owh0 settled
into thc Philippine islands. According to the Maragtag, at around
1250 A.D., ten Bornean and their families left their kingdom in
search of new homes across the gea to escape the merciless rule of
Sultan Makattmaw. Led by Datu Puti, the Borneans landed in the
island of Panay and bought the lowlands the Ati king named
Marikudo in exchange for one gold saduk (native hat} and a long
gold neckiace for Queen Maningwantiwatv After land sale and
pact of friendship. the Atis went to the hills. The Malav datus settled
in the lowlands.
Datus puti, Balensusa, and Dumangsii sailed northward to
Luzon and landed Ln the region around Lake Bonbon (Taal).
There they built their settlemenb. Dumangsil and BaienŠ11Sa's
families occupied ether neighboring regions now known as
Laguna and the Bicol Peninsula. Datu Puti left for Borneo after
he knew that his men were leading peaceful lives.
The other stayed Panay They divided the Gland into three
districts. (now Antique) was under Datu Surnakwe). Datu
Paiburong ruled Irong-lmng (now Iloilo). -Datu Bangkaya
govcrncd Áklan (now AkJan and Capi2).
Led by Datu Surnakwel, a political ccmfederat-imt Of
barangays (Madya-as) was formed for purposes Of protection
and close family relations, The story as told by Fr. Francisco
San la further dexribes the expansion of the Malav Sef t'ers to
other parts Of the archipelago. The legal code written by Datu
Sumakwel also known the Maragtas Code was previously
10
known the "oldest knowm written body Of laws" in the
Philippùws.
William Henry Scott made the study of prehistoric source
ma rials for the study of Philippine history, the sulth•ctofhis
doctoral dissertation at the University of Santo Tomas. He
defended his paper before a panel of well-known historians on
June 16, 1968, The panelists include Teodoro Agoncillo,
Gregorio Zaide, Mercedes Grau Santamaria„ Nicolas ZaÆra,
and Father Horacio de la Costa, SJ,
The research of Scott showed that Maragtas is not a pmhispanic
document but a book written by Pedro Monteclaro, a local historian
of panay. Monteclaro's publisher in 1907, noted that this Maragtas
should not be considercd as facts, all of which are accurate ard true.
The publisher pointed cut that many or the aulhor's data da not tally
with what wc hear from old men. The author wrote that two of his
were rctfen and hard leöblc. None Of these written matczials was
preserved for future generations. He made no explanation the date as
well as origin of his sources. Neither WCrr here claims to clarity.
There is no tradition of recording history nor legal decision in Panay
during the precolonia] times. Thus the Maragtas could neither
support the presence or any pre-Spanish Confederation of Madiaas
(also spelled as Madyaas) not uphold existence of a Surnakwel
Code.
previously regarded as the second oldest legal code in the
Philippines was the Code GfKnianiiaw. codc was said to be a
set of ancient laws promulgated in 1433 by Datu Bendara
Kalantiaw (Spanish spelling, Calanžiao) of Aklan, the third
Muslim ruler of panay.
The code itself was contained in one o] the chapters of the
antiguas leyendas de la isla de Negros (Ancient Legends cf
Negros Island) written by Fr. rosc Maria Favon, a Spanish
secular priest who became a parish priest of Himamaylan,
Ncgros Occidental in 18381839- Jose E. Marco of Negros
Occidental discovered the alleged Favon manuscripts and
presented it to Dr. James RoberGon, Director of thc Philippine
Library Museum in 1914. According to Marco's confesioa, he
11
obtained the two manuscript volumes from someone who had
stolen them from the Himamaylan convento during the
Revolution.
Director Robertson had the Pavon manuscripts published
in English translation in 1917. The Philippine Studies P
(Dgram of the Uaiversity of Chicago tcprinted the translation
in 1957. Eventually, Filipino historians and textbook writers
acknow\cdged the authenLicily of ihc Pavon manuscripts
without any doubt.
In the unprecedented doctoral stud v of Scott, he concluded that
the Pavon manuscripts were not genuine and that the Codc of
Kalantiaw was a hoax. He presented his serious objections to this
fakc "historical" code. They are as follows:

12
 is nn evidence that Fr. Pavon, the alleged author
of the manuscript, was ever in the Philippines in 1838,
or parish priest of the town in 1839, the dates of the
manuscript. The discoverer of the alleged manusc:ipt.
Jose E. Marco, was also involved in thc sale of other
fake documents. There is no evidence for the
existence ofDaru Kaiantiaw, or a code ofhß name
other than the documents presented by Jose Marco.
2. The contents of the manuscript are of dubious value. For
example, the author prays for the preservation Of the King
of in 1838 and dedicates a book to him in 1839, but Spain
had no king between 1833 and 1874.
3. The author also Statcs that the month Of November was
called a bad month for it brought air laden with pufxified
microbes of evil fevers. It was only in the 1850s that Louis
Pasteur discovered the theory of infectious germs. The
word "microbe" itself was invented by Dr. Char]es
He the term first time in a
lecture before the Academy OE Sciences in 1878.
4. The Kalantiaw Ccde contains many strange edicts that
contradict the character of the Filipino. For example,
the prescribed deahpenalty thecarneof
trespassing on the datu'ghousc, but imposed only a
year's slavery for stealing his wife.
Eventually, scoWs doctoral di.serlation was published by the
UST Press (Unitas, vol. 41, 1968). The year, it wag reissued with the
title, Prehistoric Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History
(UST Press, 1969).' The same book Was published in the second
revised edition by New Day Publishers (Quezon City) in 1984. the
last chapterof the book. Lookingfor the Pm}ttspanic Filipino issued in
1992 by New Day Publßhecs. Scott wrote a chapter titlcd. Kalantiåtvi
The Cade that Never Was. Rotes conclusions have not been
challenged by any historian to date.
Another narrative that many Filipinos have learned is about
the legendary warrior princes named Urduja, She has been
adopted as a symbol of a woman of distinguished courage, an
inspiration for women in the country.
Unfortunatelv, this tale is another historical error that has
created falsc impressions and should be corrected. The story
reportedly came from Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Batuta a]so
known as Ibn Batuta (1304-1378), an Arab traveler from Morocco.
His kwok Rihlùh (Travels) includes descriptiolls of the Byzanbnc
court of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and the Black Death of
Baghdad
(1348).
According to travek accounts, while somewhere in Soulheast
Asian waters, he reached the land of Tewn\isi after a voyage of 71
days. and China was 15 days away with a favorahù2 wind. In
Tawnlisi, he mentioned a mysterious amazon named Princess Urduja
who would only marry the man who could beat her in fistfights. She
presided over a court so fascinating and majestic. She gave Ibn
Batuta gifts of silk, spices, sheep, buffaloes, and two elephant-loads
of rice.
The legend of Princess Urdujais quile amusing but
historians could not certify its authenticity. Modern historians
agree Ihal Princess Orduja was just an illusory creation of Ibn
Batuta, a wntemporazy of Matto Polo (1254-1324), the
Venetian traveler accountg in the East, particularly
China (the English translation of the original title of the book
was The Description of the World recorded by RusticheÌlo, a
romance writer fram Pisa), drew the altenlion of a grtat number
of Europeans and stimulated interest In Asian tradeEfforts to
correct historical errors are still ongoing. Many historians even
investigate for themselves the validitv of sources and data. Tne
concern of histDrians has been to collect and record facts about
the past and to discover new facts with utmost care and
truthfulness. The damage caused by deception is surely
immeasurable but the blunder itself is a challcngc that every
individual should face. The determination Lo lincover the past
necessarily involves the use of auxil]ary disciplines and literary
forms.
14
 Chapter Test No. 1
Name: Date:
Course, Secticm:

I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the correct answer.

Write your answers on the blanks provided: (15 pts.)
Based on his theoty, actions and events in history
may be to economic motives.
a. Alvin Scaff c. Karl Marx
b. Arnold Toynbee d. Fernand Braudcl
Hegel's Naturwissenchaften, the antithesis refers
to

a. historical reality c. particulat ideal

particular situation world Of spirit of or matter
thought
3. According to him. Philippine history is a story
of struggle
a. • Renato Constantino c.

b. Sonia Zaide a. Robert Fox

4. The item below is a secondary source.
a. diary journal
b. fossil d. love letter
5. This is an example of an artifact.
a. jaw bone c. soil
b. . pottery . d. jewelry 6.
He wrote the Sucesos Las tsia.s F17ipi"ns.
a. Feodor Jagor c. Alfredo
Evangeligta

15
 b. . Antonio de Morga d. Arsenio Martncl
7. Aside from those Mad rid, most Of the eoÐettion.s of
Alfred Marùe in his 1881 major excavation are
found in this city
a. Cebu c. Ncw York
b. Manila • d. Paris
8. This the of the Mictugan archaeological expedition from
1922 to 1925.
a. exploration of numerous Pleistocene giteg
Northern Luzon
b. collect Chinese ceramics exported to the
Phi]ippincs from China
C. gather artifacts from ancient graveyards d,
search far prehistoric man in Cagayan Valley
9. The remains of the Tabon Man was discovered under
the Of this archaeologist. a. Otley Beyer
c. Antonio de Morga
b. Wilhelm Soheimll Robert Fox
10. In the late 1960s, Karl HutteR-r and Rosa Tenazas of
this university recovered prehistoric artifacts in the
middle of Cebu City.
a. Ateneo de Manila
b. Silliman University
c. San Carlos
d. University Of Michigan
Il. He wrote in 1907 that two of his written
sources for the Sumakwel Code were rotten and almost

E. Marco c. Jose Maria Pavon

b. Pedro Monteclaro

16
 12. According to Ibn Batuta, Princess Urduia this
kingdom which he travelled 15 days away
from China.
a. Tawalisi c. Pangasinan
b. Thalamasin d. Borneo
13, This is the modern day name Of Champa,
a. Java c. South Vietnam
b. Borneo d. India
14. In this alleged the author prays for the
preservation of the King ofSpain in 1838 but Spain
had no king between 1333 to 1874.
a. Kalantiaw Code c. Maragtas Code
b. Sumakwel Code d. Madya-as
15, In lhe Maragtas story, the ten Bornean dalus
bought this island the Ati king named
Matikudo,
a, Cebu c. Panay
b. Negros d. Samar
Essay: (10 pts. each)
l. HOW do take place -in history as pointed Oat bv Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Alvin Scaff?
2. What made WiIlia m Henry Scott conclude that the
Kalantiaw Ccxie is a fake historical code?

The Natural Setting and its People

1. How the Earth Was in the Beginning

17
 The Holy Biblc tells us that, "In the beginning God created the
heaver1R and the earth" (Genesis 1: 1 The first part of the bcxJk
relates [he storv of creation- G(ki created trtaT in His own image,
male and female. Adam and Eve, the first man and woman, became
the progenitors of mankind.
Indigenous Filipinos, on the ather hand, have a number of
myths and legends about the creation of the earth, names of places
and the origin of plants. Some myths explain the formaticn of
Lglands and islets as well as the creation of varied living creatures.
Some stories say that In the beginning, there was only the
sea and the sky. eased on a Visayan legend, their wag also a
mvthical bird named Manaul searching for a place In rest bifl
cannot find oneThen he pleaded the god of the sea, Kaptan and
the god of the air, Magauayan to help him.
The gods, asserting their might in answering the bird's request,
showed their strength. The god Of the sea cœated tidal waves beat
the sky In response, the god of the air threw the waves back by
whirlwinds of rock and soil. Drv land was built in the process.
The fight continued for thousands of years, until Manaul grew
tired of it. He collected the rocks from thc mountains and dropped
them on both gods. This ended the battle. The ma+es of tocks thrown
bv the mythical bird became the islands of the Philippine archipelago.
After gettlng exhausted, M,maul flew to a nearby grove of
tall bamboos to rest. When he alighted on the stalk, he heard a
voice coming frorn the bamboo, asking te be freed from within.
The bird pecked at the bamboo until it split apart Out of the stalk
came the first man. and the first woman Si-Kavav. Thcv were
advised bv the earthquake ag well as the fish of the sea and thc
birds of the air to marrv so Ihal they would multiply on earth.
They did. so
Si-Kgvay bore her first-born son Sibo. Smnar, their first dattghtcr
came next.
Numerous legends explain how places got their names. In many
Instances, the name of a place is derived from brtef form of word
linked to the story. for example Tagaytav from ftaga Itav;" Mindaro,

18
 from the names Of a couple Mina and •Doro; and Mar'lla, from the
word Maynilad (there are nilad plants In the place).
Legends and rnvt_hs at times provide a fanciful
counterpart 10 actual explanations Of things and events. The
legend Of Fkrnardo Carpio, called Htžri ntga Tavatos' (King Of
the Tagalogs) presents an imaginative explanation of how the
country was shaken by earthquakes. According to the legend,
Bernardo Carpio was rebuked by the gods for insolence and left
endlessly chained in Montalban Gorge in Rizal Province. He
was cursed to kccp two mountain walls frum colliding.
Whenever he pauses to regain sltpngth, the walls Of Montalban
Gorge start closing in, Cdrpio pushes them back so that the
would not grind him into pieces. As a result, the ground
around him shudders.
The analytical study of geology commenced With the
publication of James Hutton's Theon.• ofthe Earth (2 volumes.
1795). lutton (1726—1797), a British geologist, formula the
theory Of geology which maintains that the laws of nature
have remained constant. He further explained that the physical
and chemical procesges that havc acted throughout geologic
time are the Same processes seen today. Taking the hydrologic
cycle for instance, condensation always precedes precipitation.
Proecsscs such as volcanism and erosion tha t have caused
changes Ln thc carth'g Surfacc had been operating in the same
manner over a very long period af time. I rejected the theory
ofcutasfrophism, which was the prevailing belief during his
time. Catastrophism asserts that only major catastrophes could
alter thc formation cf the earth.
Maps or charts covering thc cnhre world or specific regions
are contained in art atlas. Ptolemy, an Alexandrian scholar
produced the first collection Of maps in about A.D. 150. In the
160 century. Gerardtts Mercator used the tenn atlas in the title
Of his collection of maps. 'lhc term was derived from the custom
of plating the Greek mythological figure Atlas holding the earth
on his shoulders on the title pages Of map collections. Thc first

19
modem atlas titled, Thentpum Orhis Terraru.•n (Theater of the
Earth), was published 1570 by
Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch cartographer,
Ortelius noticed that the American contincntg seemed to
have been disjoined from Europe and Africa. He realized that
the coasts of the three continents could be linked together like
a huge jigsaw puzzle.
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930), a German meteorologist, al-so
noted his inquiry regarding the thræe continents which, Ortelius had
300 years ago. He began to combine some observations, which
centered on the view that the east coast of South America fits the
contours Of the west coast of Africa. This suggests that these
conänents may have been part of one huge landmass. He postulated
that these continents had simply d rifted apart over millions of vears.
Wegener's theoty of continental drift was contained in his book,
The Origin of Continents and Oceans, published in 1915. He rtarned
the supemontinent, Pangaea, a Greek word meaning "all
Pangaea had begun bitaking up approximately mil-lion years ago,
earlier into a northern portion, which he named Laurasia and a
southern portion, termed Gondwanaland by thc Austiian geologist
Eduard Suess.
Wegener supported his thearv with fossil evidence. Plant
and animal fossils from the coastlines of South America and
Africa found to match. Fossils in unlikely climates further
àefended his claim, such as the digcovery of tropicaj plant
fossils in Antarctica and of glacial deposits in Africa.
During Weger,er 's lifetime, his theory did not receive scientific
valida\ion since the technological means to prove it had not yet becn
developed. During those days, most people believed that all earth's
formations never move.
Arthur Holmes (1890-1965), a British geologist advocated
support for Wegener'g theory. In 1928, he proposed that the
convection currents within the earth's mantle driven by
radioactive heat might have caused the mechanism for
continental drift.

20
 In the 1950s, scientists began oceanographic research, which
revealed the phenomenon known as seafloor spreading. In the 1960s,
the theory of plate tectonics was established. The plates of the earth
move. The theory exp\ains that the hthosphere (the outer laver of the
earth) move sideways above a less rigid layer called the
asthenosphere, which LS under extreme pressure. Eventually, the
theory of continental drift gained far-reaching acceptance in thc field
of science.
The surface of the earth LS contñually changingbecaux of
either from the internal heat Of the carth or the energy
produced by the Sun. The first One results in the motion Of
tectonic plates while the lattcr, involves the mevernent of water
ftnm lhc earth's surface to the almosphcrc and then back to
earth, which is also known as hydrologic cycle which
eventually results to the washing out ofSoil.

2. Geoloöcal Foundation
Prior to the appearance of modern man in the Philippine
archipelago, history has to depend on the works of geologists. The
seek to understand how the earth evolved into what it is
todav and forecast posible geologic events. In Arthur Holmes' book
Their ofthe Earth (1913}, he developed a geologtc time scale, which
he continued to work on until 1959. The dates given for certain
geological formations aæ informed estimates, in terms of years
before the present (BP).
Acconiing to present estimates, the planet earth is between
4.6 4.8 billion years BP. The first dinosaurs WëÑ to have
appeared around 225 million years ago, during the Mesozoic
Era. At abou t 65 millions years ago, the dinosaurs that once
occupied Ehc valleys, plains. and swamps became extinct. It is
believed that these huge creatures perished with huge meteorite
that Yut the earth or with shattering volcanic eruptions.
The Ph ilippine soil composed of numerous rocks. which came
from regions far from the archipelago's present location. It was
during the Tertiarv period Of the Cenozoic Era (.54 million years —
million years Bpi that the land Structure of the Philippines was
21
defined. the northern part, the Philippine archipelago was believed to
be adjoined to Formosa (now Taiwan) during the Eocene (53 — 54
rnilhon years BP) and Oligocene epochs (37 — 38 million years BP).
However, the Formosan connection was severea during the Miocene
epoch (26 million years BP). The combined effects of volcanism and
other tectonic movements Of the complex brought about the
disjunction.
As connections with Other areas changed the internal structure
of the archipelago also undenvent changes with.the flattening of
Crust-al surface Uf the existing higher grounds during the Pliocene
epoch (7 13 million years BP). The emergCnCC• Of man on earth
was estimated at 5 nulhoa years BP
Pleistocene epoch (1,6 million yeans to 10,000 years BP), the
first division of the Quaternary period is the epoch prior 10 the
Holocene (10,0N) BP to the pœsent). During the Pleistocene
epoch, the earth underwent a series of alternating warm and cold
chmates. In Europe. scientists agree that there occurred four cold
phases known geologically as Gunz, Mindel. Riss, and VVurm. In
thc United States, these cold 9tases were known as Jerseyian, Kansan
glacial, Illinoian-lowan glacial, and Wüscongin glacial. Between the
cold phases arc the thrr•c infcrglaciat or warm periods. Each
interglacial lasted for geveral thousands of years,
The Pletstçx.ene marked the beginning o f evolu tionary
ptt't:esses both flora and fauna. The freezing of the northern
and south-em hemispheres caused an extensive spread Of Sea
ice in the area and helped provide a suitable climate for ice-age
animals like the mastodon and saber-toothed tiger. In Asia, the
Mongolian and the Himalayas also topped with ice Sheets.
There was a widespread distribution of glaciers in the higher
regions Of the African tinent.
In some regions of Africa and Asia. particularly along the
southern coasts. there were no ice sheets„ Instead, the climatic
condition was characterized by extensive and continuous rain.
This phenomenon is known as the condition. Such condition
gave rise to the growth Of rainforests and marshes, which
favored the survival of large animals,

22
 Based on recent studies, the earth has undergone twenty cycles
Of glaciation over the past two million years. During the Pleistocene,
the glaciers accttmtdated a big quantity of water in the form Of Lce,
causing water levels in the world's oceans to drop. The earth's
climate, which began warming some 18,WO years ago, causcd thc
oceans tc regain their prescnt levels. The movements of the water
resulting front vast glaciations and deglacialions in the temperate
region caused convergence. as well as the separation of landmass
es.
During the glacial periods, ocean levels were much lower
thereupon exposing the Sundd Shelf and the Sahul Shelf. are
extensions Of continents otherwise known as continental
shelves.
[n Asia, the Sunda Shelf, which is an extension of the coastal shelf
Of Southeast Asia, included the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java,
and Borneo to Palawan. From Borneo, the Philippines was ILnked
through a narrow projection of island now occupied by Balabac,
Palawan a nd Calanúanes. The continental shelf known as Sahul
Shelf is extension of the coastal shelf Of Australia. It covered
the islands Of New Guinea and lhe Aru Islands Of Indonesia

When the Sunda and Sahul Shelves were exposed, the land
bridges were believed to have conncctcd most Of Indonesia,
New Guinea and Austraha. Dark-skinned people, ancestors to
the Ausiraloidg, traveled across the bridges to New Guinea and
other islands Melanesia. 'l he Mongoloid people then populated
New Guinea and gradually journeyed to the southeast by sailing
canoes.
Several changes in the land formation in the archipelago took
place toward the end cf the Pleistocene due tc number Of factors I ike
volcanic erupYc:w erosion, faulting, and folding of the geological
base Of the islands.
The Pleistoccne lasted for a long period af time. At the
height of the interglacial period, a great river System flowed
from interior 0t Asia mainland and Australia poured ilüo the
outiying areas. The riverine connections brought about the
23
drifting of species of fishThis explains the striking simila rities
Of fish fauna in Faslem Sumatra with those in Western Borneo
and species found in the Philippines. Similarly. theie is a close
faunal and floral relationship between Eastern Mindanao and
North Borneo.
The existence of the shallow China Sea between the Asian
mainland and the Philippines, as well as the presence of a foredeep
at the eastern margin Of the country, indicates Illat the archipelago
wets once the edge of the Asian continental platform, These
further support the land bridùes theory that most scientists accept.
Some geologists like Dr. ßailev Willis questioned the validity
Of the land bridges theory and mentioned that the Philippines is of
volcanic Ongin. Based on the volcanic theory, the emergence Of the
islands was a result of the erupti(ms Of ya yclcanoes in remote
epochs.

3. The Archipe19go'.9 Name

During the pre-Spanish era, earl v Chinese traders and
geographer; already knew the Philippines- Sung Dynasty
sources in 982 A.D. referred the islands as No yi. Chau Ju-koa.
a Chinese tradc official, gave a detailed of his travel to various
parts the islands In 1225. which he caned Ma-i.
In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan named the istands, 'slas de
Lazaro (Archipelago of St Lazarus) when he first set fwt on native
soil. Many Other namcs have given to the archipelago
The name Philippines came from the word Filipinas given by
the Spanish navigator Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543 In honor of
Prince Philip of Asturias, who became King Phitip Il of Spain,
saccessor to King Charteg f. 'I he word Feiipimt was at first given by
Villalobos's men 10 refer to Leyte and Samar. Later, it was given to
the whole archipelago tn 1751, Fr. Juan J. Delgado, a Jesuit
hisfor{art called Manila, Pearl o' Orient since it became rich outlet of
Asian trade even prior to the coming of the Spaniards in the
archipelago. Dr. Rizal, the country's foremost hero, gave the name
Peart ofthe Orion Seas to his nativeland cn the eve Of his execution
in 1896.

24
 The name Fit,'rinûs first appeared in a rare map published
in Venice in 1534 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, an Italian
geographer. The Spanish Filipinfis 01' FelipinaŠ was later
changed to Philippine Islands during ihe American colonial era.
It was renamed Republic Of the Philippines (R.p.) after the
recognition of its bidcpendence in 1946.
There were some Filipinos who proposed new names for
the Philippines since the name Of our country was given by the
colonizers. Artemio Ricarte, a Katipunan general, wanted it to
be called the Rizåli"i' Republic, after Jose kizal. Former
President Ferdinand Marcos the name Mahariikn (also the
name of his guerrilla group in World War Il), after his dream
Of making this nation great again.

4. Geography and Resources

Philippines, found in the VSQ•stcm pacific Ocean, has
an astronomical location Of 4' 22'-2Y25' N- Latitude and 1160-
12TE. longitude. It IS situated in the southeastern portion of
Asia, Taiwan bounds the country on the north, cn the west by
South China Sea arid Vietnam, On the east by the Pacific Ocean,
on the south by the Celebes Sea and Indonesia and, on the
southwest by Malaysia and Singapole. Because of its central
location in the Far East, the Philippines has been dubbed as the
"Cwssroads Of the pacific".
The country is an archlpelago of 7,107 isiatlds and islets. has a
total land area Of 300,000 square kilometers. Manila is the capital
and largest city of the countty. It is also the chief port and main
commercial center Of the islands.
Luzon, the biggest of three major geographical groups has an
area Of 141,395 square kilometers. Visayas has an area
square kilometers; and Mindanao. with an area Of 101,999 square
kilometers. Thc northernmost point of the countlY is Y'Anu Isle.
which is 73 miles from Taiwan. The southernmost point is Saluag
Isle. only 34 miles east of Borneo.

25
 The Philippines has the longest irregular coast'ine in the world.
36,290 kilometersñ length Thig is longer than the coastline afGrcat
Brltain and twice the coastline of the United States. The country has
61 natural harbors (with 20 landlocked straits). Manila Bay, the
finest natural harbor in the Far has an area of 1,970 square
kilometers.
Palawan, which forms the country's western boundary, has
a total of 1,768 islands and islets. It has marvelous s
ubterranean caves. unexplored dive si tes. unpolluted beaches
and tropica I jtmgles. It is also a sanctitary to a variety Of fauna
and flora.
The country has 16 regions which include the nbcos Reg-
ion, C.agayan Region, Central Luzon. Southern Tagalog, BICOI
Region,
Weslprn Visavas, Central Vigayag. Eastern Visayas, Western
Mindanao. Northern Mindanao, Southern Mindanao. Central
Mixtdanao, Caraga Administrative Region, Autonomous
Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), Cordillera
Administrative Region (CAR), and Metropolitan Manila. These
regions comprised Of which are subdivided into
districts. The districts consist cf municipalities with a number
of barangays.
"Ihc islands in the Philippines are said to be of volcanic
origin; thus, it has grand mountain ranges and summits of
submerged mountain mass. It has fertile valleys plains as well
as extensive river svstems. Forests on mountain slopes, where
most af the diverse plants and anima's are found, provide
materials for food, medicine and building shelter and natural
habitats for wildlife.
Some mountains have been regarded as gitcs for spiritual
regeneration. In the Tagalog region, some people find Mounts
Makiling and Banahaw as mystic mountains tor reflection and
recreation- According to legend, Mount Makiling In Laguna is
the abode of a goddess named Mariang Mak:ling who protects
the forest that covers the mountain. Mount Banahaw along the
Quezon border is also corusidered a powerful energy source for
26
pilgrims, spu-itualists, and cults having a of both indigenous
and Catholic beliefs
and rituals.
Three majnr mountain ranges are situated in Northern
Luzon: the Sierra Madre Range, the Cordillera Range, and the
Carabatlo Range. The Sierra Madre, which is the largest and
longest range in the country, faces the Pacific Ocean on the
eastern coast of Luzon. It begins near Aparri and proceeds
further through Isabe\a, Cagayan, and Aurora provinces. The
southcm part of Sierra Madrc includes Aurora, Quezon,
Bulacan, Rizal, and Laguna provincey
The Cordillera Mountains in thc western part of Northcrn
Luzon are paral'el 10 the Sierra Madre Range. 'lhe Cagayan
Vallev occupies the region between these mountain ranges. The
Cordillera extends fmm lit_xos Norte down to the Benguet and
I a Union area. In the Cordillera Range, Mount Pulag, is the
second highest peak In the country
The most productive gold and copper mines In the country are
locatcct within the Cordillera mg-ion. Roads along the mountain
range are known for their zigzag curves. The famous Banauc Rice
Terraces, like stairwavs to heaven, is jn the Cordilleras. lherc
are places where the rice fields react' •rom an altitude of 1,500 teet to
4,500 feet. The {fugaos have built these terraces out of the mountain
slopes using the barest of tools over hundreds of years. Their
devotion for rice has compelled them to carve these majestic terraces
on which ta plant In regions inhabited bv a pure Ifugao population,
the walls of the terraces are of round hard river stones.
The city af Baguio amidst the mountainous region of
Cordillera is one of the most popular vacation dcslinations in the
country. Owing to the scenic attractions as well as cool temperature
of the plaœ. Baguio has become the "summer capital" ot- the
country.
The Caraballo Range, near Nueva Eciþ and Nueva Vizcaya
the Sierra Madre at its middie section and the southern
end of the Cordilleras. To the south OF Caraballo is the Central
Plain
27
 in Luzon-
On the southwestern coast of Luzon is the Zambales Mountain
Range. It extends from the shores of Western Pangasinan to parts of
Bulacan and Bataan. Luzon has a mounta•nous extension to the
southeast called Bicol Peninsula.
the most prominent
major islands. mountain ranges found islands in the
Visayas have mountainous terrains except Samar and Bohol.
In Mindanao, there art four major mountain ranges: the
Diwata Range. the Tago•Apo Range, the Kalatungan—
Kitanglad Range, and the Daguma Range. Diwata Fange
borders the Pacific coast and Wesl of it lies the valley of
Ayusan. rago-Apo Range forms a parallel ridge to Diwa\a
Range. Located in the area are the Balatukan Mountains, thže
volc.nic peaks of Carniguin, Kinabalin, Kumakata, and the
Mount APC in Davao del Sur. which is also the highest
mountain in the country (2,YS4 meters high)
The Kalatungan-Kitanglad Mountain Range, which
includes Mounts Butig, Kidongin. and Ragang is situated in the
Lanao The Daguma Range extends near Sa rangani
Bay in the south. Volcanoes at the boundaries Of Daguma
Range ate Mount Blik, south of Cotabato City and Mount
Parker, west of General Santos City.
The has 50 The most active among them are
Iraya in Batanes, Pinatubo in Zambales, Taal in Batangas,
Banahaw Quezon, Mayan in Albay, BulusaJ1 in Sorgogon,
Kanlaon in Negros, I libok-Hib0k in Camiguin, Makaturing in
LanaO, and Apo.n Davao del Sur.
Mt. Pinatubo which has been dormant for 611 years started
to emit fumes on April 2, 1991 after a hydrothermal explosion
at the volcano's crater took place. The most destructive series
of eruptions were on June 12-15, 1991. Its ashfall$ as far as
Metro Manila, Mindnro, Palawan, and Cambodia to the east,
worsening damage to the ozone layer.

28
 Several places in the provinces of Zambales, Tarlac, and
Pampanga, including Clark Air Base in Angeles City were
filled with pvrcclastic flows and lahar (an Indonesian term for
volcanic mudflow). Devastation to public and private
properties wasgreatly unfavorable. placing these areas under a
state of calamity.
The lahar deposits along Mt. Pinatubo still cascades down
the lowlands after heavy rains. These volcanic mudflows are
expected to last for yeaN They continue defy the billion-peso
dike built to contain lahar flows.
Taal volcano, regular tourist drawer, is a volcano within a
volcano. Lt LS rising from a lake, which is the cra ter of a larger
volcano, now extinct. Since 1 m, Taal Volcano had 33 recorded
eruptions with violent ones that occurred in 1749, 1754, 1911, and
1965.
Mount Mayon, world famous for its near-perfect conical
shape. had its first recorded craption in 1616. It had erupted at
least 45 times from then cry. 1814. it erupted disastrously,
destroying Jive towns surrounding its base During the height of
the volcano's fury, 1,200 people who took refuge inside the
church Of the town of Cagsawa (now Daraga) were killed, The
ruins of the church tower solely remaLn above ground after the
tragedy.
Kanlaort Volcano had erupted six times in 1935 and thrice
in 1986. In 1989, it had a minor eruption. Fonl_nately, this did
not cause any destruction.
There are some volcanoes whose hot ro:k5 beneath arc
being by groundwater. When the heated underground water
teaches the surlace, hot springs formed These hot springs are
used as baths in the houses and resorts amund Mt. Maki)ing and
Mt. Eulusan-
Topographic elevations less than 600 meters in altitude are
considered hills. The most popular these in the country are the
Chocolate Hilts, with more 1,000 uf them Bohol. During the dry
months of Februarv until May. these domc•shaped limestone
29
hilb turn chocolate-brown as the grass withcr. 'hus the was given
to it.
Chocolate Hills is one of thc geological monuments cf the
country, The other four national geological monuments are Taal
Volcano in Batangas, Montalban Caves in Rizal Province, Sand
Dunes in Tlocos Norte, and Hundred Islands in Pangasinan.
The Department Of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), Philippine Tourism Authontv (VLA), and the National
Committee on Geological Sciences (NCCSY issued the declaration
Of national geological to highlight the Of
geological structures and features with high scientific Or aesthetic]
environmental value. These geolog iCal monuments would serve not
only as travel dest-i_natiOrV, in the country but also as laboratories
for geological research.
Large rivers traverse the principal islands of the country Ihc
Cagayan River, with a length Of 513 kilometers, is the longest river
in the country. It flows from the Caraballc Mountains near the Nueva
Vizcaya-Nuevo Ecija provincial boundary and proceeds down
into the Babuyan Channel in Northern Luzon. Other important
rivers in the country include Chico, Abras Pampanga, BICOI,
Pulangi, and

Between Samar and Leyte is the San Juanico Strait, the

narrowest strait in the world. Laguna de Bay is the la ftvshwater
lake in Southeast Asia, The deepest among the lakes Of is Lake
Calibato, which is 176 meters deep- is brought about by low silt
inflow from its small watershed area.
In the middle of the tropical blue and emerald green waters Of
the Sulu Sea and Palawan lies the Tubbataha Reef, just one Of the
sandbars and reefs known for its rich beautiful dive sites and marine
resources. Seabirds, turtles, giant clams, and other marine animals
have been settling in the area. The eeeÉ covets an area of 12 miles
Within the island municipalily of Cagayancillo in Palawan. In
August, 1987, the declared a national park. (t gained greater
distinction and international recognition when the U NESCO named
Tubbataha a World 1 leritage Site.
30
 The largest plain in the arcYúpelaSO is the Central Pla in
in Luzon. known as the "Rice Granary of the Philippines." The
surrounding greenery yields vegetables. tendrils, sprouts,
flowers, and fruits. Among the famous Philippine fruits are
lan7nncs, sweet mango, and the durian,
There are about 10,000 species Of flowering plants and ferns in
the country. Among the flowers in the islands are the sampaguita,
gardenia, dama Cle ncxhe, water lilies, orchids and a lot more. Of the
l, 000 varieties Uf omhids that bloom in the country, the
walingwaling (Vanda sanderiana) is regarded as the "Queen of
Philippine
Orchids."
Famous Of the Philippine wotxås is narra, proclaimed as the
national tœe in accordance with execubve proclamation Of
Govemor General Frank Murphy dated February l, 1934.
Referrt•d to as the forests of the Sea, mangrove swamp forests
grow in brackish water. The mangroves are among the
Significant ecosystems that characterize the coastal areas of the
archipelago. They are considered minor forest type, compared to
mixed lowland tropical rainforest ecosystem,
Economicallv, the mangroves arp beneficial, to the
coastal dwellers. They provide poles for shelter, wood for cooking,
charcoal as domestic energy source and as a source Of income,
nipa sap for tuba and vinegar, nipa shingles for roofing, and
ground for aquaculture. Mangrove-dependent fishery products
include shellfish. shrimps, and mangrove crabs- These
mangroves likewLsc help prevent erosion of riverbanks
The country abounds in animal life - Of the 201 species of
mammals in 'he country, 179 are terrestrial and 22 are marine, The
Philippine carabao, a swamp type Of domesticated water buffalc has
long been an important work anima'. Other animals include *veral
species of deer, wild and domesticated pigs, cattle, rodents, reptiles,
birds. and mollusks. Some unique the world arp
also found in the Philippines: the tamaraw or
minåorensis of Mindaro, which looks 'Ike a dwarf carabao; thc tarsier
Oí BOI'CI, the smallest monkev in the world: and thc Calamian deer

31
01 Cervus calamianensis (yilanduk) Of Palawan, the world's smallest
deer.
There are about 25,000 species Of insects in the islands. The
insect in the country is the giant moth (Attacus at/a.s), with a
wingspan Of onc foot. I he largest and smallest bats in the world are
found in the cotmtrv. The lesser flat headed bats or the bats
weigh around 2 grams. The golden-crowned flying fox weighs about
1.5 kilograms. It has a wingspan cf 1.7 meters. These two species of
bats are found in Olongapc City, Zambales at the Subic Bay Forest
Reserve (SEER).
The world's second largest aftcr the Harpy eagle found in
the Amazon forests is the Philippinc Cagle (Pithecopagn
jefferw), found in the jungles of Luzon and Mindanao. It has
earned the title of "King Of Philippine Birds". It mea5ures five
and a half feet in height and a Wing Span Of feel. It was
previouslv called the monkey-caring eagle. the 1970s,.its name
was changed it was found out Ihat it only ate monkeys Its malin
food consists Offlying lemurs, lizards, snakes 1990. the
Philippine eagle was officiallv narned the national bird Of the
country by virtue Of a presidentišl
proclamation.
Other interesting birds in the country are the kainw, which the
Spanish colonizers dubbed as "clock Of the mountains", the
(Philippine Cockatoo), which mumbles and croons like a man, and
the tiny Philippine falconet, only six and a half centimeters long.
Also found in the Philippines is the world's rarest Shell. caned
Glory of the Sea (Coz.•ttts gtoriamaris) and the Tridacna Signs. which is
the world's largest shell and has a length of one meter and
weighs 600 pounds. The smallest shell in the world, the
Pisidurn, is also found in Our country. It is less than one
millimeter in length
1995, RM. dc la Paz and C D. Gomez recorded a total of
2,140 species of Philippine fishes. Among the commercially known
fish found in numerous fishing grounds are the (milkfish),
dilis (anchovy), (catfish), (seabass), salunggons

32
(round scad), icntguingi (mackerel), (Indian sardines), and
bariles (tuna).
Some r'f the endemic freshwater species are considered
endangered. These include the tawifts, locally known as
Mestichthys Ìuzonensis, or sinnrapan: and pondakn pyv:aea, the
pygmy goby.
Ttzwitis, a freshwater species Ofsardines, are found in Lake
Taai. Batangas. Sinarapan, the smallest commercial fish, can onty be
found in Lake Buhi and Lake Bato, Camarines Sur. measures
between 1 and 1.4 centimeters. The dwarf-pygmy gobv or locally
known as tabio<, the world's smallest vertebrate which ranges frorn
7.5 to millimeters, is said to bC dwelling in the Navotas and
Malabon Rivers. It is stTcngl•,• believed that the tubios is already
extinct due
water pollution.
The world's largest fish is also found in the country. This is the
whale shark, Which is 50 feet or more in length. was first Sighted Off
the coast Of Marivelcs, Manila Bav, 1816 by Filipino fishermen,
who called It bulik (striped shark).
The Philippine archipelago has rich deposits of gold,
Copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, chrorrliie, silver and
other metals. Nonmedallic minerals include coal, salt, asphalt,
asbestos, clay, marble and limestone
Gold 'tuning is an ancient industry in thc country Before
the coming of the Spanish conquerors, the Filipinos were
already mining gold in Paracale; Camarines Norte. in the
mountains Of Northern .uzon and the Islands of Masbate and
Mindanao.
Mount Diwalwal lÇEated at the northern end of Davao de)
N Orte has been the site of gold rush since 1983. he Bureau of
Mines officially attiibtites the discovery of gold (he. vicinity tb
the members Of the Mandava tribe. Gold nuggets were and
those who have entered and engagcd in small-scale mining
were able 10 gain a lot from this business venturc_
Since pre-colonial times, the [gorots have been mining
copper in the mountains of Northern Luzon. Mankayan, the
33
oldest and largest capper mine in the country still exists. Other
copper deposits are found in the islands of Negraq and Rapu-
Rapu (part of Albav) and the province of Zambaies. ;ron
deposits are found in LarapJ Camarines NorEe; San Miguel,
Bulacan; Marinduque; and SamarThe greatest iron-bearing
areain the country is SurigaQ. The world's largest deposit of
nickel has been discovered in Nonoc Isle, off the coast of
Northern Mindanao. Vast marble deposits arc found in Mindoro,
Rombloa, Palawan. Cebu. and Bicc[ Adequate deposits of coal
are being tapped in Cebu, %rsogon, Masbate, and Sibuguev

Peninsula.

5. Country's Climate
The Philippines has a tropical climate with a mean annual
temperaturc of about 27K: (about 800F)- Mountain slopes and pcaks
found in the archipelago are cooler. The country has two seasons, dry
and wet. In most ef the islands. rainy season occurs from Mav to
November. During this period, the wind blovv'5 fram the southwest.
Often, the country experiences typhoons from the m&nth-s of lune
to Oclober ] he dry season from December 10 Aprit, when the wind
blows from' the northeast-

6. The Filipina People

The Philippine society is a harmonious mm-ure of diversity and
homogeneity: Despite of diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds,
forces of assimilation have constantly worked to overcome the
diffeŽTncc:s.
Within the blood veins of the Filipinos are a blcnd of its
forefa!hers fron-» Malay, Chinese, Negrito, Indian, European
and American lineage. The intermarriage a Fliipino and a
foreigner did happen, owing to the strategic location of the
courüry to Southeast Asian neighbors and the colonial rule of
Spain and America. The intermingling of pcoplc resulting to

34
adaptation 10 different cultures made the countrv a pol of
people and culture
Since the 191]' century, Fihpinos have been referred to as the
Christianized Malays who constitute the bulk of the population.
They
are the descendants of those who were colonized by Western settlers.
Numerically greater in number are the Visayans (primarily in the
central portion of the archipelago) and the Tagalogs,
The Cebuanos, Ilonggos, and Waray-Wàray comprise a
big number among the Visayans. In the Visayas, the Ilonggos
live in Western Negros, Souùherr, Mindora and in Panay Island
while the Cebuanos predominate in Cebu, Western Leyte,
Bohol, East-em Negros, and in somc coastal areas of
Mindanao. The Warav-Wacays are in the provinces of Samar
and Eastern Leyte.
Most of the Tagalogs live in Manila, in Central Luzon, and
Southern Luzon- People coming from certain provinces in the
]ágalog region like Batangas, Bulacan, and Quezon have
intonations ot- their ownk
The Ilocanos are considered the third biggest group.
They live paflicularly in Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and La
Enian but many have rftgratcd locally and abroad.
Other members of the populace include the Pangasinenses,
Pampangueños, Zamhals, fbanags (Cagayancs), and Bicolanos.
The Pangasinenses live in khe Lingayen Gulf region of
Pangasinan, including thc province Pangasinan. Many of them
have already migrated in other provinces of Central Luzon. The
Pampangueños or Kapampangan_s live in CcntTal Luzon,
particularly in the pmvince of Pampanga.
Thc non-Malay groups include people of Spanish and
Chinese descent. Abdav, the country has a growing number of
Filipino inese who am engaged in various commercial
activities. They are part of the economically and
important minority.
35
 N-ature and ancestral beliefs havehelped shape the
lifcstyle of the tribal communities. The indigenous groups in
various parts of thc archipelago have kept their own cultural
tradilion digtinct through the generations. included here are the
various mountain people of Cordillera, which consist of the
Isnegs of Apayaa; Kalingas of K.alinoa; Ifugacs, Ibalois,
Kankanays, and Bontoks of Benguet and Mountain Province
The culture of the people in this region is quite different from
that of the \awland cornrnunities. Although a number of the
populace are Christians, still many of [hem are pagans
The Kalingas tattoo their bodies as a sign of bravery For them,
prestige be a&åeved through or.'lorical ability The like Kalingas,
tattoo their bodies as a Status symbol.
The Ifugaæ have a high regard for the fax-nib"s honor and
dignity. They are forbidden to induce hostility. ause bloodshed or
practice adultery. Hagabi, a chair geulptcd from a large mass of
wood, plays an important pact in the lives of the Ifugaos, This
indiçates the high position of the owner ill the communily
The Igorots live on rootcrupS grown in their yard and on Wild
pigs, deer, and fowl in the forest. The Igorots ct- the past engage in
headhunting ta avenge the death Of a kin or tribesman. This Ctrslorn
is least practiced nowadays.
The Bontoks basically do hunting and agriculture for a
living. They perform rituals like bagbato to ensure a bountiful
harvest and the utog, where the unmarried woman stays in a
place called "log to reccivc male visitors and suitors.
rhe Ibalois and the Kankanayg Of Benguet
and Southern Mountain considered the
mastsophisticated mountain moon
people they the most exposed to lowland life.
Although thc people of Cordillera dwell in the highlands, they
no longer live in isolation. The influences of modern civilization have
ushetpd in new changes in their communities through the years.
Modern types of buildings are also found elsewhere in the
The regiongenerations that have schools in the Christian
have almost adopted the way of life Of the lowland
36
 communities.
Other indigenous groups are lho Gaddangs Of Isabela. the
Negritos or Aetas cf Zambales and the hinterlands: the
Mangyans of Mindoro; the Tagbanuas, Batak, Tao't Bato,
Molbots and JamaMapurus Of Palawan; Mamanwa (a Negato
group) 0! Surigao
Norte; the Kalibugaas, Subanuns, and Samals of Zamboanga
del Sur; the Manobos, Tirurays, Iranttns, and T•bolis Of
Maguindanao, Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat; Mandayas of
Davao Oriental; Bagobos and B'laan5 Of Davao del Sur;
Yakan.s of Basilan; the rausugs Of the Sulu Archipelago, the
Badjaos of the Sulu Sea, and the Muslim groups Of Mindanao,
Leaders Of tribal communities are chosen for their skills and
their ability to evoke support from the communal group. They
beücve žn thc enstcncc uruseen beings bestowmg blessings when
honomd and inflicting pain when displeased.
The indigenous people have adapted to various ecological zones
ranging from coastal to rugged mountain highlands. They prefer
permanent settlementx, except for Aetas who are highly nomadic.
Badjaos live in houseboats, while others live in pile dwellings.
The Aetas have already estabtished their intimate
relationship with the woodlands as E01zst foragers and hunters.
On the other hand, migration by Visayan scttlcrs in Mindanao
during the American period eventually altercd the population
profile in the region. increased immigration from the north
drove more cultural communities in the hinterlands Tagalogs,
and Visava_ns settled in some provinces of Mindanao like
Davao Oriental and
Davao del Sur.
In lœsporue to the call of preserving Indigenous culture in
the countrv, some ethmc tribes specifically the [fugaos initiated
moves adapting practices with Christian rcligion, which scholars
refer to as inciilturation.
High literacy in the country may bc attributed to Filipinos'
love for educalian_ Viewed as a key to progress, educaliori is
37
believed to improve one's means of livelihood and status.
Filipino (formerly spelled Pilipino) is the national language or
the people although a good number of them are conversant in
English. The English language is commonly used for
governmental, commercial, and instructional purposes.
everyday communication, thc Filipinos combine English and
Hlipino resullmg to a lingo called TagLish (from Tagaiog and
English) For instance. one could hear one say, "Happy ako for you.
Sana you won't forget us" (I'm happy for you. Hope you won't forget
us) or "Ok-ey na ang iahai, thank you sa iyo!" (Everything's okay,
thanks to you!)
Age is highly valued in Philippine culture. The word PO,
or its variation ho is employed in conversation to show respect.
The close approximation of its English tramsla\ion is Sir or
Madam. Adult male and female who are unfamiliar to the
speaker are greeted as and ale.
Siblings in the family am addressed according to their position
within the family hierarchy like kuya or manong for the oldest
brother and ate or manang for the oldest sister; diko and ditst' for the
second brother and sister; and sangko and sanse, for the third oldest
brother and sister.

Traditionally, have close family ties. Apart from their blood

relatives, Christian Filipinos adopt new kins (tumpadre and
kumare) through having sponsors (ninong and ninang) during
baptisms and weddings. They also extend help in the spi±it of
bayanihan (cooperation).
Filipinos are known for their hospitality They receive their
with warmth and friendship. They are also thankful to those
who have been good to them, manifesting the Filipino value of "tang
'ta ioob one's debt of gratitude to tho* who have contributed Žo their

For centuries, the Filipinos kept faith in {he Alt-nighty Gad.

Throughout the good and bad times, they can easily ?šimilake, bend
but rw.ler break likc the strength of the narra and the resilience of the
bamboo.

38
7. Theories on the Origin of Filipinos
Long befo:t• the Spanish colonizers came into the
Philippines, people with distinct cultures had already inhabited
the islands. The mig-rotion theory of H. Oiley Beyer, rcgarding
the peopling of the archipelago became the most widely known
version in Philippine pmhistory. According to Dr. Beyer, the
arKtstors of the Filipinas camc in traces of migration.

First to œach the archipelago was the caveman "Dawn Man'

type, wha wag similar to the Java Man and other Asian Homo sapiens
of years ago. Dr. Beyer called the first Filipino the "Dawn Man", for
he emerged on the islands the dawn of hme.
Next to settle the Elands were the pygmy group or the
Negritos. They w_cre said to have reached the islands before
the land bridges from Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Australia
disappeared. They came between 25,000, and years ago. They
were described to have black skin, darky kinky hair, round
black Cyes, flat noses and with a usual height of5 feet.
Third to arrive were the seafaring and tool-using
Indonesian group who came about 5,000 to 5,000 years ago.
They camc in two waves Of migration, with type A, arriving
about 3,000 to 4,000 B.C. and type B, about to 500 B.C.
Indonesian A was tali, slender with light complexion, and thin
fips. Indonesian B was shorter, with bulky body, dark
complexion, and thick lips- They were able to displace the
Negritos to the mountains with their more advanæd cui hue.
The last to reach the archipelago weæ the seafaring Malays who
introduced the Iron Age cult-ure- They moved into the islands from
300 B.C. to the 141h and 15th centuries A.D.
Beyer's migration theory bccame popular and unquestioned for
quite a number of years. Presen\ly, the so-caned waves gfmigration
is now being dismissed because there is no definite evidence, whether
archaeological or historical, to support it. No evidence of any "Dawn
Man" type (250,000 years ago) cr hominid species have been found
in the country So far, thc oldest human relic discovered is only about
22,000 BP-
39
 In reality, Southeast Asian people shared many customs
and traditions wi\haut any ethnic group racially or culturally
dominant. was the Western colonizers who divided the Asian
inhabitants into ethnic groups.
In place of the waves af modcm scholars
suggest the so-called core population theary. According to this
theory, the inhabitants of the Philippines consist of a core popu]atioo
to Which came acclt'tions of people who moved in from the region.
The movements of people were erratic rather than in sequential
waves.
The Southeast Asian people who reached the Philippines d
uring prehistoric limes became the core population. Each group, the
Indonesians, Malays; ard others, stood as equal, without any of them
racially or culturally dominant.
This core population shared common cultural traits or base
culture. They used similarly fashioned tools, pottery, and ornaments;
and upheld common beliefs and rituals. If there were some
differcnccs, these mav be due to some factors like adaptation to the
environment. Furthermore, the immigrants did not come iÄto the
amhipelago in a fixed pericxl of time not with a definite destination.

Chapter Test No. 2

Name:

C.ouase,

l. Multiple 0ice. Ch0(Fe the letter with the correct

Write your answer on the blanks provided: (15 pts.)
According to Visayan myths, the name Of the
mythical bird who pleaded to the gods for
help
was

40
 a. Si-Kalac c. Katala b. Manau] d.
Si-Kavay
2. The legend of Bernardo Carpio presents an
explanation on how the country was
a. created c. colonized
b. changed d. shaken by earthquakes
3. James Hutton's theory now called uniformi
upholds that
the movement of water from the earth's
surface to the atmosphere and then back
ta earth is known as hydrologic cycle
b. 200 million years ago, there were land
masscs
c. prior to the appearance of modem man an
carth. history has to depend on the works
Of the gcologists
d. thc laws of nature arc unchanging
4. the 16th century. the Dutch cartographer who noticed
that the American continents seemed to have been
separated from Europe and Africa was
a. Abraham Oteliu c. Alfred Wegner
b. Abraham Ortelius d. Alfred Wegener
In the book Origin Continents aud Northern
Hemisphere was called
a. Gondw analand c. Pangaea

41
 6. Wide acceptance of the theory Of continental drift
came eventually after
a. pieces Of fossil evidence were gathered in
Antarctica
b. the theory of plate tectonics was
established
c. a shattering volcanic eruption
d. glacial dcposits were fottnd in Africa
7. The. Formosan connection was di$ined during the
a. Miocene epoch c. Oligocene epoch
b. Pliocene epoch d.
8. The counterpart of Mindei glacial period in the
United Slates is known as
a. Wisconsin glacial Illinoian-lowan
glacial
b. Jerseylan glacial d. Kansan gla Cia]
9, On the Australian side, the continental shelf was
known as
a. Sunda c. pa ngaed
b. Sahul •d New Guinea
10 The word relipinn was at first given by
Villalobos's men to refer to
a. Cebu c, Samar and Leyte
d. Manila
ll.
Sung Dynasty sources in 982 A,D, referred the
Phillppine islands as
a. Ma-yi C. Ma-i
b. Ma-I d. Luzones
12. The Katipunan general who wantcd the country
b. Laurasia d. Antarctica

42
 to be named Rizaline Republic was
a. Emilio Aguinaldo c. Artemic Ricarte
b. Pio del Pilar d. Antonio Luna

43
 13. The southernmost point of the Philippines is
a. Pusan Point c. Y'Ami IsJe
b. Saluag Isle d. Sulu
•14. Based on the migration theory of Otley Beyer, Iron
Age cult-ure was introduced into the Philippine
archipelago by
a. Malays c. Negritos
b. Indonæians d. Chinese
15. The Bagobos and B'laans are primarily found in

a. Davao Oriental c. Maguindanao

b. Davao dcl Sur Sulu Archipelago

Matching Type. Match Columns A and B. Write the letters only: (10
pts.)
Column A Column B
Set I
1. Ragang a, Mindoro
2, Hibok-l•libokb. Lanao
3. Hakon-Baco Mt. Range Negros
4. Mt. Diwalwal d. Camiguin
5. Kanlaon Volcano Davao del Norte

set 2
Kalaw largest t
2- Katala b. with a
wingspan Of one
foot
3. Golden-crowned c. "clock" of the flying fox
mountains
 P)'bmy goby d, croons like man
5. Giant moth endemic freshwater

Ill. Essay: (5 pts. each)

i. How does the country's geography affect the Filipino
people?
2, Identify and describe the culture of the indigenous people
Of the Philippines.
3. Why do modem dav s&aolars oppose Beyer's waves cf
migration theory?

45
 Pre-Colonial Philippines
1. Cultural Evolution ofthe Early Filipinos
Early historians tha t the first set tlers of the islands carne
by land bridges frorn Mainland Asia during Pleistocene epoch.
They wandered farther into the inland parts of the islands in
search of new grazing grounds. They lived by hunting and
gathering. Eventual]v they explored the new land even more
and sojourned in the islands after the land bridges had
disappeared with the rise of sea level brought by deglaciation
pcriod.
Western historians assume that the aboriglnes of the Philippines
were the Austra19•Melanesian peopEe who are distinctively small
with dark skin and curly brown hair. They were the ancestors of the
known today as Negritos or Aetas.
the field Of archaeology, the nugra tion of Proto-
Austronesian type is believed to have resulted to the peopling ct the
Philippine archipelago. The coming Of the aborigines ta the islands
is to the New Stone Age of Southeast Asia.
The Mainlßnd Origin Hypothesis by Peter Bellwood
Of the Australian National university and K.C. Chang Of
Harvard
Universiky maintains that the early inhabitants originated from
South China and Taiwan, there they spread southward and westward
reaching Northern Philippines bv about 5.000 B.C. tc 4.000 B.C. and
to Eastern Indonesia 4,500 years ago, gradually replaced the hunting
and gathering populations.
The other hypothesis, the Island Origin Hypothesis,
believes that the prehistoric people originated and dispersed
from an island in Asia. Wilhelm %khcim Il Of the
University Hawaii has been the leading proponent of this idea.
assumes that ProtoAustronesian developed primarily in
Northeastcm Indonesia and Mindanao Island, expanding
northwards with a developing maritime population through the
Philippine Archipelago and Into 'Iaiwan. From them thcy
reached South China.
Sclheim Il believes that it was the Nusanžao (the
oriented pæhistoric people) who developed Protc-
AtxqtrOnegian as a trade language along the coasts of Northern
Luzon, Southern Taiwan, and South China. between 4,500 and
5.000 B.C.
Historians presuppose that between 300 and 200 B.C.,
inhabitants of Malay-Polynesian descent settled in the
Phùppine archipelago. They were mainly an agricultural and
people, others wandered fronï place to place, There were 30 to
I(X) families in a society known as barattgay.
Tool assemblages, clothing, pottery, jewelry and the like
technological artifacts These man-made Objects illustrate the
ability Of man 10 respond to the condi\ions Of the environment.
The inhabitants Of the islands had to adapt to their surroundings
for subsistence. Such technology that has been developed
became a part of civilization, Skills were handed down from
gcncration to generation. Whatever hag been Icamed in the
process is cultural in nature. Of course, people are not born
withcult-um Through practice, word of mouth, written text and
rituals, culture is learned. A country's past history unveüs its
cultural tradition.
Culture may be associated with manufactured materials. for
these are products OE human behavior. Certazùy, the of
the early Filipino society has been achieved in response to the needs
Of prehistoric Philippine communities,
Old stone Age or Paleolithic Period B.C.) is the cra
of crude stone tools and weapons. In the Philippines, it was believed
to have started in Cagayan Valley. This can be inferred from the

47
archaeological materials unearthed in the area, bearing imprints of
human use. These traces show the emergence Of people that once
wandered in the valley
The study Of tool assemblages indicates the dominance of
flake tools over large cobble tools. lowever. no fossü evidence
cf human beings were found in the vicinity. Perhaps, they had
migrated to some other places, inasmuch as several wild animals
were roving along the area.
Man had no Other toots than sharp edged stones that Could
be held by the hand. Many kinds of stones, Which naturally
pmduce shi-tv edges when broken or chipped (e.g. flint and
chert), were commonly used. Such implements are called core
tools if the remaining itself is used as the tool. Pebble tools are
those rounded
stones like those found in the riverbeds. They called fools if
rounded stones are larger. Flake tools are skillfully edged and
shaped.
the onset, man's principal way of adaptation 10 the
environment was by huntl.ng. These stone tools could be used for
smashing the bones Of animals and shellfish that they have
gatheredThese implements may aLso bc used in cuthng. splitting,
stripping and Piercing wooden branches, palm leaves, and bamboo.
Tree barks were used for clothing.
Certainly, with the abundance of fish in rivcrg and seas,
methods Of preparing food were conceived. Archaeological
evidence Shows kiniiâto to be the earliest method of preparing fish
for consumption where vinegar Or limejuice enhances the taste of
the fish. In Mindanao, the juice Of thc tabon-fabotl (Hydrophytune
orbit u}uium a green fruit, is added to remove the fishy smell. In
Leyte and Cebu. they use coconut milk.
The selection of the Tabon Cave Complex in Lipuun POLnt.
Quezon, Palawan, some 30,000 years ago is an example of
prehistoric planning for adaptation. The main chamber entrance is
about meters long. Sunlight entetsintc the interior area, making it
habitable and wann.
Upon its discovery in 1962, the present surface vf the Tabors
Cave was noted 10 have been a habitat Of the Tabon bird (also
known as the Philippine mound builder), The must have gotten its
name from this wild fowl.
New types Of stone tools appeared in Various parts Of the
Philippines. more polished and highly specialized, primarily blade
and ax- and adz-like forms for forest clearing and hoatmaking. Thc
smooth surface of this typc cf stone tools was made pthssihle_ by
rubbing against another stone- This development resulted to the
called New Stone Age or Neolithic Period B.C.)
otherwise known as Agricultural Revolution by anthropologists-
Rootcmps like taro (gab!) and yarn (litn) wereamong the important
crops This period also indicates that upland rice farrning has been
developed, a IthOugh this practice did not at the same time in everv
area.
By striking the stones, sparks havc been produced which
resulted to the making Of fire at will by the ancient settlers. Light
and heat became available any time Of the day, The productton of
baked clay pots in the New Stone Age implies that fire had been
49
fully utilized. The manufacture of pottery was made possible by a
called kilning, which makes use Of fire. Fire eventually
changed the lifestyle of thc people, particularly in the preparation of
their meals. Thus, thc inhabitants could grill or boil their food. The
slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by the early settlers also caused
them to search for new land.
Jars as burial coffins for secondary burial were also made.
Bones of the departed were enclosed in these vessels after
being bufed underground for a period Of time. related with
burial practices was bone washing and bone palnbng or
dipping with materials like sappan wood or rcd dyewood
(Caesalpinia and hematite (iron ore) for protection from
decay.
In El Nid0 Cave, Palawan. painted bones Were in small
niches inside the cave. In some areas Of the archipelago.
corpses were directly into the ground in reclin ing
Orbentpositinrs_ In all kinds Of burial, funerary offerings Or
pabaon were included such as clothes, food and weapons.
Many indigenous groups in the interior mountains and coastal
areas still practice this tradition the belief that the dead will use
these materials when he sojourns towards the "soul world."
Others cover the faces of the dead with thin sheaths of gold to
prevent bad spirits from entering the body.
The jar, an example Of funerary vessel is now
Considered a National Cultural Treasure Of the Philippines.
The upper portion of the jar has curvilinear incised Scroll
designs, painted with red hematitite (icon oxide). On the lid
COVcr is a form of a boat with two human figures. The figure
at the back is a boatman steering the '"ship Of the dead." The
fig-ure in front is the passenger whosc hands arc folded over
his chest. This represents thc soul Of the person whose bones
were placed in the jar.
Philippine pottery shows a variety of shapes and
decorative te±iiques, such as incision, stippling, Applique, and
impression by rope and mat. Their designs were usually
geometric. Subsequently, pottery became more functional like

50
the paiavok for cooking. the battga and for storing liquids. the
making Of pottery lives on.
The Early 'Metal Age (500 B.C.) refers to the time in the
Ofhuman cultuæ tools and weapons were made
of metal Which gradually replaced stone loots. The metal implements
at this Slagc were crudely fashioned.
The first metal to be widely used wag copper. Raw copper
was then pounded Into ornamentsand tools.
Bronze, made of imported tin and other metals like copper,
emerged simultaneously with coppcr as a result of interisland
movements of people. Although bronze had entcrcd the
Philippines, it did nol constitute a major technological phase in
the development Of Metat Age in the country because cf the
preference Of early inhabitants to iron ore in tool making (200
B.C.),
Jewelry d Uing the early phase of the Metai Age consists mainly
Of beads. There were heads made Of jade, stones. glass, shells,
seeds. twigs and stems, especially reeds of plants into and
othcr omaments. Only the beads made Of semiprecious stones
endured dccay in the graveyards and habitation sites.
Jewelry as an ancient art began as amulets and charms to
ward Off bad spirits or to give supcmatural powers to the
wearer. [n particular tribes like the T'boli, (hey wore body
ornaments to please the gods and to siB1ify the stat-us Of the
wearer. It was only later when personal adornments became
purely decorative,
Of different kinds designs (ranging from
earrings to necklaces and bracelets) were buried Wilh basic
metal tools in various sites throughout the archipelago. There
were personal adornments made Of materials like nephrite and
carnelian beads, which were available only through trade. This
indicates that the economic resources Of the community had
fairly advanced. Jewelry al this period indicates the emeœence
of some kind of social
stratification.
The appearance and utilization Of improved iron tools as the
major technological device for exploiting the environment constitute
51
the Developed Iron Age. As the use of iron became widespread,
community specializa tion emerged as shown by the adva nCCS in
tinsmithing, jewelry making and In the utilization or resources.
Iron tooLs were recovered in Luzon (particularly it' the Bulacan,
Batangas, and Rizal areas). Tocl specimens were also dug up in
Palawan and Masbate. The early Filipinos made metal implements
like knives (from simple to elaboratc ones). the (blowguns), the
katikot for pounding betel nuts Into powdcr, and gongs to mark the
hours of the day and night.
*holars con'end during this age important indu.slTie.s were
metalworking, pottery making. glassmaking and tie-and-dye
weaving. Cloth weaving replaced the bark cloth beaters for
fashioning dress and other apparel. It is believed that the
backloom simiiar to that of the Ifugaos, Bontoks, and ather
Mindanao groups was utiiized. hbrics and blankets not only used
for everyday living but also for importanl rituals.
About the turn or the Millennium A.D., some families from
surrounding island kingdoms sail in boats and established their
communities along riverbanks or on deltas. Filipino contacts with
other countries becamc intensified. The cicvclopmcnt of a relatively
efficient maritime transportation became the major impetus for
intcrisland contacts and commerce especiallv with Asians. This
phase of Filipino prehistory is known the anthropologists as the Age
of Contact (SOO- 1400 A.D.), which is the period of trading relations
with neighboring islands, mostly by Asian traders-
Community life throughout the archipelago was dominantly
rounded on trade and by increasing specia]iza lion in craftsmanship.
The common sharing of cultural orientation like religion and writing
was facilitated by intensive internal trade, principally between
riverine and coastal communities. Thc people Southeast Asia became
highly nomadic because of water transportation.
For the natives to succeed in engaging maritime tradc with
their Asian neighbors, they had to improve their seamanship and
hoalbuilding skill. These early wooden watercrafts in the count-
ry wete called baiangay. The was basically a plank boat. It was
daven either by a sail crby paddling-
The discovery of balangay boats in Butuan, Agusan del
Norte in the late 1970s served as pieces of evidence to further
prove the technical know-how or the ear]y Filipinos. The firsl
52
boat, now preserved and displayed in a site museum Libertad,
Butuan City had a carbon-date of 320. While the second boat,
which was dated 1250 A. D. , has transferred to the Nat-ional
Museum in Manila.
Malay was the principal language of Southeast Asian commerce
during those times. [t is not surprising that a number of Malay loan
words to Philippine languages pertain 10 commerce. These include
talnro (scales), upa (payment), (ako (peddle), gusali (hall), ttmay
(real) means "hard cash*'• and bivaya (grace) means "disbursement."
Säli other words illustrate the impact of commerce on culture like
ntsnra (pi Ck les), patis (brine), pinto (native cake). kalan (stove),
pinggnn (plate), (learning), and (adoration).
At the height of the Sri Vijaya power (which originated in
Palernbang. Sumatra in etc 71s century) around 1000 A.D., the Sri
Vijayan merchants conducted extensive trade With China and India.
In the century, the Sumatra-based kingdom Of Sri Výaya had also
expanded its influenœ in the Philippinc archipelago.
According to Sulu tradition. betwccn 900 and 1200 A.D.,
immigrants from Charnpa, an Indianized kingdom in Indochina
established a trading colony with the Buranuns of Sulu. The
men Of Champa were called Orang Dampuans, who were then
vassals of the Sri Vijaya Empire. The Dampuans in Taguima
(now Basilan). They became the ancestors cf the Yakarw
Years later, immigrants from Bandjarrnasin, Borneo (another
Sri Vijaya dependency) settled in Sulu. They were the Orang Bandjar
(Men of Bandiarmasin). They engaged actively in the rich pearl
trade. To establish goodwill with the Buranuns, they brought with
them a beautiful princess and her as bride to the native ruler. This
state marriage œsulted to deeper relationsbetween Su lu and Borneo.
Like the Dampuans, the Orang Bandjar introduced Indian culture in
Sulu.
Centuries of direct contact with these Indianized traders left
vivid traces on Filipino history and culture. The Indian influences
were dearly noticeable in the religious beliefs, language, literature.
and customs of the ancient Filipinos, BatkaÌa, the name of the chief
god OE the pre-Christian Tagalogs, came from a Sanskrit term
Bhattarg, meaning "Great Lord
Also of I lindu origin was the belief of the early natives
that the universe is filled with good and bad spirits. They
53
 offered religious sacrifices and prayers to these spirits for help
and protection.
Many Filipino were linked to Indian literature. Included here
atv the story of the monkey and the turtle, the tale cf the race between
the deer and the snail, and the Visayañ anecdote Of the hawk and the
hen. Filipino folk literature was also to some extent, influenced by
Indian literature. Popular epics including Daransan of Lanao, um-
ang of Il_ökandia, 'balon of Bicalandia, and the Alim and thC
Hudhud of the Mountain Province, were inspired by the
Mahabharata (Sanskrit, "Great Storyo and Ramayana
"Story of RamaN) which likely begun in the century B.C. These epics
were ritually recited.

The early Filipinos had already developed a system of syllabic

writing, with each representing a syllable. The Tagalog 5cnpt was
called iwybayi", sometimes erroneously called alibata. It consistcd cf
three vowels and fourteen contonants, with a total of 17 ìcttcrs. The
writing system was horizontal. from left to right. The writing
instrument was a sharp pointed iron locally known as sapol. With this
iron irstrumcnt, the natives engraved words cn bamboo shafts,
wooden board3. leaves Of plants, pottery, and metal. Remaining
evidence Of pre-colonial wr:ting are so rare. Only three had be-cn
previously found: the 14th • century Btttuan silver slnp, the
centurv Butu.an ivory seal, and the century Calatagan 'ar.
The first artifact Of pre-Hispanic origin that had writing on
copper material dates back to 900 A.D. The script inscribed on
it was written Xavi (Old Javanese writing system), which does
not look similar to the ancient baybayin. The text was in a
language similar to four languages, namely: Sanskrit, Old
Tagalog, Old Javanese and Old Malay. The copper object is
now called lag-una Copperplate Inscription (LCD. It was found
near the mouth of the Lurnbang Paver of Laguna province in
1990. The copper plate measures 20 by 30 centimeters in size.
Antoon Post-ma, a Dutch national who has lived with the
Mangyans for a long time and the director of the Mangyan
Assistance and Research Center in Mansalay, Oriental Mindöro, wag
able to unlock the message on the copper material,
The LA is an official record imprinted in the Saka year 822
in the month o! March-April on the day of the dark half af the
54
moan on a Monday. This document was issued to Lady
Angkatan together with her œlative Bukah (child of His Honor
Namvvran) clearing Namwran„hisfamÐy, and all their
descendants Of a debt equivalent to 1 kah and 8 suwamas of
gold from the Thief of tk•wata (Diwata, a tcwn near But-uan).
The pardon wag issued by' the Chief of Tundun (Tundo),
represented by the leader of Pailah Jayadewa.
Others who witnessed (he document include the leader of
Puliran (Pulilan); Ganasakti. represenhng the leadcr of Paila
(Norzagaray); Bisruta, representing the leader of Binwangan
(Obando); and the Chief Of Medang.
The Dutch expert who looked into the LCI's authcnhcitv
concluded that the specific script Style used in the coppcr
material was consistent with its indicated date and that the
correctness of the languages and wards used woold have been
very hard for jor•eœ to produce.
Both oral and written literature had already flourished the
country prior to the coming Of the Spaniards. This consists
tnavong (riddles), awit (songs), (poverbs). legends, myths, and
poems. Some of the folk epics Of the early times include: the
Ilocano Larn•ang, the Ifugao Alim and Hud'nld, the Kalinga the
Bicol Handions, the Maranao Banfusan, and the Magulndanao
Indaraptltrti and Stilaymmr. The customs and traditioru; of the
early Filipinos bear Hindu influence. Among them were as
follows: the placing of a fresh flower garland around the neck
of a visitor; the giving of (dowry) and rendering Of
personal services in the house of the bride's parents by the
groom before the wedding, the throwing Of Tice grains to thc
ncwlyweds after the matrimonial ceremony by the guests; and
the offering of (mixture of bctclnL11, ikmo leaf, and a guest as
an expression Of hospitality.
(here were early superstitions in the country that came (rom
Indianized migrants. Until today, many belicve that a girl, who sings
in of the stove while cooking will marry a widower and that a cat
cleaning its face indicates the corning a visitor. Likewise, eating twin
bananas would Cause a mother tu give birth to twins.
The mode ofdress ing in pre-Spanish Philippines shows Indian
influences. The (turban) Of the early Filipino men and the sarong

55
(lower garment) Of the early Filipino women resemble thc Indian
putees and sari.
The archaeological relics excavated in lhe Philippines turther
indicate Indian influences. Some Of theseare the following the gold
image which was excavated on the bank Of Wa wa River near the
town or Esperanza, Abusan Province in 1917 (now preser.•ed at the
Gem Room cf the Chicago Museum of Natural History); the copper
image ofGantsha, elephant god Of thc Hindi's which was also found
in Mactan in 1843; and the sod Garuia found at
Brooke's Point in 1961. The garuda is a mythical bird that lindu god
Vishnu used as vehicle,
Certain industries In the country are of Indian ongin,
notably boat budding, weaving Of cotton clothes. and metal
work. Decorative arts were alga influenced as shown the design
Of gold necklaces and bolo handles- The manufacturing of
some musical instruments like the kudyapi (guitar) and the
plantmg cf some of flowers like sampaguita and champaka;
fruits including mango and nangh; and vegetables such as
patola. and came from Indianized sojourners.
According paleographical experts, the ancient Filipino
writing originated from India. According to Dr. T.II- Pardo de
Tavera, there are more than 340 Sanskrit words found in the
Tagalog languagc. Dr. Villa Panganibanr former Director Of
Institute of Xaticnai I -anguagc, gives a longer list Of 375
Sanskrit loan words in Filipino national language which is
basically Tagalog. The* include the Fihpino words (father),
(mother), asuwa (spouse), (price), (dove), ktit,l (fort), (silki
Saksi (witnes, (star), rnhã (king), (weapon), and (noble) to name
a few.
listorically speaking. Sino-Philippine relations began in the 10th
century AD. The earliest known aulhcntic date of these relations was
982 A.D., when several traders from Ma-yi (believed to include
Mindoro, Batanbas, Manila, and Paner•tba) arrived in Canton board
on an Arab ship and sold their v &luable merchandise. Ma-Tuan-Jin,
a Chinese chrorücler, included this detail in his Wept SltiG,un Tung
Fao (General Investigation the Chinese Cultural
China_ during those times, having refined many Of its
developments in the fields Of historical writing, painting. calligraphy,
and hard-glazed porcelatn, was beginning to expand its marittme

56
activities in Nanyang (Southeast Asian world ) especiallv during the
Southern Sung (1127-1280), Yuan (1280-1368), and Ming (1368-
1614) dynasties. Chinese merchants on board their junks left
Chuanchow, Canton and other ports in China and traded with the
people Of Lingayen. Manila, MindOfo, and Sulu.
In 1225, Chau Ju—kua. a Chinese Superintendent Of Foreign
Ifade described China's trade with Ma-i his bock Chu-htn-chi
(Rcports on the South Barbarians). This narrative pointed 0tLt the
honesty of the early Filipinos in their business transactions With the
Chinese traders. Thig Was confirmed by another Chinese writer,
Wang Tâ-yua_n
Wang Ta-yuan's description of medieval Filipü•u' life appears
in his •liao- i chih-iio (Summary Notices of the Barbarians Of the
l.šlcs), which was written in 1349. Both Chu-fan-chi and the T'@-l-
cttih-lio have Sections a barbarous which is
presumably Visayas. Wang Ta-vuan describes the natives of P'i-
sh.•ya as being tattooed up to the neck.
During the reign of Zhu Di (Chu Ti). the Yung-lo Emperor
in 1403 to 1423 when China was expanding thc boundaries Of
its domain, he induced the countries visited by his missions to
pay Iributes (0 the Ming court. The native rulers Of the
Philippines, Borneo, Java, Sumatra. Malav Peninsula,
Indochina and other Southeast Asian countries sent regular
tribute embassies tr.' the imperial court of the Ming emperor.
According to thc Ming Shih (AnnaLq Of the Ming Dynasty).
Record of Luzon, Record Of Camilig. and the Record Of Sulu,
the Philippines sent eight tribute embassies to Beijing between
1372 to 1424.
China's greatest maritime explorer, Admiral 7.heng He, also
known as Cheng HO, (1371-1435), led seven expeditions from 1405
to 1433 in the south seas and reached the Philippines, Borneo, Malay
Peninsula, Singapore, Indochina, India, and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Il is
said that Cheng-Ho'g first cxpcdition, which consisted of62 ips,
landed in the Philippines in December 1405.
While in Jolo. onc of his mcn, Pei-Pon-T.10 (also known as Pun
Tao King) died and wag buried in Jatti Tunggal, JOIO. Annually, on
26, the Chinese of Jolty until the* days visit the tomb of Pei.Pon•Tao
to pay homage to the forerunners of Sino-Philippine
relations.
57
 Centuries of trade and personal relations with the Chinese
inevitably led to the enrichment of FilipLno Elfe and culture.
Lhcorated enameled ceramics painted in traditional patterns were
exported in the Philippines. The blue-and-whi{e pieces of Chinese
porcelain had their origins in the Ming period.
The manufacture of gm-lpowder, the art 01' metallurgy the
use of porcelain, gongs, lead, silver, tin, and certain occupations
likc blacksmithing and goldsmithing in the country Were
learned from the Chinese. The Filipinos practiced a form Of
duck culture around Patens and Taguig in Rizal that resembled
'he Chinese, which includes the method Of artificial incubation
of eggs. They also taught the Filipinos kite-flying and other
games including various forms of gambling like juelettg,
kuwah'. and panggtnggi .
The Chinese improved the culinary art of the early Filipinos.
From them, the natives learned the masting Of pigs, the brewing of
tea for drinking and the cooking of dishes like pant•it, chopsuey, and
Okoy. The Chinese also taught the Filipinos the use or seasonings
like toyo (soy sauce) and tahuri, and plant vegetables like batnw,
petsay and un).
During early times. the Filipino manner Of dressing txyre
traces. The sleeved jackets of the Filipino males, the
trousers of the Muslim women of Mindano. and the use Of
slippers, wooden shoes (b,lkya), fans umbrellas were Of
Chinese origin.
The social customs of the early Vilipinos Showed Chinese
Influence. Amtmg them were the arrangement of marriage by
the parents Of the boy and the girl. the hiring Of a go-between
in marital negotiations, the honoring Of departed ancestors and
the employment of professional moumers during the funeral.
Certain existing social customs bear indications of Chinese
origin like the blasting of firecrackers on New Year •s Eve, the
beating Of gongs to Celebrate a feast, and the Collection Of tong
(percentage fee) by the owner of a gambling joint. Haggling
between the merchant and the customer to arrive at a price for 3
commodity is another practice that the natives have learned from
them.

58
 The linguistic influence cf China the Filipino language is quite
excx•pticnal. About Chinese loan words are included in the present
vocabulary of theFiliѕtos. These words usually pertain kinship
and family relations. clothes, ornaments, food and drinks, agricul ture
and commerce, toots and 0'xupations, and abstract ideas. Among
these are as follow¥ ate (older sister), sanse (third older sister), kuya
(older brother), dik0 (second Older brother), sangko (third older
brother), suki (friend), (scissors), hiya (shame), pakyaw (wholesa le),
and susi (key).
In the 13th century, Japan was said to have traded with the
Philippines based from the early historical records in Ryukyu.
Japanese wakes (pirate-traders) sailed lhe Orient waters. and
many Of them were able to reach the Philippine archipelago.
The Japanese made some early contributions to Filipino culture
and economy They taught Our pcople some industries such as
the manufacture Of arms and tools and the tanning Of deerskins.
In the middlc of the 14th century, the MusJirn traders from
Malaysia brought Islam (in Arabic means "submission to the will of
God to the Philippines. Il spread through the southem parts Of the
islands. Historians say Tuan Masha'ika brought the Islamic faith in
Sulu- I 'e was mentioned to have established the first Muslim (means
'one who surrenders to Gad") community in the archipelasa_
Karim ul Makhdum is the next mentioned in the Torsi!Ns
(records). I [c was a noted judge and schotar frorn Mecca. After
converting the sultan and lhe INople of Malacca. he went to Salu
(1380 A.D.) and bezan misionarv work. He built a house far religious
worship (a mosque) at Tubig-lndagan the Wand of Simunttl and won
many converts, particularlv at Buansa (ancient capital nfS111u}.
About 1390, Rajah Baginda, a Muslim princc from
Menangkabau. Sumatra, landed at Buansa 1 [e overpowemd native
re5istance because his warriors fought with firearms, the first to
used in combat on Philippine soil.
The stage of the makhdumin, an era of receptivity to-
Islam, resulted to conversions to the Islamic faith with thc
arrival of missionaries in Sužu, an event contemporaneous with
the work of other missionaries in Java, Indonesia.
tn 1450 A.D., Sharif al-Hashim (popularly known as Sayid
Abu Bakr), an Arab authority DO Islamic religion and law
arrived in Buansa, Sulu from Johom, Malacca. He married
59
 PrinceFS Paramisu]i the beautiful daughter of Raha Haginda
(fram Sumatra).
Abu Bakr founded the Sulli sultanate in the sameyear. after his
father4n-law•s death. I organized thc government patlerned afler that
of the Arabian caliphate and promitle,ated the first Sulu code of law.
He later transformed the Muslim Tausugsinto a powerful army

Abu Bakr was said to have unificd the coastal and lhe hill
dwellers (Buranun} of SuLu. He adapted the 'oral traditions the
Qu'ran (biblc). I-IC received the title Sullan Sari( After reigning for
30 years, hc died in All sultans of Sulu until the present day trace
their ancestry from him.
in the first quarter of the 16th century, more Muslims
migrated into the archipelago. The Islamic conquest of
Mindanao was attributed to the legendarv Sharif Muhammad
Kabungsuwan, Johore Muslim. Ln 1475, he arrived in the
Malabang area in Cotabato (Maguindanao) with an invading
force of Islamized Samals- The pagan natives ferociously
opposed him but his Samal warriors subdued them.
After conquering the Cotabato Valley (Maguindanao),
KAbungsuwan married a native pnncess in the place. He converted
the overpowervd inhabitants to Islam. Those who refused to accept
the new faith fled 10 the mountains, They became the present-day
Bilaans, Mancbos•, Subanung and other pagan Filipinos.
Kabltngsuwan founded the sultanate of Maguindanao sometime in
1515. Years after. several sultanates werc also established in the
region
Other Muslim missionarieg entered the Philippines
subsequently. Shortly before Magellan's arrival in 1521,
Muslim traders from Borneo actively disseminated the
teachings of Islam in Mlndoru, Batangas, Manila, and
One of them was Siat Sacn, who introduced Islam in the town
of Balayan, Batangas. Through their efforts, the spread Of Islam
was acœlerated.
The last recorded Muslim inissior,ary to bring the Islamic faith
into the country was Alawe Balpake, an Arab Sharif from Sarawak,
Bornco- Our In; the early VearS Of the century, he introduced Islam
in _Northem Mindanao a nd the Lanao Lake region, after which, he
60
moved Lo thc island Of Basilan and became its fiN Mushm sultan.
In 1956, his grave was discovered in Tagunma, Basilan.
Islam, which professes monotheism, or in the belief of a Single
God, teaches that Muhammad was the last and the most important In
a Of prophets- Furthermore, it advocates that all Muslims belong to
one community, the amma. regardless of ethnic hackground
The five pillars Of Islam are as follows: first, the profession
faith (sharaada): "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is
the Mcsscnger of God" which is a prerequisite far membership
in the Muslim communitv•, second, the prayer (salat) wherein
the adult Muslim has to implore the Almighty five times a day
facing Mecca, i.e., before davbrcak, at nocnLime, in mid-
afternoon, at sunSCl. and anytime after Suruset. before sleeping
preceded by ritual cleansing; third, the almsgiving which IS the
obligatory giving Of one fortieth Of one's income to the needy
or religious cause to purify one's wealth and attain salvahon;
fourth, the pi!zrimage Mecca which a mandatory' trip to the
House Of Cod (the Kaaba) where the title of shall be given to a
Muslim who has performed tHs pilgrimage; and fifth, (saa$m},
which is done during the lunar month Of Ramadan (the ninth
month of the Arabic calendar).
Ramadan commemorates the Holy Qur'an'S revelation
(Chapter Il, Verse 185) to Prophet Muhammad Sallalahu Alaihi
Wassalam. During the period Of fasting. all Muslims must
refrain from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse from
daybreak to sunset. The sick, travelers, and menstruating
women are exempted from fasting but thev have to make up the
days they skipped at a later date, Islam celebrates Eid ul-Fitx or
the Festival of Breaking the Fast, after the sighting of the
crescent moon at the end of Ramadan. (Republic Act 9177
declared Eid ul-Fitr a national holiday in the Philippines to be
observed not only by Musltms but also bv Christians.) This is a
day on which the Muslims are called to visit one anothct and
exchange greetings anions themselves.
Considered the Sixth pillar of Islam by some is the jihad,
which in Arabic means *'to struggle" or "t0 exhaust one's
efforYt in order to please God. Within the belief of [slam, jihad
refers to living a virtuous life, helping Other Muslims and
61
preaching Islam. It has lately evolved to holy war, which
focused on the militant interpretation of the
Islam had left her lasting impression on the life and culture
of the Muslim Filipinos. which include the Maranaos Of Lanao,
Maguindanaons of Cotabato, Samals of Zamboanga, Yakans of
Basilan, and Taugugs Of Sulu. The mosque is their special
place of worship and point of wnvergence for activity. It was
built as link to Mecca,
With Islam, came the sultanate form of government, together
with the title af political dignitaries, such as sultan (supreme ruler)
raja (heir apparent), (princcss), and kali (judge); the Arabic alphabet,
Islamic holidays, and the Arabic arts.
(a Maranao word for "getting a icg or entangled in an
object") originated from del Sur. The da with sole mn faces and
dignified pose, dressed in Muslim c•turnes begin dancing in a slow
pace. which soon progresses to a faster tempo to the rhythmic
clapping Of crisscmssed bamboos. The ladies gracefully wave big
fans while the men glide with brightly colored handkerchiefs.
When performed by ladies Of the royalty Of t_ÄttäO.
is usually ushered by a waiting lady. who holds an
exquisltely
embellished umbrella over the Princess' head whervver she
Lcgcnd has it that singkil originated from the time the diuyatas
(nymph* Or fairies) plaved a 'Oke on Princess Gandingan as
She was on a stroll. The caused the trees to tremble and the tocks
to roll; however. the princess skipped nimbly from place to
place unharrned.
In their artworks, the Maranaos ugcd the or Okkil design. a
curvilinear floral design. The different types of okkii design appear
as border decoration on the cover and the pages Of the Qu'nn. They
are also replicated in furniture, boats, farm implements, silverware,
brassware, jewelo••, and ceramics. Similar Okir designs were also
made on ancestral houses called torcgan.
The indigenous bird motif, the sarimanok, also said to have
becn developed by the Maranaos. It is decorative in nature,
having the appearance of a byd or rooster holding a fish in its
claws or beak.
62
 Another artistic expression by the Muslims is the Tausug
kris. This is a zigzag type of sword. These swords were
on]Ÿ119ed as weapons but also considered as great works of
arts, at times inlaid with silver and gold or pearls. One fearsomc
weapon was the lantaka (swivel gun) plaœd on flexible beams
that allowed the gunner to pursue a moving target
The people ina society collectively te and prcgcrvc
Culture. The Filipino people culturally evolved because they
were able to exchange their thoughts with others through corn-
munication. The transmission of ideas and skills was made
possible through interaction since the early Filipinos no longer
lived in complete isolation.
The ancient Filipinos prior to the coming Of Spaniards
have already possessed a distinctive culture as proven by
material remains ofpast socieKes. They not uncivilized but
intrinsically endowed with abilities to stand as equal to people
elsewhere in the world.

2. Traditional Filipino Communities

Earlv Filipino settlements varied in population
sizes. inhab iteáb•,• thousands cfpeople while cthe1S
wen:: small, only Of a few scattered family members. The unit of
social Organization with broader political, economic„ and features
than the ia mity was the baransay, hcadcd by the native chieftain
called or revah.
Consolidation of barangays was formed through marriages
and blood Compact, locally known as sundwu. traditional
ceremony signifies that the partakers ot such rite become blood
brothers, presumably because the same blood now flowcd in
their vans. They drew blood from their arms and mixed it with
wine, which they shared and drank at the same time as viewed
by witnesses.
Chroniclers noted and characterized the Social
stratification system Of pre-colonial Filipino community
organizafion based on wealth. political influence and social
privileges enjoyed. The ranks were as follows: (t) the da\u class
Or the rah:ng class; (2) the or the aristocracv; (3) the
63
timasva (pronounced timawa) or the common class; and the (4'
alipin (also known ag uripon among the Visayans) or Ibe
dependent class.
The or rajah ruled the barnngay. Since the term barang,lÿ came
trom the ward balangay, which means beat, Fr. Juan de Plasencia,
Spanish chronicler in the 161žL century, speculated that the role Of
the {tutu from the Captain Of a boat migrating to the Philippines With
his family, rela lives. and Miguel de Loarca, in his R*laciož: {as 'slas
F ihrinas (1582) said that the who live in the same town obcy the
wealthiest among them. Furthermore, Antonio de Morga in his
de Fižtpntas mentioned that only the best warriors
Were Obeyed
The boxer Codex, an anonymous late 16th century manuscript
mentioned that only men were qualified for the title. The power
depends upon the faithfulness of his followers.
The exercised administrative powers. In arriving at im
portant decisions, the data also exercLœd le$lat-ive powers,
calling his people all together and Securing their consent. [e had
duly to protect his community.
A also was given powers sincc he could render judgment
in any dispute. He should hear the testimony Of thc claimants
before handling down the verdict- His decision could be
appealed to an arbiter Of the claimants' choice from another
cont munity
Cont-roi over disposition Of barangay real properly was vested
in their native chief. The chieftain received the agricultu produce.
personal services as well as from his people. He took his share
Of the harvest as tribute except from the aristocracy or the
mahar!ikA.
Other historians include the family, rclatives, and elders of the
dafu as members of the aristocracy. The mnharlikas Were believed
to the descendants of mixed marriages between a ruling dynasty
and one out Of power.
I he tim.au,q class enjoyed their rights to a portion Of the
barangay land. Their normal obligation was agricultural labor
but they weæ also called to Catch fish, to accompany
Or paddle boats. They were algo called out for
irregular services like supporting feasts and building hotLgeg.
64
 An tdipin Was a man indebted to another. His creditor
could have been a datu. mnharlika, timawa, or another alipin.
His subordination was obligatory. Aperson may be for
that reason he W3S caned gintuho. He inherits the debt of his
parentsThe degree of nlipin indebtedness may vary For
example, if alipin and marry, thcir offspring would be half-
alipm where he would only work halí of his father's obligation.
There were two kinds of ntipin, the Rlipinsr and
the aliping sagigilid_ The tilipin with land rights was called
nantamahay (householder). He owned a house. He came at his
master's call to work on the fields and do services. A man enters
the status eitherby inheritance from rwnaÐta;uy parents.
dropping down from the timgwa status or rising from the
sasrigiži't status.
The aliping sagisri!id Witt is the part of the house where the
stove is) were membeys of the master's household who ate from their
master's pot. They may be transferred to another creditor at any
moment and may be rewarded at their master's pleasure. Slaves
purchased from outside the community and captives in battles or
raids were included in the Sagigilid status.
'lhe dependent population whom the Spanishchroniclers
called slaves were released from dependence by paying back
debts. by marriage, by purchase or by the voluntarv t Of the
master,
The had both oral written laws. The oral laws were their
customs (ugali), which had been handed down from generation
to generation. The written laws were promulgated by datits:
with the help of the council Of elders. However. these laws may
be changed by consensus among ruling or by any among them
powerful enough to do so. Such written laws were announced
to the people by a barangay crier known as amalöhoknn.
The unwritten codes Of conduct were strictly obeyed.
R.ishteotxnsg was cabanalan and an upright person was
described Any wrongdoing would mean reprehcnsion
from the community leaders and more importantly, from the
supernatural beings. When d witness was called to testify
against anybody, it was customary to say, "May lightning strike

65
me if I arn telling a lie, May the heavens or thc sun fall upon me
if I will tell a he.'
They believed tha after death, the soul would travel to
another world to receive due reward or punishment. The good
soul would go to (state of bliss) according to the
Tagalogs and ologwn. YO the Visayans. The bad soul would go
to a place Of doom called kasamatm by the Tagalogs and sotaå
by the Visayans.
Aside from their strong belief for life afler death, arthaeological
sites show that there was a local form of ancestor worship, Early
Filipino contactg with other Asians brought about changes in the
belief System like the anilG concept to honor ancestors. The Visayans
called their ancestor spirits umu!agad (from the word a!agad or
follower). The notion of diwatgs (spirits} that dwell in nature was
also pervasive in the Visayas and Mindanao.
The abstract idea Of religion was concretely shown in
Kulptured objects known as licha (pronounced likka) or
larawan, reverently worshipped by the natives, Thc Cordillera
people carved anito figures caned signifying ag ancestral spirits
and granary gods. This Stahte Was placed in front Of the door
oi a rice warehouse to Ser,' e as
caretaker.
Aside from sculptured objects, the relarianship between ancient
spirits and men were expressed elaborate paintings executed on the
bodies human beings. Tattooing. as believed by some people. was
done as a thanksgiving offering to the gods. while others many
instances, had it done to acquire protective fromspirig or apphcd after
a man had shown remarkable courage in battle.
The supreme god Of the Tagalogs was Bathaiù or Abba. was
said to inhabit a faraway realm eterna) space known as ka!walhatian.
For lhe Bontoks and Kankanays Of the Central Cordillera, Lumawig
was the creator and preserver of life. Among the Ifugaos, the highest
of all their deities is Kabwuan, who dwells the fifth region of the
universe.
There were also minor gods idols. These include
lakatnbini. the god Of the throat; bibit, wha was offered food
by the people for good health; lakamhacod, guard of the crops;
and, iâkapati, who Was the god Of the fields and had a half-
woman and half-man figure.
66
 Rituals and ceremonies to appea;M the different divinities
were Celebrated customarily by the people. ranging from
simple to complex performance Of rites appropriate for the
occasion. Temporary shelters or roofs were built for religious
feasts and rites.
The more was an Ifugao ritual
performed by the men-folk Of the community to drive away bad
spirits which they believe bring poor harast Or ailments to
people- The worship service called the which stacts at the crack
of dawn, was headed by a mumbaki (native priest). Animal
sacrifices were offered to the gods for good omen.
The participants, with their bodies adorned with leaves Of
the red '13 plant thc åortgla, beat their wooden p called
bangtbnng (painted with chicken blood) from the terraces to the
river and to their homes. This was to frighten hidden rodents
and prowling wicked spirits. At the end Of the ritual, the
dongltz leaves Were removed from the participanes and strung
together.
CFC of the most popular religious ceremonies during the
ancient times was the frequently celebrated for thanksgiving and
for curing illncss. The religious rituals were performed by
mediums and healers, which the Tagalogs called while the
Visayans termed as babaulan or bayian. They belonged to the
highest rank of the early Filiplno priestly CÄste. They were
highly respected by the community members. The priestly Caste
also included the which Of a lower rank people feared him
he was belicved to have the power to inflict diseases.
One feast, the was observed at night under a balete tree or
in the open field wherein those who came to participate brought
food and an Offering, such as a mat, which they tied to a The
celebration was more drinking than eating.
Another feast, the Inaganito a month-long celebration,
Usually, they put lights to several poles, which surrounded a
central light. Lsaves served as decorations. At times when the
occasion demanded a sacrifice. the prettiest girl was first asked
to stab the offering (usually live pig). •The people the feast

67
followed her, and the meat Of the dead hog was then given tv
the guests.

68
 Meat was primanly provided during rituals and feasts- The
everyday meal of the early Filipinos included roottrops; fruits,
and fish. The staple food of the early Filipinos wag rice. They
cooked food earthen pots ct in bamboo tubes. They ate with their
hands, using banana plant leaves as plates and coconut
shells as drinking cups They made fire by rubbing two pieces of
dry woodThey stored their drinking water in large earthen jars
or in huge bamboo tubes.
In many provinces, winemaking is an
enterprise. Their most popular winc was thc tuba, made from
ihe sap of coconut 0T rupa palms. The other wines manufacured
in the islands were basi, an [locano wine frorn sagarcaale iuice;
pangasi, a Visayan wine made from rice;lmnbunog, a Tagalog
wine pred aced by distillation of tuba; and the an Igorot wine
made from rice.
The early Filipinos taught their children how to endure
life's challenges. The fathers trained their sons in hunting,
fishing, timbercutting. boatmaking, mining, and agriculture.
The mothers, on the other hand, trained their daughle1S ta do
household tasks like conking, gardening, and sewing.
It is said that In ancient panay, lheæ was a barangay school
called hothogn, under the charge of an old man, acting as the teacher.
The subjects taught were reading, writing, arithmetic, the handling of
weapons and the acquiring of amulets cr
ALSO pan of the native tradition were indigenous music and
dances. The musical instruments were made of bronze, wood and
bamboo. In Northern and Snoihern Philippines, the lip valley notch
flute became popular. Jaw harps were also found all ever the
archipelago. These were mostly made af bamboo, some of them were
made of metal- The bamboo jaw harps of the Kalingas were called
Thc Tagalogs cat]cd it Mindanao, kubing was the
common term for these bamboo jaw harps.
Among the musical instruments being played by the natives
were the kudyapi (Tagalog guitar), kalaìeng (Tinggian nose
flute), habãndi? (Maguindanaoan gong), kulintang (Muslim
xylophone), (Visayan bamboo drumi, siìhay (Ilocano
teed flute), the St(rncùn (Subanun cvmbal} and trun½uli
(trumpet made from carabao horn). Brnzsk'ikÑ is a bamboo
buzzer plaved by striking the split ends against one's palm.
Ancient songs exhibited varied emotions, with themes
about love, war, labor, religion, and death. Among these were
as folldws: tug-umpay, Tagalog song ef victory; ayeg-klu,
Igorot serenade song; bactal, Tagbanua death song; and t "doh,
Abusan harvest song
Ethnic dances, which had been part Of every and culture,
reflected the sentimen ts and artistry Of the populace. Their dances,
customarily light-hearted and mimetic, were in connection with their
beliefs Ln spirits, in thanksgiving and healing. in courtship. Some of
native dances included the ruihinhin, a Tagalog courtship dance;
the da7tdansoy. a dance; Site-Sua dance, a Sulu
Courtship dance and the paunjalay, a Muslim wedding dance.
Theater originated within the early communities through
ritual pract1äOners in theirdance-dramas to appease
supernatural powers that wcre believed to control natural forces,
to ensure good harvest and succeRq hunting and battles.
Kati, later called during the Spanish era, was popular all
over the islands. It was a method Of self-defense with
instruments made Of rattan canes orbetel•nut tree trunks. As an
art of batttler the kali reqtlirc•s basic skills for parrying, offense,
and defense.
In commerce, the early Filipinos had their own weights and
measures. They used the talaro, a kind of balance with scales, for
weighing things. Measurement for capacity were the kaban (25
the galop (one *anta), the (one-half ganta), and the gafang
(one Chapa). For length. measures used were the dipa, the length Of
the otitstælched arms; the tumuro, the length between the tip Of the
thumb and that Of the forcfinger when extended; the sandamak, the
width of the hand with the five fingers pressed together; and the
sandilli, the width Of one finger.

70
 They also knew the art of coinage and had gold œsed as medium
of exchange. Modern nutrtisrnahsts call these. ancient gold coins
pitoncitœ; (little cones) because oi their conical shape.
Shells and bronze gongs were also used as money in
exchange Of other goods. However, thC usual method of
trading during those times was barter in which they Offered
their own products in exchange of other goods Aside from
rattan. pearls, precious shells, and other marine and forest
products. the early Filipinos traded their native merchandise
such as baskets and mats. Nontextilc weavfrlg industry tn the
archipelago was a result of the proliferation of organic materials
such as bamboo, rattan, vines, and reeds.
To the mountain people of Cordillera, a basket was a functional
household or agHC'.tltaral corùainer. This light bushel was essential
in cat-tying clothes and vegetables especially a rugged terrain. The
multi-purpose backpack was best known Cordillera basket, The
Ilocanos had pmduced baskets for storing valuables and their clothes,
the tapnpipi. The HanunuD of Mindcro had embellished baskets 10
hold betel nut chewing beads or money.
Mat-making was also popular in the islands. Various
palms were sources for this flourishing industry. The natives
made distincävely large mats far sleeping. Mats wcm also
fashioned as home furnishings to sit on and receive
distinguished guests- Sulu mats were the most intricately
woven- They colorfully dyed pandanus mats and occasionally
incorporated symbols and geometric designs.
The early natives also knew mathematics. They could count up
to (bah"ia) and could add, subtract, multiply, and divide.
The terms for numericals were as follows: (one}, puo (ten), dam:
aumdred), libo (thousand), yutâ (onc hundmd thousand), angao (one
million), ¼2ti (ten million), and bahala (one hundred million).
They also learned how to calculate time and identify
seasons by rcading the signs of nature. ear\y or late flowering
ofcertain p\arüg could indicate a long dry season or early rams.
The [fugaog, on the Other hand, devised a calendar, which
contains 13 months in a year, each month having 28 days- Some
71
members of this ethnic group st-iü utiLize this calendar method. They
had a tribal ca!endar recorder called lumunoh, who kcpt 13 strings
repœsenting the months of the year. At the end of cach day, the
tumunoh tied a knot per string to show that a day had passed. A string
with 28 knots reprcgcnts one monEh. The ifugd0 calendar has a total
of 364 days a year.
Thc Carly inhabitants also had some knowledge of medici_ne.
Folk healers applied certain roots and [eaves, flowers anci fruits,
branches and pistils of plants containing substances with curative
powers.
Long before the coming of the Spaniards, the natives of the
islands were already wearing clothes. Men wore collarless,
shortsleeved coat called kangan and a strip of cloth called bahag,
wrapped around the and between the legs. Usually, they Worc
putong, a piece of cloth worn around the head. Though they had no
footwear,
they wore jewels such as gold necklaces, gold armlets called
and gold anklets filled With agates, carnelians and other
colored glass.
The women wore a wide•eved blouse called Euro. Their
skirt was called patzàyong. Their personal trimmings consisted
of necklaces, bracelets, earrings and rings made of gold at times
filled with pearls, carnelian beads, and Other precious gems.
Numerous types of glass and stone beads have been unearthed
in Philippine archaeological sites, providing substantial proof
Of early tradc relations of the archipelago with foreign lands.
One personal garb in the islands was the salakot (native
hat). worn as protection from heat or sudden rain. Generally
made of (a forest palm), the was widely used in Central
Luzon and the Visayas. The nonggots used leather (from
animals thcy• hunt) making shallow hats, whilc neighboring
Bontoks used coiled rattan. The Ifugaos, on the Other hand,
wore perfectly fitted carved bowl-like hats, while the Maranaos
and the Hagobos (Davao) made wooden hats as shiclds for
combat.

72
 When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16b century, they
were surprised to see the early Filipinos living in these well-
organized and independent villages, the barangays. The native
dwellers lived in houses made of wood and bamboo, roofed by
nipa palm called btthrry ktcþo (nipa hut). Other materiais
used include yanrok (rattan), Cogon grass, stone, and clay.
These houses were elevated thr2e to four meters from the
ground and usually supported by four Or more posts made Of
wood or bamboo. The space beneath the housc called served as
workspace, storage space, a granary or pen for livestock. A
ltngdan (ladder); which could be drawn up at night or when the
owners cf the house went out, was used to enter the nipa hut.
The roof of the b?hay kvbo may be constructed on the ground,
then completed over the house frame, The wali was built from nipa
shingles or bamboo. The iinitad na Lawayan (bamboo slats) which
served as the floor of the house, were set slightly apart to induce
ventilation. The doors, as well as the stairs were made of bamboo.
The windows of the house differ in size, with d tukod (mast) to prop
the swinging cover open during the day
The principal space inside the bãiiay kubo, called the
about ten square meters in arca or larger, could be used for Ing
guests, dining, and sleeping. Furniture in the tat-tay kubo is
minimal, commonly with a low table far meals called didang
and a built-in called papag. A small silid (room) served as a
dressing mom and closet far clothes, pillows. and mats.
There were houses with an open porch called batalnn, an
unroofed platform, where water jars are phced, Sometimes the
cooking was done in an open hearth or on a clay Wan (s«'ve) or
tungkong kalon (three stones) a space in front of the ladder of
the
bataåi't.
The structure and design Of the native houses resulted from
variotts fac(ors Ihat may bc dictated by thc natural setting, available
resouxes, customs, beliefs and needs of the cycupants. The šhafaring
Samal built their houses over the water, along the seashore. Their
domiciles were on stilts, high enough to let their boats dock under
73
them cvcn at high tide. Foctbndges made af planks were connected
to these dwcIlLngs. The Badjaa lived in houseboats. The Bagubos of
Davao del Sur and the Kalinga of the Mountain Province built houses
on trees for protection from enemies and wild animals on the ground.
Cats were kept in most houses to get rid of rats. Theie were
also dogs and pet monkeys to warn the household members of
appmaching strangers.
Chapter Test No. 3
Name; Date:

Course,

I Mu hiple Choice: Choose the letter with the correct answer. Write
your answers on the blanks provided: (20 pts.) The term
NusantQ0 has this meaning.
maritime-oriented prehistoric people
b. hunting and gathering population
Austronesians from South China and Taiwan d
people speaking Prot(YAustronesian language 2- This
theory maintains that the early inhabitants originated from South
China and Taiwan, and from there spread southward and
westward.
a. Mainland Hypothesis b Mainland
Origin Hypothesis Island Origin
Hypothesis d _ Fvo] ution Theory
3. He undertook the analysis of the Tabon skullcap
and mandible in 1975 and discovered that the
earliest inhabitant of the islands died due to a
fall or a blow to the head.
a. Nail McIntosh c. K c. Chang
b. Peter Bellwood d. Wilhelm Solheim
These are large rounded stones found in the
riverbeds used as tools by the nativc settlers.
core tools c. pebble tools
74
 b. flake tools d _ cobble tools
This first metal to be widely used by the early
Filipinos.
bwnze Iron b copper d. gold

75
6. In Leyte and Cebu, they used this ingredient to remove the foul smell
of fish.
a. vinegar c. coconut milk
b. tabon-tabon fruit d. bakawan bark
7. Aside from sappan wood, the ancient used this in
Yone painting.
a. hematite c. hematite
b. hemmatite d. hermatite
8. It is a kind of jade that was Only obtainable by tradlng with
ather Southeast Asian neighbors.
carru21ian e. oriental

b. nephrite d. glass
9. This Filipino term is Of Malay origin.
c. pa kyaw
b. maharlika d. upa
10. These were the men of Champa who traded with the Buranu_rs.
a. Orang Bandjars c. Malays
b. Orang Dampuan d. Mandayas is a
Sanskrit term which has this meaning.
Divine Being e. Only Lord b Highest Cod d. Great Lord
12. A copper Image of said elephant god of thc Hindus was found in
Mactan. a, Ganeqha c. Siva
b. Garuda d. Lokesvara
13. He recorded the earliest Sino-Philippine relations in 972
a. Chau J Il-kua c. Wang Ta-vuan
b. Ma-Tuan-Im d. Yung-lo
14. Based on this Chinese record, the Philippines sent eight
tribute embassies tv Beijing.
a. Chu-fan-chi c. Tao-I-chih-iic
b. Wen ShianR d. Ming Shih
Kao
 15 He was the first to be mentioned in the tarsilas to have
brought Islamic faith to Sulla.
a. Karim ul Makhdum c. Sayid Abu Bakr
b. Tuan Masha'lka d. Raha Bawnda
26. He founded the Sulu sultanate in A-D.
a. Karim ul.Makhdum c. Sayid Abu Bakr
b. Tuan Masha'ika d. Raha Baginda
17. The confession of the creed among Muslims is called the
a. zakat c. shahadah
b. sawm d. hajj
18. He was the Spanish chronicler in the 16th century who
speculated that thc role Of the datu arose from the captain
Of thc boat called btltattxay.
a. Fr. Juan de Plasencia c. Miguel de Loarca b. Antonio
dc Mórga d. Antonia Pigafetta
19, This was a month-long celebration where the natives
would put lights to several poles. which surv'unded a central
light decorated with leaves.
a. pandnt c. parliwata b, magaruto d. dulang
20, He was a hibal calendar recorder of the Ifugaos.

a. mumbaki C. uripon
b. umalohokan d. turnunoh

Column A Column B
Set 1

1. Kabunian god of the throat

77
 2. Lumawig b. for the Bontoks ard
Matching
Type: Match Columns A and 8. Write the Icttcrs on the blanks
provided: (20 pts.)
Kankanavs. the
3. Lakambacod c. for good health
Lakambini d. supreme god of the
If-ugaos
e. 6uard Of the crops
Set 2
Dasi lgerot wine made from

2. Lambanog b. from coconut

and nipa palm
3. Pangasi Visayan wine
made from rice
4. Tapuy d. Ilokano wine
made from Sugarcane
5. Tuba e. dislilled tuba

Ba rimbaw Tagalog jaw harp

2. Kuhntang b, Tlokano reed flute
3. Silbay Muslim xylophone
4. Kud Maguindanaoan gong
5. Babandil e. Tagalog gui tar
Set 4
Kinnoton Muslim wedding
dance
Paunialay - b. Ilokano ant's dance
3. Mahinhin C. Visayan tuba dance

78
 4. Dandansoy d. Tagalog
courtship dance
5. Kurninfang Taga!og War dance

Ill. Essay: pts. each)

1. I low did the teachings Of Islam influence the Filipino
soeie"
2, Discuss the Cultural evolution Of the early inhabitants Of the
Philippines,

'Ibe Spanish Era

1, In Search of New t ands
In the last centuries uf the Middle Ages (1300-1500), the
Europeans while reginning the loly Land from the Muslims, were ablc
to establish commerce with the Orient through trade routes. Spices like
pepper, ginger, nutmeg, onions, and garlic were the most important
items of trade (rom the East, owing to the desire of the Europeans to
enhance the taste Of food and to preserve meat •luring winter time.
The fall of Constantinople 0453) arid the emergence Of the
Ottoman Turks closed the former trade routes to the East, causing
the monarchs and navigators of Europe to find new routes across
the seas. The Portuguese were a few years ahead Of the Spaniards
in the discoverv new trade routes. Inspired by prina the Navigator
(1394-1460). Portuguese navigators sailed down the African
coast to reach the East. In 1487, led by Bartoiome Dias, the
Portuguese rounded the Cape of GOO'4 A few years later. in 1498, de
Gama reached Calicuì, India, by sailing eastward from the Cape.
The end of [he (wars against the Moors) in 1492, paved lthe
way Jnr g voyages including the discovery of the New World
lAmerica) for Spain. Chrstopher Columbus. who had faiicd to
79
convince the King of Portugal that he cculd reach the East by
sailing westward, was al'le to get the support Of the Sparugh
Crown.
After these remarkable voyages, Portugal and Spain became keen
colonizing new lands because of gold, spices, and other merchandise
found in the Orient, as well as their religious zeal to proselytize the na
tives.
On May 3, 1493, Pope Alexander VI, attempting to settle the
rivalry issued a papal bull known as the cat•tera.
decreai that the Spanish zone of exploration should be WCSt of
the imaginary line drawn north to south, 100 leagues west of the
Azores and Cape Verde islands. All lands east of the demarcation
line should

80
belong to Portugal. The demarcation line was drawn to identify
Spanish and Portuguese spheres Of exploration and conquest.
The following year. the two kingdoms agreed in the Treaty of
Tordesi'/as to move the demarcation linc 370 leagues west of
Cape Verde Islands and still be guided by the provisions Of the
papal bull.
In 1505, Ferdinand Mageltan (1480-152 L), a member Of
nobility of Portugal sailed with a fleet carrying the first Portuguese
viceroy to the East Indies in 1506 and frt»n theœ, w sent to Malacca
(Melaka) in the Malay Peninsula and the spice markets Of Ambon and
Banda in Indonesia. He was promoted to the rank of captain in 1510.
He æturned to Portugal in 1512.
Through Observing wind directions and ocean tides,
Magellan later conceived the idea of a passage to the west or
around South America to reach the Moluccas or Spice Islands
(islands Of pæsenlday Indonesia). VThile finding the chance to
present his plan to King Manuel of Portugal, he fought against
the Moors Morocco in 1513. There he received his wounds that
left him lame for life. After his return to Portugal, Magellan
proposed to the king his plan to travel a westward route to the
Moluccas, The king refused and cvcn canceled his promotion
pmbably because of charges Of financial irregularities while he
was in Morocco.
Disgusted by the king•s he renounced his Portugue*
citizenship. He went to Spain in 1517. In his new found home,
Magellan met influential persons who helped him get support for
his plan to find a new route to the Spice Islands from King
ChâT1eq I (later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). One of them
was Bishop Juan de Fonseca. the head of the Royal Council ot
the Indies (division charge of Overseas expeditrons).
Spurred bv the competition to win against Portugal in
obtaining high-prt@d spices, Spain ccnunissicned Magellan to
find a mule to Moluccas by sailing west. Such passage would be
beneficial to Spain for Portugal controlled the rd route to the East
Inches around Africa's Cape of Goad Hope. The Contract for the
expedition was signed On March 28, 1518, Magellan was
named captain-general of the expedition.

2- Magellan's New Route to the East

Magellan left the port Of San Lucar de Barrameda, Spain,
September 20, 1519 with fivc ships namely Trinidad, Concepcion,
Santiago. Antomb, and Victoria together With t 250 men. The
expedition intended to circumnavigate the earth in the service of
Spain. Accompanying him Were Fr. Pe.dtX) de Valderrama (fleet
chaplain), Antonio Pigafctta (chronicler of the expedition), Duarte
Barbesa (Magellan's brother-in-law), and his Malay slave Enñque of
Malacca (acting as interpreter).
The fleet sailed through familiar watetS along the Westcoast of
Africa. They reached the Canaries on September 26. Crossing the
Atlantic. they landed on the South American coast, now Pernarrt•uco,
Brazil, on November 29. Magellan continued the voyage, reaching
Rio de on X:embcr 13. He named it Santa Lucia, Yecausc he landed
there on the saint's feast day. There they tradcd with the native
Americans for provisiorw
•The voyage continued at Rio de Plata. BV the time they
were at the tip of the South American continent, it was already
winter. The snowstorms were in a headstrong. The men
became apprehensive and asked Magellan that they all return
toSpain. Magellan declined. Irvtead, he asked them to take
courage. The ships took shelter from storms in port (now in
Argentina) in March 1520.
Unknown 10 Magellan, some officers took into command the
maneuvering Of three ships, the San Antonio, the. Concepcion, and
the Victoria. The next day, Caspar de Quesada, captain Of the
Conception, wrote to Magellan that he and others would not recognize
his authority unless they return immediately to Spain. Still, Magellan
refused 10 heed their petition.
Juan de Carlagena, Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian 'kl Cano,
(called Elcano) and Gaspar de Quesada were found guilty of treason
but pardoned, ButCa1tagena continued to plot again, this time with
82
one of the priests, Sanchez de Reina. They probably jealous because
the captain-general Of thig Spanish expedition was a Portuguese,
Magellan had the two left off the coast of an unnamed
island.

With the first signs ofspring, the expk'ra tot-y voyage

continued jn search ofa route tc the Scuthem Sea (now Pacific
Ckean). Astrong typhoonhad driven ashore and destroyed the
sma Ilest ship, Santiago. In August, the four ships wcnt farther
south and eventually, they came upon a strait which Magellan
called "Strait ofAll Saints" (now Strait Of Magcllan).
Magellan Rnt the San A ntoy:iO to explore the southeast
opening Of the strait. Trinidad entered the southwest Sec.-etlv,
San pilotcd by Esteban Gomez (a Portugue.o, descried
on the night Of November 20 and sailed back for Spain.
The fleet the R_'uthern Sea, which -Magellan named Ocean
Pacific because was calm. Unfortunately, Magellan had
l.ztderestimated the xean's size, In the next five months, the ship Was
running out of Instead of biscuits, the men ate sawdust. They also
started to eat leather rope. guards and even rats. Many got sick with
(a gum A number of his men
But Magellan and his men bravely sailed on and by March 6,
1521 they had reached an island in the Western Pacific. called it
Indrones (or Ig!ands of Thieves, later ta be namcd Marianas, in honor
of Maria Ana of Austria, Queen Regent Of Spain) because Some Of
the native Thamorros had stolen a boat from the flagship. TO Stop
them, Magellan ordered his men to fire their guns.

3. Rediscoven• ofthe Philippines

From Ladrones Islands, Magellan's fleet went on their voyage
westward. At the dawn Of Saturday, on March 16, 1521, they gaw the
towering heights of Samar and named the island {sifts de San
for it was the feast day of St. Lazarus. They stayed overnight Off
Suluan Island. The following day, they landed on the small
unbthabited islet af (Homonhon) found at the mouth of Leyte Gulf
and built two tents for the Sick.
On the third day after their arrival on Marèh 18, they met nine
natives from the neighboring island Of Suluan who arrived boat.
them as friendly people, Magellan gave them red caps, minors,
combs, smal] bells, ivorv, fine linen cloth, and other trifles. In ret-um,
the islanders gave them their Cargo Of bananas, fish, eoecnuts, and
palm wine (t"ba).
On Holy Thursday, Mardi 28, the fleet landed in Masao, Butuan,
Agusan del Norte. (Early historians claim that it was Limasawa, an
island in Southern Leyte ) Rajah Kola mbu was rowed to where the
where. At first, hc refused to board Magellan's big Ship.
Finally, the rajah welcomed Magellan and visited him aboard his
ship. He save Magellan three porcelain jars of rice, while Magellan
gave a red cap and a red-and-yellow robe.

84
 Subsequently, Magellan's men held a mcx-k fight. The
soldier in a suit Of armor remained unhurt cvcn after he was
struck. Rajah Kolambu was fascinated and noted thal one man
in such attire was worth 100 fighters. Thcsc newcomers could
help them win their battles. Thus, the rajah decided to seal their
new friendship. Afterwards, he performed the kasi or blood
Compact ceremony with Magellan on March 29. Good Friday.
On Easter Sunday, March 31.1521, a mass was held on
Masao's shore with Reverend Father Pedro de Valderrama
officiating. At sundown, Magellan, Ln the presence of Spaniards
and Filipinos, planted a large wooden on the summit of a hill
overlooking the He named the Country the Islas de San
Noted historian Dr Sonia M. 7.àide presented the evidence for
Masao rather than I imasawà as the site Of the recorded mass in the
Philippines. First, in all primary sources including the diaty of
Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler cf Magellan's voyage, the narne of
the place was Mazaua. Limagawa has foursyllables and begins with
another letter. Scond, accord ing to primary records, the expedition
traveled 20 to 25 leagues from Hornonhon, the first landing poin t.
they had been to Limasawa Island, the dÉtance is 14.6 leagues or One-
half Of that length. Third, the distance to Cebu from Mazaua
accordung to Pigafetta wxs 35 Icaguc.g (140 miles). The distance
from Limasawa to Cebu is only 80 miles. Fourth, it was mentioned
that the king came to their ship in a hatanghai, butuan is now the site
of at least nine excavated balanghai relics; by contrast, Limasawa has
no significant archaeological relics or balangltai tradition. Fifth, the
Western explorers got excited at the abundance Of gold in Mazaua,
for that was the main Currency at that time. Both archaeologica] relics
and the gold mines today attested to the abundance of gold the
Agusan Valley.
On April 7, 1521, Magellan together with King Kolambu
and the Spanish and native fleets landed cn Sugtu (now Cebu).
thc same day. Humabon mdde it blocxl compact with Magellan
after the latter had won his.trust and friendship
Asked who would succeed him, Rajah lumabon told Magellan
that he had no sons, only daughters, E lis nephew who had married his
daughter was thet2f3re the crown prince Rajah Humabon added that
patents were no longer honored in their Old age and their
children commanded them. Magellan explained to the Cebuano
85
chieftain the Chr:slian teaching about honoring cne/s patynts.
This confounded Rajah Humabon. Soon, he sought to be
baptized as a Christian.
On Sunday, April 14, 152], a mass on the shore of Cebu was held
With Räiah I and his people attending the ceremony. After the mass,
Magellan planted a huge wooden cross and gauc .isabeta (renamed
Queen Juana a fter baptism for the mother Of King Charles I of Spain),
wife of Rajah Humabon. an image of the Thild Jesus as a gift. There
were about 800 Filipinos who participated in the mass and underwent
ritual baptism. As for Humabon (renamed Carlos), Magellan made
him the king's in Cebu and promised to unite the local
chieftains under his authority, Magellan likewise tried impose
Christianity and Spanish sovereignty on local chieftains.
Rajah Humabon and Datu 'Lula Of Mactan welcomed the
Spaniards, but not Lapulapu another chieftam of Mactan.
Lap•aJapu's reaÌ name was Cali Pulacu as written by Carlos
C.alao, a C.'hinesN;panish poet in the 17th century in his poem
Dios
Perdone (That God May Forgive Him). This was a result of the
research of Prof, Guillermo Gomez-Rivera, a 1975 Zobel Prize
awardee
Lapu]apu refused to accept the new political system and pay
tribute. He decided to break away from Rajah Humabon. TO teach
him a lesson, Magellan invaded MactanonApril 27, 1521. Heled an
armv of 60 steel-clad Spaniards in three vegscls and 1,000
warriors in 3-0 boats. He told Rajah Humabon and his men to Stay on
their boats. watch how the Europeans fight.
Magellan had the fighting skill or Lapulapu and his
men. The Mactan warriors repulsed the Spanish force with their spears
and bamboo stakes. They aimed theirspeazs at the unshielded legs of
the Europeans. The Spaniards were forced to so back to their boats.
was wcunded in the battle, A his
right lcg and then a bamboo spear struck his face- L'pt'lapu and
fighters pounced and killed him- The rernùü.ng Europeans retreated
and left the body of their captain behind
The Battle of Mactan was a scandalous defeat for the Spaniards
for they were not able to provc themselves better tri combats. On May
l, the natives Of Cebu carned Out the plan to massacre them.
86
While the Europeans were attending a banquet prepared for them by
Rajah Humabon, the warriors attacked them. Duarte Barbosa, Juan
Serrano and twenty-seven other Spaniards were killed.
The remaining members of the expedition wære forced to
flee the islands before the Ccbuanos could kill them al). They
burned the ship Concepci0" for lack Of men to operate the
vessel. With lwo ships left — Trinidad and Victoria, they
continued their voyage to Mcluccas.
On November 8, 1521, they finally landed in lidore. an
island in Moluccas- They able to secure a rich cargo of spices.
The survivors decided that the Trinidad, led by Gomez de
Espinosa, would back to Spaû-t by crossing the Pacific to
Panama, while the Victoria. under Juan Sebastian det Cano's
command would sail via Cape Of Good Hope. but On lower
latitudes to avoid the Portuguese
The Victoria crosæd the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of
Good Hope and finally reached San Lucar, Spain on September
6, 1522, with only 18 survivors. Thc voyage around the world
lasted 2 years, 11 months, and 16 days.
Pigafetta's story of the expedition spread. Shortly thereafter; the
geographers adopted new dimensions Of the earth and the wider scope
of the Southern (Pacific Ocean). The voyage cnhanœd thei r
knowledge about the existence Of Other islands in the Pacific and the
Philippines. It also confirmed that the earth is round and that it is
reaì]y possible to sail around the world since the world's oceans are
connected.
The cargo of cloves sold for such a high price that it was more
than sufficient to pay for the expenses of Magellan's expedition. As
reward, the Spanish Crown granted Elcano a proud motto for his
shield. Primus Circumdeåisti Me (you circumnavigated me first)
As for the Crew of the San Antonio (the Ship that had
deserted the expedition), they had been imprisoned until
Eicano•s return. They were tried and'convicted.
Magellan's expedition paved way for Spain'S expansion to
the Orient. Driven by the thrill of adventure and the reward of
gold and spiritual dispensation, the Conquistadores tock the risks
of the
87
 The first post-Magellan expedihon (1525), led by sailed
T
with seven Ships and 450 men. After crossing the
Strait of Magellan, the vex-gels were dispersed by a storrn.
Unfortunatelv, LOdYSd got ill. They served him broiled rat. the
traditional treatment for constipation He did not recover. Eventually
he died. His men failed to reach the Philippines.
Son Oi Venetian explorer John Cabot,
headed the second expedition in 1526 With four ships and 250
They failed to find the Strait of Magellan
In 1527, AlvaroSzy.c.drA..ÇerA cousin cf Hernando Cortes Of
Mexico, together with 110 men constituted the first expedition to the
from the Viceroyalty in Mexico (New Spain). Three ships
were setout to what had happened to the two earlier
expeditions and rescue any survivors. Only one ship, the Florida,
reached Surigao in Northeastern Mindanao but fhiled to colonize.
They wcrc able to rescue several survivors from the first
F."o expeditions in Tidore, Moluccas. Loaded with spices, the
Florida attempted to return to Spain but strong winds drove her
back. Saavedra Cervn tried the second and third time to sail
against strong winds. lie fell ill and died. His successor also
failed to make a return trip. Finally they decided to surrender to
the Portuguese.
In 1542. King Charles I sent another expedition. This was to
the claims ofSpain to the islands, which part Of the Eastern
Hemisphere, Based on the Treaty Of Tordesillas of 1494, the Eastern'
Hemisphere was reserved to Portuguese colonization. He instructed
Rny Vil)alûhns to command a fieet of 6 ships and around 400 men.
He exhorted Villalobos to avoid any of the Spice Islands their
voyage to the Philippines, then known as Islets del Poniettie (the
Sunset Islands).
Villalobos reached Bagaaga Bay in Eastern Mindanao On
Fcbntary 2, 1543 after three months of sailing. He named Mindanao
Capoii, or the imperial of Charles. Searching for food, they
reached the southern island Of Sarangani, which Villalobos renamed
A ntaniû mhonor Of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza Of Mexico. Some
Of his men went ag far as Leyte, which they renamed Felipina, in
honor of fhefukure king Philip Of Spain- Later. the name Felipinas
was given to ali the islands. Villalobos also failed to colonize

88
Mindanao. He died in the Moluccas, consoled by St. Francis Xavier,
acclaimcd as the Apostle of the Indies.
King Charles I of Spain abdicated his royal crown after getting
weary of far ranging duties brought about by his scattered
dominionHis son Phihp Il succeeded as ruler of the Netherlands in
1555 and Spain in 1556.
During lhe_ reign of King Philip Spain was al the height of
its BJwer. He wrote to Mexican Viceroy Velasco ordering him
ta prepare an expedition for the conquest of the Philippines. The
command of this expedition was given MiBe] de Lewz»i 0505-
1572) a soldier, lawyer, and administrator- Since the Mexican
government was then in the brink of bankruptty. Legazpi spent
his own æsources to finance the expedilion.
Legazpi and his fleet, corisisti_ng of four ships with 380
men, left Natividad, Mexico, on November 1 9, 1564 (some say
November 20, a Monday). Besides EX_'yal officials and crew.
five Anansiinian friars joined the expedition. Legazpi was
accompanied by Father Andres dc Ultia_neta (survivor of the
Loaysa exB'dit10n), and Captain Felipe de Sa}cedo (Legazpi's
grandson), Guido de Lavezaris (survivor of the Villalobos
expedition), and Mc]chor dc Lcgazpi (Legazpi's son). The fleet
stopped in Guam, and there obtained fresh water and supplies.
On February 13, 1565, l_egazpi and his men anchored near
the island of Cebu. Due to Cebuano opposition, thev sailed (o
the neighboring islands and landed in Sarnar_ [egazpi made a
blood compact with (Jrrao, a friendly chief, on February 22.
They proceeded to Limasawa and were received by a young
chieftain named Bankaw.
Later, Legazpi landed in [k'hol and befriended two native
kings, Sikatuna and Sigala. On Maxh 16; 1565, Lngazpi and
Sikatuna made a blood compact. A few davs later, I egazpi and
Gala did a similar pact.
On April 27, 1565, Legazpi arrived in Cebu and hit the shore.
Rajah Tupas and his Cebuano warriors challenged Eh? enemy forces
but were ovcrpowcrcd by the Spaniards. Soon, the natives burned their
houses and retreated to the uplands.
The ncxt day. April 23, one of Legazpi's rnen, a Greek sailor
named Merrrxeo (others say Juan de Camuz) discovered the image of
89
the Sto_ Niño in one af the houses- Viewing it as a sign of God's
approval, Lægazpi named the first settlement Ciudad del Santissimo
Nombre de lesus (City of the Most floly Name Of Jesus), in honor (if
the sacred image. The statue can be found in the present Augustinian
Church of the I Iolv Child-
The earliest Spanish settlement was in the form of a triangle.
The two sides f2ce the sea and the third frontg the land- The
settlement was surlounded by (ences. Welis were dug for stabi_e
water supply. Achun_-h far the Augustinian Fathers was erected.
In this church, the žiistoric image of the Child Jesus was kept.
Onc day, a soldier, Pedro de Araña, went out alone from the
camp. He was speared to death. In retaliation, a was sent to grab
captives, one of them a niece of Rajah Tupag of Cebu. upon learning
Legazpi sent her nursemaid inform Rajah Tupas that the hostages
were free to go home, on the cordilicn thathc had to come for a talk.
Tupas did not heed the invitation of Legazpi, but Tamuyan
the girl's father came with six men. Tamuvan offered himself as
a slave in place of his daughter but Lægazpi him the freedom of
hjs daughter without making him subservient to the Spaniards.
1 he father was stunned to see his daughter dressed as befilted
her rank. He knew that captives taken in wac were given noble
treatment. Moved by their kindheartedness, Tamuyan accepted
Legazpi's friendsh ip. He promi*d to convince his brother Tupas to
accept Spanish gcX'd will.
After a few more days, conv inced that I-egazpi wag sincere
with his words, Rajah nipas accepted Legazpïs He
tank the cath of vassalage to the Spanish crown and promised to
pay a yeartv tribute.

4. The Spanish Conquest of the Islands

Legazpi tried to win Rajah Tupas and the people of Cebu through
the policy of attraction, inviting them to return, rebuild their homes
and live in peaœ with them. With the help of Cid Hamal (Sidamit), a
Muslim Malav, Legazpi succeeded.
The Augustinian missionaries, on the other hand, were
assiduously spreadOag the fflYistian faith. The first Ccbuano
convert was Jandulaman, a niece of Tupas, later on named Isabel
honor of Isabel Garces, Legazpi's deceased wife. After her

90
baptism, she married Master Andres, a Greek member of
Legazpi's exped ition. Fray Herrera officiated the wedding, the
first Christian marriage on Philippine soil.

Rajah Tupas also accepted baptism. Legazpi stood as the

godfather. He was named Felipe, in honor of Philip Ll. His son,
Pinsuncan was baptized and was named Carlos. The natives
followed the same.
In 1569, Lcgazpi transferred to Panay due to meager food
provisions in Cebu. Meanwhile, he sent his grandson back ta
Mexico with his first œports to lhe Spanish King. On the bank
of the Panay River, the second Spanish settlement was founded-
Due to the conänuir,g apostolic work of Fr. Juan de Alba and-
other Augustinian missionaries, the people became friendly to
Legazpi. Two chiefs of Panay, Datus Macabaag and Madidong
became
In 1570, Lkgazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo who arrived
in Cebu from Mexico in 1567, to Mindoro to punish the Moro pirates
who plundered upon Panay•s villages. With 30 Spani21tds and several
hundreds of Visayar•s, Salcedo destroyed the Moro forts in Ilin and
Lubang (islets near Mindoro).
On May 8, 1570, Marshal Martin de Goiti and his men lcft
Panay With a force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Visayans, they
explored the Pansipit River Batingas_ Native volunteers who
had allœad v made friends with the Spaniards joined Goiti's men
to avenge the harm done to them by hostile neighboring
villages.
From the hay, Goiti saw on t_hc south bank of the Pasig
River a wall protectmg a port. He sent his interpmter ashore to
invite the local chief to a which Rajah Matanda and his nephew
Rajah Sulayman (or Sol_iman) accepted.

Rajah Sulayman led Coiti to a house and they sealed thcir

new alliance with the traditional kasi kliSi. But the Maynilad
chief rema ined restive, knowing that he had more men than the
strangers.
Goiti landed his 80 fighters against Sulavman's fort, (where Forl
Santiago stands today) and ordered his men to destroy the artillery.
91
Suiayrnan defended his kingdom frorn the Spaniards who took the
offensive. A bloody hand-to-hand battle ensued until the Manilans
turned their backs as flames began to engulf their houses. Sulavman
acid his warriors retreated across the river. Goiti and his men captured
Mavnilad on the 24th of May and seized some cannons that Panday
Pira had made for Sulayman.
After the battle. Goiti returned to Panay. He told Legazpi about
the rich kingdom of Mavnilad. a trading center where Chinese.
Siamese, and other foreign merchants engaged in.
From thereon, Legazpi decided to colonize Mayrülad- He left
Panay and reached Manila Bay in the middle of Apri_1 1371,
with a stronger expedition consisting of 27 vcsscLs, 280
Spaniards, and 600 Visayan allies.
I.akandula, king of Tondo and Sulayrnan•s L-utcle, realized
that it was useless t" resist the Spanish forces. He welcomed
Lcgazpi and persuaded his nephew Su\ayman to make peace
with Legazpi. On May 19, 1571, Legazpi took possession ot-
Maynilad in the name of King Philip Il of Spain.
Bambalito, a Pampanga warlord from Macabebe, wanted to
resist the Spanish forces in Maynilad. le conferred with
Lakandula and Sulayman to support his cause. The two forn•lcr
native rulers did not want to join him since they had alreadv
made peace with Legazpi. However, a son and two nephews of
Lakandula and some of Sulayman's warriors joined his war camp
in Navetas.
On lune 3, 1571, Bambalito's more than 2,000 fighters in 40
caracoas (boats) from Hagonoy, Macabebc, and other Pampanga
villages sailed into Bankusay's creck, off thc north shore of Manila
Bay. They fought Marshal Coiti's foxes in this furious naval batt]e.
Bamba\ito perished at the height of this bloody fight. His men were
routed. The rest paddled frantical±y away. Ten native boats were
captured.
On June 24, 1571, thc Feast Day of St. John the Baptist, Legazpi
proclaimed Manna as the capital of the Philippines (celebrated as
Manila's foundation day). He called the city Nuel.•a Castilla, because
he had been told that there bad beer, an old fort or casae on the site.
On the same day, the city government was established with a cabiždo
or citv council and a COUEt.

92
 Years later, King Philip IF, bv his Royal Decree Of June 1, 1574,
named Manila, lasigne y Siempre Ciudad (Distinguished and Ever
Loyal City) and by his Royal Decree of March 20, 1596, conferred a
beautiful coat-of-arms on this city
On Augtust 20, 1572, Legazpi, the first Spanish governor
and atielanfädo (title given to those who personally funded their
expeditions} of the Philippines, died of hcact attack. Guido de
Lavezaris succeedcd and stayed in until 1575.
Captain Juan de Salcedo, grandson of Legazpi, subdued the
region along Laguna de Bay; the gold mines of Paracale

93
across the mountains; and pacified Ilocandia and Cagayan in
15ñ. He founded Villa Fernandina de Vigan in honor cf Prince
Ferdinand, son of King Philip Il who dicd at the age of four. In
recvgnition of Salcedo•s militdrv services. the Crown gave
encomiend" in Ilocos.
From Viganp Salccdo exvlotpd the tip of Luzon. 1573, he
conquered Camarines, Albay, and Catanduanes. The Bicolanos
refuged to yield to them. The natives usæd their arrows against
the Spanish forces, howevex they hurriedly withdrew for their
safety after Sa fired his guns.
The Philippines was a crown colony considering she was under
Spanish domination. From the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to
1821, the Philippines was a dependency of Mexico. The Mexican
viceroy, in the name of the Spanish King, administered the country.
After the independence Of Mexico from Spain in 1321 , the
Philippines came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1 863, the
Overseas Ministry (Ministerio de Ultramar) took over the functions Of
the Council Of the Indies (Cgnse)o de Indias).
The colonia] code titled Recopiiacio't de 'eyes ae los reynos
de las India* (Compilation cf Laws on Royal Lands in the Indies)
popularly known as i£yes de (Laws of the Ladies) issued in 1680,
was used by Spain to rule its extensive possessions
It wag On November 16, 1568 when King Philip issued
ilÞtruCtions to Lcgazpi to establish Cities and towns and create
encomiendns to be distributed to deserving soldiers. In the first
three decades Of Spanish rule, the Philippines was divided into
With a Cross in one hand and a sword in the Other, the
Spanish conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this feudal
svstem 01 administration. The word comes from the
verb meaning "to commend cr to commit to one'S care"
Originally, an was a feudal institution used in Spain reward
generals and conquerors during Spanish wars Of mcovety of territory
from the Moors. The earliest in the West Indies were
delegated with the power to collect tribute and to use the personal
services Of the inhabitants Of their encomiendas.
 This feudal grant was introduced by the Spanish Cmwn for
the combined purposes Of rewarding deserving Spaniards and a
Others to X•ttle in the colonies- Permanent settlement Of
31
the Spanish soldiers assured the defense of the colonies. This also
facilitated the conversion of the natives to thc Catholic faith.
E'*comienda in the Phibppines wasnota land grant. It was
more of an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tribute
from the natives and to use the personal services of the King's
vassals in the encomiendn. The encomendero undertook ways to
look after the well-being of his people and 10 educate them with
Spanish nor-mg of conduct- In the domain of relations, the
Encomienda had been considered as a kind ot benevolent
paternalism. In reality, the encomiendn was looked upon bv its
beneficiaries as a prntcmsc for slavery.
Tributes were collected in cash or in kind. From the tolal
not exceed ing one-fourth of this went to the encomendeto and the rest
to the fria[s as well as the government. The de bapangay (former daru)
collected the tribute and gave it to the encomendem.
The Laws of the Indies provided that the encomendero must
nnt own house in the native settlements, within their
encumiendas to avoid the commission of abuses Governor
Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, as commanded by King Philip Il,
urged the encomenderos to reside near their wards to promote the
latter's welfare. However, this arrangement became an
opportunity for the encomendetos to enrich themselves. The
unlawful exaction of numerous services coupled with greed and
cruelty made the lives of the natives miserable- The early
Spanish friars toak the side of the exploited people bccause they
saw that the colonizers had failed to instruct their people in the
Catholic religion.
The national economy, founded upon the medieval
concept of master and slave, paved for the introduction of a class
05 landed aristocracy, while the broad masses lived in distress.

95
 Haciendas and encomiendas arc not the same though both were
forms of colonial appmpriation. The demands or exactions of an
encomendcro were incidental to his pusiliun as representative of the
King, thus, he exacted tribute and drafted labor. The hacendero on the
other hand. under the fiction of partnership (with the tenant as
companion or kason;a), had thc right of inheritance and free
disposition of the land.
Because of t_hc abuses perpetrated by the encomettderos, the
encamiendas were replaced by a system of provincial government.
There were two types of provincial administrations: the a}caldia-
mayor or the province. where peace had been established hy the
Spanish government placed under a civil official called nicalde•mayœr;
and the corregimientos or territories that had not bccn completely
pacified under the charge of corregidopes or politico-military
governors. Tomas de Comyn, a Sparmsh social scientist, nevertheless
descrilHi the office of the alcatde-ntayor as a model of graft,
corruption, and inefficiency brought about by inexperienced men
being assigned to goverll the provinces- Some of them had little or no
background at all to execute their varied responsibilities-
The province was divided into towns or puebto. which were
administered by gober'tadcrciltos. The office of the govemadorcillo
was open to Filipinos. This local position was at first occupied bv pre-
colonial chieftains and thcir descendants and later elected by an
electoral board cornposed of the outgoing sobentadorcillo and twelve
members of the principalia. The (social and political
aristocracy) referred to the prominent lar'd-owning, and propertied
citizens who could. [cad, write, and speak Spanish.
Each town had several vi"ages cr barangavs plaœd directly
under the c.ahezas de harangny. This position rernamed an
appointive office.
The king appointed the govemcr general and ather colonial
officials the country. The governor general was the
chief executive as well as the commander-in-chief of the military
forces in the colony. Aside from this, he was also the vice-royal patron
wherein he has the power to recommend priests in parishes, and the
authority to intcrvcne in controversies between religious authorities.
The governor general could also rgect or suspend the implementation
of any royal decree or taw from Spain with his cumplage power, if his
96
opinion, the cottditioas in the colonv did not justify its
implementation.
The office of lhe governor general was oftentimes bought or
granted as a favor. Since it generallv involved a short tenure of office,
averaging two years and ten months. and in the 19tl• century cven
shorter, the governor general oftentinles became eager in
accumulating wealth bef0Ee his term of office expired
However, checks to gubernatorial powers were made possible
through lhe following: first, the Audiencir. Real or Royal Audiencia
established m 1583 to act as the Supreme Court of the colony algo
serwed as advisorv body to the governor and audited the
expenditures of the government; second. the which was a judicial
institution headed by the. incoming governor general to conduct
trial of an outgoing governor gereral and Other Spalûsh
officials for the purpose of punishing those guilty of corruption,
the c may be appealed to the King for clemency; third, the
general, who was the investigator sent by the King or an
official dispatched bv the Council of Indies in Spain to check the
behavior Uf the high officials in the colony; fourth. the
Archbishop and clergy who were appointed by the Pope upon the
recommendation Of the King; and fifth, subordinate public
officials and influential private
citizens.
The counterbalance efforts cf the aforement ioned nevertheless
proved ineffectual in reprimanding corrupt administrators. for it was
qu ite easy for them to bribe. the officials conductm•g the
Investigation. They could Cven seek for the revocation Of the
decisions given ly the investigatino officials throuËh political
influcnce in the country or in Spain,
The locat officials as well as the Spanish high officials became
the main Of "pacification." The subjugation of the natives became
complete after they have agreed to pay the tribute. One corresponds
10 one family. consisting Of husband, wife. and minor children. Half
of the tribute has to paid by an unmarred man or woman. One tribute
is equivalent to eight (8) reales Or one peso. It may be paid in monev
Or in kind like rice, honey, corn and the like. In 1851, it was increased

97
to 12 reales or one peso and a half. In 1884, the cedula tax replaced
the tribute.
Exempted from paying the tribute were as follows: incumbent
gobemadorcillos, cabezas and heir government employees, soldiers
with distinguished service, descendants of Llkandula. a few other
native chieftains, choir members. sacristans, porters 0t- the churchs
and government witnesses.
Encemenderos often had to scnd soldiers to collect the
tribute by fotve. Nonpayment Of tribute meant torture or
imprisonment. Sometimes houses wcrc burned Or tooted bv
these soldiers as punishment for the natives' cletiance, Other
natives just fled to the mountains to escape punishment. The
Filipinos hatcd the tribute for it was a symbol subjugation to
Spain. it resulted to Spamsh abuses especially by tribute
collectors
Opposition {o colonial authority became quite difficult.
Although the Spaniards constituted a small number in the
country, thcy had conscripted natives from different regiorus to
put down revolts in other œgions to remain in power.
Polo or fcr-ced labor instituted in 1580 another form Of
pacifying the natives. Male Filipinas between 16 to years Of age
rendered manual serv ice for the country for the purposeof
building ships, Chumhes, mads and other forms Of
infrastructure.
or worker has to work 40 days a year in the labor pool.
In 1884, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year. TO be excluded
from the polo, one has to pay (exemption fee), which only a few
Filipinas could actually pay The chieftains and their eldest sons were
also excused from forced labor.
Polo led to the abandonment cf the fields, separation from
families or homes. as well as illness and death for some. The
alcaldes often drafted Of men, more than what was necessary for
woodcutting and then pocketed the rnonev, which must be paid
for the
Bandai", which was instituted in the first half Of the 17"
by General Sebastian nurtado de Corcucra was another way to
98
overpower the Filipinos. This refers to the assignment Of annual
quotas to each province for the compub0JY sale of products to the
government. Due to lack of funds, the government issued promissory
notes in exchange for the goods. Nonpayment on the part o f the
government meant seizure of products, The system meant virtual
confiscation of products for the government tha t was usuallv out of
money; promissory notes were first given in exchange for the

The political condition Ln the Philippines wag worsened WIth

the union of Church and State. The friars, like the government
officials. exerciscd political, economic, and other non-spiritual
powers. They controlled the educational system as well as the
collectlan of taxes and the conscription ofnatives Into the army. They
evcn controlled munic elections and censored plays and reading
materials. so extensivc the so-called friar interference in the country
that m the century. Filipino propagandists demanded their e rpalsion.

99
5. Towards the Hispanization of the Natives
The Spaniards integrated into the Fi lipino society their
religion, language, customs, arts, and sciences, The Church and
State inseparably carried out Spanish policy in the country.
When the came into the country, destroyed the carved
out of wood and stone because these art works were
regarded as abominable to the faith. Spanish urbanization was
centered in the city Of Manila, Within a wailed city called
Intramuros.
Infras hucture showing Spanish tion in the country, such as
massive colonial churches, convents, schools, roads, bridges and the
baitay at kahoy (Antillian stone and wood houses) were colu;tructed.
Initially. buildings during the Spanish era of thatch and barnboo_
After accidental fires that hit some Of them, stones. wood, bricks, and
tiles were used for construct-ion.
Structurally. the 'ta bato at kahoy also known as bakgy na
(or mixed, wood and stone were blended together),
V&rpetuated the features Of the pre-Hispanic bahay kubo. The
ground floor was used for storage and for parking vehicles. I
{abitation look place upstairs with specific moms for guests
(uzetea and dining (comedor), cooking (cocina), and sleeping
(cuarto).
The converging of the islands under a single administration
was facilitated through peducciept, referring Lo the
resettlement of i;thabitants in Spanish-style poþlaciones — or
at least—bato de las campnas (within hearing distance of the
church bells).
The Spanish model for a pobiacion (town œnter) was organized
around a rectangular plaza, with the church (the most important
structure of the plaza complex) and convent on one side, bounded by
the tribunal or municipiO, and by the houses Of Spanish officials and
princ.'pales (elite), The presence principalia residences in the plaza
complex reflected the existence Of ascendancy.
Sparush society had always stressed "purity" cf blood in
indicating societal rank- At the tep of thc pyramid were the
esprrñoles, with both Spanish parents Which included the egpaioles
peninsulares (born in the Spanish pcnffi.gula) and the españoles
insulates or Filipinos (born in the colony).
Below the and mestizas - thc children
Of an dSpañol and an indio or indie. The term mestizo nferred to the
mesti20s de sattgiey or Chinese mestizos. w hile Spanish mestims
were called nest:zos espaáol-
Constituting the majority of the population the indios or
indics naturales. pertaining to the natives of the Philippines
without Spanish Or Chinese ancestrv. Generally, the Spanish
colonizers believed that the indits could not comprehend more
than the basic knowledge.
The ceremonial splendour Of the Roman Catholic Church
aroused the admiration Of the nativcg. More repœsentatives of
various religious orders such as the Augustiniaxs, Dominicans,
Franciscans, and Jesuits came to the Philippines after Legazpi's
exçvditåon. Consequently, the missionaries learned local
dialects and ivutrod ucetž the Roman alphabet.
By the 16th centurv, there were Filipinos like Tomas Pinpin (the
first Filipino printer), who became conversant with the Spanish
language. wrote the first published Tagalog book titled Librop:g
Hang mangg nang uicang Cnstita (300k the Shõuid
Study to i_zarn Spanish) for the benefit of unlettered Filipinos in the
Spanish language.
Basic education was rendered by parochia I schools, establighcd
primarily for Îeligious instruction. The first ene was establi<hed in
Cebu. 'an 1592. Archbishop Domingo dc Salazar orderu.l that every
town wag to haveoneschcolfor hoys and one for girls Attendance was
madc compulsorv. Parents paid the teachers' salaries. The subjects
laught were catechism, reading and writing in the dialect, music, the
rudiments of arithmetic, and trades and industries.
Education was still in the early stage of development
during the Spanish period. Even by the late 19th century, lhe
Spanish language was still unknown to a great rnalority. They
were literate in their own native dialects. The Spanish
aristocracy tried distinguish thcmsclvs from the .•ndiog with
thc use Of language and level of education.
Higher education was established exclusively for the Spaniards
and Filipinos, referring to those born in the co\ony to Spanish
Colleges and universities were closed to 'Edios- (•lhc natives
Were only allowed in these institutions after years Of
colonial rule.)
The Jesuits in Manila founded the first college for boyg in 1589.
It was originally called College Of Manila (for the scholastics), and
later changed to College of San Ignacio. In 1621, was elevated to the
rank cf a university by POPC Gregory XV and was named University
of San Ignacio. However, this school was closed in 1768 when the
were expelled from the country. In 1601 the Colegio de San
lose under the Jesuits, was eståblished.
In 1611, Fray Miguel de Ber„wides, the third archbß.hop of
Manila established the Colegio de Nuestra &ñora del Santissimo
Rœsario, later renamed Univcrsidad de Santo Tomas (in 1645 by
Pope Innocent X).
The Dominican order that administered Colegio dc Santo Tomas
also established thc Colegio de San de Let-ran to take Care of
orphaned Spanish boys.
The girls were aka given special education. Schools were of two
kinds: the cotegio, which is a regular school for girls; and the
beaterio, a combined school and nunnery. first college for girls in the
Philippines was the College Of Santa Potenciana (1594). After the
school ceased its operations, the students transferred to College of
Santa Isabel, now thc oldcst existing college for girls in thc
The institution wag originally built to care for orphaned Spanish
girls. Eventually, il became an exclusive school for the
daughters of affluent Spaniards.
In 1621, the Franciscan nuns establishcd the Real Monasterio
de Santa Clara (now St. Claire Convent of-Manila), the first nunnery
in the Philippines. In 1694 the Beaterio de la Compania de
which was diæcted under the Jesuits was founded by Mother Ignacia
del Espiritu Santo, a Filipina nun. This was a school established to
accommodate Filipino girls, the indiRS- Mother Ignacia's spirit of
poverty, humility, penance, confidence in God and Charity became
102
the distinguishing mark Of the beatas (resident pupils). The be,'itns
had extended their apostolate to education. The beaterio has dev
eloped into the Congregation Of the Religious Of the Virgin Ma ry
(R.V. M.) Of the century.
Primary education consisted of courses in reading. writing,
anthmetic. religion; geography, the history of Spain, the Spanish
language, vocal music; and agriculture for boys and
rtced2ework for girls. The girls were taught basic education, as
well as religion, needlework, painting, and music.
Academic reforms were later on unplemcnted, after the Spanish
government conceded its growing demand. The Educational Decree,
dated 20. 1863 introduced a System of public educa tion that opened
opportunities to Filipinos for higher learning. ordered the
establishmcnt of an educational svstem consisting of
elementary. secondary, and collegiate levels. It also provided for the
establishment af normal schools to train teachers. The Board Of Public
Instruction was Likewise cœated ta supervise the schools. The decree
also provided for the use cf Spanish as the language Of instruction,
starting at the elementary level.
The Escuela Normal (Normal School) for the training of male
teachers for elementary instruction, Was delegated to the Jesuits. It was
ir,augurated in 1365. In 1893, it became the Normal Superior, Which
trained teachers Of secondary courses.
Schools for the arts were also built aside from these regular
schools. Archbishop Juan A. Rodriguez founded the Escuela dc
in 1743. The insbtutian was to provide elementary education and Offer
courses in vocal and instrumental performance. In the late 19th
century, the school was able to pattern its plan of study after the
atory Of Music in Madnd.
Damian Domingo fou tided the Academy Of Fine. the first school
in painting in Manila in 1820. With this. he was called the "Father Of
Filipino Painting".
The Academia dc Dibuþo y Pinturã (Academy of Drawing and
Painting) was founded in 1824. Some Of its Students were sent by the
government to higher studies in Madrid, Rome, and Paris.
In the 19"' century, various technical schools were established
like the School Of Mercantilc Accounting and Modem Languages,
patterned after the Commercial School in Barcelona. Commerce was
introduced as a three-year vocational course, with the. degree of perito
to be by the student after studymg,
Mechanics and other vocational courses were offered in
secondary instruction leadlng to thc bachiilerato en artes. After
finishing the course, the students could take examinations for the
tine of (mechanical expert). Surveying was also introduced as a
vocational Course, which conferTed degree of
perito to paduates,
It was in 1860, that a nautical school was opencd upon
orders Of the queen. It wasplaced under the commander of the
fleet. After four years, the student was to board a ship, The
degree of piloto de mercante was to be given after the
training.

104
 The seeds of vocational education were Sown by the earlv
Spanish missionaries who taught the natives better methods Of
farming. the Cultivation of foreign plants like indigo, com,
Cotton and wheat, and various crafts like printing, carpenry.
masonry, and dyeing.
The early were also the first to establish a printing
press in the Philippines. Books weœ being printed by xylographic
method, using engraved wood blocks. The earlicst book printed was
the Doctrina Christiana en y tagala (1593). written by Fray Juan de
Oliver. This catechetical book sought to explain the importance Of and
devotion to God the vernacu)ar.
At the of the 19:" century, the pasi0R was the prevalent form in
print. Written verse and chanted during Lent, it depicted the life and
passion of Jesus Christ. The first Tagalog psion was written by Caspar
Aquino de Helen. It was published in 1704. The second written pas'on
titled Casaysayan ng Pasiong Mahßl ni Jesucristong Pang-inuon Notin
ng Sucat IpaR-alab Sinamang Babasa (The Story Holy Passion Of Our
Lard Christ that Should Inflame Ht-'rtrt Reader, circa 1814) was
preferred over the first one. It was also known as PasyanR version was
edited by Father Mariano PilapiJ (circa 1758-circa 1318) and published
by the Imprenta de Santo Jt was later translatTd into several native
dialects.
Du-iT18 the first half of the 19th centltry, Jose de la Cruz was the
most pmminent poet in the oral tradition. He was said to have written
many lilerary pieces in elegant Tagalng language. Among them weæ:
Pares de Francia; Bernardo anà, Adela at Florante. He was
popularly known as Huseng Sisiw because whenever zeaIous writers
approached him for guidance in their verses, he reguåred them to bring
sisrwr (chick) as payment.
Pedro Bokaneg. the poet who wrote the popular Ilocano
epic, was hailed as the "Father Ilocos Literature". Among the
Taga)ogs, Francisco Balagtas (tater dubbed as the Prince. cf Taga
log Poets) became popular with his poetical pieces particularly,
Floymite nt
Momentous feasts and events like the arrival of a new
Spanish official also meant Stage presentatms. The first recorded
drama was Staged in Cebu in 1598, a written by Vicente Puche.

105
was performed in honor or Msgr. Pedro de Agurto, Cebu's first
bishop.
Christian victory over the Muslims was depicted with a moro-tnoro
1637.
At the end of the century. the first theater Was in
Manila, known as Teat-ro CornicO. At the turn Of the
1911' century, the zarzuela, a Spanish oneact opera with satirica)
therne became popular in the These stage plays were performed
at ficstas where townfotks eagerly watch so as not to miss the gala

[n the field of music, the Sampagülta composed by Dolores

Pateruo became popular. The first music teacher to win
distinction in Philippine history was Geronimo de Aguilar, a
Franciscan

In 1811 , the first newgpapcr in the country appeared in

Manila, which was the Del Superior G-oüiemo (Of the Supmrne
Covcmmentj with Governor General Manuel Gonzalez de
Aguilar as editor.
In the field of science, the first scientists in the Philippines were
the Spanish friars. Fr. Manuel Blanco, the •TTince0f BotanisE\", wrote
de Filipinas, which was published in 1837, This bwkidentified
1,200 kindy Of plants in the Country, The first sundials in the country
Were built in 1871 at Tagudin, nocos Sur by Fr. Juan Sorolla, a Spanish
Augtstinian-
Father Marcial Funcia Ramos introduced thc iron printing
press in the Philippines in 1847. also initiated the use Of better
paper such as ppel de (linen paper), instead Of rice papet and
Chinese paper. George Oppel, a German, inroduced lithography
in the country in 1858.
The Spaniard* also introduced to us varied plants as well
like horses, cow, sheep, and goats, From Mexico via
galleons, wc got the following plants: com, cassava, sweet potato.
cotton, maguey, indigo, achuete, tobacco, cacao, peanut, cashew
nut, pineåpple, avocado, pepper, squash, tomato. Lima bean,
turnip, and eggp lant.

106
 The galleon ships were used to ferry the cargoes across the
Pacific The* products being shipped to Acapulco, Mexico were
brought into the Philippines by Asian traders from China, Japan,
India, Siam (now Thailand), Moluccas, and other nearby places.
On its return, the galleon would be carrying silver coins or
silvcrbullion that the Asian tradcrs wanted as we)) as other
products Of Mexico, At' the beginning, this was very profitable
but agriculture and other industries were neglected. 1815. the
galleon trade was finally abolished because of reported
anomalies.
The financing of the galleon trade was rrtdde possible rily
through the Obras ptas. the earliest banking institution in the country.
The funds were donated by rich people For charitable purposes. Later,
the friars had the funds as loans to b'tsinessmen at various rates of
interest. The friars were also able to borrow from the government.
Unfortunately, they were not able pay back lhc government resulting
in the bankruptcy of the national treasury.
In 1717, Governor (icneial Fernando Manuel de Buslamante
compelled the friars tn the rnoney they borrowed irom the government,
This however. only resulted to his death in 1719 in the hands of an
angrv rnob, agitated by his strinp,ent rules against the members of the
church-
The Spanish govemment also attempted to Introduce economic
reforms in the country, throngh the efforts of some enlightened
officials like Governor Jose Basco y Vargas, Governor
implemenled series of reforms not only to promote economic
development but also the independent of subsidy from Mexico. He
envisioned largc-scate production of silk, cotton, tobacco,
Spices, and sugarcane; the application of scientific knowledge to
Phi lippine agriculture and industry and the growth of foreign
trade on the basis of Philippine natural resources-
Governor General Basco (1778-87) founded the Sociedad
de los Amigos tie/ Pais (Economic Society the Friends cf the
Country) in Manila on April 26, 1781. The yxiety helped much in the
agricultural dcvelopment Of the countrv In 1824, imporlat ion 01:
(birds) from China were made ta fight the locusts that were destroying
Philippine crops. The society also offered prizes for best agricultural
and techniques developed. In 1653, Candido Lopez Diaz. a Filipino
was awarded for hts Invention of a machine cleaning hemp fibers.
107
 1361, the society cgtahlished the first agricultural school in
Manila. It introduced the cultivation of tea, cotton. poppy and mulberry
trees large tracts of land in Camarines were planted to mtùberry trees
to feed silkworms.
Epon Governor Bas-co's recommendation, King Charles I]!
issued a royal decree in 1780 establishing government monopoly in
(he Philippines that took effect in 1782. Thus. the government
established monopolies On tobacco. wine. gunpowder. and plnvrng
cards among others.
The tobacco monopoly raised much money for the colonial
government but resulted to the abuses of some crooked Spanish
officials. They often cheated the farmers in the payment of their
produce. Thc farmers on the Other hand cultivated more than
what B'dS required and hid their ex@ss tobacco to be sold in the
black market. In 1882, Governor General Fernando Primo de
Rlvera abolished the monopoly, Private firms took cont-rol Of
the tobacco
business.
On March 10, 1735, King Charles Ill of Spain issued a royal
decree establishing the Real Compania de Filipinas (Royal Company
Of the Philippines) to promote direct trade with Spain and encourage
local agriculture and industry. The Company was required to allot
Of its profit for agriculture in the colony. I lowever, the Royal
Crown abolished the company in 1834 because ofbig mmetary
it incurred.
The galleon traders preferred to tradc with Mexico.
Likewise, there were a growing number Of foreign in
Manila. Although the Royal Company did not succeed, it helped
in the further development Of agriculture in the Philippines,
particularly indigo, sugar. and spices.
Governor General Felix Berenguer de Marquina succeeded
Governor Basco. His first official act Was the demolition Of nipa
houses in the city of Manila, which to him was an ugly sight and
can even Cause fire. He also ordered the abolition of de contercið
(license to hade), which gave the alt-alde mayor (provincial
governo r) the privilege to control the prices of goods in his
province. Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine

108
were also abolished. He established the minting of money in the
country to prevent the outflow of gold.
In 1842, Don Sinibaldo de Mas, an was sent by
Spain to [he Philippines to make an economic survey of the
country. In his report, he made thc following recommendations:
first, the opening of more Philippine ports to world trade; second,
the encouragement Of Chinese immigration in the countrv to
stimulate agricultural development; and third, the abolition of the
tobacco monopoly
The opening of the Philippines to world trade resulted to a great
demand for its products in the world market- This brought about the
need Of machinery for masslve production The first Steam machine
for hulling rice was introduced In 1836 by Eulogia de Otaduy. Then a
few years later, Nicholas Loney, a British merrhûnt introduced the first
steam machine for hu12ing Sugar in Ncgms.
The end Of the galleon trade in 1815, together with Spain's
involvement in the Napoleonic Wars (1799-185b), reduced the
\arge• scale importation Of fabrics. This became beneficial to the
local weaving industry.
The most important materials used weaving were Cotton, abaca,
silk. and piñal. Finest of the fabrics were usually woven in
combination. Nipis (Sheer) is from pure silk in combination with
and abaca (from the trunk of wild banana) A particular type Of
produced in Iloilo came to be called (from the raw silk fibers brought
in by Chinese traders). Since weaving Of the 'tipis requires a great
amount of skill, patience and time, the cloth wag priced highly Also
popular during the Spanish era Wag the piña fabric (from the leaves cf
the wild pineapple).
Batangas was known for its kulambo (gauze mosquito net).
The Northern Luzon provinccs produced a type Of cloth known
as
"occ. Sinnmay, the fincst abaca fabric was extensively woven in
Camarines, Albay, Panay, and Samar-
Jn the early 19'] century, the Augustinian missionaries int-rod
ttccd spinning wheels and more sophisticated looms in Panay Island
which greatly developed the local weaving Industry of the place.

109
 In time, needlework developed in Ermita, Malate, and Sta. Ana.
Manila. Finished articles were expensive, primarily because of
embroidery. Elaborate works of embroidery were sewn on hemlines,
sleeves, scarves, handkerchiefs, and on children'S clothes. With skilled
labor, this cottage Industry gained popularity.
The Christianization of the Filipinos was the most lasting legacy
of the Spanish missionaries. The use of Philippine dialects by the early
missionaries facilitated the teaching 01 the Gospel. The striking
resemblances between the pre-colonial and Catholicism have made the
latter acceptable to the local inhabitants.
During the Spanish period, no building wag allowed to rise
higher than the bell tower. The highest part inside the church was the
retablv. At the center and above the altar table was the tabernacle for
storing thc sacred hosts,
Many holy images and their corresponding devotions have
originated frcrn Neve Spain (now Mexico). Some of the popular
images ate the following: statue of Our Lady of Peace and Good
Voyage (also knawn as Dur Lady of Antipolo); thc Black
Nazamne venerated at the Quiapo Church, and Our Lady of
Guadalupe.
Jesus Chrisl has been represented in various forms. As a child he
is depicted as the Sanio Niño, either plaœd on a manger or standing as
the Sovereign King with a globe and a sceptre. On His way to Calvary,
he is presented as the Nazareno. While placed inside a sepulchre, the
image is callcd Santo The image of the resurrated Christ is known as
Cristo Resucitado.
Christ on the crnss known as the Santo Cristo is regarded as the
most important symbol of the Church. (t is to be placed at thc center of
every altar. During the Spanish era, it occupied the central pinnacle af
the church's retabÌo (decorated medieval altar).
Family life during the Spanish period focused on
theChnstian way of life. The father although acknowledged as the
head of family, considered sentiments of his wife on family
matters. The mother was regarded as the custodian of the family.
She usually acted as the first teacher ot the children.
Families became more considerately close since parents and
children did pray together, particularly during the Angelus, in
saying the rosary and before each meal They went to church
110
together to hear the Sunday mass as well ag other masses,
marking important religious events like Christmas, Holy Wcck
and the feast day of the patronsaint of the town.
Owing to the influence of Christianity. social welfare was
also promoted in the country. 'lhe sick and the nccdy were given
care through medical services. Tuan Clernenle founded the first
hospital in Manila in 1578 Out of this hospital origir,aied the
present San Juan de Dios Hospital and the San Lazaro Hospita).
In 1594, the Santa Hennandaå y Cofraàfa de Misericordia
(Holy Brotherhood and of Mercy) was crganizeà
for charitable works and services for the needy. The first regular
orphanaze, Real Hospicio dc San Jose was established in 1810.
The religious calendar stemmed from celebrations in reverence of
Jesus Christ ard Mother Mary and in the feasts of saints. Every
December S, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, which
solemnizes the dogma of Mary being conceived without original sin is
celebrated through eucharistic rites and a grand procešion.
The whole Christendom celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ on
December 25. The joyous celebration begins on December 16 with the
start of 'Mica de Aguimido (Mass of the gift), popularly known as
gabT, a novena dawn mass to prepare for the midnight mass
Christmas Eve called Misa de Gallo (Mass Of the A religious play
called which reenacts the search by and Mary for
an inn has aLsc been observed in some parishes prior to the midnight
mass. After thc mass, families gather for the traditional noeite Imena,
a feast usually of ham, cheese, and other native delicacies.

The passion and death of Our LDrd is solemnly during I

enten season, particularly during Holy Week from Palm Sunday
to Easter Sunday People chant the pasiO*t or attend the cenacglo
(religious play depicting the life. sufferings, and crucifixion Of
Jesus Christ). In Easter Sunday, the traditional salubong
commemorates first meeting with His mother.
In Marinduque, thc Moriones Festival is held during the Holy
Week. glittering pageantry recalls the story Of Longinus, the
Roman centurion who was converted to Christianity. In this
colorful parade, the participants wear masks and costumes

111
portraying the Roman era. A typical Moriones mask bears a
bearded Caucasian face With large eyes and an open mouth.
The tradition of self-flagellation during the Lenten season was
introduced in the Philippines from Mexico. During those times, public
penance Was practiced In Spain and the rest Of Eurcl*. But in Mexico
and in the Philippines self-flagellanon was primarily done to carry out
a promise (panata in Tagalog) to the
Every town established during the Spanish period has a patron
saint, whose fiesta is celebrated annually with
fireworks. feastng. and often. thcatricalpresen tatinr•s. Towns or
batTi0S named aftCrSan ]ose (St. Jo¥•ph) hold their fiesta on March
19. Those named Sta. Monica celebrate every May 4. Those named
after Rita de Casia commemorate her feast day on May 22. Those
named San Juan (St. John the Baptist) observe his feast on Tune
Every May 15, the Pahiyas Festival in Lucban, Quezon is
held In honor of San Isidro Labrador, the patron sal.nt OE
farmers. The wold "pahiyas" comes fmm the root word hiyas,
a notion
Of a joyous shower Of blessings or treasures Elaborate decoration*
like rieë wafer. fruits, and vegetables are placed on houses, as an
outpouring of creativity and thanksgiving for good harvest.
in Pulilan, Bulacan, the Carabao Festival is also held in honor
ofSan Isidro every May 15. Work animals mostly colorfully grwmed
and shaved tarabaos are led on parade on the streets of Pulilan to
genuflect or kneel in front Of the church.
Also in Bulacan, the Obando festival is in honor Of the
town's patron saints — Nuestra Señora de Salambao, San Pascual
Baylon, and Santa Clara, which begins on the 17th of May. lhs a
threœday celebration. Pilgrims the festival usually wear straw
hats adorned Wilh quills, flowers, or paper and join the dance to
appeal for heavenly interccxsion for a future spouse in the case
OJ singles or a child in the caw of childless also
attend to thank the Virgin of Salatnbao for bounteous harvests.
Bicol's grandest celebration is the annual Peñafrancia
festival where a fluvial procession is made in honor of Our Lady
of Veñafrancia ever v 2 7th Of September in Naga, Camarines
Sur. Culminating the final novena prayers is a Gregorian Mass,
in thanksgiving to God and in honor of Our Lady.
112
 During the entire month of May, parishes annually hold the
Flores de Mayo (Flowers Of May), where devoutees offer flowers
every day at the church to honor the Blessed Mather. Before the month
ends, the or the Santacruzan procession held to commemorate thc
finding Of the Holy Cross by Empress I and Emperor Constantine. The
participants called play various characters found in Christian history,
which include the Reyna Elena. This celebration ends inside the
church.

6. Chinese in the Philippines

During the Spanish times, the Chinese were called Sattgžeys,
derived from the terms Xiang and meaning "traveling merchant". Sincc
and those who succeeded him favored SincyPhilippine trade, more
trading junks from China came to the Philippines annually, bringing
theg merchandise like silk, te¥ales, and porcela in wares.
Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, thue Chinese had
already established their the country. ThcChinese.
who were able to learn the styles and techniques from native
craftsmen, predominantlv 0Gcupied the manufacturing of
carriages, Stone masonry, printing, shoemaking, and tailoring.
Ln Manila, they were forced to live outside the city walls-
The place was called Patian, erected in 1581 by Governor
Gcncral Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñalosa. Outside Manila, many
Chinese engaged in retail trade, while others invested in land.
During the Spanish period, the Chinese mesti7.os were able 10
acquire land from peasants through the de This was also known as
pacto de retro, which was a contract under which the borrower who
conveyed his land to the lender could repurchase it the same amount
of money that hc had received. General!y, \hc: borrower could no
longer pay ghe sum of money; thus, thc transfer of land ownership to
the lender has been completed.
The Chinese in the Philippines had given valuable »-:rvices to the
community but still they were not given fair treatment by the Spanish
authorities. owing to their constructive ".'le in the economic
dcvclopment of the country. Yo discourage Chinese immigration to the
countrv, the Spanish authorities taxed them heavily They were also
taxed twice the amount required af Filipinos because they earned
more. The Spanish government encouraged the immigrants to become

113
agricultural laborers. Soon, the Chinese gained position in the cash-
crop economy on the provincial level.
The Chinese mestizo could legally change his classification
through the dispensa de Ìey, which involved the transfer of his family
to the tax regigtcr of indios. The Chinese compound name was
combined into a single gurnamc, e.g., Tan Iwang Co to Tanjuangco.
He wore the camisa de chino and the top hat, a status symbol of the
nahve principa(ia
The first Chinese threat 10 Spanish rule in the Philippines
way; the invasion of Lim•Ah-Hong- He appeared in Manila Bay
on November 29, 1574 with 62 war lunks and shiptaads farmínp,
and houschold goods. le was in search of a kingdom.
[n Parañaque beach, Lim-Ah-Hong landed a force of men
under Sicco, his þpanese lieutenant. On November 30, 1574, Sm)
attacked Bagumbavan, kilžed Marshal Martin de Goiti, and
assaulted the city of Manila. But the Spanish forces aided by
Filipinos, drove (he invaders back to thCLr ships.
Lim-Ah-Hong himself led the second attack in Manila. This
time, Juan Salccdo has already arrived from Vigan upon knowing the
previous attack in Manila, He succeeded Goiti as marshal.
Sitxo died in ion while I .im-Ah-Hong tebvated with his
ships and men nocthward, to Pangasinan, He established a colony
at the mouth of Agno River. However, Lim-API-Hong's colony
the Philippines did not last long. Marshal Sa)cedo with a fleet of
1,500 Filipinos and 250 Spaniards sailed from Manila to
Pangasinan and dcstT0ved Lim-Ali-Hong'S stronghold in
Lingayen Gulf.
Lim-Ah-Hong evaded capture. He managed to escape
through a man-made canal and fled to the hills and mingled with
the Igorols and Tingguians Then he returned to China and
reorganized his forces but he was defeated by the Chinese viceroy
in Fookien in a naval battle of Palahoan. He fled to Thailand but
was not permitted to stay there. went to other kingdoms, but for
feat of China, these kingdoms did not him. He wandered from
one place to another, till his whereabouts could no longer be
traced.
The first Chinese revolt was brought about bV the deep—seated
suspicion of the Spaniards. On May 23, 1603, three Chinese mandarins
114
arrived in Manila. They wanted to see Chin-San (Mountain Of Gold)
which was believed to be in Cavite. The Spaniards looked at it as a
plausible scheme. After the mandarins had left, the Spaniards
strengthened the City which alarmed the Chinese residents.
In Parian, a secret plot to overthrow the Spaniards plat-med
under the leadership of Eng-Kang, a rich Chinese merchant 'They
attacked rondo and Quiapo on October g, 1603 by sctting the
buildings on fire and by killing the inhabitants. Don Luis
Dasmariñas (former governor general) and Captain Tomas Bravo
de Acuña (nephew Of Governor General Acufta) led the
retaliatory attacks but they were ambushed.
However, the Chinese failed to the city walls Eecause of the
Spanish, Filipino and Japanese joint Gees, including friars as well as
residents of the area. The Chincse rebels retreated tc the hills of San
Pablo. I aguna, but they were defeated by the forces led by Cristobal
de Axqueta Monchaca.
In 1639, the Chinese revolted for the second time. This was
caused by Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera's
order forcing the Chinese to work in Calarnba, Laguna. The
Chine* denounced the abu*s committed by Spanish tribute
collectors- On November 19, 1639, hostiliEes began in Calamba
and it spread to other towns killing several Spamsh friars,
including the alcalde mayor Of Laguna, Marcos Zapata.
In the early part Of 1662, Kuxinga (real name was Cheng
Chengkung) was able to take Taiwan from the Dutctv I lesent Fr.
Victoria Ricci to Manila. to extend his directive for tribute from the
Spanish authorities. This infuriated Governor General Manrique de
Tara thus he prepared to d[ive out all Chinese residents in the
country. The Chinese retaliated by burning the district of Santa Cruz
Many Filipinos and Spaniards were kil led. An army Of 4,000
Pampangueños under Francisco Laksamana carne to the rescue and
defeated the tæbels who had fled to the mountains of Taytay and
Antipolo.
The fourth Chinese revolt (1686) was planned by Tingco, a
Chinese ex-convict. ile was desperate to ratse money to ret-um to
China. He tried to burn thc ciiy Manila and to 100t the

115
His group Of rebels attacked in Auzust. starting at the parian. in the
house ofDon Diego Vivien, the alcalde mayor. The government forces
arrived and routed them. Tingco was caught and executed.
To put an end to possible Thinese insurrection in the country,
the governor In 1729 ordered that all unbaptized Chinese in
Manila to reside in the Parian. The baptized ones had to
reside in and Sta. Cruz.
However, when the British came and occupied Manila in
1762, the Chinese collaborated with them to fight the Spaniards
The Chinese in Manila as Weil as the Chinese in Guagua,
Pampanga secretly plotted 10 massacre the Spaniards on
Christmas F. ve, December 24, 1762. One ct the plotters
happened to reveal the plot to his Filipina sweetheart. The latter
œlayed the news to Fr. Josc Salas, the pnest of Mexico,
Pampanga
Governor General Simon de Anda who WdS informed of
this plot, led his forces 10 Guagua cn December 20 and crushed
the Chanese rebels. This bloody confrontation was considered in
Philippine hstory as the "Red Christmas."

7. More Europeans in the Islands

Towards the. end l')f the 181 century, some Enropean nahOns
began attempts to eglab]ish sctticmcnts in the Philippines. ill 1579.
English mariners including Sir Francis Drake started to harass
Spanish shipping. The also began to raid some islands in the
Philippines. They likewise assaulted Chinese. Portuguese, and
Japancsc trading vessels.
In 1602, the Dutch trading companies sent fleets capalje of
seizing control of the spice trade from the Portuguese. As Portugai's
ally, Spain committed its farces in the Philippines to help avert Dutch
assaults. 'Thus, the Dutch were drawn to the Philippines to weaken the
Spanish fleet stationed in the colony. Their hase of operatiors was
Formosa (Taiwan). Dutch naval squadron attacked various places in
the Philippines from 16(n-1747 which discouraged Chinese and
Japanese traders from entering the colony.
In February of 1646, a Dutch fleet a rrived in the Philippine
Sea. As the Spanish officers and crew prepared for bat-tie, the
Dominican friars advised the 10 do penance and pray for the
116
intercession of Señora del Santissimo Ros"rio (Our Lady of the
Most Holy Rosary).
After five naval skirmighcg between March 15 and October
1646. the Filipinos and Spaniards won the eight-month naval battle of
Manila against the Dutch. This naval victory. until now is being
ce!ebraleà as Festival de Mnuila in honor of Our Lady, the patroness
of the Spanish fleet. This is truly a manifestation of divine intervention
for people to reflect on tbe social and moral pressures that threaten thc
Filipino society.
The first successful foreign ir,vasion of the Philippines after
the Spanish conquest was the one staged by the ßritish. It
happened when Spam became involved in the Seven Years War
(1756-1763) on the side of France Mid Austria against Britain
and Prussia for the control of Germany and for supremacy in
North America and India. tn counierstrike, Britain laid claim to
most of the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Orient,
including the Philippines.
On the evening of 22, 1762 (Manña time), the
British fleet consisting of 1.3 ships (with around 2,000 men)
enteæd Manila Bay. The commander of the fleet was Rear
Admiral Samuel Cornish, while Brigadier General William
Draper was in command of the t-zvops. The following morning,
September 23, 6,vo British officers sent ashore under a white
flag. a truce carrying an ultimatum to the Spanish officials,
demanding the surænder of Manila. Upon the advice of the
council of war, Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, the inten_rn
govcmor general æjected the ultimatum.
Thousands Of Filipino warriors from Pampanga, Bulacan,
and Laguna reinforced the military army in Manila, then with
only 556 regular troops. Their leader was Manalastas, a
Pampangueño. Still. they weæ and outarmed. Knives
and spears Were no match against British rifles. Draper's cannons
lore down thc southwest corner of the city walls. Finally, they
were forced 10 retreat. Although this battle was
significant for the Filipinos, for it proved their loyalty to Spain
and to Catholiosm.
Manila fell into British hands on October 5, 1762 after a
white flag was hoisted at Fort Santiago. Thig was to stop the
117
hornble slaughter Of city and residents. Terms Of surrender were

Simon de Anda, the youngest Oidlr of Audencia Real had

escaped in a boat on the eve of the fall Of Manila. He was
dispatched by Archbishop Rajo to Bulacan to ensure the loyalty
of the rest of the to Spain. He established his headquarters in
Bacolor, Pampanga. He continued the government with himself
as thc governor general.
Archbishop Rojo had also sent messengers to Palapag,
Samar where the galleon F:lipino docked. The ship had brought
back from Mexico the situado (subsidy) Of over a million silver
pesos. The government want-pd to keep fund from thc British.
Under Rojo•s ü-,structions, the ship was burned after the silver
cong were taken out safely Learning about it, Corrtish sent his
frigates 10 Samarbut money had already been placed under
Anda's care.
During the brief occupation OE the British in M the country had
three governors: Archbishop Rojo, Oidor Simon de Anda, and
Honorable Dawsonne Drake, Who established a civil government in
Manila. He was appointed by the East India Company to govern the

The brief occupation of Manila bv the British resulted to different

reactions. When the British took Pasig, Alirnud Din sought refuge and
was later restored to his Sultanateln the south. In rcturn, he Signed a
treaty permitting the British to establish a trading center in J010.
The people of Parahaque stood loyal to the Spaniards,
Pampanga and Bulacan rallied behind Anda However, in North
and Central Luzon. people roused in action against the Spanish
government. In Pangasinan, a revolt was instigated by Juan de la Cruz
Palaris- In the Ilocos region, Diego Silang accepted the British bid of
support for his cause in fighting against the Spaniards.
The Years War in Europe came to an end With the Ireaty of Paris
signed cn February 10, 1763, the terms sellled was the acquisition of
almost entire French Empiæ in North America by Britain. The British
also acquired Florida from Spain. England has to restore the
Philippines to Spain, news æached Manila in a much later date. On

118
May 31, 1764, Anda and his troops went back to Manila amidst the
jubilafion of the populace in conformity with the treaty, which
formally ended the war.

119
 Chapter Test No. 4
Name: Date: Course,
Year,
and

k. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter with the correct answer.

Erasures are not allowed: (30 pts.)
Pöpe Alexander VI issued a bull known as Inter-caetera
decreeing that this should be the Spanish zone Of
exploration.
east of the imaginary Ime drawn north to south, 100
leagues west of Cape Verde Islands
b. west of the imaginary linc drawn north to south, IOC
leagues west of Cape of Good Hope west of the
imaginary line drawn north to Ilk) leagues west of Cape
Verde Islands d. east of the [maginary Linc drawn north
to south, leagues east of Cape of C,ocd Hope
2. Magellan realized that one could arrive at the Spice
Islands mare quickly using this route.
a. Columbus's westward route
b. westward route around South America
amund Cape of Good Hope d across the
South African fip
3. He was the chronicler of expedition.
a. Moœa c. Enrique
b. Pigafetta d. Loarca
4. This ship secretly deserted on the night of November 20,
1520 and sailed for Spain-
a. Trinidad c. San Antonio
b. Concepcion d. Victoria
The islanders of Islas Ladrones were called by this
name. a Chammoros c. Chamaros b Chamoros d.
Chamorras
120
 6. The first island in the Philippines sighted by Magellan and
his mcn. a Samar

b Homonhoa d Leyte
7. They made the first æcorded blood compact in the annals of
Philippine history.
Rajah Huntahon and Magellan
b Rajah Siagu and Magellan c- Rajah
Kolambu and Magellan
d. Sikaluna and Legazpi
From Homonhcn, Magellan and his men traveled this distance
to Mazaun.
a- 14.6 Icagucs 35 leagues
b. 20 to 25 leagues d. 80 miles
9. He was the ficst Filipino chieftain to be baptized as
Catholic.
a- Rajah lumabon c- Datu Zula b Rajah.
Kolambu d. Rajah Tupas
10 The Spanish Crown granted him the motto Primus Circumàedisti
Me.
a. Ferdinand Magellan
b. Juan Sebastain del Cano c, Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi
d. Juan de Salcedo
This post-Magellan expcdition reached Mindanao but failcd to
colonize yet was able to rescue survivors of the Loaysa
expedition in fidore, Moluceas.
a. Sebastian Cabot
b. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi c- Alv aro
Saavcdra Ccmn
d. Rny Lopez de Villalobos
12. Sikatuna was a native kl_ng of this island.
a, Cebu c. Samar
b. Leyte V. Boho]

121
13. He pmmiæd 10 convince hisbrother Rajah Tupas
to accept Spanish friendship.
a. Sigala c. Tarnuyan
b. tJrrao d. Bankaw
14 The settlement was established in this place.
a. Manila c. Panay
b. Cebu d. Mindoro
15. The Maynilad chief who defended his kingdom
from the
Spaniards.
a. BambalitO c. Rajah Sulayman
b. Lakandula d. Rajah Matanda
16. This valiant warlord headed the first
Battlc of Bankusay.
a. Bambalito c. Rajah Sulavman
b. Lakandula d. Rajah Matanda
17. He gave Manila the name, Insigne y Siempæ
Leal Ciudad. a, King Charles I c. King Philip Il
b. Legazpi d. LaveŽaris
18. He collected the tribute and gave it to the encomendero.
a. town mayor
b. politico-military governor
c. head 0( the family
d. former datu
19. The highest local position opened to Filipinos,
a. alcalde mayor c, gobernadcrcillo
b. corregidor d. cabeza de barangay
20. This judicial body puts into tnal, an oulgoing govemor
general and Other Spanish officials who were obliged to
give an accounting of their acts during their term of office.
Royal Audiencia c. Vigitador-general
b. Residcncia d. Oidor
21. One of the following was nol exempted
from paying the tribute.

122
 a. Sacristan c. Choir member
b. Government employee d. Stage actor
22. Bcforc 1884, this was the number Of days
to be rendered for polo.
15 days c. GO days
b. 40 days IDOdays
23. Upon the king 's order. the Mexican viceroy
Sent this royal subsidy Manila annually.
visitador piloncifo b, Isabelina d-
siluado
24. Thúq was the policy of resettlement in the
Spanish period consolidating population in
larger villages
a. aka[dia c. pueblos .
b. œduccion d. visilas
25. This was the university in the Philipptncs,
which originally founded as col)ege in 1589 and elevated
to the rank of universiEÿ in 1621.
.a, University of San Ignacio
b. University Of Santo [Omas
c. University of San Felipe
d. Escuela Pia
26. During the Spanish this was the Only
college open for Filipina girls.
Beat-erio dc la Compania de Jesus
b. Bcatcrio de Santa Catalina
c. Collegc of Santa Isabel
•d. Collegc of Santa Polenciana
27. This was establishcd in 1785 to prornote
direct trade with

Gallcon Trade
Monopoly
123
 Sociedad Economica de IOS Amigos del rais
Real Compania de Filipinas
28. They attacked various places in the Phili ppines from 1600•
1747.
a.c. Germans
• b. d. British
29. Spain became involved with the Seven Years War after it Sided
with this country for the control Of Germany and Supremacy in
North America and India.
Britain
b. France d, Prussia
30. The firstChinese rebellion in the Philippines took place in
1603 under leadership.
a. Fns-Kang c. Koxinga
b. Lim-Ali-Hong d. Tingco
Matching Type. Match Column A with Column B. Write the
letters on the blanks provided: (10 pts.)
Column A Column B c Candidc Lopez Diaz
Father of Filipino painting
2. Mariano Mad riñan b. Contract to repurchase

3. Damian Domingo Inventor (machinc cleaning

hemp fibers)
4, Tomas pLnpin d. Decorated Medieval
agtar
5. Dolores pa terno Black Nazarene
6. Del Superior Govnemo f. First Filipino printer
7. M Éa de Gallo Novena mass (Dec. 16-24)
Quiapo Church h. Christmas Eve Mass
9. Retablo .1. Sculptor (1883
Arnsterd am
Exposition)
124
 10. Facto de Retroventa Composer (Sampagnitaj
First
newspaper in the

125
111. Essay: (10 pts- each)
1 What prompted the Europeans to searL'h new landg in the
141F• century ta the 16th cennry?
2 Did the Spaniards succeed in prvrnoting Hispanic
culture among thc early Filipinos?
 Struggle for Rights and Freedom
t. Revolt ofLakandula and Sulayman (1574)
Cause: Lavezaris's Reversal of l_pgazpi's Policy
After the death of Legazpi on August 15m, Governor
Guido de Lavezaris no longer exempted the native rulers and
their of
from paying tribute. He ordered the their patTirnontal
land properties.
Of the new policy, to rise in arms. • raking
advantage Of LLm-Ah-Hong's attack on Manila in i 574, the two
chieftains proclaimed their revolt and gathered their warriors in
Navotas.
Juan de Salcedo and Fr. Geronimo Marin were sent by Lavezaris
to persuade them not to carry Out their plan. They were given an
assurance that all their grievances would bé remedied and those who
took arms would be pardoned._Governor Lavezaris did thLs
•gesture to ask help from Filipino nadves In driving awaLL1m-
AhHong from the country.

2. First Pampanga Revolt (1585)

Cause: Abuses of
Disgruntled by the way the encømenderos administered,
*'me brave Pampangueño leaders connived with the people cf
Manila and the Borneans to rise revolt.
According to their plan, they would secretly el*er the city
Manila one dark night and massacre the Spaniards. A native
Woman who was married to a Spanish soldier happened to learn
of it and warned the Spanish authorities about it. The leaders
were arrested and executed without any fair trial,
3. The Tondo Conspiracy (1587-88)
Cause: Regain Freedom
Attempting to restore freedom and local leadership being
enjoyed during the pre-colonial years, Agustin de Legazpi
(nephew Of Lakandula), together with Other leaders like Martin
Pangan (gobcmadorciüo of rondo), MagatSalamat (son of
Lakandula), yuan Banal (another Tondo chief), Esteban Taes
(chief of Pedro Balinguit (chief of Pandacan>, Pitonggatan
(chief Of •rondo), Felipe Salonga (chief of Polo) and Geronimo
Basi (brother of Agustin de Legazpi) planned to overthrow the
Spanish rulers in the country.
Through a Japanese Christian. Dicnisio Fernandez, Agustin de
Legazpi, and hÉ fellow conspirator contacted a Japaneg sea
captain, Juan Gayo, to get and Japanese warriors to fight the
Spaniards.
In he and his warriors would be given one-half Of the tribute collected
in the Philippines. Aside from this, help would also be secured from
Borneo, Laguna, and Batangas. The corv;pirators with their warriors
would then assault the city of Manila and start killing the Spaniads.
Magat Salamat inntxently the plan to Antonio Surabaô, a
CuyO native who was pmtending to be a supporter. Surabao later
recounted this to his master, Pedro Sarmiento (the Spanish
enccmendero of Calamianes). Immediately, Captain Sarmiento
rushed to Manila and informed Governor General Sanäago de
Vera on October 26, 1588, the existence Of a conspiracy against
government.
Eventually, the governor ordered the arrest of all persons
implicated in the ævolutionary plot, including Dion.isio
Fernandez, a interpreter. All these Suspccg were investigated
and tried in court. They were given harsh penalties. Agustin de
Legazpi and Martin Pangan were brutally hanged. Their heads
wcrc cut off and placed in iron cages. The government seized
their properties. The sites Of their homes were plowed and sown
with salt to remain barren.
 Dionisio Fernandez was hanged and his prvperty,
confiscated. Also executed wereMagat Salamat, Geronimo Basi
and Esteban Taes. The rest were given lighter punishmcnts —
heavy fines and sorwe years Of exile their town. Of the leading
Of the conspiracy weœ to Mexico — Pedro Balinguit,
Pitonggatan. Felipe Salonga, Calao, and Agustin Manuguit.
111
4. Magalat•s Revolt, Cagayan (1596)
Cause: Tribute
During the rule of Governor Francisco Tello, two brothers
instigated the peWe Of Cagayan to riæ in anns against the
colonial government because Of the latter's arbitrary levy
collection. One or the brothers was caned Magalat. The
uprisl_ng was suppresqed by the authorities. He and his men
were kept in Manila as exiles,
The Dominican missionaries of Cagayan persuaded Governor
Tello to pardon them, after knowing the plight of the two brothers.
The favor was subsequently granted. After Magalal was released, he
went back to Cagayan and incited the people to the fight. Many
Spaniards and loyal natives were kilted by the rebels. Govemor Tello
sent Captain Pedro de Chaves to queÐ the revolt. Magalat, however,
remained undefeated in open battle- Later thc Spaniards de£ided to
hirc native assassins. Magalat was murdered in his own house.

5. Revolt of the Igorots

Cause: Refusal to Accept New Religion
The Spaniards were determined to convert the Igorots to
Christianity. They launched a crusadc to proselytize the
bughl.and natives Of Luzon and to place them under Spanish
authorines. A stmngexpedition was sent to the Igcrollat'd to stop
the natives from resisting colonial subjugation. However, the
Spaniards were only able to gain nominal political and military
control over them.

6. Revolt of the rrrayas, Northern Isabela in the

Cagayan Valley (1621)
Cause; Oppressi'n of Spanish Officials
Fray Pedro de Santo Tomas, a missionary, tried
10 convince the rebels to avoid an uprising against the abusive
Spanish officials. The rebels led by Gabriel Dayag and Felix
130
Cutabay refused to heed the priest's words Of peace. However,
they treated Fr. Santo Tomas and his missionary companions
with respect. They allowed the friars to leave unmolested. with
all their ornaments and jewels Of the churches.
After the missionaries had left, the Irrayas began their fight by
killing the Oppreswe cncomenderos and burning their houses, After
this bloody incident. the rebels Went up to the Basili River and built
their fortification on a rocky hill.
Fr. Santo Tomas returned and exhorted the leaders to lay
down their arms and promised them that the governmcnt would
pardon them and remedy their grievances. The revolt ended
without a fight.

7. '11te Revolt of Tamblot, Bohol (1621-22)

Cause: Rcturn to Native Religion
In 1621, Tamblot, a (native priest), reported the appearance
of a diwata who promised the Fecple a life of abundance,
without the burden of paying tribute to the government or dues
to the church. He persuaded the natives to abandon the Catholic
religion and rise against the Spaniards. Around 2,000 Boholanos
responded Tamblot•s call.
They began the uprisl.ng at the time when most Of the
Jesuit fathers, the spiritual administrators cf the island, were in
Cebu celebrating the feast the beatification of St. Francis Xavier.
They burned the villages being supervised by the Jesuits, as well
as their churches. threw away all rosaries and crosses they could
find.
News Of the revolt reached Cebu. Don Juan de Alcarazo,
the alcaide mayor, gcnt immediately an exped ition to Bohol,
consisting of 50 Spaniards and more than 1,000 natives from
Cebu and Pampanga. In the midst of a heavy downpour,
Tamblot and his followers were crushed
8. Bankaw's Revolt, Izyte (1622)
Cause: Return to Native Religion
The leader of this rebellion was the aged chieftain ofLimasawa,
Bankaw, who was one of the first local leaders who received
Miguel
Lopez de I.egazpi in 1565. He had prpvioasly converted to
Christianity and became loyal to Spain. But in his old age
Bankaw together with his sons and a native priest named Pagali,
led the people of Carigara, Leyte to rise in arms in defense cf
their old religion. Soon they had the whole island into armed
resistance The

11.3
rebels destroyed church property and erected a temple to their
dianta.
Fr. Melcher de Vera, Jesuit, went to Cebu and warned [he
Spanish authorities of the uprising. Alcalde Mayor Alcar370
sent a fleet of 40 vcsscls, manned by hundreds of Cebuanos and
some Spanish arquehusiers to Leyte. The rebels were offered
peace but they turned it down.
The Spanish-Filipino forces pursued them in the hills and
defeated them. Bankaw, together with his son axld PagaLi perThed
irk the battle. Soon his second son was beheaded as a traitor. His
daughter was taken as captive. Bankaw's head wag placed on a stake
as a public warning, to generate fear among the natives.

9. The Revolt of Ladia (1643)

Cause: Spanish Oppression
Pedro Lad ia, a naäve of Bomeo, who claimed to be a
descendant of Rajah Matanda, instigated the people of Makolos,
Bulacan to rise in against the Spanish gavernmenl. He was able
to recruit a rtumber of (ollowers but befoœ he could carry out
his plan, FT. Cristobal Enriquez had already entreated the people

132
to loyal to Spain- Ladia was later on arrested and sent to Manila
to be executed.

10. The Revolt of Dabao (1650s)

Cause: Controversial Decree to Send Carpenters to the Cavite
Shipyard
To move freely among fellow Christians, Dabao, a Manobo
chieftain in Northern Mindanao allowed himself to be baptized
to the Catholic faith. He convinced some new converts 10 join
him in his plan to kill the religious and all the Spanish soldiers
in the fort.
Dabao's opportunity to carry out his plot came as natives who
stole a quantity of maize and rice were hunted down. He offered
himself to catch them. He took his men to act as prisoners. lust when
the rcieki were going to be set in the stocks for their punishment,
Dabao attacked the captain and the supposed pri«oners joined him by
taking out their concealed wcapon.s. All Spaniards the garrison
were killed. Governor Diega Fajardo offered amnesty
to the rebels to end Northern Mindanao unrest. However, the
rebels Who surrendered were either hanged br enslaved oX to
Manila, where they weæ sold to Spanish household.

11. Sumoroy's Revolt, Samar (1649-50) Cause:

Forced Labor
Under Juan Surncroy•s leadership, the people Of Samar rose in
a.rrns agairwt the government. They rcscnted Govemot Diego
Faiardo's order, which involved the Sending Of men to Cavite
shipyards. Hostilities began on June with the killing Of the curate of
the town.
The revolt spread to Albay and Camarines, Cebu, Masbate,
Catwguin and as far as Northern Mindanao. Stunoroy won
several victories over the Spanish-Filipino forces. Atone time,
the Spanish commander offered a large surn of money in
exchange of Sumoroy's head. The rebels sent him the head of a
pig instead,
In July 1650, under cover of darkness and rainfall, the
government forces staged an assault on the fort. rebels were
caught bv surprise. Sumoroy's mother perished in the battle. The
revolt entúd with individual surrenders. The rebels themselves
killed Sumoroy and brought his head to the Spanish commander.

12. Maniago's Revolt, Pampanga (1660)

Causes: Frequent Recruitment Of Men to Cut Timber in the
Mountains and Bandala
Pampanga's rice production suffered exceedingly from the
disruptive effects of polo. One thousand Pampangueñus had
been workin6 for as timber cutlers. To show
sentiments the government, the workers mutmicd and set
tt•eir campsite on fire. They chose Don Francisco Manjago, a
chief from the village Mexico to be their leader.
The armed rebels gathered in Lubao under Maniago and
another group made in Bacolor. They closed the

134
mouths Of riverg with stakes. Letters to Other chiefs in
Pangasinan. nocos, and Cagayan were sent, asking them to loin
the uprising against the Spaniards and later elect a king of their
own-
BV the time the province of Pampanga revolted, the government
owed the local inhabitants more than pesos due to unpaid rice
purchases from the batidnta system.
The Spaniards tried ro end the rebellion immediately because
they knew that the Pampangueños had been trained in military art.
Governor Manrique de I ard E*gan his maneuver with a show of
force, by bringing with him 300 men in Macabebe. Seeing the
wellarrned Spaniards. the Pampangueños showed cordiality This
caused other rebels to waver and distrust one another-
Governor Lara called for yuan Macapaga), chief of Arayat,
to a .ara treated him well and assured him
rewards if he would side with the govern_mcnt. Macapagal
cc:.nsequently accepted the offer. He went back to Araya( and
organized a force to repress the rebels. defeclioti discouraged
other chiefs. Parish priests as well as sotdiers were also
employed to demoralize thc rebels. The governor general
moreover proposed a partial payment Oi 14,000 pesos on the
total amount Of 200,000 pesos that the government owed to the
Pampangucños,
The Spaniards concluded an agreement with Mani.tgo
which brvught about peacc in Pampanga, For (ear that the
Pangasinenscs would strike back, the Pampangueños themselves
dernanded two Spanish garrisons in the province, one m Lubao
ahd another in Arayat. From then on. they never revolted against
the colonial government.

13. Andres Malong's Revolt. Pangasinan (1660-61)

Causes: Spanish Oppression and the Iksire to Replace the
Spaniards as Personal Rulers of the People
Spurred by the Pampangueño rebellion. the natives cf
Pangasinan also rose in arms against the Spanish gOVCrnmcnt in

135
Lingaven on December 15, •1560. Several Spaniards were killed,
including an alcalde mayor. fruspired by the growing number of the
ir followers and their Carly successes, Malong prvclairned himself
king and directed his military leaders to place the province under rebel
control with his defenses at the capital town of Binalatongan le
appointed Pedro Gurnapos as count. Franciscc Facadva as judge, and
Jacinto MðçdSiag, and Mekchor dc Vera as army generals.
I.Ætters were sent to the people Of Ilecos, 7.ambales, Pampanga
and Cagayan, inviting them to rise against the Spaniards, The
Pampangueños under Maniago did notjoin because they had already
made their peace with the Spaniards.
extend _Malong sent 6,000 men to
Pampanga and 3,000 men to Ilocos and Cagayan. leaving 2,000
(Men with him m Pangasinan. But this depleted his forces. The
government troops lcd by Don Felipe dc Ugalde and Don
Francisca Esteban au his army in Pangasinan He
Was pursued into thc mountains and was caught alive, He was
executed together with Vera, Pac-adua and MacasiA8 m 1661
tn Binalalongan.

14. The Revolt of Gumapog (1661)

Cause-. Continue Andres Malong's Revolt
Pedro Gurnapos and his army of Zambals killed many
Spaniard* in l)ocos. The Ilocanos did not pin them for thetr
loyalty was to their property. During the Zambal invasion. they
hid their valuables in lhc Bishop's house and buried other
properties.
'1110 bishop assembled the Zambals and threatened them with
excomm unication the moment they get anything from the churches
from his house. But the bishop's words fell on deaf ears.
Gumapos's campaign ended after an encounter with the
Spanish forces. Four hundred rebels were slain and Gumapos
himself was taken prisoner and was later hangaed in Vigan.

15. The Revolt ofAlmazan (1660s)

136
 Cause: Persona] Ambitions
The flames Of rcbellion soon spread in Ilocos with Pedro
Almazan as the defiant leader. Alma7Än, a rich chief of San
Nicolas, cmwned himse'f Kine of [locos during the wedding
ceremony Of his son to the daughter of another chief. He wore
the crown lhc Queen of Angeb taken from the church, which the
rebeL sacked. The rebels were gaining someheadway at the start
but the Sparuards eventually suppreŠgcd them.

137
16. Tapar's Revolt, Panay (1663)
Cause: Found a New Rehgicn Under Native Supervision
The prevalent misdemeanor of Spanish friars alienated
countless natives from the Catholic faith. Tapar, a native Of
panay, wanted to establish a religious cult in Oton. He attracted
many followerg with his stories about hig frequent
conversations with a
demon,
Tapar and his men werQ killed in a bloody Eight against
the Spaniards, along with native scldiets 'lhcir corpses
impaled on stakes.

17, Dagohoy's Revolt, Bohol (1744-1829)

Cause: Refusal to Give His Brother a Christian Burial
Father Gaspar Morales denied Francisco Dagohoy•s
brother a ChrLREian burial the latter died in a duel. Dagohðy
argued that his brother's burial was the responsibility Of the
Jesuit priest because he had died carrying out the missionary's
order. to artest an apostate. Thc priest refused to bury
Dagohny*s brother unless the proper or church offerings were
given, The body was left decomposing for three days,
Humiliated by this tragic incident, Dagohuy gat mad and
incited the natives Bohol to revolt. He took around 3.000 men
and women to the uplands of Talibon and Inabangan. He Set up
a self-sustaining community far from the Spanish authorities.
Dagohoy's community grew in number as more people fled to
the hills to avoid being recruited by the government to join its
expeditions in Northern Mindanao as well as to avoid the harsh
impositions the government.
Dagohov and his men raided the Jesuit estate of San Javier. Then
they killed the Italian Jesuit curate in Jagna, Father Gtligeppe
lamberti in 1744. Because of killing. the Spanish authorities tortured
and killed Dagchoy'.g future father-in-law and the porter cf the
church of the slain priest.
 The death of the innocent porter drove more people to
Dagohoy's group. Shortly afterwards, FatherMorales was killed
in cold blood. BLqhop Miguel Linc de Espeleta of Cebu tried to
pacify the rebels through negotiations. The plan to send secular
priests to

113
Bohol was not Out. A 20-year deadlock in. The community
continued to subsist without outward sign Of rebellion,
'Ji•vent-v Spanish governors fmrn Gaspar de la TOræ
73945) to Juan Antonio Martinez (1822-25) tried to stop the
rebellion but faüed. the 1740s and the govemment was
preoccupied with the Muslim raids.
In 1829, the rebellion finally ended when Governor
Mariano Ricafort pardoned 19,420 survivors and permitted
them to live in the ncw villages. Nothing has been heard on how
Dagohoy died. His autonomous community lasted for 85 years,

18. Silang's Revolt (1762—63)

Causes: His Imprisonment, Abusive Government
Officials, leavy Taxation
The Ilocanos had already been complaining about the
anomalous colhxtion Of tribute and the abuses of the aicažåes
mayores in the exercise of indulto de comercio Diego Silang appealed
to Don Antonio Zabala. the provincial governor of Iloccs to consider
the demands Of the Regarding him an agitator, Zabala had Slang
incarcerated.
Silang's followers and friends successfully worked for his
release. •Iàking advantage Of thc Spanish Pleoccupation with
the British m Manila, Slang led the revolt Of the IlocanΠand
made Vigan the capital of his independent government. His
defiance of the Spaniards lost him support Of many principale},
He ordered that thasc principales who were opposing him be
alTested and brought to him. Should they resist, they Were to
be slain. He also irnposed a fine of 100 pesos on each priest but
139
lowered [t (0 80 pesos on their petition. Pmperty Of the church
was also taken.
Bishop Bernardo Estariz of Vigan issued an interdict
against Silang and his followers. He exhorted the Ilocanos to
withdraw support for the rebels' cause. In retaliation, Silan&
imprisoned all of the latter's followers.
Finally, Spanish Governor Simon de Anda sent Silang an
ultimatum. Fearing that Anda was planning to march to Ilo.cos,
Silang decided to seek the protcction Of the British. Shortly
thereafter, he aceeptcd the British Offer of friendship to fight against
the Spaniards.
However, Siiang's leadership ended with an •s bullet.
Miguel Vicos, a Spanish mestizo who wished to lake revenge
on Silang and Pedro a trusted aide Of Silang conspired to kill
the rebel leader in exchange of a large monetary reward. Vicos
shot Silang In the lat(er's house.
Gabriela Silang. Diego's wife, cnntinued the fight. Nicolas
Carina, Si tang's uncle, temporarily took command cf the forces
He and Gabriela attacked the town of Santa in Ilocos Sur and
won over the government forces, After the battle, Gabriela went
to the forests of Abra and rccn.nted the Tingguiarts (Itnegs).
Another bat-tic was fought at Cabugao, but this tune the rebels
were beaten. Cariño perished in action. Gabriela and her warriors fled
to Abra and Organized a new army of Itocunvs and Tmgguians.
With her newly reorganized battalion, Gabriela marched
towards Vigan. She rode on a fast horse and led her troops into the
combat. The loyal archers of the Spanish government reputsed her
attack. Onœ more, she went back to the mountains of Abra with her
followers. Don Manuel de Arz.a. lieutenant governor
Luzon and Cagayan warriors fc]lcwed her trail. With the aid of
Apayaog and Kalingas, they capturcd her and her surviving
followers. On September 1763, Gabriela and her companions
were executed in Vigan, [locos Sur.

19. Palaris's Revolt (1762-65)

140
 Causes: Tribute, Spain's Lnss of Prestige Due to the British
Occupatian Of Manila
Simultaneous with the Silang revolt was an uprising in
Pangasina local inhabitants wanted the abolition Of the tribute
and the of Joaquin Gamboa, al-aalde mayor cf the province for
irregularities in tax collechon.
The rebellion began on November 3, 1762 at the town of
Binalatongan under the leadership ofJuan de la Cruz Pararis.
From Binalatr,ngan, the spirit of insurrection spread to other
towns Of the province. palans urged the people to fight since the
Spaniards were very weak because of their defeat at the ha nas
of the British in Manila, For Over a year, he succccdcd in
driving the Spaniards and friars Out Of the rebel towns. Ihe
Dominican fnars tr-Led to pacify the rebels, but failed
In March 1764, Don Mariano de Arza together with
3,000 loyal Ilocana soldiers suppressed the Revolt Of Palaris
Pangasinan. Palaris was publicly hanged.

20. Basi Revolt (1807)

Cause: Wine Monopoly of 1786
Due to the wine monopoly of the gcvemment, the nocanos were
prohibited to drink homemade (wine fermented from sugarcane).
They were compelled ko buy Wine from government stores.
On September 16. 1807, the nocanog of Piddig, nocos
Norte, rose in arms in defense of their favorite wino. basi. Tn:e
rebellion splead to the neighboring towns. Badoc and Santo
Domñigo.
The Spanish alcalde mayor, who was residing in Vigan, sent a
force cf 36 soldiers and two columns of civilian guards with a cannon
to attack Badoc. lowever, on September 281807, the together
with a strong force of regular troops attacked them at San lldcfonso
and quelled the revolt.

21. Revolt in Defense of the Spanish Constitution (1815)

141
 Cause: Abolition of the Lfreral Spanish Constitution
The Constitution of 1812 wag very much Influenced by the
ideals of French Revolution — Equality, and Fraterruty. This
democratic constitution granted human rights to both Spaniards
and Filipinos. It was promulgated by the Sp;unish Cortes
(Parliament) and approved and signed by 184 delegates Of
Spain and her colonies (inciuding the Philippines). One Of its
signatories was Ventura de los Reyes, a Filipino.
Upon knowing that this constitution was abolished on May 4,
1814 by the despotic ruler King Ferdinand VII, an explosion of
violence the country against the principaieg took place. The ma.gMS
suspected that the principales were behind this, since they had been
plesumed aiding the Spanish authorities to perpetuate in power.
(h March 3. 1815, mom than 1,500 Ilocanos of Sarrat, Ilocos
Norte, under the leader-ship Of Simon Tomas rose in arms in
Of the Spanish Constitution Of 1812. The Ilocanos plundered
the houses of rich Spaniards and pm-Spanish natives. They also
loot'd the churches and killed friars and officials. The Spanish
government rushed iLfantry• and cavalry fOrçes to the
rebellious towns in the Ilocandia. The revolt ended on March 6,
with the surviving leaders Of the rebellion severely punished.

22. Revolt of the Bayot Brothers (1822)

Feeling of Distrust betwen the Peninsulares and the Creoles
The insulars in the Philippines, as wen as the creates in
Other colonies Of Spain resented the extra privileges given to
the peniusulnres. The feeling of distrust and antagonism
between the peninsulareg and the creoles became intcnse in the
early decades of the century.
Inspired by the adlievements of the creole liberators in Latin
America from 1808 to 1826 and influenced by the ideals of the
French
Revolution (1789-1799), the three Bayot brothers - Manuel, Jose, and
Joaquin — Of Colonel Francisco Bayot, a prominent creole Of

142
Manila. cor.qpired with other creole officers of the Battalion
Real Principe, to overthrow the government, which was
dominated by the The plot was to be carried out On
April 1 7, 1822 at dawn.
A few days before April 17. the plan Of the Bayot
conspiracy was discovered Governor Mariano de Folgueras
alerted the
Regunent and surrounded the barracks ofsuspected rebels with loyal
troops and 15 cannons. The Bayet brothers were imprisoned after a
trial.

23. Religious Revolt of Hermano Pule (1840-41) Cauw

Religious Freedom
In 1839, Apolinario de la Cruz went to Manila to pursue
pnestiy vocation under the Dominican order. He was not
accepted on the ground that he was aTh indiÖ (native). At that
time, all religious orders were closed to indios.
In June 1840, Apolinario, better known as Hermano pule
returned to Lucban, Tayabas Province (now Quezon Province), and
founded the Cofradia de San (Confraternity of St. Joseph), a nat
Ionalist fellowshipwhich fostered the prac tice of Christian virtues.
Hermano pule sought thc recognition Of his religious
brotherhood. However, Governor General B.úrcelino Oraa and
Archbishop Jose SeguL_, upon the recommendation ot the
Spanich friars, banned his confraternity. Undaunted by the
intolerance Of the government authorities. he carried his
religious movement at Barrio Of Mount Banahaw, then later
moved his camp at Alitao. at the foot Of Mount Cristobal. His
brotherhood attracted thousands of followers in Tayabas.
Laguna, and Batangas.
On November 1841, Col. Joaquin Huet. a veteran Spanish
combat commander launched a maRqive assault on Alitao,
killing hundreds Of defenseless old men, women. and children.
Hermano Pule was captured t.hc following evening at Barrio
Iban;a and was executed on November 4. The Spanish soldiers
143
paraded his chopped body from Tayabas to nearby Lucban, his
birthplace.
Enraged by the merciless killing at Alitao, the
noncommissioned officers and soldiers of the Tayabas Regiment
secretly planned to rise in arms under thc leadership Of Sergeant
irineo Samaniego. After a few hours Of fighting at Santiago,
Samaniego and men were routed. captured and shot to death at
Bagumbayan at cf January 21, 1843.

24. Muslim Wars (1578-1898)

The Spaniards made attempts to subdue the inhabitants of
Mindanao deploying its military force; in theSouth The Mitslirr8 on
the other hand, valiantly resisted and repulsed the colonizers They
retaliatcd by raiding territories ultder Spanish nde with varying
degrees Of intensity. The war between the Muslim Filipinos and the
SpæüardS (aided by (Thristian Filipinos) lasted for more than 300
years,
The Muslim wars Were brought about by the following
reasons: the *anish invasion cf Mindanao and Sulu. preservation
of Islam, and the love of adventu_m arising from the Spoils of

In 197, the Spanish colonizers tfied to geize JOIO and force the
sultanate into submission. After victorious battle in for the Spanish
Crown, Govemor Francixo de Sande sent forces to JOIO, under the
command Of Captain Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa. He ordered the
pacification of the plaa? and the payment Of tribute by the inhabitants
to the colonial government. SU_ltäñ Pangi.tan Budim.an
(Muhammad u[-Halim) resisted the attack. However, Sulu fell
into Spanish hands. Pearls were given tribute to the Spaniards.
The Muslinus, haughtily referred to by the Spaniards as
Moms, avenged by plundenng coastal towns under Spanish
dominion. Sinangan and Salikala prepared a stmnger force Of
70 vessels and 4,000 warriors, a year after their first successhal
raid in the VLsayas in 1599. This time, they were repulsed with
heavy losses at Arwalo, 110 i10 province bv 1,000 Visayan
warriors and .70 Spanish atquebusicrs under the Q)mrnand Of
144
Don Juan Garcia de Sierra, a Spanish alcalde mayor who died
in thc fight,
TO embark its operations over Muslim Mindanao, the
Spaniards built fortified stations in particalar areas. June 23,
1635. Father Melchor de along with 1,000 Visay•arys began the
building of the stone fort in the province. lhis fort was named
Fort Pilar (in honor Of Nuestra Scñora del Pilar, the patroness
Of Zamboanga) which helped the government forces in their
campaign against the belligerent natives.
The Spaniards tried to conquer Maguindanao but were
thwarted by native resistance. From 1600-1650, the sultan of
Maguindanao, Sultan Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat (Corralat
in Spanish records) held power in regions from the Gulf of
Davao all the way to Dapitan.
On March 13. 1637. Governor Corcuera with his
SpanishFilipino troops landed at the mouth cf Ric de Grande de
Mindanao. The next day, Lamitan, Sul Ian Kudarat's capital in
Cotabato fell into the hands of theSpaniards. Kudarat retreated
to a hill called Ilihan, Corcuera's troops assaulted the place and
finally captured it after a encounter. Defeated by the
Spaniards, Kildarat was able to escape together with his brave
wife. carrying a baby.
May 24. Governor Corcuera returned to Manila and was
given conqueror's welcome w;th music, religious festivals, and a
pcrfarmancc (a stage play about the contending Christians and
Mushms with the former emerging as victors).
The fight-ing Moros intensified their efforts to continue the
battle against the Spaniards. After nursing his bullet wound in one
arm, Sul tan Kudarat later mounted raids on Spanish settlements in
Luzon and the Visavas and inspired fellow Muslims newer to submit
to the Spanish colonizers. The assaulted the Spanish
outposts
Mindanao and Sulu. In 1645. the Tausugs finally liberated
Jojo from the Spanish

145
 In 1749, Sultan Alimtld Din I was deposed by his brother
Bantilan because of his friendship with the Spaniards. On
January 2, 1750, he and his familv, together with some faithful
followers arrived in Manila. sttitan was loyally received bv Juan
de Arrechedera, the acting governor general On ATprü 28 of the
same year, he was baptized Yy the Dominican fathcrs at
Paniqui, Tarlac. He was named Don Fernando Alimud Din I, the
first Christian sultan cf Jolo. His son. Israel, and his daughter
Fatima were likewisc converted to Christianitv and given
education in Manila,
In 1751, Governor General Francisco de Obando wanted
Alimud Din 1 to regain hig throne in Jclo. The stùtan )eft Manila
for 1010 and stopped at Zamboanga. The Spanish commander
in Thmbaanga clamed tu have intercepted a letter from Alimud
Din I to a sultan in Mindanao, which was allegedly treasonable.
Al.imud Din I was shipped back to Manila and later imprisoned
at Fort
Santiago.
Governor Gencral Pedro Manuel de Arandia, Obando•s
successor, released Alimud Din and granted him royal privileges. In
1762, the British troops rescued Alirnud Din I at Pasig and later
restomd to hLrn his throne in Job
The Spanish foxes, plunged in its with the British and the
local rebels. wav unable to control the Moro (plundeœr) raids
on Christian pueblos in the and Luzon, The height of Moro wars
occurred in the second half Of the 18th century. Jr' 1769, the
Moms landed al Malate and plundered the place.
According to Spanish an average Of 500 Chrßtiarug Were
captured and Sold annually as slaves in Betavia, Sandakan, and
in Other slave markets in the East Indies. The Spanish
government spent huge sum of money for military aperaiiðng
against the marauding troops of the South.
[n the closing decades of the 19th century, the Moro power
declined. In 1848, Governor General Narciso Claveria, using

146
new steamships, attacked the Samals at Balanguingui. They
brought 350 Samal prisoners to Manila.

147
 On December 11, 1850, Governor General Antonio de
Urbiztondo left Manila for Zamboanga in command of a force
consisting of I(Ä) troops Of artillery and 500 infantry to
subjugate the Muslims Of Sulu. Upon his arriválin thc last week
of the month, he from fighting, realizing that his force
was not enough to capture Yolo. He sailed again to 1010 in
January 1851. Sulu warriors fired upon his ships. Thc Spanish
force retaliated and burned down 1,000 houses and around 100
bancas (boats) Thngki.l before sai2ing baek to Zamboanga. The
following month, after a reinforcement of his troops,
Urbiztondo attacked JOIO, The natives Of Sulu lost over 100
men, and were forced into the interior.
In 1861, after more expeditions by the Spaniards in
Maguindanao. the sultan finally recognized Spanish sovere'.gnty.
However, resistancc ccmtinued under Datu Liste in upper Pulangi.
Superior Spanish arms allowed the colonizers to remain in
Maguindanao until 1899.
In I Admiral Jose Malcarnpe became the Spanish governor
general in the Philippines. He prepared a might-y armada for the
invasion of 1010. This would put an end to the devastating raids of
the Tausugs on the Christian pueblos. The attack lasted for 24 hours.
On March 1, 1876, Sultan Jamalul A'lam worked for peace with
Spaniards.
Sultan Jamalu/ Á'lam of Jolo transferred his capital to
Maimbung. The Sultanate Of being a sovereign government was able
to lease Sabah (North Borneo) to a British company. On Jatiuary 22,
1878, Sultan Jamalul A'lam leascd Sabah to Mr. Alfred Dent, an
Englishman and Baron Von Overbeck, an Austrian Of British North
Borneo Company for an annual rental Of 5,000 Malayan dollars. The
contract in 1878 used the word "padþck" which means lease. (The
rental was increased to 5.300 Malayan dollars in 1903 10196"
The sultan of '010, a direct descendant Of Sultan Kudarat,
acquired sovereignty over North Borneo (Sabah) the second
half of the century. When the sultan of Brunei sought help to the
sultan Of Job to Supress a rebellion in 17th, the Sabah territory
was ceded to the latter in 1715 out of gratitude,
 In 1886, Governor General Emilio Terrero led the invasion to
Cotabato to subdue the Moro Maguindanaoans. Terrero•s forces
destroyed some kutas (forts) Of Datu Utto but failed to crash Utto's
fighters. After suffering heavy losses, Governor Terrero decided
to return to Manila.
In 1$91, Governor General Valeriano Weyler, known the
"Butcher' for his ruthless suppression of early ren.zolts in Cuba,
invaded Lanac- August 21, 1891, he won the First Battle of Marawi
in Lanao Lake, Pakpak, the defender of Marawi, was able to escape.
He recruited mure warriors fight against the Spanish invaders. Failing
to conquer Lanao, Weyler assaulted Cotabato, However, he was
overpowered by Datu Ali Jimbangan and his fierce krismen
(warriors).
In 1895, Governor Genera] Ramon Blanco invaded the
Lanao Lake region. Blanco's troops attacked MRPawi on March
10. 1895. In this Second Battle of Marawi, the heroic Dalu Amai
Pakpak died inaction. Blanco won his battle, but he failed to
conquer Lanao like Terrero and Wey[er. TO avenge the fall of
Marawi and the death of Datu Amai Pakpak, the Muslim
warriors declared a jihad (holy war}, forting Blanco to haft the
campaign and return to Manila,
The bitter warfare between the Spaniards and the Muslims
ended in 1898, after the signing Of the Peace •Ircaty of Paris On
10, which ended the Spanish domination in the
Phi]ippines.

25. The Rise of Filipino Nationalism

Nationalism was said to have rooted from a strong feeling
among that they belong to the same race. Such sentiment has
not yet ex;sted in the Philippines prior to the 3 9•1• century.
Although the cultural traits o: the early Filipinos had striking
similarities. their lü-•€uistlc differences as well as the local
autonomy Of each political unit in the archipelago barely
yielded to the development Of this national sentiment. The
absencR of adequate means of transporta tion and communica
tion made the situation even more dismaL
149
 The traN;ition of the country's traditional societal structure
to colonial bureaucracy brought about the awareness of the local
inhabitants as to their common source of anxiety and suffering.
Unknowingly, the Spanish government planted the seeds Of
nationalism by perpetuating poverty and injustice among the
lower classes of society. The following have been regarded in
history as factors that gave rise to Filipino nationalism
Spread of tiberalism. B,'hen Spain gradual]y the
Philippines to commerce in the late 18tl• and early 191h
centuries, liberal ideas from Earcpc filtered in. The thoughts of
Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Lc•. Jefferson and other political
philosophers were made known thnyugh books and periodicals
brougut into the country by men from foreign ports.
The transformation of the Philippine economy into a raw
material market for Europe unconsciously increased their contact
with the intellectual tradition of the West. The improvement in
transportation and communication facilities required by increased
foreign trade also brought the Filipinos closer,and made them realize
their common predicament.
When Spain opened (he Philippine ports in 1834 to free trade,
commercialization of Philippine agriculture and economic expaosion
greatly benefited the principalià in the country. They were able to
send their children to schools and cvcn to educational institutioms In
Spain, thereupon giving them exposure to libertarian ideals.
The dissipation of European and American liberalism in the
country was even facilitated with the opening cf the Suez Canal in
1869, In like manner, the ideas of masonry (i.e. freethinking,
anticlerical, and humanitarian) also made the new class aware
of the reprexsive po?icy of the Spanish authorities in the colony thus,
making themselves more outspoken on the excesses of the friars and
govemment officials.
2. Senti ment against e he principales. There w as a
mounting dissatisfaction against the pyineiprdc (or th_c political
and social aristocracy, which includcs thc prominent landowning
and propertied citizens), accommodated as intermediaries of the
Spanish government from the inception of its colonial rule.

150
 The masses had been skeptical about the local aristocracy due
their proportion of influencc in the society. The Ilocano insurrection
in 1815 was a manifestation of the people's cry to mass movement.
3. Racial preiudice. The Spaniards commonly regarded the
Filipino natives as belonging 10 the "inferior race" and
haughtily called them as iäàic•i. The preconceived notion of the
Spanish colonizers that the natives could not rise beyond their
"Limited instigated the enlightened Filipinos to slrugglc for equality.
Jose Rizal's annotation Of Antonio de Morga's Sutesos las Islas
Fi!ipinas denounced the allegation* of the Spaniards that thc
Filipinos were savages and had no culture prior to the corninb of the
Westem colonizers-
4. Cultural changes. The educational reforms Of 1863
dramatically improved the standards Of educa tion in the
primary level. With the implementation of a new educational
system, qualified Filipinos were able to pursue higher
education. Young men from pr'BperOus Chinese mestizo and
native families were able to take up law, medicine, and
pharmacy. They were able to sce the tepressive colonial policies
of Spain after being enligh tencd with liberal ideas; thus. giving
birth to a new breed of Filipinos — the üttstrados (enlightened
ones),
The irustrados got the chance to st their political will when
Carlos Maria de la became governor general in 1869. This
berevoient governor was able 10 show his liberal disposition in
administering the govemment after he invoked reforms in the
government like the revocation of press censorship and the
abolition Of flogging as a form of punishment. I ]eeven lived
simply within his means. Governor De la Torre as a result. the
Filipino middle class to sustain their campaign for reforms in
the country.
5. Secularization controversy. The mandatory provision Of
the Council Of Trent (1545-1563) affirmed that secular priests
be appointed to administer the parishes in the colony. Due to
lack Of priests, Pope Pius V issued in 1567, upon the request Of
151
King Philip Il, the Exponi Ni'biš, which allowed regular clergy
(those belonging to monastic orders) to serve as parish priests
without diocesan authorization and be exempted from bishop's
authority.
However, the appoültment of regular clergy to Philippine
parishes brought about dissension among members of the
Church The regular orders at the outset resisted diocesan
visitation on the ground that this would place them under two
superiors, the head of their religious order and the bishop as
well, 'Ihis caused the expulsion of priests who refused the
visitation of parishes by representatives of the bishop. The
members Of the Society ofJesus, SJ (Jesuits) were expelled
from the country for this reason.
The parishes vacated by the Jesuits (expelled in the
country in 1768) were given to the native seculars. In the
century. Archbishop Basilic Santa Justa accepted the
resignation Of regular priegtg and appointed native secular
priests to the parishes.
The royal decree, which was promulgated on November
9, 1774 ordering the secularization of the parishes (or the
turnover of parishes supervised by regular clergy to the
seculars), became the basis for the appointment of native
secular clergy. However, this myal decree was in
1776 owing to friar opposit ion, as well as the unpreparedness
of the native priests.
The return Of the Jesuits in 1859 as well as the policy Of
desecularizaticn directly affected the nativc seculars. In the
overt opposition against the abuses of Spanish officiaås and agitation
reforms became evident among Filipino clergy.
The secularization controversy transformed into a
Filipini?.ation issue since the secular priests were mostly
Filipinos. The effort to secularize the parishes in a way
heightened the nationalist feeling Of the people.

152
 Some of the strong proponents of thc secularization
movement Of parishcs were Archbishop Gregorio Meliton
Martunez and Father Jose Burgos (both from the Archdiocese
of Manila).
In December 1870, Archbishop Martinez wrote to the
Spanish Regent advocating secularization and mentioned that
against Filipino priests would encourage
antiSpanish sentiments.
6. Cavite Mutiny of 1872. In 1868, a revolution led by the
liberals in Spain deposed Queen Isabella Il and gave rise to the
Provisional Republic of Spain. With the victory Of the Spanish
revolution, many colonial officials with democratic ideals were
sent to Mandar which included Governor General Carlos Maria
de la Torre in lt¼9.

153
 The republican government was overruled with the restoration of
monarchy. Amadeo, son of King Victor Emmanuel Il of Italy acceptnd
Ehc invitation to assume the Spanish Crown in December 1870. With
the alteration of the system of gov ernrnent in Spain, the political
atmosphere in the Philippines likewise changed.
When Rafael de Izquierdo replaced Governor de la Torre in
1871, he promptly discarded the liberal measures. The privilcgcs of
khe arsenal workcrg and cnginecr corps regarding exemption from
tribute and fnrced labor were also abolished.
As an expræssion of protest, on the night of January 20, 1872,
about 200 Filipino soldiers and dock workers in the ptavi_nce of
Cavite mutinied and killed their Spanish officers under the leadership
of Sergeant Lamadrid (others write La Madrid}. 'Ihe rebellion wag
quickly gupprcssed- Two after the mutiny, Lalnadrid was executed
together with 41 mutineers at Bagumbayan
The mutiny became an opportunity for the Spanish officials to
implicate the liberal critics of the government. The governor general
asserted that a secret faction existed in Manila to overthrow Spanish
rule, Accused of alleged conspiracy in the rebellion were Fathers
Mariano Gomez. Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora. They were
sentenced to death by garrote on February 17, 1872-
Some were thrown Inta jail while the rest were exiled to thc
Marianas Islands orl March 14, 1872. Among those who lefL nn
board the Flores de Maria were Father lose Mana Guevarra,
Father Pedro Dandan, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera,
Antonio Maria Regidor, Maximo Paterno, Jose Maria Basa,
Balbino Ivlanricio, and Pic Maria Basa-
The Spaniards succeeded in uniting the Filipinos in a colru-
non spirit to oppose colonial authority. ßctwccn 1872 and 1892,
national consciousness was growing among Filipinos who had
settled in Europe. The execution of GOM-BUR-ZA eventuallv
hastened the growth of Filipino nationalism.
The concept uf nationhood coincided with the development of
the conceptof Before, Filipinos would only refer to the españoìes
Later, it Included the mestizas de and the native elite who had
Hispanized themselves The propagandists tried to infuse the term

154
Filipino with national meaning, which later included the entire
people in the archipelago.

26. Propaganda Movement

Many Filipinos took refuge ili Europe and initiated in Spain a
crusade for refùrms in the Philippines. The emergence of more
Filipino ilustrados gave birth to a unified nationalist movcment-
This campaign was known in our history as thc Propaganda
Movement.
The aim of thc Propaganda Movement was peaceful
assimilalion, referring to the transition of lhe_ Philippines from
being a colony to a province cl Spain. The propagandists believed
that it would be better if the Filipinos would become Spanish
citizens, since they would be enjoying the same and privileges of the
latter adherents did not seek independence from Spain but reforms,
These reforms Were as follows: equality of Filipinos and
Spaniards before the laws; restoration of thc Philippinc
representation in the Spanish Cortes; secularization of
Philippine parishes and the expulsion of the friars: and human
rights for Filipinas. such as freedom of speech, freedom ot- the
press and freedom to meet and petition for of grievances,
Those who joined this peaceful campaign were the Filipino
exiles of 1872, the patriots who left the islands to escape
persecution, and those who had been to Spain for their studies-
Although not all of the were sons of wealthv
Filipinos, they were scions of good families. One cf the greatcst was
Marcelo dcl Pilar, a lawyer and journalist from the town of Bulacan.
His cldesE brother Toribio, a priest, was implicated in the Cavite
Mutiny and exiled. From then on. he jomed in duphthan and tìa!itan
or literary jousts during fiestas- Durmg a pint&kasi (cockfighting
day), he spoke out to the crnwd by satirizing corrupt officials and
friar5.
Del Pilar also sought to reach out to people through his pen
He wrote his anti-friar pamphlets tn simple yet Tagaiog. In 1882, he
helped estabh.sh the first bilingual (in Spanish and Tagalog)
 newspaper, the Diariong Tagglog. Hehccamc the editor of thc lhgatog
section.
Between 1887-1888. when anonymous manifestos against the
friars were distributed to the public, he released Oasalnn at rocsoh,an
(Pravers and, Mockeries), a manual Of anti-clerical commentary in the
format Of novena. He parodied the Praypr, Hail Mary, the Apostles'
Creed, the Commandments, the Act Of Contrition, and the catechism.
With these anticlerical protests, Del Pilar's stay in the became
dangerous. I lis house was burncd mysterioœsly. I le left the
Philippines in October 1888 to the prosaution of the friars.
Like Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena parodied religious
lileralure in his satires. in Iloilo, he saw the miserv of rural
cornrnunities and the abuses pervetrated by Civil and rcligious
authorities. He wrote Fray BOtOd or "Friar Potbelly" (circa
1874) wheœ he ridiculed a cleric named Frav Botod, who
arrived Ivoking like a hungry mosquito and soon became stout
because of the stocks laken from the people. Ek•causeof
anticlerical literature. he moved to Madrid where hejoined
Other Fili expatriatesintojoumatism.
Among those who had gone to Spain to study was Jose
Rwal, bom to a well-to-do family in Calamba. Laguna. In 1882.
he went to Spain and studied medicine at the Universidad
Central de Madrid. His prestige. was greatly enhanced by the
publication of his sociohistorical Me (Touch Me Not) in 1887.
The reflected the defects of the Spanish rule in the
Philippines, particularly the abuses Of the friars. The impact of
the story on the Spaniards in the Philippines was so intense, that
later the reading of il was forbidden in the country.
Rizal may have been the first Filipino political cartoonist- In his
sketchbook, he drew lampoons Of Chinese merchants and the cover
design for the included the hairy calf and the slipperrd foot ef a
Spanish friar.
Other great Filipino propagandist* were Pedrt) A. Paterno.
lawyer; Antonio Luna, pharmacist and essayist; Pedro Serrano
Laktaw, teacher-tutor Of Prince Alfonso de Bourbon (later
King Alfonso XIJI of Spain); and Isabelo de los Reyes,
156
folklorist and newspaperman. Juan Luna, known for his
monumental painting Spo}iarium and Felix Resurreccion
Hidalgo, acclaimed for his masterpiece Virgenes Cristianas
Expuesias al Popnlacho (Christian Virgins Exposed to the
Rabble), also joined the movement for reforms.
The Filipino propagandists were also supported by a number of-
Spanish friends. In 1882, Juan Atayde, a Spaniard born in Manila
fotx'ded the C.irculô Hispano-Fit#'ino. Unfortunately, the society did
not stav long due to shortage al funds and also becaltse of the lack Of
confidence Of the members in Atayde.
Professor Miguel Morayta, Rizal's professor at Central
University Of Madrid, tried to form the Asociucitn: Hispažt0-Filipino
in 1889. This association was concerned with instituting reforms in
the Phihppineg. The association lobbied successfully for the passage
of some laws which included the law pertaining to the compulsory
teaching Of Spanish and the laws providing reforms in the judiciary.
However, ulese laws Were not fully implemented considerlng thc ret-
um to power of the reactionary group in Spain.
Since the membership the association was composed
mostly Of Spaniards, it failed to secure the support Of many
Filipinos, including Dr. Jose Riza! and Antonio Luna. The
young Filipinos felt that the Spaniards and the creoles were too
moderate in dealing with their clamor for reforms.
Finally, the La Sotidariàad (Solidarity), a purely Filipino
organization was establishcd in Barcelona on December 31, 1888.
tock placeat a traditional New Year•s Evebanquet With
Galicano Apacible as prysident and Graciano Lopez Jaena as vice-
president. Rizal, who was in London during that time, was named
honorary president.
To make known the objectives of the Propaganda, GtacianD
Lopez Jaena founded a fortnightly newspaper, Soii,laiidQd in
Ban:elona on February 15, 1889. Marcelo del Pilat• œcently arrived
from the Philippines, He joined the group and helped prepare the

Solidaridad was prinled in Barcc)cna from Februan•• 15

to October 31, 1889. then in Madrid, where it was printed from
November 15. 1889 until its last on November 15, 1895. From
IS, 1889 until its last issue, MH. del Pilar became the
editor. replacing Lopez þena.
The contributors Of LA Solidariåad were mostly Filipinos like
del Pilat• Dr. Jose Rizal (Dimas Laong Inapt), Mariano Kalip"ako, or
Tigb'llans) and Antonio Luna (Taga-nog). Some foreigners also
contributed their articles, like Professor Ferdinand BlumentritE and
Dr. Morayta.

158
 Many Filipino propagandists turned masons, including Dr.
Rizal and M.H. del Pilar because they needed thc help of the
masons in Spain and Other countries in their fight for reforms.
This organization called Freemasonrv. consisted Of internal
lodges which later evolved into social Socleties subsequently
opened to non-

In the Philippines, the first masonic lodge was established

Manila in 1856. As a rule, masonic lodges, were not opened to

Filipinos. It was in Spain where Filipino expatriates, students and
intellectuals found themselves attracted 10 the ideals Of equality,
religious tolerance, fraternity and liberty espoused by the free and
accepted masons,
The first Filipino Masonic Lodge called Rervg\ucign was
founded by Lopez Jaena in Barcelona. This lodge was
recognized by the Grande Onental Español headed by Morayta
In April 1889. The Ret'O!ttCion did not long. It after Lopez
Jacna resigned as Worshipful Master on November 29, 1889.
The following month, M.H. del Pilar, with the help of Julio
Llorente, organized Lodge Soluaridoà in Madrid, with the latter
as the first Worsžùpful Master. Grande Oriente Espanol
recognized it in May 1890. Lodge Saliäaridaå eventually
prospered that other Filipinos joined it. including Dr. Rizal,
Pedro Serrano Laktaw, Baldomero Roxas, Galicano Apacible
and others.
Towards the end of 1891, M.H. dei Pilar sent Pedro
Serrano Laktaw to the Philippines to establish the first masonic
lodge in Manila. Thus the L'dge Nitad was founded Janua1Y 6,
1892. In one OE their meetings, the masons set forth their
platform, They wanted a dignified, free and pmsperous country
with a demtxratic regime and a genuine and effective autonomy.
and a good government. They were asking for reforms. They
wanted representation in the Cortes as well as the declara lion
Of the country with the rights and
obligations.

159
 As Of May 1893. the masonic in the country numbered
thirty-five, nine Of which were in the city Of Manila. They also
accepted women members. The first woman to be admitted was
Rosario Villaruel, who was initiated a member of the Lodge
on July 18, 1893. Other femalc members were Trinidad
Rizal, Romualda Lanuza, Josefa Rizal, Marina Dizon, Sixta
Fajardo, Valeriana legazpi, and Purification Lkyva.
Almost simultaneously with the In troductionOf masonry in the
Phihppineg, Rizal wrote the constitution of La lagn (The Philippine
League) while livmg in Hong Kong with the help of Jcse Ma. Basa.
In Hong Kong, Rizal drafted a proposal to Governor General
Eulogia Despujol to establish a Filipino colony in Sabah, Borneo, but
the latter refused. Ri7,al's scheme Was meant to help resolve the
plight Of ejected tenants from Calarnba, Laguna.
After in Manila on June 26, 1892, Rizal conferred With
Governor General Eulogio Despuiol to obtatn pardon for his family.
He met with some Tilipin• around the city. then took the train to
Malolos, Bulacan; San Fernando and Bacolcr. Pampanga; and Tarlac.
Ott the night OfJuly 3.1892, RiŽal founded Filipina the
residence Of Doroteo Ongjunco in llaya St., Tondu, Manila with
Ambrosio Salvador as President; Deodato Arellano, secretary;
Bonifacio Arevalo, b-easurer; and Agu#t-in dela Rosa, fiscal.
Among those present in the meeting were Pedro Laktaw
(Panday pt'ra), Domingo Franco (Fe!ipe Jose A. Ramos
(Socorro), Moiscs Salvador (Araw), Faustino (law), Numeriano
Ad riano (ipil). Apolinario Mabini (Kataþay), and Andres
Bonifacio (May Pag-asa).
t." Liga was to be a sort of mutual aid and self-help society,
dispensing scholarship funds and legal aid, loaning capital and setting
up cooperatives. The league'S motto [Inus (one like all) served as an
avowal Of their ideals. Based in constitutione the objectives of the
liga were: the unification of the whole archipelago into onc compact,
vigorous, and homogeneous body; protection in cases of want and
necessity; defense against violence and injustice; encouragcmcnt of
instruction, agriculture and commerce; and the studv and
Implementation Of

160
 The goals of fa .'_tga wcrC to bC carried out by the
Supreme Council. the Provinclal Council, and the Popular
Council. Each member Of the league had to pay ten centavos
monthly dues. The members ought to choose a symbolic name.
The members became quite active. for one, exertcd great effrms
to organize chapters in various districts in Manila. Riml himself
caused 'he circulation Of a handbill Ang Karapatan ng Tao printed in
both Tagalog and Spanish This•was his translation of the French
Declaratir-m of the Rights Of Of 1789.
This situation alarmed the Spanish au thorities- On July 6,
1892, Rizal was secretly arrested by order of Governor Despuiol
and subsequently imprisoned at Fort Santiago. The following
day, the goveznor general ordered the deportation of Rizal to
Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte as punishment for his allegedly
gubversive materials.

27. The Katipunan

Some of the members of the Liga Filipina found out that
pcaceful agitation for reforms was not enough. This time, they opted
for the country'* more than anything else. Andres Bonifacio was one
of them. He did not join the Los Compromisarios or Cuerpo de
Compromisarios led by Domingo Francn. This Eaction pledged to
continue supporting the Propaganda Movement in Spain,
The radical ones fed by Bonifacio believed that the welfare cf
the people could not be achieved bv requests for reforms but by an
armed revolution. Their goal was transformed from assimilation to
separation and then independence-
On the night of July 7, 1892. Bonifacio and his friends met
secretly at Deodato An?llano's housc at No. 72 Azcarraga Street (now
Claro M. Recto) near Eleano Street in •IOndo, Manila, They decided
to form a secret revolutionarv society, modeled in part on Masonic
Order called Kmwžstrusan Kagai'mg-gaÌangang ng mga Anak ng
Bayan (Highest and Respected Society of the Sons of the PeoçE,
otherwise known as K.K.K. or Katipunan, dedicated to national
independence through armed revolution.
The men, gathered around a flickering table lamp, signed their
membership papers with their own blood. It was agreed that the
members be recruited by means of the triangke methrxå in which an

161
original member would recruit two membet* who did not know each
other but onlv knew the original member who took them in. They
also decided during the meeting, the payment of an entrance fee of
one fuerte (twenty-fivc centavos) and a rnonth!y due of medio real
(about twelve centavos).
The triangle method wag abolished in December 1892 after it
was found out to he too cumbersome. New converts were initiated
into the secret society using rites borrowed from the masonry. The
neophyte was made to swear guard the secrets of the society.

162
 More than a æcret society, the Katipunan was a govemment
itself With a Constitution promulgated in 1892, and another
constitution replacing the first one in 1894. The central government
of the Katipunan was vested in a Sanggeuttan (Supreme
Council) with thc officials aforementioned.
In each province, there was a Sanxgtmiang (Provincial Council),
and in cach town, a Sanssuniang Ba/angay (Popular Council). The
judicial power resided in a secret chamber calied Sansguniang
Hukuutan (Judicial Council).
There were three grades of membership in the Katipunan.
The first grade called a katipun (associate), wore a black mask
at the Katipunan meetings. His password was Anak Bayatt
(Song Of the People). gradecalled kntval (soldier),
wore a green mask. His password was COM-BUR-ZA. The
third grade called hayani (patriot), Wore a red mask. His
password was Rizal, the honorary president of the Katipunan.
During the first election, the following officers of the Supreme
Council were chosen:
Deodato Arellano Pm-sident
Andres Bonifacio — Comptroller
Ladislac — Fiscal
Diwa
Teodoro Pla ta —
Secretary
Valentin Diar - Trcasurer
There wele also women members Of the Katipunan, but they
were not required to sign with their Own blood. To be admitted in the
women's section, one had to be a wife, daughter, or sister cf a
Katipuncro (ma)e member) to ensure thc secrecy of the movement.
Arnong the women members were Grescria de Jesus, Bonifacio•s
wife, who was called the Likarnbini of the Katipunan: Benita
Rodriguez, the wife of Katipunero Javier; and Josefa and Trinidad
Rizal, sisters of Dr. Jose rhe women guarded the secret papers
and documents Of the When the Katipunan held a meeting in
a certain house, they made it appear that a real social patty Was going
on. Likewise, they were also helping the society by recruiting more
members. The women 's chapter of the Katipunan was born durmg
the presidency of Roman Basa (second president) in July 1893. Josefa
Rizal Was elected President the women's chapter called LA
Bonifacio deposed Arellano as president in a meeting in
1893 because cf the latter's inaction. However, early in 1895,
Bonifacio realized that Roman Basa was as ineffective as
Deodato Arellano, that hecalled a meeting Of the society and
readily deposed Basa. Bonifacio himself was elected Supremo
(President).
With the Katipunan's organizational set-up, Bonifacio turned
his attention to the symbol of its authority. Upon his request, Benita
Rodriguez, with the help of Gregoria de Jesus, made a nag. which
consisted of a red rectangular piece of cloth with three white KS
arranged horizontally at the center. This was the first Official flag of
the society; however, some members had their flag with three KS
arranged in the form of a triangle. OthCJS had one K at the center of
the red flag. Some generak of thc revolution, likewise, adopted their
own designs.
Knowing the importance of a primer to teach the members
of the society its ideals, Emilo Jacinlc prepared one, which he
called Kayfilla, a word adopted from the Spanish cartiðh which
at that time meant a primer for grade school students (Former
President Rafael Palma. a revolutionary patriot. noted that
Apolinario Mabini wrote the original statutes of the Katipunan's
Xartit!a and Emilio Jacinto translated it into Tagalog for the
benefit Of the members of the KAtipunan.)
The Kartilla consisted Of thirteen teachings which the members
Of the society Were tn observe. The primer constituted the following:
Life which is not consecrated to a lofty and Sacred cause
is like a tree Without a shadow, if not a poisonous weedIl.
A good deed that springs from desire for persona] pråfit
and not from a desire to do good is not kindness.
Ill. True greatness consists intž•ing charitable, in loving one•s
fellowmen and in adjusting every movement, deed and
word to true Reason.
164
IV. All men equal, be the color of their skin black or white.
One may be superior to another in knowledge, wealth
and beauty, but cannot be superior in being.
V. He who is noble prefers honor to gains; he who is mean
prefexs personal profit to honor
VI. To a man with a sense of shame, his word is inviolate.
Vll. Donat fritter away time; lost riches
recovered. but time lost will never come
again.
Vlll. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
An intelligent man is he who is cautious in speech and
knows how to keep the secrets that must be

X. In the thorny path of life, man is the guide Of his

wife and children; if he who guides moves toward evil,
they who are guided likewise move toward evil.
Think not of woman as a thing merely to while away
time with, but as a hclpcr and partner in the hardships
Of life. Respect her in her weakness, and remember
the mother who brought you into this world and who
cared for you in your childhood.
Xlt. What do not want done in your wife, daughter and
sister, do not dc to the wife, daughter and sister Of
another.
Xlll. The nobility of a man does not in being a kinþ nor
In thc highness of the nose and the whiteness of
the Skin. nor In being a priest representing God,
nor in the exalted pasihon on this earth, but pure
and ruly noble is he who, though born in the
woods, is possessed of an upright character; who
is true to hig word; who has dignitv and honor;
who does not oppress and does not help those who
oppress; who knows how In look after and love
the land Of his birth, When these doctrines spread
165
 and the Sun of beloved liberty shines with brilliant
effulgence on these unhappy isles and sheds its
soft rays upon the united people and brothers
everlasting happiness, the lives. labors, and
sufferings Of those who are gone Shall be more
than recompensed. (Teodoro Agoncillo,
Hist07Y Of the Filipino people, Quezon City: Malaya
Books, 1970, p. 181.)
Bunifacio wrote a decalogue or tCn commandments titled
Kgtungkll.'ang mga Anak ng Bayan (Duties to be
Observed by the Sons of the Country) ta lay down the ;uidelineg
for good citizenship. This document in manuscript farin still
exists. "Ille rules include love of God, love of country and one's
fellowmcn; diligence in work; Sharing cf one's means with the
poor; punishment Of scou ndrels and traitors; and the guarding
of the mandates and aims of the K.K.K.
Another step taken by the Ka tipunan to propagate its
teachings was the establishment Of a printing press. In 1894, the
Katipunan bought an old handpress with the money donated by
two patriotic Filipinos fmrn Vigayas — Francisco del Castillo
and C.and-ido Iban. These two Kalipu neros, who came back
from Australia in 189.3, had one thousand pesos between them
for having won in the lotlerv. The types used in printing were
Yom Isabelo de IOS Reyea and many were stolen from the press
of the Diario de Manila (Manila Daily) by Filipino employees
who were members of the Kattpuna_n. Under Emilio Jacinto•s
supervision, two patriotic printers, Faustino Duque and Lllpiano
Fernandez, printed the the organ of the Katipunan, to
disseminate the ideals of the societN. had its first and
only ússue in January 1896, which carried a false masthead
stating that it was being printed Yokohama with Marcelo Il. del
Pilar as editor. This was to deceive the Spanish a ulhoritieš and
evade arrest.
Published in the Kalayaan was an essay titled "Ans Dapat
mga (What the Filipir•.es Shou Know) to Bonifacio. This
166
dealt with the three questions asked Of Katipunan applicants:
were the conditions in ,the Philippines before Spanish conquest?
What is the condition Of thc country todav? What will the
Philippines he tomorrow?"
Copies Of the Kalavaažt reached members and possible recruits
through the efforts of Macarie Sa kay and Pio del Pilar as distributors.
The Katipuneros were tirelessly recruiting members in Nueva Ecija,
Bulacan, and Cavitc- The society brew and began to spread into the
non-Tagalog provinces. By August 1896, there were thousands Of
Katipunar, members in the arrabates of Manila and some 18,0X) in
Other towns.
During the Holy Week of 1895, Bonifacio and some Ka
tipuncros went to the mountains Of Montalban in search of a good
hideout where they could hold their secret meetings. On April 10,
1895, BonifaciO and his companions including Emilio Jacinto,

Jav ier and Citillcrmo Masangkay entered the Parr-utinan Cave

(Cave of Bernardo Carpio) on Mount Tapusi i" the mountain
ranges Of San Mateo and Montalban. There they held a secret
scesion leading to the initiation rites of new recruits. After the
session, Aurelio Tolentino picked up a piece of charcoal and
wrote on the cave wall in Spanish, "Viva la Independencia
Filipina!'
In the early part of 1895, Bonifacio became the Supremo
(head of the Council). He also occupied this position in the
Fourth and fifth elections ot the Supreme Council, December
1895 and August 1896 respectively.
On June 15, 1896, Dr. Pio Valenzuela, acting as
BoniFacio's sailed for Dapitan to get Rizal's support for
the armed revolution. To cnver his real mission from Spanish
authorities, hc brought with him a blind mart named Raymundo
Mata, who wag [r, need of Dr- Rizal's medical services. Rizal
did not agree to the Katipunan's plans of an armed uprising since
the people wete not ready for it.

28. The Revolution of 1896

167
 By the middle of 1896, as (he Katipunan was busy preparing for
a revolution, hints about its existence reached the Spanish authorities-
On July 5, 1395, Manuel Sityar, the Spanish lieutenant of the Civil
Guards stationed at Pasiþ reported the questionable activities of some
Filipinos.
August 13, 1896, Father Agustin Fernandez,
Augustinian curate of San Pedro, Makati, wrote to Don Manuel
Lucngo, the civil governor of Manila, about the evening
gatherings in his parish, appatultly by men plotting against [he
Spaniards.
The Kalipunan was discovered on August 19. Teodoro
Patiño, a member of the Katipuran betrayed the secæcy of it to Father
Mariano Gil, an Augustinian parish curate. On the basis of Patiño's
information, the Spanish authorities acted immediately.
The Spanish cazadores (civil guards) began making
hundreds of arrests. Many of them died of suffocation while
detained at the overcrowded Fort Santiago. Two Katipuneros
acting as spies for the governor of Manila told Bonifacio about
the discovery.
OnAugust 21-22, Bonifacic called for a meeting at the house of
Vidal Acab, then to the residence of Apolonio Samson in Kangkong.
Caloocan to issue the can to arms. Emilio Jacinto summoned the

168
heads of Katipunan Councils to Kangkong to dLscuss their measures
against the Spanish forces.
The next day. August 23, Bonifacio. Jacinto and Other
Katipuneros met at Bahay Tom, Pugadlawin, Balintawak. north
Of Manila and gathered at the residence of Melchora Aquino,
known as 'fandang Sora.
In thc mass meeting held in the yard of son of Melchora
Aquino, the Katipuneros tore their cedulas personates
the symbol of the Filipino vassalage to Spain at the same tirne
Shouting, "Long live the Philippines' Long live the Katipunan!
This event is recorded in histoty as the Cry cf Pugadlawin 0t Cry
Of Balintawak, which proclaimed their defiance to the Spanish
government.
At Hagdang Bata, Mandaluyong, Bonifac10 gave his last
manifesto Katipunang Mararahas ng Anak ng (F«iety of
Enraged Sons of the Country) regarding the revolution that
would take place in Manila.
Bonifacio led his army to attack the polverin (powder
depot) iri San Juan at the dawn of-Sunday August 30, 1896. This
is now known as the Battle of Pinaglabanan. The Spaniards
oulnumbcrcd the revolutionaries who were not ful)y armed. Due
tv heavy casualties, Bonifacio and his surviving men forced to
retreat to Balara
A dav earlier, August 29, Melchora Aquino, was arrested
by the Guardia Civil at Pas-ong Putik, Novaliches, and jailed
at Biliôid (prison) for givLng aid to the Katipuncros.
the afternoon of August 30, Governor General Ramon
Blanco, in t1Ying to quell the Philippine Revolution, issued a
declaring a Manila and seven Luzonpmvžnces
Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan. Pampanga, Nueva Edja, and Tartac
and placed them under martial law. The decree also provided
thal Who would surrender within 48 hours after the publication
of the decree would be pardoned except the leaders of the
Katipunan.
 Taking advantage of the amnesty provision, some Katipuneros
surrendered like Valenzuela. However, the Spanish authorities only
subjected them to torture to make them squeal matters about the
revolution.
After the San Juan del Monte Battle, BonifaciO, Jacinto,
and other leaders like Macario Sakay, Apolonio Sam-san,
Faustino Guillermo and General Lucino (alias Pavat) set up
camp in the hills near Mariquina (now Marikina), San Mateo.
and Montalban. More Filipinos joined them.
Series of executions by the governmcnt began after the
proclamation of a state Of war. Blanco inaugurated a reign Of terror
in the belief that this would stop the rebellion. On Sä)tetnber4, four
members Of the Katipunan were executed at Bagurnbayan, On
September 12, thirteen were put to death at Plaza de Armas. near the
Fort of San Felipe in Cavite and aœ now remembered as "Los Trece
Martires" (The Thirteen Martyrs ofCavite). •lhcywerp Maximo
Inocencio. Luis Aguado, Victoriana Luciano, Hugo Perez, Jose
Lallana, Antonio San Agustin, Agapito _Conchu. Feliciano
Cabuco, Maximo Gregorio, Eugenio Cabezas, Severino
Lapidario, Alfonso de Ocarnpo, and Francisco Osorio.
On September 16, twenty-two prominent residents of
Manila were imprisoned at Fort Santiago for alleged
involvement in the insurrection. Among them were 'lëlesforo
Chuídian, Ambrosio Salvador, Rianzares Bautista, Juan Luna,
Antonio Luna, and Mariano Llmjap.
The following month. around 150 rilipino citizens Were loaded
on S.S. Manila bound for Cartagena, Spain. From there, they weæ
taken to Fernando PO in Africa to as exiles for their alleged
involvement in the rrÑ211ion.
Meanwhile, Rizal was arrested while cn his way to Cuba to serve
as a doctor for the Spanish army. On November 20, Dr, Jose Rizal
appeared before Colonel Francisco Garcia Olive to answer the
charges filed against him. By Decembcr 26, the litigation Of RizalV
took place before a military court. Two days after, Governor Carrn]o
approved thc vcrdict, Convicted ofsedition, rebellion, and
illicit associations, Ri7al was executed by a firing Squad at Bag
umbayan Field (now Luneta) on December 30, 1896, at 7:03 a.m.
170
Eight Filipino soldiers, with eight Spanish soldiers behind them
carried out the execution.
Such inèidents inv olving detcntion, deporta tion, and execution
only made the Filipinos more unrelenting to the Spanish govcmment.
The more they became determined to continue the struggle.
The Katipuneros in Cavite rose arms on August 31, 1896.
They assaulted the tribunal (municipal building) of San
Francisco de Malabon. At Cavite el Viejo (now Kawit), thc
Magdalo troops led bV Candido Tria Tirona attacked [he enemy
garrison. The uagdiwang forces on the other hard, pounded the
Spaniards in Noveleta.
In the morning of September 5, Emilio Aguinaldo and his
men •stailed the Spanish troops stationed at Imus under the
command Of General Eusebio Aguirre. In this battle, the
Spaniards lost hundreds Of men and sixty guns with
ammunition, From that time on, the Cavitcños recognized
Aguinaldo as a man of distinguished valor and called him
Henertd Miong, no longer Capitan Miotrg.
Spanish regular were tremendously defeated at the twin
battles of Binakayan and Dalahican in Cavite, fought on
November 9-11. Both Magdiwang and Magdalo forces in their
respective trenches built by General Edilberto Evangelista (an
engineer traincd in Belgium) fought furiously against the
Spanish army under (he personal command of Governor General
Blanco. Unfertunately, C.andido Tria Tirona, the secretary Of
war in the Magdalc Council died in the Battle Of Binakayan.
The citizens of Taal, Lemery, Calaca, and Bavungyunsan in
Batangas also joined the revolution at the end of (Xtober 1896.
However, they were dispersed after the Spanishgarn-son in Taal came
to the aid of the besieged towns.
At the outbreak of the revolution, the number of
grew. On December 4, 1896, the Katipunan members Of
Balangay Dirnasa]ang me! at Bigaa (now Ba lagtas) in the
province Of Bulacan. They wanted to reintorce their operation
against the Spaniards and to conduct an election or officials
171
under their newly founded Kakarong Republic. Led by General
Eusebio Roque known as Sebio and Dimaþungo),
Canuto Villanueva, and Casimiro Galvez, around 6,000 men and
women enlistcd themselves as members.
The Spanish government had already known the existence of the
Katipunan at Kakarong Real k.a. Kakarong de Si.li) because of the
armed resistance it had begun against them since August Of 18%.
On January 1, 1897. the government troops under General
Olaguer-FeEu rushed to the fortifications Of Kakarung and
launched a massive assault against the people, including
civilians. The
Rvcltltionaries, caught by surprise, resisted With femcious courage
but they were overwhelmed by the Superior armaments of the enemy
Around 1,100 WCrc killed. The government forces captured six
fortified positions, seven cannons, a cartridge factorv and a large
number Of firearms.
Maest-rrong Sebio managed to escape his perseculnrs al
first. Tendays later, he was and arrested at Bunga Mayor, Bustos.
On January at 5:00 in the aftcrnnon, Maestrong Sebio was
executed.
With the objective cf ending thc revolution, Governor Polavieja
launched an all-out offensive on Februar•,• 15, 1897 In Cavite. On
February 17, a Spanish sniper killed General Evangelista in the Battle
Of Zapote. Two days later. General Lachambre Of the Spanish forces
captured the town of SiJang. General Aguinaldo aided by Generals
Vito Belarmino and Artem10 Ricarte, mounted a counterofferusive,
but failed to get Silang back.
On Februarv 25, 1897, the town of Dasmariñas, Cavile, was
taken by the Spanish troops led by General Antonio Zabala who
also attacked Salittan (barrio of Dasmariñas) which was
defended bv General Flaviano Ycngko. Yengko Was mortalty
wounded in action and died on March 3, 1897 at IrnusMilitary
Hospital. Yengko was the youngest general of the Philippine
revolution, being younger than General Gregorio del Pilat• by
one year, 2 months and 7 days. In the bloody battle of Salitran,
General Zabata was killed by Yengko's troops.
172
 On May 17 Of the same year, the Katipuneros led bv Francisco
del Castillo attacked Spanish garrison In Aklan. Unfortunately, the
leader died in action, His men decided 10 retreat into the mountains,
The amnesty offer of government lured twenty Katipuneros to
accept it. Not true to its promise, the govemtnent killed ninctccn Of
them. The martyrs of Anan were Ramon Aguirrc, Benito Iban,
Maximo Mationg, Tomas Briones, Candido Iban, Simplicio Reyes,
Domingo dela Cruz. Simeon InocenciO, CanutO ±Qgov1a, Valeriano
Dalida. Isidro Jimenez, Gabino Sucgang. Clan.' Delgado. Catalino
Mangat, Angelo Fernandez, Gabino Yorisal, Francisco Villorenle.
Lamberto Mangat, and Valeriano Masinda.
29. Rivalry in the Katipunan
In Cavite. there were two kafipttnan councils — the
Magdalo Council, headed by Baldomero Aguinaldo (Emilio
Aguinaldo's cousin), and the Magdiwang Council with Mariano
Alvarez (uncle Of Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio•s wife) as
president
The capital of Magdiwang Council was Noveleta, then later
transferred to San Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias),
The Other towns under its jurisdiction were Rosario, Tanza,
Naic, Ternate, Maragondcn, Magallanes, Bailen, Alfonso.
Indang, and San Roque. The MagdaloCouncilhad its capital in
It-nus. The other towns under Its jurisdiction were Kawit,
Dasmariñas, Süang, Amadeo, Mendez, N Baccor, and Carmen.
Emilio Aguinaldo first gained populAYity after he had a
serveant Of the Guardia Civil in a Single combat. He even
became more renowned after his successful uprising in Kawit
(his hometown), then in the Battle of Imus and Ln the early part
of November 1896, he liberated the town Of Talisay, Batangas,
ftOm the Spanish soldiers.
Upon invitation Of the Magdiwang Provincial in Cavite.
Bonifacio left his hideout in Morons. On December 1, 1396, he
and his wife. together with his two brothers (Ciriaco and
procopio). General Lucino twenty soldiers arrived in Cavite.

173
 The Magdalo Council hosted a generalassemhly of both

Irnus on December 31, a day after Rizars execution. Bonifacio

conducted the meeting, Among the issues discussed were the
establishment of á revolutionary government under the new
elected officials and uniting the Magdiwang and Magdalo forces
under a Single command. The Magdalo faction believed that
with the outbreak of revolution, the Katipunan had ceased to be
a secret society and therefore should be replaced by a new one.
The Magdiwangs insisted that there was no need to create
a revolutionary government the Kltipunan was actually
government with a corstitution and bylaws recognized by
everyone. General FdilERrto Evangelista tried to reconcile the
two groups by drafting a constitution establishing the Philippine
Republic. This constitution was reportedly discused in thc
assembly. Due to heated d ebates arising from the issues, the
assembly accomplished nothing d eíin ite. Its proceedings ended
with the arrival ofJosephine Bracken
(Dr. Jose Rizal's widow), accompanied by Pariano Riza]. Thev later

agreed to reschedule the 'Dint assemblv at a different place.

The Second Convention of these two Katipunan factions was
held on March 22, 1897 at Tejerns, San Francisco de Malabon,
CaviteThe two factions met at an estate-house of the friars, which the
rebels had cùplured eartíer_ Majority of those who attended were the
Magdiwangs. General Aguinaldo and other Magdalo officials were
absent because they were defending the Magdalo towns at that time.
The session started at about two o'clock in the afternoon was
presided by Jacinto Lumbœras, a Magdäwang. Severino
Alas, a Magdiwang. suggested that the convention
assembled resolve whether there should be 3 new govern:nent to
teplace the Katipu_nan. L LLmbzpras called for a recess after this
issue led to another heated discussion-
As it turned out, the convention upheld the views of the Magda]o
Council. The majority wanted a new revolutionary government. This
resulted to the election of new officials. Bonifacio pœsided over the

174
election. Before thc casting or had taken platæ, Bonifacio reminded
that whoever should get elected in any position should bc respcctcd.
Elected were as follows:
President Emilio Aguinaldo
Vice-Pregident Mariano Trias

Captain-General Artemio Ricarte

Dimctor {If War RmiEano Riego
deDios
Director Of the Interior-- Andrcs Bomfacio
Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo, protested Bonifacio's election saying
that his position should be occupied by a lawyer. He suggested a
Caviteñn lawyer, Jose del Rosario, for the posl. Banifacic felt
insulted. He demanded Tirona to retracl what he had said- But Tirona.
instead of offering an apology, tried to leave the scene This infuriated
Bonifacio and made him drew his revolver to shoot Tirana, but
Ricartp and others intervened. The people began to leave thc hall.
Bonifacio angrily declared the e)ecäon null and void and left the
assembly room with his bodyguards.
From Pasong Santol, a barrio of Dasmarihas, Aguinaldo
went to Tejeros as informed by a special committcc headed by
Co] Vicente Riegc dc Dios. Being the new president, he had to
take his oath. He was sworn into office inside the Catholic
Church of Santa Cruz Malabon Oanza) together with other
newly elected offRials.
A day after the Tejeros A March 23, Bonifacio gathered hig
followers and dra ftecl a document called Acta dc Tejeros, signed by
Bonifacio and 44 Other plotters.
This document rejected the zevolutionary government of
Agui naldo an the following grounds: first, the Tejeros
Assembly lacks legality; second, theœ was a Magdalo
conspiracy to oust BonifaciO from leadership; thud, the electiçn
Of Officials was fraudulent; and fourth, that actual pressure has
been brought upon the presidency.
Another secret meeting was held on April 19, 1897 at the
friar estate house in Naic. Böñiíacio and his coconspirators drew
175
up another document called the Naic Military Pact, signed by 41
men, including Bonifacio, Ricarte, Pio del Pilar. and Severinc de
las Alas. An army corps under the Command of General Pio del
Filar cma ted.
While Bonifacio and his companions were busy conferring.
Major Lazaro Makaragal Who was held prisoner downstairs
managed to and informed Aguina)do, who was in bed suffering
malaria. about the recent developments. Agumaldo rose from his
sickbed and went to the friar-estate house to confront his
conspirators.
See:ng that Aguinaldo's soldiers had already surrounded
the estate house, Bonifacio and his Magdiwang followers lcft
hu=iedly except General Pio del Pilar and General Mariano
Noriel who subsequently joined Aguinaldo's tmop*,
President Aguinaldc convoked a revolutionary assembly in
Naic- The following matters were taken up: adoption cf a new red flag
with whitesun of eight rays at the center, a standard uniform for the
soldier* the rayadi!fo and a set of new rules fixing military ranks and
their insignias; and, the reorganization Of the revolutionary army.
Bonifacio. with his wife Gregoria, his brothers (Ciriaco and
Procopia) and loyal followers fled to Limb-on (barrio of
Indang). Upon laming of Bonifacio's presence at Limbon and the
alleged crimes comm illed by his soldiers in Jndang, Aguinaldo
summoned Colonels Auapito Banzcn, Fel:pe Topacio, and 'osc
Ignacio Paua to go to Limbon with some troops and arrest
Bonifacio and his men. Bonifacio furiousky resisted.
Cir-iaco Boni(acio and two soldiers were killed. while
Bonilacio himself was wounded the left and neck. Bonifacia (in
a hammock), Gregoria, and the surviving Bonifacio soldiers
were taken prisoners and brought 10 Naic.
The of the Bonifacio brothers evolved quite rapidly after a
Ceuncll Of War headed by General Mariano Noriet Was created. The
trial begun on May 3, with Placido Martinez as defense attorney for
Bonifacio and Teodoro Gonzalez for Procopio. Tragically, the
Bonifacio brothers were given the penalty vfdeath the next day. The

176
charges were treason, conspiracy to assassinate President AguinaJdo,
and bribery.
del Pilar testified in the trial of Bonifacio saying that the
13tter had forcing officers to join him. As for *verino de
Alas. it was he who made the false charges that the friars bribed
Bonifacio to establish the Katipunan and made the Filipinos into
fighting a war for which they were poorly armed. also said that
Bonifacio ordered the burning Of the convent and church Of
Indang and that his soldiers had taken by force from the people,
carabaos and other animals. HC also accused Bonifacio and his
men that they were planning to the Spaniards.
Lieutenant Cöh3nel Pedro Giron, turning as state witness,
told the Council that BoniÍaeio gave him an initial payment of
ten pesos to assassinate Aguin¿ldo but he refused to follow the
order.
On May 10, 1897, General Nonet ordered Major Lazaro
Makapagal to release the Bonifaeio brothers from prison. He gave
Makapagal a œaled letter With örders 10 read its after their
destination.
Makapagal took four mcn with him and opened the Yeller
upon Of The teller Ordered the execution Of Andres and his
bmther Procopio. Included in the Icttcr was a warning that
failure to comply w ith the order would result to severe
punishment. Makapagal followed the order and executed them
at Mount Nagpatong, Maragondcn (according to the National
Historical Institlltc). placed a few twigs on the
shallow grave of the two brothers.
On the same day, the Spanish army attacked Maragondon.
Upon Makapagal's return. he found the Filipinos On May 12, after
two days of defcndinË the town. Aguinaldo and his men were
cxynpelled to leave. 'They crossed the mountains to Batangas
and aided General Miguel Malvar in a fight against the
Spaniards in Talisay. On June IC, thev croscd the Pasig River
and bivouacked at Mount puray. Mcntalban. Two davs later, the

177
Morong freedom fighters under General Licerio Geronima
arrived and joined them.
Tired Ofsuccess:ve combats, Ckneral Cami]o de Polavteja
asked for his relicf as governor general. His request wag given
on April 15, 1897, with ftrnando Primo de Rivera succeeding his
post on April 23.
Governor General Rivera a decree granting pardon to rebels
who wouid give up their and surrender until May T7. Most
FilipinŒ si_rnply ignomå this decree- Thereafter. the governor
general launched a campaign against thc rebels. forcing
Aguinaldo and hgs forces to scek refuge in Batangas.
On June 14, the Spanish troops led by Colonel Duiiols
attacked the rebel camp at Mount puny. Aguinaldo and his men
resistedAfter six hours of bloody fighting, they won over the
Spaniards.
After the Battle of Mount Puray, President Aguinaldo
the Department of Central Luzon under the jurisdiction Of the
revolutionary government. The Department Government was headed
by Father Pedro canonist of the Manila Cathedral as President with
Dr. Anastacio Francisco, Vice-President; Paciano Rizal, Secretary of
the Treasury; Cipriano Pacheco. Of War; Teodoro Gonules, Secretary
of the Interior; and Feliciano 'OCSOn as Secretary of Welfare.

30. The Biak-na-Bato Republic

President ETnilio Aeuinaldc and his men headed for
Bulacan. Finally on June 24, 1897, they arrived at Biak-na-Bat0.
San Miguel de Mayumo. From this area. Againaldo and hÉ men
joined the troops of General Mariano Llanera Of Nueva Ecija in
assaulting Spaniards stationed in the Central Luzon provinces.
With the corning of the rainy season, Primo dc Rivera's
offensive at tacks temporarily ceased.
On November 1, the revolutionary leaders met and adopted a
constitution titled the Constitution r/ the Philippine Republic. It was
intended to be effective for two years. It declared that the aim of the

178
revolution was the separation of the Philippines from Spanish
monarchy and the formation of an independent state. Isabelo

179
and Felix Ferrer Wrote th e provisional constitution, which was based
on (he Cuþan Constitution knon•n as Jicnaguayu Constitution.
On the same dav, the Biak-na.Bat0 Republic was also
inaugurated and the offitäals were: Emilio Aguinaldo, Presidcnl;
Mariano Trias, Vice-President; Isabelo Artacho, Secretary of lhe
Interior; Antonio Montcnegro, Secretary Of Foreign Affairs;
Baldomero Aguinaldo, of the Treasury; and Emiliano Riego dc
Dios. Secretary of War,
'Ihe struggle between the Spanish government and the Biakna-
Bato Republichad reached a deadlock. Governor General Primo de
Rivera sent Pedro Paterno to Biak-na-BaEñ (or peaccfLtl negotiations
Wilh the revolutionaries, which began in August and concluded in
December.
This agreement known as the Pact of Biak no-Bato, lesulted
to the voluntary exile of Aguinaldo and his mcn to Hong Kong. 'l
his pact ccresi5ted of three documents, The first twc were signed
on Decernher 14, and the third On December 15, 1897.
•lhe first document, called Program, provided that Governor
Primo de Rivera would pay 800,000 pesos to those wh o mse In arms
and would tet Aguinaldo and his men to retire in voluntary exite to
Hong Kong. The- second dckumenl called Act ofAgreement, æitcralcd
the granting oí arune5ty to those who would lay down their at'ln:s and
the privilege to move frrel\.• in the Philippines and abroad.
The third document discussed the question of indemnitv,
whereu-l Spain would pay a total of pesos, of •which 800000
pesos was to be paid to those who would lay down their arms as
mentioned in the first document- remaining pest* was be
distributed among the civilian population as indem-nity for the
damages created by the war,
On 25, 1897, Agunnaldo with Pedro Paterno and
ethers went 10 Lingayen, Pangasinan, from Where a Spanish
steamer was to take them to Hong Kang. Two days after,
Aguinaldo and 25 other leaders saned for Hong Kong on board
the steamer uran "5, in compliance with the pact. General
Artemio Ricarte st ayecE behind a t Blak-na-Bat0 supervise [he
surrender of arms by the revolu
The Sparush governinent announced the end of hostilities on
January 18%. It proçlålrned amnesty two days later; and it gave
part Of the promi*d monev to the rebels in Hong Kong. However,
after the peace pact, neither side fully complied with Lhe terms Of the
agreement- The government never ins tituted the expected reforms
Likewisc, the continued their plan to overthrow thc government.
There were sporadic uprismgs in different parts nf thc country.
On March 7, 1898. the revolutionaries in Zambales besieged the
cables:ation at Bolinao and seized the telegraph line connected to
Manila. On March 25, Federico 15dbelo Abaya and h1S men were able
to get Candon. Ilocos Sur. from the Spaniards.
Pantaleon Villegas, popularly known as Kilat incited a revolt
in Cebu known as Tres de in rétaliahon Of the March 23 incident
when the Spaniards massacred many Visayan sailors at Camba
Street. Manila.
In Central Luzon, General Francisco Makabalos of Tarlac
established a provincial revolutionary government with a
constitution written by him. The Makabulos Constitution adopted
on April 17, 1898, set up this provisional government Central
Luzon to continue in force until a general government for the
Republic was established.
In Malolos, Gen.2ral Isidoro Torres established his camp to
continue the revolutionary spirit. Revolts were also experienced in
BohoL Cebu, Panay, and Other islands in the country. Feliciano
Jocson. a pharmacist, incited the in Manila to continue the fight àgainst
the Spaniards.
Aguinaldó and hig officers went into exilc but did not end the
fight to win independence from Spain. a Jeller written in Hong Kong
dated February 19, 1898, Mariano Ponce stated that General
AgttinaldO had the Pact Of Biak-tiå-Bato because its terms, the
Filipino revolutionists could rest and regain their lost Strength and then
return to Combat with renewed Vigor.

31. The Spanish-Arnerican War (1898)

181
 The Spanish-Amerieail war which broke out Aprd 25, 1898,
ended on August 12 Of the same year. There were factors that
contributed to the United States' decision to open hostilities
against Spain. These included ihe Cuban struggle for
independence, efforts of the Americans ta extend influence
overseas, and the sinking of the US, warship Maine.
Like the Filipinos. the Cubans Were figh\ing
obtain their independence. Under the leadership of Jose Marti, the
Cubans revolted 1895, The Cuban rebek rejected Spain's Offer of
autonomy, instead of complete independence, The brutalities
committed by the Spanish govemment in Cuba such as rounding
up of peasant population and placing them in concentration
camps were made '0 suppress local rebellion. Thousands died due
to illnesses and limited food prv•isions. Such cruelties infuriated
thc American public.
The New York and the New York World were among the
American newspapers whith published the stories about the
alleged at-rocines committed by the Spanish government in
Cuba. 'They called for the L S. government to intervene on the
side of
This idea won widespread support among American citizens and
politicians. This gave to the belief of Manifest Destinv, where the
Lnited States has the divinely ordained duty to help troubled
Countries.
America' s open support for the Cuban rev ott.tion and her
vast investments in Cuba's sugar indust:y led her involvement in
this Spanish Spain could not oppose the United States, a rising
powerful nation, in the face Of the Cuban Revolution.
letter of Spam's Ambassador to the United States (Dupuy de
Lorne) 10 a friend in Cuba, Wag Stolen and published in a New York
periodxal. It stated that US President William McKinley was a
weaklúng and a low politician, This created a national feeling among
the Amcricans to support the war against Spam.
The replacement of the Spanish ambassador could not, however,
relieve the aggrieved American populace. The provocation was heated

182
up after the mysterious blowmg up Of the US. battleship Maine in
Havana, Cuba, which was sent by the US, consul general in the city to
protect American Citizens and property This incident hapFtted On the
night Of February 1.8, 1898. It reportedlv resulted in the death of 266
officers and men. (In 1976, based on U.S. Navy Study, the findings
suggested that the explosion could have been caused by spontaneous
combustion m the ship's coalbunkers.)
The American authorities viewed the assault in Havana as
an act of treachery US newspapers b2arned Spain for the
tragedy and evoked American sympathy with this
"Remember the Maw'.
On April 19, the U.S. Congress passed several resolutions
demanding the pull out of Spanish forces in Cuba. To
saveherhonor. Spain declarcd war against the United States on
April 24. The next day, the U.S. Congress declared war on Spain
and thus the SpanishAmerican war began.
Past noon ofApril 25, George Dewey, commander of
the Asiatic Squadron received a cable from the Secretary of Navy
stating that War has commenced between the United States and Spaül.
Dewey was instructed tv proceed against the Spanish fleet anchored in
Manila Bay.
An often-debated question in the US. during those times
was whv a US, naval squadrnn should be sent to the Philippines
Ln order to end Spanish rule in Cuba. This has been to the
growing spirit of American imperialism induced by supporters
of 'Manifest Destiny, which like manner encountered opposition
in the United States,
The conclusion of the Spanish-American war, which resulted to
the victory Of the Americans, paved the way to the end Of the
Spanish colonial rule and the rise of the United States as a global

32. Filipino-American Collaboration

At the time of the Spanish-American war, General Emilio
Aguinaldo was in Singapore where he had negotiations with the

183
 American consul general, Mr- E. Spencer Pratt, regardin$ t: te
Americans' Offer to support the Philippines in fighting t_hc
Spaniards. The United States would then recognize Philippine
independence after the defeat of Spain. Pratt advised Aguinaldo
to meet with Commodore Ikwey who was then based in Hong
Kong, if he were to j01.n the latter should he sail for the
Philippines.
General Aguinaldo rushed to Hong Kong but missed Commodore
rx•wey who had already sailed to Manila tc destroy the Spanish fleet.
Dewey procceded at once to Manila with his consisting Of four
armcned cruises Olympia, Baltimore, Bost'n and Raleigh and two
gunboats — Concord and Petrel.
The Battle of Manila Hay on May 1898 at 5:40 a.m. and
ended al noon. Admiral Patricio Montojo of the Spanish forces
incurred heavy casualties with 160 Of his men killed and 210
wounded. The Spanish forces consisting of twelve ships,
including the flagship Rema Castižla were subdued. The U.S.
naval squadron had nu fatal casualHcs. None Of the ships was
heavily damaged.
This battle madc Dewey an instant hero. The Congress
promoted him to rear admiral md later admiral. However, the E.S.
naval squadron could not attempt to occupy Manila in the absence
of ground troops, which did not arrive until about three months
later.
On news Of Dewey's victoxy, ships from Britain, France,
Japan and Germany began to arrive in the Manila Bay area_ They
had recently obtamed concessions from China for naval bases and
designated commercial spheres Of interest. At that time,
Germany had sent her warships ta protect the Of her nationals in
the

The German fleet of eight warships led by Admiral Von Diedrichs

was especially aggressive- The fleet acted provocatively by cutting in
front of American ships. They supplied the city with flour and other
products. ignoring the American economic blockade on the Spaniards
in the city. 'This angered Dewey. He 'ænt an ultimatum to Von
184
Diednc_hs to stop it or else fight. Captain Edward Chichester of the
Enelish fleet came a:) support Dewey Von Diedrlchs, fearing to risk
battle with the combined Anglo-American fleets, ended his hostile
activities.
Upon the advice of the I long Kong junta, General
Aguinaldo left on board the NkCu110ch (others say
McCullough', Dcwey's dispatch vessel, and arrived in Cavite on
May 19, 1898. He reassumed conurtand of rebel forces. His first
act upon his return was his proclamation on May 2r, urging the
people to rise in and join the Americans a common struggle
against the Spaniards.
On May 24, 1898, General Aguinaldo established a dictatorial
government, with h_irn as the dictator. upon the advice of Ambrosio
Rianzarcs Bautista, Aguinaldo established a new government to revoke
the authority of the Biak-na-Bato Republic and unite the revolu(ionàtv
forces. AE dictatorship was necessary to carrv out the war
successfully. This government was temporary and was to last only until
a republic could have been established.
On May 28, the Consultative Assembly instituted by Governor
General Basiåo mel for the first time. the Filipinos did
not like to settle (or the proiccfed They clamored for
independertœ. On the same day, Aguinaldo•s new army repulsed
the Spanish marines at Alapan, a barrio in Imus, Cavite. The
Philippine Flag (The Sun and Stars Flag) was first unfurled in the
Battle of Alapan.
This initial success inspired other people to relive the
revolutionary spirit. During thesttbsequentdays. the Spanish forces
were routed in Bataan, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Lagana, Batangas.
Tayabas (now Quezon), and other pmvinces.
The capture of Manila was the principal objectivc Of
General He and his troops commanded by General
Gregorio del Pilar, Pio del Pilar, Artemio Ricarte, and Mariano
Noriel, among Others, surrounded the city.
Dewey's squadron dominated the bay and thins the
Spaniards were trapped within the city walls. men had lhc supply
of fotXlstuffs and potable water In the The populace suffered
185
terribly during the siege. Aguinaldo Offered Governor General
Augustin lermS for an honorable surrrndcr but the latter rejected
him. Dewey demanded the surrender Of Manila on August 7.
Consequently, the Spanish governor general honorably
conceded-
Chapter Test No. 5
Course,
Name:

I. Multiplc Choice. Encimle the letter of the correct answer: (25

[t was the first part Of Muslim Mindanao to be attacked by
the Spaniards.
a. Basi_lan c. Su_lu
b. Davao d. Zamb Canga
2- HC was the Spanish governor general who captured
Larnitan, Sultan Kudarat's capital.
Francisco de Sande c. Antonio de Urbiztondo
b. Jose de d. Sebastian Hurtado
Obzndo de Corcuera
3. After Lamitan fell into the hands of the Spaniards,
Sultan Kudarat retreated to this place.
a. Balanguing ui c. Marawl
b. Ilihan d. Lanao
4. HC was the sultan of Sulu who leased the territory of
Sabah to Mr. Dent and Baron Overbeck of British North
Borneo Company.
a. Sultan Jamaiul A'lam c. Sultan Pangiran Budiman
b. Sultan Bungsu d. Sultan A límud Din I

186
5. British North Bomeo Company paid this annual rental in
Malayan dollars to the sultan of 1010 for its lease in
Sabah.
2,000 c. 4,000 b. 5,000 d. 6,000

6. He died in the Second Battle of Marawi in 15-95.

a. Datu Utto c Datu Amai Pakpak
b. Datu Ali Jlmba_ngan d. Datu Ubal
7. This resulted to the entry of liberal ideas from Ettmpe and
America to the Philippines.
a. educational refolms cf 1863
b. opening of Philippines orld trade
c. expulsion of Jesuits
d. Cavite mutiny of 1872
8. This affirmed that secular priests be appointed to
administer the parishes In the colony.
, a. Council of Trent p. c. Carlos Maria de la Torre
b. Exponi Nobis d, principales
9. This historical date marks the COM-BUR-ZA
martyrdom.
a. January 20 February 12
b. 25 • d, February 17
10. He wrote Frat! Bottú, where he ridiculed a typical cleric
who became rat because of the provisons taken fram
the

a. M.H. del Pilar c. J. Rizal

•b. G. Lopez Jaena d. p. Paterno ll. This was the group
founded by Moray-EA in 1889 to campaign for reforms in the
Philippines
• a. Cirtulc Hispanc*ilipino c. La Solidaridad
• b. Hispano-Filipino d. Revolucicn
187
12. This term refers to those enlightened with liberal ideas.
a. principales c. ilustrados
b. españoles insulaæs d. reformists
This propagandist used the pen name Taga•llog In his
articles tn La Solidaridad.
a. M.H. del Pilar c. J. Rizal
b. M. Ponce d. A. Luna
14. He became the La Liga Filipina president.
a. Dr. Jose Rizål c, Galicano Apacíble
Jose Ma. Basa •d. Ambrosio Salvador

188
15. She was the first woman to be admitted as mason in the
country.

a. Trinidad Rizal c. Romualda Lanuza

• b. Rosario Villaruel d. Gregoria de Jesus
16. Apalinario Mabini this pen name in La Liga Filipina.
(law c. Panday Pira b _ May Pag-asa
• d. Katabay p
17. La Liga Filipina was founded On July 3, 1892 at this place.
a. No. 72 AmarragaSt. (now C.M. Recto), Tondo, Manila
•b. I laya SL., Iöndo, Manila
c. Madrid. Spain
d. Hong Kong
18. The women in the Katipunan were accepted during his
prcsidency.
a. A. Bonifacio • C. D. Arellano b - E. Aguinaido d. R.
Basa
19. This refers to third grade of the Katipunan, with a
mask in this color and with this password.
a. kanpun green COM-BUR-ZA
b.bayani black Anak ng Hayan
c. bayani red Rizal "s
d. bayani rcd Anak ng Bayan
20 Kalayann, Katipunan's newspaper carried a false masthead, with
MH. del Pilar as editor. anLt isued as printed in this place.
a. Tokvo Madrid
Yokohama d Barcelona
21. In the afternoon of August 30, 1896, Governor General
Ramon Blanco issued a proclamation dt-xlaring a state of
war on eight provinces, which include Manila, Cavite,
Pampanga, Bulacan, -rsrlac, Laguna and two more.
 a _ Batangas and Nueva Vizcava b
Bataan and Nueva Vizcaya
c. Batangas and Nueva Ecija cl.
Bataan and Nueva FRija
22 He tried to reconcile the two factions of the Katipunan in the Irnus
Convention by drafting a constitution establishing the Philippine
Republic.
a. M. Trias c. B. Aguinaldo
b. E. Evangelista d. A. Ricarte
23. This marked the establishment of the Kakarnng Republic.
Dec. 2, 1896 c. Dec. 18. 1896 b Dec. 4, d.
Jan. 1. 1897
24. He told the Council of War that Bonifacio gave him an
initial payment of ten pesos to assassina\e Ccncral
Aguinaldo but he refused to fellow the order.
a Lazaro Makapagal c. Pedro Giron b. Scvcrino
dc las Alas d. Pic del Pilar
25. General Francisco Makabulos established his provincial
revolutionary government Ln this province even after thc signing
of the Pact of 13iak-na-Bato.
a. Pampanga c. Batangas
b - Nueva Ecija d. Tarlac
Essay: Answer the following: (10 pts- each)
Why did the early Filipino revolts fail? Cite examples.
2. What were the eff01# of the Filipino propagandists to achieve
peaceful reforms?
3. When is 3 revolution justifiable?
4. What prompted the United States of America to declare the
Spanish-American War?

190
 The Birth of a Nation
Proclamation of Philippine Independence
In antlcipation of the ultimate triumph of rebel armies, on
June 12, 1898, between four and five in the afterncxln, General
Emilio Aguinaldo before a huge crowd prurlalmed the
independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite. Finallv, after
333 years Of Spanish domination, the Philippines obtained her
independence. General Agwinaldo guided the Philippine
revolution its end.
.The sun and stars flag Was officially unfu r]ed on the balconv of
Agutnaldo's mansion ag the. Phil ippine National Marth was ptaved in
public. Doña Marcela Maritio A¥onçillo, assisted by her daughter I
nrenza and Mrs. Delfina Herbosa de Natividaà (nicx-e of Dr. Rizal)
had sewn the flag inl long Kong. General Aguina]dn made its des
ignThe na tional anthem titled, Mm-ha Nacionrt( Filipina (formerly
Mtwch1T Fi!tpino Magdalo) compnsed by Julian Felipe, was played
by the town band of San Franciscu de Malabun (now General Trias)
whose members had learned the music just a dav before the occasion.
In 1896. Andres Bomfacio favored Julio Nakpil's
Datit ng Katagail.gan to Ine the (national hymn) of
the olution, Sincc Bonifacio lost his leadership to Aguinaldo,
another hymn was preferred. It was on June 5, 1898 when Julian
Felipe went to Aguinaldo, handling a letter of introduction from
Gen. Mariano Trias. was then asked to compose a march to
played for the 1898 Declaration of Independence. On June 11,
Felipe. presented his draft to Aguinalda and plaved the march on
the piano, in the presence Of General Mariano Baldomero
Agtlinaldo and Other revolutionary leaders. After some
discussion with his generals who were then attending a
conference with him, Aguinaldo agreed to accept it as the
Marcha Nacional Filipina,
The Act nectarohon ofPhilippine was solemnly
read by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, which he himself wrote
Included in this documetü was the explanation for the design and
191
color of the flag- The declaration was signed by 98 people with
one of them an American - LM. Johnson. Colonel of Artillery.
After the proclamation Of Philippine independence, Apolinario
Mabini became the adviser Of General Aguinaldc Upon Mabini's
adv:ce. Gen. Aguinaldo changed the form af government from
dictatorial to revolutionary. Thus, Aguinaldo became the President af
the Revolutionary By a decree Of June IS, 1898,
President AguLnaldo organized the municipal and provincial
governments. He directed the town chiefs in all provinces to elect
members to a Congress the resident* these provinces who
are noted for their education as well as social position.
On August 1893, the first convention of municipal presidents was
held in Bacoor, Cavite, capita.] cf the Revolutionary Govcmmcnt. The
Declaration of Philippine of June 12 was ratified in this
convention. While Prcsident Aguinaldo was down the foundations of
an independent government, troops were corning from the United
States to reinforce Ikwcy's forces. By the end of July 1898, nearly
12,000 American troops under the overall command of Major General
Wesley Meritt had arrived from San Francisco.

2. The Incredulous Battle of Manila

General Fermin Jaudenes succeeded General Basilio
Augustin as governor general of the Philippines. The new
sovemor had to devise a plan to save the prestige of the Spanish
government. Governor General Jaudenes, through a Belgian
consul, Edouard Andre, secretly told Dewey and Meritt in early
August 1898 concerning the capture Of Manila. With the end Of
hostilitics, American forces would be occupying the beleaguered
city and its harbor. The governor was not aware of the peace
protocol that had already becn concluded in Washington between
the United States and Spain on August 12, 1898.
It was a ramy morning an August 13, 1898 when the sham Battle
of Manila began after Dewey's naval gun bombarded Fort San Antonio
Abad near the Luneta. At about 11:20 a.m., the Spaniards had already
the flag Of sunender. General Greene only noticed the flag at around
noontime. The American troops entered the ci (y gates after which they
closed it. At around five in the afternoon the terrng of capitulation
192
were tvsolved. The Spanish a uthorities decidäd to surrender the
Spanish troops and thc Filipino volunteers within the Walled City. The
Americans agreed to secure city, including its inha bitants and
churches.
Although some ] Filipinos had taken part Ln the siege of Manila,
the America:us did not allow them to enter the city and its suburbs,
even if unarmed, The Filipino troops deeplv rescntcd this American
gesture. Many frankly voiced the apprchensiaa that lhc Americans
wished to exercise colonial power in the counlry_
After the fall of FLnila, General Diego dc los Rios IRcame lh?
governor general. I Ic became the last Spanish governor generat of the
Philippincs. On August 28, 1898, he transferred his headquarters
Iloilo and took of the Spanish forces. But the Visaya1W ked
by Genera] Martin Delgado forced Governor de los Rios tc leave
Iloilo on December24 and rnove to Zamboanga. Dn May 19.
1899, the American trovps occupied Jolo, displacing the
Sparush garrison in Zamboanga. The Siege of Baler (part of
Quezon province), that the gallantry of IX'th Filipina and
Spanish soldiers; ended on 30, 1899 (now Philippine-Spanish
Friendship Day pursuant Republic Act No. 9187)- In
November 1899, allSpanish forces weæ shipped to Spain.
The out of Spanish military in the Philippines was provided in
the Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10. 1898. The treaty
negotiations were injtlated by Spanish and American representatives.
The treaty provided for thc Spanish withdrawal froriì Cuba. leaving
the island temporarily to America. The Teller Amendment, passed
when the E.S. declared war against Spain, prevented the United States
(rom taking Cuba. Spain had to cede the Philippines, Guam, and
Puerto Rico to the United States, which in turn paid Spain the sum of
$20 million The civil and political status of the Inhabitants in the
ceded territories was to be determined the U.S Congress. With their
impending defeat from the United Slates, Spain signed the treaty. CS
Secretary af State John Hay, in behalf of the US government handed
Spanish commission member Jules Cambon Lhe $20 million sum as
payment to Spain for the Philippines
General Aguinaldo tried 10 persuade foreign countries to
recognize Philippine independence. He sent Fe\ipe Agoncillo, a
Filipino patriot-lawyer, together with Sixto Lopez to Paris to ask for
193
the recognition of the revolutionary government. 1 lowever, Agoncillo
was not even permitted to attend the conference in Paris From there,
he went to Washington, where he worked against the ratification of the
treaty by thc United States Senate.

The treaty arid the U.S. occupation of the Philippines prompted

opposition from among American citizens, including Mark
Twain, a writer and satirist; Andrew Carnegie, a business tycoon
and some members of the E.S. Senate.
After a hnatcd debate in the U.S. Senate, the treaty was
finally ratified on February 6, 1899 by a margin of One vote. It
was argued that the Philippines would simply fall into the hands
Of Germany or other countries if U.S. forces left the region since
thc Filipinos were unprepared to govern themselves.

3. The Malolos Republic

Uncertain about the outcome of the forthcoming peace
conference in Paris, Aguinaldo ordered on August 22, 1898 the
transfer of the governmenes seat of power from Bacoor, Cavite,
to Malalos, Bulacan,
Aguinaldo refused to acknowledge American control in the
country. He had already been preparing the foundation OE a
republican stale. He wanted a government without foreign
supervision. A number of Filipinos had shown support for
autonomy.
On September 15, 1898, the Revolutionary Congress was
inaugurated at the Barasoain (Thurch in Malolos amidst colorful
festivities. Outside the church Banda pgsig played the national
anthem- Spectators lined the streets as President Aguinaldo, his
advisers and membcrg of the Congress walked to the church
where the ceremonies were Lo be held.
The altar of the church was draped for the assembly General
Aguinaldo wnvoked the assemblv in the opening seysion. He urged
the delegates to promulgate a constitution that would be the most

194
glorious expression of the noble aspirations of the Filipino people, a
proof that the Filipinos Siready had the capacity to govern.
President Aguinaldo sat with hjs cabinet facing delegates on both
sides of the aisle. The Congress adopted the parliamentary rules of the
Spanish Cortes.
In the afternoon, the Congress elected the following officers.
Pedro Fat-emo — President
Beni ta Legarda — Vice-President

Gregorio Araneta — Secretary

Pablo Tecson — Secretary (who replaced Arancta)
Pablo Ocampo — Secretaly
A total of 93 representatives took part in the Congress, 35 of
them wem directly elected. Manv of them wcrc holders of
academic degrees from universities Europe. Thc prngident of the
Congress himself, Dr, Pedro A. Paterno, was a holder or a
bachelor's deglye in law from the Universüy Salamanca and a
doctorate degræ from the Universidad Central de Madrid.
As the delegates converged at Malolos, they made it evident that
they wished to enact a constitution and establish a permanent

government for the country. The seat of the Revolutionary Congress

was fixed at the Church.
Mabini argued that under the decree of its creation, the Congrexs
was a mere consultative body. It possessed rto legislative powers. It
was essential for all powers to be vested in one person or Ynti5' to
ensure swift action. Felipe C. Calderon contended that it was
necessary to Rhow that the Phiäppines was duly constituted as a State
in order to strengthen its claim recognition of its sovereign status.
President Aguinaldo upheld Calderon's views, evidently
considering Congress to be the authoritative spokcgman for thc
Filipino people and the true reflection of their dreams and
aspirations,

195
 The committee to draft the constitution was of 19
members with Felipe Calderon as chairman. It studied the three
constitutional drafts submitted — the Mabini Plan, Paterno Plan, and
the Caldcron man.
Thc Mabini Plan was the Constitutional' Programme cf the
Phi]ippine Republic. The Paterno Plan was based on the Spanish
Constitution of 1868. The Calderon Plan was a constitution
based on the constitutions of France, Belgium, Mcxico, Costa
Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Brazil. After a thomugh
examination and deliberation, the Committce chose the Calderon
Plan and submitted it to the Malolos Congtrss for approval.
According to Felipe Calderon, the Committee rejected the
Mabini draft because it was based on the Statutes Universal
Masonry, abhorred by the majority of the delegates who were
Catholics. written in Mabini'g draft Were
the provisions advocating women's rights like thc exercise Of
public office, education in any branch of scicncc cr of the arts
in public institutions, CXCrCi.e,e Of a profesion or industry,
right vote, and exemption from military service and from
personal tax.
Caldcron mentioned that Paterno draft was also
discarded it was patterned from ttæ Spanish Constitution
cf 1868.
Other tters were also taken up in the Congress. On %ptember
29.1898, the Declaration of Philippine Independence made on June 12,
1898 in Kawit was confirmed in special ceremonies. In the following
month, the Congress authorized the to float a domestic loan of 20
million pesos redeemable in 40 years, to support the new government.
Discussions on the draft constitution lasted until Novernber
29. 1898. Article 5, Title 111 of the draft became the most
debatable. This to religion and lheseparatian of and State. Tomas
de] Rosario, one Of those who figured prominently in the
conference. spoke in favor Of the principle of separation of
Church and State; while Felipe Calderon, cm the contrary
position wanted to :nake Catholicism the State rt'ligion. After the
196
members Of the Congress voted for it, the result was a tie. The
second voting resulted to the separation of Church and State,
winning•by' only one vote given by Pablo Tecson.
A few Other amendments were placed In the draft
constitution before it was submitted to Aguinaldo for approval.
The draft constitution provided for an executive, legislative, and
judicial branch of government and the creation of a Permanent
Commission acting as a legislative bcxiv when the Assembly
was not in scssion.
Finally, on January 21, 1899, Pmsidcrnt Aguinaldo
proclaimed the MalolOs Constitution as the [undamental law Of
the land. Then on January 23, the First Philippine Republic
inaugurated amidst festive ceremordes at the Barasoain Chuxh.
It was popularly known as the Malolos Republic.
the inaugural rites, President Aguinaldo issued a
decæe granting pardon to al] Spanish prisoners of war, except to
members Of the Spanish regular army. He also gave the
Spaniards as well as other foreigners the right to engage in
busuness withtn the limits of the Republic.
To disseminate the ideals and aspirations of the Republic,
publications were printed. The official organ of the Republic was El
Heratdo d,' (Herald of the Revolution), with its first issue
on Septernbez 29, 1898, about tour months belore the emergence of
the Republic. Its name was afterwards changed to Herald" ri!ipñto,
then tD htdice Oficidl, and finally to Gncetn de ri!ipinat., with its last
issue on 14, 1899.
Some Filipinos who wrote articles using their nom de plume
for the newspaper were Rafael Palma (Dupit H"pon), Cecilio
Apostol (Cattdto), Fernando Ma- Guerrero (Fulvin Epifanio
de 105 Santos (G. Solon) and Salvador V. del Rosario (Junn
Tagnioì-
In lhe provinces 'here were many revoiL1tionaTv newspapers:
published bv patriotic individuals like FJ (The Nei•! Day), founded
and edited by Sergio 05rneña_ Its first issue appeared in Cebu on April
16, 1900-

197
 In 1899 Jose Palma, lhe23-year old brother of Rafael Palma
and member of Indqyndenciu, wrote the poem "Fitipin.rs" which
was later adapted as the Spanish lyrics ot the national anthem the
Philippines, still at war against the Americans- (The English
trart9Æatioti of the lyrics were done hv Camilo Osias and M A.
Lane, while in 1951 the Tagalog Iranslalion was used.)
For Mabini, true independence would not simplv mean
liberation from Spam but also educaling the people for autonomy
and refraining fmm coionial mentality. Thus, the Malolos
Congress had sel up educational Institutions.
A svs\ern of free and compulsory elementary education was
provided for by the Malclos Constitution. A co\lege for boys called
Burgos Lnsätute was established in Malo]os under Enrique Mcndio\a,
with a mgular academic course leading to the of Bachcior ftf Arts and
special vocational courses in agriculLure. commerce, and surveviag. -
The girls learned their lessons aa home under private tutors. They were
conferred the degree of Bachelor of Arts after passing the government
examination.
The Uninersidad Literaržf? de Filipinas (at theconvcntof
Batasoain Church) was also established with Joaquin Gonzales as
first pæsident. Gonzales was subsequently, replaced in September
1399 bv Dr- Leon Ma. Guerrero.
The university offered courses in law, medicine, pharmacy and
notary public. However its existence was short-lived due to Filipino-
Amcrican conflict which resulted the dispersion of its faculty
and students.
Military training for officers in the Army of the Republic was
offeled m the Military Academy of Malolos whose dižectot• was
Major Manuel Sityar, a former Spanish lieutenant of the SpanL3h
Guardia Civil. Some of its instructors were graduateg of the Military
Academy or 101edc, Spain like Major Jose Reyes and Major Candido
Reyes. President Aguiraldo made efforts to renconcile the new
government with the former enemies.
The Filipino army in Luzon Lnctudcd a battalion of Igorot
Lancers and 3 company of Neb-Tito archers. There were soldiers than
rifles Ln the acrned forces Of the Republic. Those without rifles were

198
armed with bolos, bamboo spears, anting-antings (amulets) and bows
and arrows.
Thc Republic has a relatively small navv- It consisted of eight
steam launchers captured the Spaniards and several inter-island
steamers donated by rich famiiies Batangas. Filipinas, an interisland
steamer owned by Compania General de Tobaccos became the army
flagship.
In Mindanao, Spanish colonial rule particularly ended in
Buluan. Agusan del Norte with thc hoisting of the Philippine
flag.
Butua_n was then the rniiitary capital of the province of
Surigaa. Emissaries of the Revolutionary Government led by
Wenceslao Gonzales proclaimcd a Philippine Republic in
Butuan on January 17, 1899.
Four flags were hoisted on that the tricolor flag of the
Philippine Revolution, he white flag of surrender, the national
flag of Spain and, the Pontifical flag. These flags were symbols
of the forces operating in the Philippines at that time.
The Malolas Republic is the first Republic in Asia. The new
government has cmpowercd the people to choose k-hcir
represeniatives to create laws beneficial far the nation. It has
manifestëd the capability of the Filipinos to gove\lt in the midst
Of turbu\ent times. At a time when most of Asia was still under
colonial power. the Philippines stood out as a beam of hope.
Chapter Test No. 6
Name: Date:

Course,Year,and Section:

l. -Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the correct answer.

Write your answers on the blanks provided: (20 pts.)

199
 1. This person made the design of The Sun and Stars
Flag.
a. Emilio Aguinaldo
• b. Marcela Mariño Agoncillo
c. Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista
d. MariancArias
2. This was the title of the anthem at (he Lime it was
played on June 12, 1898• a. Marcha Nacional Filipina
b. Ma rcha Filipina NacionaJ c Marcha Filipina
Magdalo
d. Himno Nacional
3. He composed the "Marangal na Dali t ng
Kataga]ugan•
a. Andres Bonifacio Julio Nakpil
b. Julian Felipe d. Ra fael Paima
This document included the explanation for the design
and the color of the Philippine flag.
Treaty of Paris
Act of the Declaration of Philippine
[ndependence Act of the Proclamation
of Philippine Independence
ACI of the Proclamation the Philippine

Republic
5. This was the form of government in the at thc time cf
ation Of Philippine
independence.
• a. Revolutionary c. Monarchial
b. Presidential Dictatorial

200
 6. In 1898, this was the capital of Aguinaldo•s government
in Cavite.
a. Imus Bacoor
• b. Kawit d. Indang
7, le sent Edouard Andre, a Belgian consul to confer With
Dewey and Meritt regarding the sham ba ttle in Manila.
a. Basilio Augustin c. Emilio Aguinaldo
Femmnjaudenes d- Diego de IOsRiœ BcÍore leaving the
Philippines for Spain in November 1899. the Spanish forces Stayed in
this

a. Sulu c. Manila
b. Iloilo Zamboanga
9. Treaty of Paris was signed on this historic date, marking the
end of Spanish domination in the
Philippines.

a, August 22 1898 . December 10,

1898 b. August 22, 1899
d. December O,
1899
10. In behalf of the S. government. LS Sec. Of State John Hay
gave the amount Of to this Spanish commissiŒ1 member.
Jules Cambon c. Jules Canbon
b. Junes Cambon d. Julles Canbon He was
elected president Of the Revolutionary Congress in
Malolos.
• a. Emilio Aguinaldo Pedro Paterno
b. Apolinarin Mab ini d, Felipe Calderon

201
12. This was the total number of rcprrsentativcs who took part in the
MalQICF Congress.
91 • b. 93 c. 95 d. 100
HIS draft constitution was bascd on the Statutes of Universal
Masonry.

a, E Calderon S. A. Mabini
b. P. Pa Lerno d. E, Agui_naldo
14. lhis was the final given name of the official organ of the
Malnlos Republic.
a. Heraldo Filipino Indice Of-icial
• Gaccta dc Filipinas d. El Heraldo de la
Revolucion
15. Palma used this nom de plume foy the official newspaper of
the Republic.
a. Calullo •S Dapit Hapon
b. Juan Tagalo d. Gil
16. lhis school in Malolos Offered courses in law, medicine,
pharmacy and notary public.
a. Burgos Institute
• b, Universidad Literana de Filipinas
c. Universidad Central de Filipinas
d. Military Academy of Malolos
17. The First Philippine Republic was inaugurated on this day.
September 15, 1898 • January 23, 1899 b. January 21, 1899 d :
Januan.' 25, 1899
18- This was the former post of Manuel Sityar. Director
of the Militarv Academy of Malalos.
Secretary of the Malolog Congress
Spanish lieutenant of Spanish Guardia Civil
c. Colonel of lhe Filipino army
 d. delegate of Spanish Cortes
19 The Philippme Republic in proclaimed on this
day
a. 17, 1899 c. 23. 1819
b. Januarv 21, 1899 d. January 30, 1899
20. One Of the flags below was not hoisted during Ihr
proclamation of Philippine Republic in But-nan-
a. white flag of surrender b
national flag of Spain
The sun and stars flag
d. Pontifical flag

Essay. Answer the followmg questions: (10 pts. each)

1. What is thc significance of the proclamation cf Philippine
Independcnce in 1898?
2. Is the separation of Church and S necessary? Why?

203
 The American Rule
1. War of Philippine Independence from the United
Slates
FilJpino-American relations deteriorated as the American
mihtary authonties Manila in August 1898. The mandatory
evacuation Of the Filipino troops in the captured districts of the
city dismayed Abuinaldo and his men who joined the battle.
thinking that the Americans were on their Side. The Signing Of
the -Ircaty o! Paris without consulting the Filipinos heightened
the tension.
Previously in Ilong Kong, the Amcricans offered assislance
Aguinaldo in fighting the common adversarv, the Spaniards. I
lowevcr, negotiations turned to be tentative in nature. The plan
of the new colonizers was becoming more evident as the
Americans eventually controlled more areas in the Cûuntrv
There was a popular belief among the Supporters of Manifest
Destñry that the United States had the God-given right to help
oppressed countries and build democratic nations. When US
President William McKinley issued his so-called Benevolent
Assimilation Pruclarnation on December 21, 1898, he cxpress3y
indicated American policy regarding the Philippinef*. Although
President McKinley wanted peace, the Americans occupied the
Ph_ilippl.nes inspite Of local resistance. On iarltlary 1399, President
McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commixsion (Schurman
Commission) 10 make recommendations in the administration of the
country.
Bitter feelings were grow ing between the American sold iers
in the city and the Filipino dissidents Surmunding the capital.
Hostilities began the night Of February 4, 1899 at about 8 p.m. An
American soldier named Private Robert Willie Grayson with two
other members of the U.S. sentry shot and killed a man Who happens
10 be a Fihpino soldier.

204
 •The. man together with three other Fitipino soldiers Were
trying to cross the San Juan Bridge on their way home. The
American

205
soldiers tried to stop them and shouted, "Halt!" twice since the
Filipino soldiers were already entering into American
linesUnfamiliar with the wold the Filipino shouted "Halto!" The
Americans fired on the Filipino soldiers who were caught
unprepared.
The next day, Sunday, General Arthur MacArthur issued his
order to advance against the Filipino troops without investigating the
shooting incident. Aguinaldo tried to avoid war. He sent an emissary
to inform Governor General Elwcll Otis that the firing on their side
had been against his order,
Gcvemor General Otis answered that since the fighting had
begun, it mtEt go on to the grim end. On the same day,
Aguinaldo issued a declaration the Filipino people that
they at war. This turned out to be the Seven-year
Filipino-American War (1899-1906). The Filipino civilians,
caught between (he Americans and the Filipino revolutionaries,
also suffered badly. More than 200,000 Filipinos died during the
war, most Often by far-rune and disease.
The Muslims, uncertain of both Christian Filipinos and
Americans opted to remain neutral. They signified their
noninvolvement in the Filipino-American war. August 20.1899,
John Bates and Sultan Jamalul Il Of Sulu with three datus signed
the Bates Treaty. This treaty provided that the rights and
dignities of the sultan and his datus shall be respected. Likewise,
the Muslims shall bé interfered with on Of their
Nevertheless, the Muslim province remained under
American military ru]e until 1914. Schools that taught nón-M
uslim curriculum were establishcd. The United States, seen as a
challenge l.šlarn. intensified armed resistance the region.
Panghrna Hagan led a rebellion against the American
authorities. His fight for freedorn ended on March 4, 1904.
In the suburbs of Manila, the American fleet started
bombarding the Filipino fort north of San Juan dei Monte on
February 5, 1899. Ln the afternoon Of that day, 3 fierce hattle in
La Loma, near the Chinese cemetcty ensued. Major Jose Torreg
Bugallon, One Of General Antonio Luna's gallant officers fell
mortally wounded, After capturing La Loma. General
MacArthur headed for Calnocan.
In KaloOCan a fierce battle followed, with the Ameneang once
again victorious- Undismayed by his defeat. I -una prepared for t75
plan for the recapture Of Manila by burning American occupied
houses in Tando and Binondo. This took place on February 22,
Wae,hington's birthday (an Amerteati national holiday).
American fire brigades rushed to the area and fought the flames.
They repulsed Luna's men with heavy losses. Luna then
retreated to Polo where he established his headquarters.
In late February, reinforcement arrived from the United States.
The American troops under General MacArthur began their offensive
north of the city. They wanted to capture Malolos, capital of the
Philippine Republic. La-una resumed his command by building his
position a the ju•tction of Iuo Grande and Bagbag Rivers, just outside
Calumpit.
The Filipinos fought with fierce valor near Malinta.
Colonel Ilarry O. Esbert cf the 22nd US. Infantry died in action.
Fighting as they retreated. the Filipinos burned Polc and
Meycauayan in order to delay the cnemy advance.
On March 30, the American army was already in Malolos.
By this lime, the Aguinaldo government had evacuated Malolos
and established its headquarters San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.
General MacArthur wanted to pursue Aguinaldo but Governor
General Elwell Otis ordered him to rest in Malolcs- On March
31, General MacArthur captured Malolos. Subsequently. the
United States, through the First Philippine Commission,
announced the extension Of its sovereignty over the country.
The Filipino troops, although insufficiently armed and
inadequately fed continued fighting. In Quingua (Plaridcl), On
April 23 the American cavalry under Major Bell suffered heavy
losses under General Gregorio del Pilar. In this battle, Colonel
john Stotsenberg was killed.
207
 On April 25. the Battle Of Bagbag River was fought. General
Luna irked by the insubcrdination of General Tomas Mascardo, left
Calumpit with his men to punish Mascardo, who was then m
Pampanga. Genera] Gregorio del Pilar was left to defend the Filipina
lines. When Luna returned to Calumpit the next day, the Americans
had already sucu:eeded in penetrating the Filipino defensive
linesMabini through his manifesto written in San Isidro, Nueva Ecíja
dated April 15, 1399. urged his countrymen to continue the struggle
for independence. Unlike him, the mcmbers of the Pilipino Assexnbly
(formerly Congress) wanted autonomy rather than
independence. Under circumstance, a resc:ntion was passed by
the AACCmbly asking Aguinaldo to re)ect Mabiru's stand and
to remove him as President of the Cabinct. On May 7, 1899
Aguinaldo wrote Mabini informing him of a new Cabinet under
Paterno. The latter calmly accvpted the decision.
In the case of Generat Antonio Luna, some Filipinos in forefront
found him uncompromising. His dæadful temper won him enemies.
His plan to recapture Manila was supposed 10 be carried out together
with the Kawit Company, Aguinaldo's bodyguards. Due to the latter's
lack cf cooperation, Luna recommended to Aguinalda that the Kawit
Company be disarmed for military insubordination.
General Luna met his end in the hands Of fcllow patriots. Early
in June, he received a message from Aguinaldo asking him to go to
Cabanatuan. He left his command in Bayambang, Pangasinan. He
arrived at the headquarters of Cabanatuan on June 5. HC was angry
to see that one Of the sentricg was a member Of the
Kawit Company, the presidential bodyguards, which he asked
Agv inatdo to disband for military
In the afternoon of the same day, General Luna. aftcr attending
a meet-Ing with his frllow patriots who were already planning to make
peace with the Americans (which he vehernently opposed), was
stabbed to death by Aguinaldo's guards. He received about forty
wounds. E lis aide-de-camp Colonel Francisco Roman was also
killed. The. next dâÿ, he was buried with foll military on Agui.ttaldo•s
orders.

208
 Severinö dc Alas, the Secretary of thc Interior in his circular
informed the provincial chiefs Of Luna's death and said that it
was caused by Luna's insultlng and assaulting Of the President's
bcdvguards and the plan Of Luna to take over the presidency
from Aguinaldo. After Luna's death. demoralization set in. -
Many officers began to surrender to the Americans.
The Americans mounted full-scale offensive on October 12,
1899. From Cabanatuan, Aguinaldo moved his government to Tarlac,
then to Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya and then to Bayambang,
Pangasinan. With his wife, mother, sister and some members of the
Cabinet, ho boarded the train On the night Of November 13 bound for
Calasiao, with the Americans still finding Ways to trap By November
1899, the Filipino resorted ta guerrilla wartare. In Aguinaldo's fight
to the North, Gcncrai Gregorio del Pilat the advantageous
terrain Of Pasong 'tirad, near the town of Cervantes. IloccsSur. At
pass, General del Pilar with riflemen. stood guard to intercept 'he
American scldie:s and give Aguinaldo sufficient limp to escape.
Ln the morning of 2, 1899, Major Peyion G. March
and about 300 American troopers stormed the Pass, but were
repulsed by Del Pilar's men. The Americans had not so far located
the exact position of the Filipinos Pasong Tirad was 4,500 feet high.
Through Januario Galut, an ]gorot guide of the Americans.
the secret trail to the top Was known. In lhc midst Of the Genera]
del Pilar, mounted ona while horse, was hit with a bullet that
passed through the neck. Only eight men escaped alive to relate
the tragic news 10 AgulnaldO.
After the Battle Oflirad Pass, the American authorities lost
track Of AguinaldO until Ceciho Segismundo. Agu i 1 'aldo's
messenger fell into the hands of General Frederick Funston.
stationed in Nucva Ecija. He was carrying important letters to
Baldomero Aguina]ào. Genera! Urbano Lacuna, and other
guerrilla leaders. The dispatch to Baldornerv Aguinaldo directed
the sending of reinforcement to Palanan. Isabela. This gave
Funston a clue to the whereabouts of Aguinaldo.
With the approval of General MacArthur, who had succeeded
Otis as military governor, Funston employed 80 Macabe.be Scouts,
209
two former officers Of Aguinaldo (Lazaro Segovia and Hilario Tae
placido), three Tagalog natives and four other American officers for
the capture of Aguinaldö
Pretending to be the reinforccmcnt with five American
prisoners, the Scouts were able. to enler Aguinaldo's camp.
AguinaidO and his men met them and even tave them food. At
a given signal, the Macabebes suddenly opened fire. Piacido, a
fal, powerful man grabbed Aguindldo from behind. General
Funston and four other American officers entered the room and
arrested him the name of the United States.
Aguinaldo was taken aboard the Vicksburg and brought to
Manila. General MacArlhur graciously received him at the
Ma13cañang Palace. Ch April 19, 1901, he took the oath Of
allegiancc to the United States and appealed to all Filipinos to accept
the sovereignty of the United States.

At the time when some patriotic weæ still fighting for

independence. same officials Of the government had already
decided to make peace with the colonizers. The Pacificados
(Pacifists) led by Pedro Paterno and Felipe BuencarnifD
founded Asoeiaci0" de Paz. Among the organizers Were
Cayetano Arellano, Tomas dcl Rosario. Trinidad Pardo dc
Tavera. Leon Ma. Guerrero, Rafael Palma, Justo Lukban and
Pascual PobLcte.
-While Aguinaldo and some Of his men were in the highlands
Of Northern Luzon, the Pacifttados (Pacifists) in e meeting
December 23, 1900 renamed the leaguc for peace the Partido
Federal (Federal Party), with -I?i.nidad Pardo de ravera as ted
president. The Federal parlv wanted make the Philippines of the
United States and be given rights and privileges extended by the
U.S. to other territories becoming cventually a state Of the
union. The Federnlisias were haughtily caned Americanistas or
pro-Americmts by the nationalists.

2. A Government Under America

210
 Although the Filipino-American war was still in progrrss, on
March 16, Pregident McKinley appointed the Second Philipptne
Commission (Tart Commission), He gave the commission the
legislative and executive authority to put up a civilian government.
July 4.1901, the American civil governrœntwas proclaimed
with Judge William Howard Taft as the first civil governor. Governor
Taft exercised both executive and legislative functions because he
was the head of the Second Philippine Commission that served as the
lawmaking body. I lis pc[icy, Philippines the Filipinos, laid the
foundation of a democratic government during his administration.
Subsequently, the Second Philippine Commission passed a law
establishing a high school System in the country.
One the achievements of the Taft administration was the sale of
huge tracts of friar lands acres) to Filipinos on cagy installment terms.
In 1904 the US government paid the Vatican US $7,2 million for these
lands held by the religious orders, However, thLs scheme did not
really alleviate the plight of Filipino tenants because estate Owners
bought most Of these lands.
The first congressional law about the government of the
Phllippines w as the Cooper Act also kn own as the Philippme
Orgardc
Act 1902. It provided for the extension of the United States Bill Of

211
 Rights to the Filipinos. It also guaranteed the establishment or
an elective Philippine Assembly, after the proclamation of
complete peace and two after the publication Of census.
Governor Taft proclaimed March 2.1903 as Census Day. rt was
the first official CC1teus af the Philippincs during the American pe
riod. Il reported a total Phitippine population ot 7,635,426.
Filipino nationalists organized political partics to
counteract the pro-Amencan activities of the Pmtido Among
these parties were Pnrtido Nncionalïstû (Nationalisl Party),
founded by Pascuat in August 1901; by Dr. Pedro A. Paterno;
and the
(Democratic by Alberto Baretto, Leon Ma Guerrero,
3nd Jose de la Viña in 19112, Parlido like Partido
advocated the independence of the country through peaceful
means.
The Ptnžiáv Ctnservador. composed Of prominent members of
the Spanish community like Macario Adriatico, Francisco Ort-igas.
and Gregorio Singian, was organized in Fêbruarv 1901. This group
recognized American sovereignty In the philippinu under the Treaty
of Paris. It advocated for autonomous representative government after
peace and Order had heen
Though thousands of Filipinos surrendered as a result Of the
American peace propaganda, some r:uhtary commanders refused to
Lay down their arms. In Samar, General Vicente l„ukban resorted to
ambushing American Mîldiers. Enraged at this tactic, General Jacob
Smith ordered the massacre alk men and children above ten years Of
age, He wanted the province of Samarbe turned intoa "howling
wilderness." Such barbarity occurred in the town Of Balangiga,
in 1901-1902. After thc end of 'he bloody campaign, Srnith was
court-martialed for the cruelties inflicted by his and foœld guilty.
They retired him imm
•the fearless General Miguel Malvar continued [he fight for Phi
lippine independence. In a manifcsto to the Filipino people dated July
31, 1901 , urged the continuation of resistance to the American
occupation. Franklin Bell believed that the entire population Of
hisarca of operations in Batangas and Laguna were actively aiding
the guerrilla fortes of General Mdlvar. Accordingly, he decided 10
emplov tactics to cause so much general apprehension. rhe princi pal
ISO
measure he used was reconcentration. On April 16, 1902 General
Malwar surrendered in Lipa, Batangas, two months after the
capture of General Lukban in Catubig. Samar.
Bell directed his commanders to set up the outer limits of area
around each town chosen as a zone of reconcentration.
December 25.1901. the people must have moved into this zone
with all food supplies they could bring. All property found
outside the zone after said date. would be confiscated or
destroyed by the Americans, Furthermore, after January 1, 1902,
any man found outside the rcconcentxation area would be
arrested and imprisoned if he could not presentapass. He could
either be shot if be attempted run away.
Several OLher Filipinos refused to conform to American rule
However, the American authorities were dctcrmined to assert
in the Philippines as manifested by thc anti-
nationalist laws imposed on the local inhabitants. These included
the Sedition i.a7Ù, Brigandage Act, Reconcentrati6't Act and the
Flag Law. Subsequently, these anti-nationalist laws were
scrapped following the polio,' of Filipinizat:on in 1916 except
the Flag which was repealed in 1919. Lato (1907) prohibited the
display Of the Philippine flag and Othcr symbols used by the
resistance against the United States.
It was on Novcmber 4, 1901 when the Second Philippine
Commission or Taft Commission passed the Law which
imposed death penalty or a long prison term on anyone who adv
(Rated separation from the L.•nitcd States even by means.
Sedition was dcfined as action pro-independence, meant to
inculcate a spirit of hatred and enmity against the American
pecple and the Government of the United States in the
Philippines and to incite lhc peoplc to open an armcd resistance
to the constituted authorities. Within this precept, the display Of
the Philippine flag, the skngi.ng of the national anthern and plays
advocating indepcndence were prohibited.
Juan Abad's Taniknirotg Guinto (Gold Chains) was closed after
its Batangas performance on May 10, 1903. The author was found
guilty of sedition. He was sentenced to two years imprisonment and a
fine Of US
Patav (l Am Not hy Juan Matapang Cruz wag closed
on May 8, 1903 at the TeatT0 Nueva Luna in Malabon. The red sun
on a Kalipttnan flag that rose behind the stage caused the rict inside
the theater. Adrankcn American soldier climòcd the stage and tore the
Scenery apart, A month later Cruz arrested and later imprisoned which
he served in
Kahapon, Ngayon at Buhas (Yesterday, Today and
[hrnorrow), a play written by Aurelio 'lblentino was also
regarded as seditious. It had itslaFt show on May 14, 1903 at the
Teat10 Libertàd. There were different versi ons 01 the last scene.
In the uncensored version, Inangbayan 's (mother country, the
Philipp ines' children rise in arms against Malaynatin (Who
knows? referring to the U.S. Insular government) and Bagong
Sibci (newcomer — the United Slates.) In the censored version,
Bagong Sib01 grants the their
The uncensored version resulted to Tolentino's arrest. He was given
life imprisonment tn 1905, In 1912, he pardoned.
On November 12, 1902, Governor William H. Taft pushed
through the passage Of the Brigandage Act or i.ey
Bantioleri.smo which punished with death or a prison term of not
less than twenty years for mem of an armed band. Persons aiding
brigands were to be given prison terms of not less than ten
On June l, 1903, the Philippine Commission passed the
Act, which gave rhe governor general thc power to authorize anv
provincial governor to reconcenh•ate Ln the towns all residents Of
outlying barrios If or outlaws operaled in these areas. law
to facilitate the apprehension of guerrillas who being protected by the
people.
In September Of 1 902, the resistance groups that had been
operating in Rizal and Bulacan merged into a consolidated movement
214
with General Luciano San Miguel as Supreme military commander.
Starting with a force Of around 150 men armcd with a few guns
captured from municipal policed etachrnents, San Miguel's group
soon attracted new recruits. They raided towns ta obtain more
Weapons They also captured some Filipino Scouts serving (he U S.
Army.
The end for San Miguel came On March 2B, 1903. affer Some
Philippine Scouts discovered his headquarters between Catoocan and
Marikina, gan Miguel and his force of two hundred men defended
themselves. Hit three times, San Miguel fought untit his last
breath.
 With death oi' San M iguel, Faustino Guillermo
assumed•die leadership of the New Katipunan movement in
Rizal and in Bulacan. Soon after, Guillermo was captured. Two
men pretended to have defected from the Constabulary force
under Captain keithley. While inside Guille rrno's camp. thcv
took Guillermo as prisoncrand tvmed him over to Keith]ey.
At the height of the rebellion in Samar in 1902, Macario
Sakay, Julian Monialan, and Cornelio Felizardo organized their
resistance forces in the Rizal-Cavite-Laguna-Bataneas area by
formally establishing the Philippine Republic. cr what Sakav
referred to as the Tagalog Republic. He was chosen as prældent
with Montalan in charge of military operations. Francisco
Carreon,aformerçouncilor Of the Katipttnan as vice-president.
Sakay exerted efforts to provide some amenities for the
movement. In April 1904, Sakay released manifesto addressed
to foreign consulates declaring that he and his men were real
revolutionaries and not mere brigands as the U.S. government
clairned because they had a nag. a government and a
constitution.
TO ablaln secunty Of his followers, Sakay imposed
sanctions to uncooperative Filipinos. In one instance, they
abducted the family of Mariano Trias, a former general
Aguinaldn. This was a rctaliatory move for his collabora L'ionist
acts. Trias ordered the arrest Of four town presidents suspected
Of cauppcrtmg the guerrillas when he became the first civil
governor of Cavile. Thereafter the Philippine Constabulary
rescued Mrs. Trias and her children. The same way, the
government forv•es nevertheless were not able suppress the
Sakav rebellion.
In Governor General Ilenry C. Ide authorized Dr. Do•ninador
Gomez, a well-known labor leader, to conduct negotiations for the
surrender of Sakay and his Dr. Gomez went to and told the rebel
leader that his surrender wpuld help restore peace and order in the
country. a corditinn provided by the Cooper Act of 1902 for the
establishment of a Philippine Assembly. This assembly would serve
as a training ground for selfgovernment, the first Step toward
independence.

216
 Sakay agreed to end his resistance on condition that a
general amnesty be g iven to them. that they be permitted to
carry and that he and his be allowed to leave the
country assured Of personal safe\y. Gomez assured Sakay that
his conditions were acceptable to the American government. [n
July 1906, Sakay left his headquarters in Tanay and went down
to Manila. The people honored him through receptions and
banquets.
Colonel Harry H. Bandholtz, who had been handling the
negotiations with Dr. Gomez. invited Sakav, his principal
lieutenants and Dr. Gomez to party in Cavile. While at the house
Of Cavite Govemor Van *haik wherv the party was being held,
the Americans and the Philippine Constabulary arrested and
disarmed Sakay and his men, Sakay and his principal officers
werecharged with or banditry and Other crimes such as
robbery, rape, kidnapping and
murder.
In accordance with the of the Brigandage Act, the Court
:æntenced General Macaric L Sakay and Colonel Lucic dc Vega to
die by public hanging. The other officers were sentenced to long
prison tern-us Julian Monlatan and Leon Villafuerte were eventually
given executive clernencv.
On September 13, 1907, Sakav and dc were taken out of
their Bilibid Pnson ceils- Standing cn thc death ptatform in the
prison plaza, General Sakay shouted at the top Of his voice
saying that he was not a brigand but a sincere patriot working
for Phi-lippine indeB±ndence.
The last revolutionary generat to surrender to the
Americans was General Simeon Oia, who surrendered to
Colcncl Bandholtz in Guinobatan. Albay On September 25,
1903. Like Malvar, Ola tock the oath of allcgtance to the United
States Artcmio Ricarte refused to take oath of allegiance to the
United States and was exiled E long Kong later in Japan.
As the 1907 elections for the First Phl!ippine Assemblv
approached, the saw the need for fusion in order to win
against the well-organized Partido National Progres:sta (National
Progressive Party). which was formerly the FartidD Federal. The
217
{hrtiàL1 N.acionalistg and Päriido Progresistn ceashed in the
of July 30, 1907 for 80 seats in the First Philippine
Assemblv_ The Pa.-lido advocated immediate and
absolute independence. It won a landslide majority,
The Philippine Assembly was inaugurated at the Grand Opera
I louse, Manila on October 16, 1907. Sergio OsrrLeña chosen Speaker
of the Asselnbly• while Manuel L. Quezon became the majority floor
leader. The first bill by the Philippine Assembly
was the Gabaldon law (sponsored by Assemblyman Isauro
Gabaldon) which appropriated one million pesos for barrio
schools.
Pursuant to the Philippme Organic Act of 1902 (also known as
Cooper Act), two Filipino resident commissioners represented their
countrymen in the US. Congress. They were Benito legarda (190712)
ard Pablo (1907-09). Thc resident cornrrüssioners took part in the
debates Ln Congress in defense Of Filipino interest In America but
werc not given the privilege to vote.
On lg. 1916, the U.S. the Jones Law, which
was Signed b"' President Woodrow Wilson. The Jones Law
provided a bicameral Philippine legislatul? with an Upper House
called Senate (with 24 members) and a Lower House called the
House of Representatives (with 93 members). The law contained
a preamble dcaaring that independence would be granted to the
Filipino people as soon as a stable government could be ished in
the Philippines.
The new legislatu't.' under the Jvnes Law was inaugurated
on October 26, 1916. with Quezan as President of the Senate and
Osmeña as Speaker Ofthe House (until 1m. Since he became the
Senate tempore after 1922}, The dominated both
Houses, The Progresi5tas had only one seat in the Senate and
seven in the House of Representatives.
On October 5, 1921, Leonard Wood replaced their popular
Governor General Francis Burton-Harrison. In his First year of
administration, he voted 16 bills passed by legislature. whereas
Harrison, his whole term (1913-21). vetoed five bills,
The heightening tension between Governor Wood and the
Filipina leaders to its climax on July 23, 1923, when Senate
218
President Qttezon. Senate President Pro-tempore Osmeña and the
Filipino L»artment resigned from the Council Of State. The incldenl.
known as the "Cabinet Crisis of 1923" happened when Governor
Wood governed the country without the cooFration Of thc legislature.
upon Quezon's advice, Filipino cabinet members Itsigned from
their in protest of Governor Wood's hand ling of the Ray C ordey case.
Detective Conley of the Manila police was charged with irnmorahty
and misconduct in created an administrative committee
which later exonerated Conley and recommended reinstatement.
Secretary of [nterior Jose P- Laura and mayor of

219
Manila Ramon Fernandez had earlier resigned because of Wood
•s interfelertce in the prosecution Of Conley Laurel's resignatlon
frtcurred political repercussions. Quezon, acting as spokesman
of he Filipino membç•rs Of the Cabinct. the governor general
of controlling the affairs of the government in utter disregard Of
the authority the department heads and other officials.
In 1926 , Governor Wood the Board of Control. which was
by law during Governor Ham.son's term to oversee and manage
the ownership of stocks of government-owned and controlled
corporations. Those institutions included the Manila Railroad
Company, Manila Hotel, and the Philippine Nahonal Bank.
Governor Wood found himself oppased by Filipino advocates of
political autonomy. The dilemma awakened the nationalistic spirit of
the people. The Nacionalista and the Democrata Parties joined forces
in a common cause against this governor general and to work for the
recognition Of the countrv's independence- A coalition cal led
National Supreme Council was formed. Tenston ended With the
governor general's death white undcrgoing surgery in the United
Slates. Governor Wood died on August 7, 1927,
From 1919 to 1933, there been twelve Independence
Missions sent to lhe United Stales to campaign fot the recognition Of
Phil;ppinc Independence. in December, 19.31, the ninth mission
popularly called the Os-Rox M ission. after its leader, Senate
President pro tempote Sergio Osmeña and I louse Speaker Manvel A.
Roxas, brought home the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act. The HI-IQ: Act
divided lhë Philippine Congress opposing camps — the Antis and the
Pros. The Antis, led by Senate President Quezon, opposed the Act
because of its oblectionable features while the Pros headed bv SLIM
101' Osmeña and Speaker Roxas upheld it on the ground that it was
the best independence metlsure.
The I I I IC Act provided the granting Philippine independence
a(let• 12 years, but reserving Militatv ard naval bases for the United
States. Also included this controver±al measure was the control the
System and thc conduct of foreign a Ffau•s bv the Lis President.
American goods were allowed free entry into Philippines. -j he
bill also directed the U.S. to retain land for militarv ar:d Other
reservations.
December 1932, Quezon sent Œte-man mission (Benigno
Aquino) to Washington to discuss his Objections. Aqúo, however,
was won over by Osmeña and Roxas to their side.
In November 1933, Quezon led the twelfth mission to
Washington to secure a better independence act. A new indepmdence
measure caned Tydings-McDuffie Law was and signed by President
Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 24, 1934. It Closely resembled the
Ill IC Act. The law wag accepted by the Philippine Legisla re.
The Tvdings-McDuffie Law provided for a ten-year transition
period under the Cornmonwealth of the Philippincg, preparatory to
lhc grant-ing ofabsolute and complete independence an July 1946.
Also included in the provisions were an quota of 50 Filipino
irrurdgrants to America: contrvl of the currencv, coinage, foreign
trade, and foreign relations by America and rq;resentation of one
Filipmo resident commissioner in America and an High
Commissioner m the Philippines.
The Tydings-McDuffie authorized the Philippine
Legislature call a constitutional convention to draft the
Constitution of the Philippines. It is also required that the
Constitution be approved by the Amenean president and
ratified by the people in a plebiscite.
Chi July 30, 1934, the Convention met in an inaugural session at
the hall of the House of Representatives, Legislative Building in
Manila. elected officers wcre Claro M. Recto, PrvSdent, Ruberto
Mont-inola and Teodoro Sandiko, First and Second
respectively' Narc:so Pimentel, Scerctary and Na rcíso Diokno,

The drafting of the Constitution lasted six months — from

July
30, 1934 to February S, 1935 The Constitution was approved by
the
Convention by a vote of 177 to Twenty-two members Were
absent member had died in August 19M.
221
 Tomas Cabili of Lanao cast the dissenting vote. He opposed
the constitution because it did not provide the system of popular
election for the members Of the National Assembly from I anao.
Gregorio Perfecto, a delegate from Manila, signed the
constitution In his own blood. ike lhc Kat-i¥nu•an blood
compact orpatte de
President Roosevelt approved the Constitution. Then ort
May 14, 1935, the plebiscite for the ratification or rejection Of
the
Constitution was held. the first time, Filipino women the
right Of suffrage. The Constitution was overwhelmingly ratified by
the pcoplc with a total of in favor those against only 44,9á3.
The first national election under the 1935 Constitution was held
On September 17. 1935. The candidates for President and
VicePresident were Manacl L Que70n, Sergic Osmcña
(C.oaiiti(m Party); Genera) Emilio Aguinaldo and Raymundo
Melli7.a (National Socialist Party); and Bishop Gregorio
Aglipay and Norberto Nabong (Republican Partv). Quezon and
Osmeña were overwhelmingly elected as President and Vice-
President respectavely by majority vote.

3. The, American Legacy

After the victorv Of the Americans against the Spanish fleet
in the Battle of Manila on Mav 1. 1898, the US military
reinforcement grew in number. Thc United States in fact, sent
its top generals to the Philippincs, includmg General John "
Blackjack" Pershing who urged the Colt gun factory to
manufacture the famous Colt .45 aulamalie revolver. This
kind Of weapon was used against the Mus]irn warriors in battle.
Veterans of the Indian wars were also sent to the country,
Among them were Generat Elwell Otis and General Henry W.
Lawton, (for whom a street and a plaza were named respectivelv).
Some of the American soldiers helped in building roads. The rest of
them staffed the American public schools. They came to be known as
Thomasites, from the name 00 the L' S. army Ship that they boarded
On their way to the Philippines- These American teachers, numbering
about 540 who arrived the counyy on August 21, 1901, established
the Xhool
Public elementary education, which provided educational
opportunity for an citizens. war; financed by government funds.
Education was sought to acquire not Only theoretical knowledge
also practical skills to meet the essential demands of life- The English
language was used to transmit these new ideas in the country.
The Americans propagated the use Of the English langoage for
better understand ing with Filipinos. Englúsh became language of
ulstrurtion in ail schools and became the official language of the
govcmment.

138
The first American newspaper to appear in the Philippines
w as the Bounding Biliow, published dt irregular intervals on
board Dewey's flagship Olympia. The first American daily
newspaper to be published in Manila was the
with its first issue dated September 10. 1898.
The first Filipino weekly in English was the founded
hy Senate President Manuel L. Quezon in 1902. Nationalistic
periodicals like r.i Rertnçimit•nto and Mfriin¶, Pagsilrnrg also

Despite the SediLian Law Of 1901, writersconlinaed criticizing

individual Americans committing offenses against FilipinQS
hy ILqing or svmbclism as a lilerarv devicc to elude
detect'Ot-' 01 censors.
In 1908, El Renaciyttiento attacked lhc then Secretary of the
Interior, Dean Worcester in the article Airs de Rapinn (Birds Of
Prcv)Worcester immediately sued the owner and editors of the
ncwspalN•r for libel. The litiganls were dc in court. The newspaper,
together with its machinery was sold at auction- Teodoto M. Kak'w,
the editor Of the newspaper, was imprisoned but later pardoned by
Governor General i larlison,
A new generation Of Filipivo wri'ers in English attracted
appreciation from 'he people. Carlos P. Rclru'lo won the Pulitzer
prize Jor international reporting in 1942. Jose Garcia Villa listed
223
among the top short story writers in America in 1932 by Fdward
CYBricn. a known American anthologist.
lhC period From 1905 to 1930 wag the galdcn age Of the
in the country Sevcrino Reyes' Sugat (Not •Wounded) was one Of the
Famous Tagàlog zarzuela. With the introduction of the Hollyw(kìd ta
]kies (talking pictures; Ir. 1930, zarzuela vanished as a popular
theatrical art.
Cartooning began to blossom at the turn of centurv after the
American colonial allowed free press to flourish. Artists like George
Pineda (IS79• 1972), who invented the immortal representation of the
Filipino — the slippered Juan de la Cruz, did political cartooning like
Jose Perreirn (1901-1954), chief cartoonist of the Philippine Free
Press magazine 'rom the. 1920s to the 1930s.
In music, the young generation enthusiastically weicomed
American jazz and swing music. lowever, talented Filipino
musicians tried to ptesc•tvc the country's musical heritage. Nicanor
Abelardo, a Bulakeñor became a prominent Filipino composer of
waltzes, marches and sonatas for piano and violin. Among his
famous compositions are Mutya ng Pasig (Musc of Pasig). Kg
frog (Where Are You My Lovc?), and Biiuing Marikif (Beautiful
Star). Other luminaries in this field were Francisco Santiago, Jovita
Fuentes, and Naty Arellano. Santiago became known for his DaiitQ
(Child of Woe) and Mada!ing Amw (Dawn).
Protestant Christianity was introduced in the country by the
Americans. This new religion, which Stläsë¥ personal salvation
through faith, was able to attract a number of new FJipino
converts. In 1899, Mr. C.B. Randall, a lay worker. the
first bibles in

Bishop James M. Thoburn Of the Methodist Episcopal

Church of India delivered the first Protestant sermon in the
country. Methodism. which began in 1729 at thc University Of
Oxford in England, was brought to the United States before the
American Revolution (1775--1783) by migrants from Ireland
and England
 During the American occupation in the country, the people were
permitted to honor and celebrate the anniversaries Of the Filipino
national heroes. The country came to cornrnemcrate the Bonifacio
Day (November 30), Rizal Day (Decenter 30). America also added
her holidavs such as Valentine's Dav (February 14), Washington Day
(February•22), Clor;øus Fourth (Juíy 4), and Thanksgiving Day (4th
Thursday of November).
The Filipino people adopted the American mode Of
Men started wearing pants with belts Or with suspenders. For
casual wear, polo shirts became popular, Coal-and-tie became
the typical formal attire. The women began to wear skirts, high-
heeled nylon stockings, artificial eyelashes. make-up and
even perfumes.
Mr., Miss, or Madam as salutations became conventional.
Women were granted rights in education. in places Of work and
even in politics. Coeducational schools were also instituted.
In 1903, Charles M. swift established the MERALCO
(Manila Electric Company). Ets original name was Manila
Electric Railroad and Lighfing Company, the first company
given the franchise to operate electric cars called "rant'ig and
supplv electricity to Manila. Communication likewise improved
with the creation of the

290
Philippine Long Distance 'lèlephonc by virtue of Act No. 3436 in
1928.
On February 17.1905, the Phihppinc Constabulary was
established. Later it became the Philippine Military Academy, the
first military officers' school in the country. From Inlramuros, it was
moved to Baguio.
In 1910, the Philippine General Hospital (PGH) located at Taft
Avenue, Manila was established by the government to attend to
indigent patients-
The Americans also trained the Filipinos various physical
activities. Outdoor games such as baseball, softball, calisthenics,
225
football and volleyball, and indwr games like bowling, billiard,
table tennis, poker, blnck iaek games became
tremendously popular. The Americans emphasized the
importance sport activities to improve physical fitness and ease
tension arising from work. They also inculcated in the minds of
the players the notion of sportsmanship
The American era also marked the improvement Of
infrastructure, transport and communication facilities as well as
community services. Manila and other population centers had
tnodern buildings along American architectural lincs
resembling Greek or Roman temples with porticoes.
The architectural plan for the Cit-v of Manila and the Quezon
Memorial Ciœle (with eight main toads encircling from the rotunda)
were done bv the Americans. It was Danicl Burnham, noted Chica go
architect and town planner who designed Baguio City.
Filipino sculptors were given remarkable recognition in the
middle Of the 1912' century. One of the most prominent in the field
was G uillcrmo Tolcntinc (1890-1976), best known for his
masterpiece. the Bo"ifacio Monument, which is a group sculpture
composed OF severa I figures gathered around a central obelisk. The
principal figure is Andres the leader Of the Philippine revolution In
1896. Behind hirn stands Emilio Jacinto. The monument was
completed in 1933.
The Americans used their stay in the Philippines to teach us their
way of life and the principles ofdemocracy. Individual freedom,
respect for and liberties Of the people, free and open elections and
multiple political parties are among the principles f0Lmd in a
democracy. The Americans came and enhanced the knowledge of the
Filipinos on democratic ways and institutions. They Organi7ed the
civil courts, includñg the Supreme Court with Cayctano Arellano as
the first Filipino Chief Justice.
Local governments were estabEshed in towns and pruvinces
under the control of American troops. The first election under the
American flab was conducted on May 7, 1899 in Baliwag, Bulacan.
It is a fact that the Filipinos had already some idea Of a
democratic government as proven by the establishment Of a
republican government in Malolos, Bulacan. However, the First
Philippine Republic did nol tast long having been overthrown in
1899.

4. Philippine Independent Church

In the second phage of the Revolution, which began with
Aguinaldo's return from Hong Kong, Governtr General Basitio
Augustin and Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda commissioned
Father Gregorio Ag\ipay to confer with the revolutionary leaders
to bring them back to the Sparush side with promise of autonomy
for the Philippines. On the Other hand, Emilio Aguinaldo sent
Colonel Luctano San Miguel as his crnissary to Aglipay for the
purpose of persuading the latter to go to the North to work for the
revolutionary

Aglipaywent North to investigate the condition Of the bishopric

Of Nucva Segovia (Cagayan). Upon his return to Manila to report
to Nozaleda, he found Manila besieged by the Americans. He
decided to go to Cavite and join Aguinaldo's movement,
particularty the Malol'* Congress.
October 20. 1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree appointing
Aglipay as Military Vicar General, making h 1m the religious leader
Of the revolutionary movement. A day after his appointmen t, Aglipày
issued a letter to the Filipino clergy to form an ecclesiastical council
which would ask the Pope to appoint Filipinos in all Church positions
from archbishop to the lowest parish priest.

227
 Archbishop Nozaleda, deeply alarrned by Aglipay'g
decisions charged the latter with usurpation of power. Nozalcda
issued his decree excog-urttumicatlng Aglipay which tock effect
on May 5, tS99 Returning to the Philippines early in 1901 ,
Isabelo de Ios Reves, a radical propagandist, campaigned for the
establishment of a Filipino In July Of the same vear he founded
the Union Obrera Democratica (Democratic Labor Union). On
August 3, 1902, de los Reyes called a meeting of his Democraiic
(Abor Union at the Centro d? Hellas Artes and proposed the
establishment of d Filipino Church independent of Rome with
Fr. Aghpay as the Supreme Bishop. The proposal was accepted
and thus the tiiipina Independientt• (Philippzne Independent
Church) was founded.
In a conference with the Jesuits. Fr. Aglipay made his last
attempt tv prevent schism ill die Church. He did not yet accept
position Of a Supreme Bishop in the Philippine Independent
Church when he was being interviewed at the Jesuit housc in Sta.
Ana. Manila. For four days. Fr. Francisco Foradada, a Spaniard.
exerted all effòrts to back Aglipay to the Catholic fold althottùh
the latter had not yet given up his Catholic faith.
On the fifth day, Foradada handed Aglipay a dcxument for
his signature. affirming his rctum to Catholicism. Aglipay
wanted an asurance that by signing the document, the problem
nt- the Filipino Catholic priests w ill solved, that is, their
appomtrnent to the posts formerly held by the Spanish regulars.
Foradada in return replied why did he mind so much the Filipino
priests considering they are vici0Lis and inefficient. Aglipav felt
very Offended and he demanded Foradada to withdraw his
remark. He left the Jesuit house and severed relatiorus with
Roman Catholicism.
Years later, the Jesuits tried their best to make up with
Aglipay. Father Joaquin Vilallonga Was chosen to deal With
Aglipay but lalter had already made his decision to support the
Philippine Independent Church. In September 1902 bishops were
consecrated. On January 18, 1903 Aglipay was consecrated
Supreme Bishop bv the bishops of Manila, Cavite, Nuteva Eciia,
Isabela, Cagayan, Pangasinan and Abra.
228
 According to the Philippine census Of 1918, Out Of a tataf
population of ten million, close to one and a half million
Filipinos were members oi the Aglipayan Church.

5. The Colorums
The remnants Of Hermano Pule•s Cofrad ia de San Jose retreated
to the mountains between Tayabas and Laguna. The-v settled at the
mountain Of San Cristobal and considered this place their Jerusa
lcm. This group camc to bc known as colantrn, a corruption Of
the Latin phrase, et saectifa saeculoyum (world without end)
used at Mass to end certain prayers. During the American
occupation, the term colorum was used by the authorities to
refer to rebel organizations with mystical Characteristics.
Colorum organi7ations were active in. the 1920s. In Leyte
and Samar, the Sociedad de Iri Confiunzi€ was formed. The
Caballeros la rantilitt had one thousand followers in
Pampanga, Pangasinan, Bulacan and Nueva Eciia. Other
colorurn groups were established in Tarlae, Rizal, Union,
batangas and SLtrigao.
These colorum groups were characterized by religious
fanaticism, which was a combination of Catholic devotion,
heroworship and folk-superslilion. Members were recruited from the
oppressed masses that sought the messiahs for their redemption.
In Tarlac, the color-urns worçhipped Jose Rizal and APO
Ipe believed thal the two leaders would restlTTect and
save them. Felipe Salvador. otherwise known as Apo Ipe born in
Baliwag Bulacan on May 26, 1870. When the Katipuner05 from
Balintawak arrived in Baliwas. Ipe joined them. I le was
appointed as colonel by Agttinaldo in 1899. When Agumalda
surrendered to the Americans, he went to the mountains and
began his guerrilla operations. Soon, he orflanized his group and
called it Santa Iglesia o; Holy C'.hvwch,
APO Ipe warned his followers that a second deluge would occur
and destroy all non-followers and that after the flood, there would be
rain of gold and jewets for his followers. The colorurns Of Tarlac
believed that made all members invulnerable to the bullets fired by the
enemy.
229
 In Sllrigao, the colorum groups were devoted to the Sacred
Heart of Jesus, Immaculate Heart of Mary and Jose Rizal. They
believed that une day Rizal would return and rule the
Philippines. The group grew in number and spread from Surigao
to Agusan. Cotabatc, Samar and Leyte.
The coloritms Of Surigao began their uprising by the end Of
1923, They killed five ConstabL1[arv qotdiets and later attacked a
Constabulary de.!achtnent which resulted in the death Of the
provincial comrnander and twelve soldiers. The government had to
suppress the coloturn rebelJion which lasted from January to
October,
1924.
Governor Genera I Leona rd S'%od, recognizing the patriot-
iC Zeal that animated the colcrum rebellion, prohibited the
display Of pictures cf Filipino heroes in all public schools in
Mindanao.
In Nueva Ecija, Pedro Kabola founded a æcrel scKiety in
1923 called Makabola Makarinag. They intended to assault the
municipal building af San Jose and execute all town officials so
that independencc could be achieved. Subsequently, Land would
be equally apportioned among masses and the as well as the
Americans would be expelled from the count-ry. But the
appointed date of the attack, the Constabulary troopers were able
to discover the plan. Kabo!a was killed. Hundreds of Kapisanan
members were arrested and jailed for con*'iracy and sedition.
In Pangasinan, an Ilocano named Pedro Calosa began
organizing a color-um group in 1929. Members were given ranks
ranging from corporal to general and wore colorful and white
uniforrns with mating-antings cmbroideæd on them.
In January 1931. thc colorums decided to attack the town of
Tayug, supposed to be the spark of that would ignite the Central
Luzon area In a peasant revolution. Armcd with knives, bolos and
a few guns. Calosa and his followers marched on Tayug at the
night and managed to rcut the soldiers. When a Constabulary
detachment arrived, the color-um group ted into the convent.
Pedro Calœ.a escaped but was captured a few days later.

230
 In an inlervicw years later, Calosa himself said that many
Of the color-um members were tenants who had been ejected by
or were small farmers deprived of their lands by land
grabbers who used their power to advance their personal
interests.

6. Land Tenure System

Pressing issues like social land ownership, tenancy rights
and the distribution of wealth had been the causes of public d
iscontenbnent. The hacienda system, introduced durmg the
Spanish period, kept the peasants bondage. The landlord-tenant
relations ensued even after the of a democratic government.
Tenants were either inqui!inos tenants) or kasamas (share
tenants). 'lhe inqüili'tD paid yearly rent for using a piece Of land. Aside
from this. hc was Often required to give various to the for free. Refusal
to work or to contribute to the expensæ

231
cauld mean outright dismissal from the haciendn. It became customary
for the children of the tenants to serve the landlord as domestic
servants to help their parents pay the interest on debts incucred due to
cash advances-
The kasama or sharecropper provided the labor on the hacienda
where he shared the harvest oa a 50-50 basis with his landlord or
hgcendero, after deducting the expenses incurred in planting and in
harvesting. Like the inquilino, he was expected to render personal
*rvices to the landowner, at the latter's discretion.
Low productivity, due to traditional farming methods, along
with cacique exp;oitalion insured the tenants a low af living. Free
trade likewLse reinfoxed the feudal agrarian system cf the
Spanish regime and twisted the normal development of local
Industries-
Dependence upon duty-frec American goods increased
suffenng bf local producers. In the 192(žs to thc 1930s, a number
of peasant uprisings and labor protests evolved from cases of
exploitation and poor Living conditions.
The Philippines though a country rich in resources was unable tc
sustain the basic needs the masses, The Filipino leaders, absorbed with
much attention on how to gain political autonomy had not Fully given
efforts to bring about economic independence-

7. The First Labor Groups

In Januarv 1902. Isabelo de los Reyes organized the first lakä]r
union in the Philippines, the union de l.itogrefos Impresores de
Filipinns. Soon after its founding, the members decided to reorganize
-themselves into the Union Obrera Democratica (U C.D.), a federation
of gmaLlet• unions of printers, lithographer*ÑÄgarmakA'S, tailors
and shoemakers which demanded higher wages and worker's benefits.
With its official organ, Ln del Obrerö, the Unim voiced the
social demands and nationalistic feelings QÍ the workers. As a
result of cne cf the strikes, Isabelo de los Reyes was imprisoned.
A few weeks later, he was pardoned.
 Dr. Dominador Gomez, who succeeded De las Reyes, led a
group of laborers on May 1, 1.903 in a demonstration before
Malacañang. However, Gomez was replaced by Lope K. Santos
for the union members distrusted the former's involvement in the
surrender of Sakay which led to his capture.
Lope K, Santos, a printer and newspaperman, was the last
president Of the U ,O.D. Under him, the union became known
as thc Union del Trabujo Filipinas. Political rivalries had led 10
its dissolution 1907.
May 1913, Labor Day was first officially celebralpd in
the country. The labor leaders organized the C.öngreso Obrero
de Filipinos (C.O.F.). This CongreRs approved al ibns
demanding eight-hour labor day. child and women labor laws
and an employer's liability

Barely four years later. Vicente Sotto established

Obrera. which he used to support his candidacy for the i louse of
Representatives 1917, Joaquin Balmori founded the Federacion
del Truþaio to support the candidates Of the Democratic eartv.
The Congresc Obrero de Filipinas for its part, backcd the.
Nacionalista Party's candidates.
In Bulacan, the Union ng MagsagaAn was formed in 1917 to
fight the evils of tenancy and usury. In 1919, Jacinto Manahart, farmed
his own group in view Of the decline Of the original peasant
organization.
Also in 1919, the Legionarios Trahajo was formally oreaaized as
a result Of a strike ágainst the Manila Electric Company. The group
pressed a number Of nationalistic demands such as protection of
Philippme products from foreign competition. Crisanto Evangelista,
one of its organizers later left the association due thc adoplion of
Masonic initiation rites,
In 1924, Evangelista, Domingo Police and Ciriln Bognol formed
the Parfido Obrrro de Filipinas. Its platform showed a Strong Marxist
influence.

233
 Attendance at world conferences and their affiliation with
international organizations Of the Left, radicalized some labor
leaders. In 1927, the C.O. F. affiliated itself with the Red
International of Labor Unions. During its convention, subjects
such as communism, class struggle and proletarian
internationalism were discussed. The following year, the COE
leaders Evangelista and Bognol attended the Red Intcmational
Of Labor Unions Conference In Moscow.
8. The Communist PArW ofthe Philippines
During the 1929 congress Of the Congreso Obrero de Filipinas
(C O. the conRrvative members clashed with Crisanto Evangelista and
his group over the proposaLs submitted by thc latter. Some of the
recommendations included the organizaLion of factory committees as
a first step toward the formation of industrial unions, the establishment
Of a workers' political party, the advocacy 01 class struggle and the
condemnation of the Nacionalista and Democrata

With the radicals in the minority, Evangelista and his followers

walked out and immediately launched the
Evangelista became the elected executive
—secretary while Manahan, the vice-president, in chargc of the
peasant movement-
Other officers were Jose Hilario, Antonio Ora, Patricio
Diomsio, Cirilo Bognot and H C. Hao. The K.A.P. wanted unity
among workers, pcasants and the exploited masses. advocated
struggle against American imperialism in the Philippines,
betterment of livlng and working conditions, immediate and
complete independence of the country, unity among
revolutionary movements the world over and the establishment
of a Soviet gystem in the Philippines.
On November 7, 1930, the Communist Party of the Philippines
was formally established with all the officers of the K.A.P. except Hao
and Hilario, members of the first Central CammLttCC Of the CPP.
Communist parties have been instituted in game countries
in Europe and Asia to establish and maintain the Soviet system.

234
The working class has been designed to dominate the
admùiistralion of the government.
Communism is a concept of sexiety in which the major
resources and means of production are communally owned.
Theoretically, there would be equal sharing of the bcnefits of
production. This ideology involves thc abolition Of individual
ownership of property, it advocates thc revolution of the working
masses ta overthrow the capitalist society so that a classless
society may be achieved.
The promises Of Communism confounded a number
Ofpeopte. The CPP became more unrelenting after sorn_e of its
officials were apprehended by the military. Soon after, Antonio
Ora, a CPP Central Committee member was attested in Manila.
While Ora was being taken to prison he died reportedly due to an
automobilc accident near Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija The CPP members
became skeplicat about it- They thmki_ng that the incident was not
purely by chance. As a result, the Communists staged a demonstration
on January 25, 1931. More than ten thousand workers joined the
funeral manh cartying red flags and placacdg with anti-imperialist
slogans-
Evangelista, Manahan, Dominador Ambrosio, Guillermo
Capadocia and Aifonsc Par.gilinan were arrested the following
month. Charged with sedition oa the basis of the platform actions
and demands of the Communist Party, they were found guilty by
the Court or First Instance and sentenced to jail- [t was on
October 26, 1932 when the Supreme Court declared the CPP an
illega\ organization.

9. Sakdalism
Benigno Ramos. leader of a popular movement SakdQ/,
used to be a Senate clerk. In 1930, he purposely left his icb to
work against the administration- The immediate cause of his
resignation was his involvement in a student pickct staged a
Manila high school, which had been provoked by negative
remarks madc b" an American teacher against the Filipino
235
students. A number of Filipino pžofessiønals gave their support
for the students. Ramos had already been warned by Quezon not
to join the protest action but still he declined.
Ramos consequently founded SakdnÌ, a tabloid weekly, which
became the vehicle for bitter denunciations of the ruling oligarchy.
This tabloid exposed the discontentment of the masses. aiso adopted
the position that independence is not oiven but must be taken through
the united action of the people. Through its newspaper, the Sakdal
movement campaigned against maldistribution of property, excessive
taxes, and the concentration of land ownership to a few. Subsequently,
Ramos transformed the movement into a political party,
In the 1934 election of delegates to the Constitutional
Convention, the Sakdalistas desired to have a number of candidate«,
In campaign meetings and through their paper, the Sakdalistas
opposed colonial education in the courthy, in Faräcular Camilo Osias'
grade school "Readers", for their glorification of American culture.
They also opinion against American economic control and
the military bases. kn this election, the Sakdalistas with three
candidates for representatives won.
With thc coalition af the Antis and Pros of the Nacionalista Party
for the 1935 National Electiors, the Sakdalistas predicted the greater
expansion of American econonuc power. They continued their barric
campaigns to boycott the plebiscite for [he Commonwealth
Constitution. I lowever, Govemor Frank Murphv issued a ruling thal
any campaign agalnst the plebiscite be branded as *'diHous. As a
consequence, many Sakdalistas wetæ arrested.
In various parts of the cauntry, perpetuation of feudal and
usurious practices, which originated from the Spanish regime,
intensified the agony of the peasant masses. On May 2, 1935r
one hundred fifty peasants armed with bolos and pa!tiks marched
the municipal hall of San lldefonso, Bulacan and hauled down
the American and Philippine flags, and raised the red Sa kdal
nag. Other Sakdalistas did the same in Cavite, Rizal, and Laguna.
The occupied the town halls and burned American flags
in such places as Tanza, and Caridad in Cavite, and Cabuyao and
Sta. Rosa in Laguna. Altogether, almost sixty thousand
Sakdalistas were
236
 involved.
On the second day, constabulary troopers supprcssed the
uprisings in the beleaguered towns. Disorganized and poorly
armed, thc peasants were in no way equal to the Constabulary
detachments dispatched in the ccntcrs of the rebeliion. Fifty-
seven peasants were killed, hundreds were wounded, and around
five hundred were Ârnprisoned.
Benigno Ramos was in Japan when the revolt broke out. He
was then arranging for }apanese support for the Sakdal party. ile
denied his involvement in the Mav 2 incidenl. Disowned by their
leader, many peasants withdæw support for Ramos. As a result,
Sakdalista Lnfluence greatlv diminished in the countrvside-
Chapter Test No. 7
Date:

Name;

l. Multiple Choia2. Choose the letter with the correct answer. Writc
the answers on the blanks provided. (40 pts.)
During Washington Day in 1399, this Filipino general
ordered the burning of American occupied houses in
Tondo and Binondo.
E. Aguinaldo C. del Pilar
b. A Ricarte d. A. Luna the of Quingtla on
April 23, 1899, the
Filipino troops wcrc headed by this general.
E- Agui_naldn G. del Pilar b A Rica rtc d. A.
Luna
3. Gen- Luna left his forces in this town where the
Battle of Bagbag River was being fought to

237
 proceed to Pampanga and punish Gal. MascaRio.
a. Baliwag c. Bustos b- Bulacan d. Calumpit
4. Gen. Luna wanted to punish Gen. Mascardo for this
offense.
a. rebellion c. murder insubordination d.
corruption It was in this town where Gen. Luna met
his tragic end.
a. Bustos c. Ma]olos
k. Cabana tuan d Calumpit
6. He was the Secretary of the Lnterlor who issued a
circular informing thc provincialchiefs that Luna
planned to take over the presidency from
Aguinaldo.
S. de las Alas del
b. F. Reman P. Giron Pasong Tirad
located in this province.
Ilocos Norte c- Cagavan
Ilocos Sur d_ Union
8- Major revton March and his men stormed Tirad Pass ort
this day.
a. Dec. 2. 1898 Feb. 22, 1898
Dec. 2. 1899 22, 1899
9. This was the number of Gen. Del Pilar's riflemen
who fought at Tirad Payw
b, 40 d. 60
10. He was Aguinaldo's mcgsenger who fell into the hands
of Gen- Funston-
Francisco Roman c- Urbana I acuna b-
Cecil '0 Segismundc d _ Jan liario Gahtl
11 _ His policy, the Phi!ippúwsfar Filipinos, laid down the
foundation of a democratic government during his
administration.
238
 a. Emilio AguinaldoJacob Schurman
b. Arthur MacArthur d. William Howard
Taft
12. This law imposed death penalty or long prison tcrm
on anvone who advocated separalion from the
United States even by peaceful means
Reconcentration Act Sedition Law
b. Brigandage ACI d. Flag Law
13. lhis plavwritien Juan Abad was the first draina
itgaluled as seditious.
a - Punk) ng Kaaway Kahapon,
Ngavon atBukas

b : Hindi Aco Patay Tanikalang

Guinto

239
 14. Gen Jacob Smith ordered the massacre of al] men
and Children above tcn years Of age in Balangiza, found in this
province.
Samar c. Leyte
b Nucva Ecija d. Basilar.
15. In September 1902, he led the resistance groups in Rizal and
Bulacan until his headquarters wore discovered by
Philippine Scou Is.
a. Macario Sakay Julian Montalan
b. Faustino Cuillcrmo d. Luciano San
Miguel
16. The family Of this former Katipunan general wag abducted by
Sakay's rnen as a retaliatory move for his collaborationist acts
with the Americans.
a. Artemic Ricarte Mariano Ponte
Mariano •Irias d. K•ßgucl Malvar
17. Dominadcr Gomez went to negotiate for Sakay•s sunvnder in
his headquarters found in this town.
a. Lipa c. Imus
b. Cabanatuan Tanay
18. He was the lastrevolutionary general to surrender 10 the
Americans.
Simeon Ola Cornelio Felizardo b. Miguel _Malvar d.
Artemio Ricarte
19. During thc American period, the first election was conducted
in place.
a. Cabanafi_lan c, Malolos
Manila d. Baliwag
20. He became the first Filipino Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
a. FclipeCa1deron c- CayetanoArellano

240
 b. Jose Abad Santos d, Manuel L. Quezon
21. This was the first Filipino weekly newspalx•r in English.
a. American Soldier c. Bounding Bitlow Philippinc Hcrald d.
• Bulletin
22. lie founded the Iglesia Fitipi'ta Independiente in
1902
L Gregorio Aglipay c. Isabelodelos Reyes
b. Felix Manalo Francisco Foradada
23. Colorurn, is a corruption of this Lann phrase, saeculn
sai'culorum, which has this meaning. as it was in the beginning
b. have on us c, pray for us
sinners world without end
24. Felipe Salvador knuwn as Apo Ipe founded this colorum
group.
a. Sociedad de la Confiartza
b. Santa Iglesia
c. Kapisanan Makabola Makarinag
Co(radia de San J the
25. The colorums this place attacked a Constabulary detachment in
1923 a, Tarlat c, rigao
b. Nueva FQja d. Iloilo
26. This term refers to cash tenants.
a. kzsama c. caciquc
b. inquilino d. hacendero
27. He organized the first labor union in the Philippines.
a. Vicente Sotto c. Lope K. Santos
b. de los Reyes d, Joaquin Bal-mori
28. This labor group founded in 1924 by C. Evangelista, D. Pcnce
and C. Bognot showed Strong Marxist influence.
a. Partido Obrero de Filipinas
 b. Katipunan ng raga Anak-PawiS ng Pilipinas
c. Asamblea 0brera
d. C.PP.
29. Communist Party of the Philippines wag dcclaæd an illegal
organization by the Supreme Court in this year.
a. 1930 c, 1933
b. 1932 d. 1934
30. He was the CPP Central Committee rnembcr Who was kil
led in an automobile accident while being taken into prison.
a. Antonio Ora c. H. C.
b. Cirilo Bognot d. Guillermo Capadocia
31. Sakdalistas opposed colonial education particularly a
grade school book titled "Readers" by this Filipino
writer.
a. Antonio Ora c. Jose Garcia Villa b, Manuel L. Quezon d.
Carrilo Osias
32. This law provided for the establishment of an elective Philippine
Assembly after the proclamation of complete peace.
a. Jones Law c. Payne-Aldrich Act
b. Cooper Act d. Flag Law
33. This was the first political party in the
a. Conservador c. Nacionalista
b. [kmocrata d. Federal
34. Upon his adviæ, [he Filipino cabinet members resigned from
their posts resulting to what is known as the Crisis Of 1923."
a. Wood c. M. L Quezon
b. J.P. Laurel d. S. OsmeåA

205
35. The Og•Rox Mission in 1931 brought home this law fmm the US.
a. Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act
b. Payne-Aldrich Act
242
 c. 1ÿdings-McDuffie Law
d. Jones Law
36. This law. brought home by the Independence
Mission provided for a ten-year transition pertod under a
commonwealth government.
a. Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act
b. Payne- Aldrich Act c, Tydingg-
Mcl)uffie I
d. lones Law
37. was thc president Of the 1934 Constitutional Convention.
a. ML Quezon c. T. Sartdžko
b. CM Recto d. S. Osmeña
38. Tomas Cabili opposed the proposed 1935
Constitution because it did not provide a system Of popular
clectlnn for the National Assembly in this area.
Lanao c. Basilan
b. Sulu d. Cagayan
39, Dean Worcester sued the editor of El Renacimientc becawse of this
article.
S. Walang Sugat c. Tanika)ang Ginto
b. Aves de Rapina d. Blackjack
40. This was the golden age of zarzuela in the Philippines-
a. 1905-1920 c. 1910-1920
1905-1930 d. 19113030
Essay: (11) pts. each)
Discuss the reasons behind the Filipino-American War (18+9-
1906).
2. What were the cultural changes brought about by the
Americans Lo the Filipinos?
3. How did the militant groups tn the country operate during the
American administration?
 Commonwealth Period
The Transition
Amidst colorful ceremonies, the Commonwealth of the
Phibppneswas inaugurated an Novcmber 15, 1¶35 at the Legislative
Buildmg. The country now had a self-ruling government except in
matters Of treasury and forcign affairs. Recognition Of Philippine
independence by the United Stales was to come in 1945 after this
period Of transition pursuant to the Tydings-McDuffie Law.
Some U.S. officials and dignitaries who attended the ceremonies
were Vice-President Nancc Gamer, Speaker Joseph Byrnes CE the
U.S. House of Representatives, U.S. Secretary Of War George Dem
and Genera I Douglas MacArthur. Chief Justice Ramon Avanceña of
the Supreme Court Sworn into office the new State officials which
include PresidcntManuež l. Quezon. Vice-President *rgio Osmeña
and the members Of the National Assembly. In this occasion, US.
Dern proclaimed the existence of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines and the termination of the Philippine government
established under the Jones Law.
Upon assuming office, President Quezon secured the enactment
of laws that would improve the conditions of the marginahzed society.
He readily adopted the of social referring to justice to the Common
tao by improving his condition.
The policy measures included the following: the
establishment cf a Court of Industrial Relations to resolve labor
disputes and the promotion of social justice as shown by the
Eight-Hour Labor Act and the Minimum Wage Law. Written
contracts between landowners and tenants as requisite, as well
as the establishment of credit facilities for farmers were also
ûlduded. Authority given to the President 10 acquire private
lands for resale to fanners was also part of the social justice
policy.
244
 Considering the problem of national security, the National
Assembly enacted Conmonwealth Act NO. l, the National
Defense Act, which provided for army. In formulating the
Philippine defense system, President Quezon requested and
obtained the

services Of General Douglas MacArthur who the Field

Marshal of the Philippine Army.
Filipino-American relations continued in the transition period
provided bv the Tydingg•MCDuffie Law. In 1937, Quezon and
President Roosevelt agreed to create a joint Philippine-American
committee to probe into the economic problems of the Philippines and
to recommcnd a program for economic development. The Joint
Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs (J PC. PA) was
established on April 14, 1937. For over a year, conferences were held
in Washington, San Francisco and in Manila. In 1938, the J PCPA
recommended the grant Of political independence to the Philippines
On July 4.1946 and the extension ofPhilippine-American preferential
tradc to December 31.1960.
Growth ofagriculture, commerce and industries took place
in the economy although this may be attributed to a considerable
number Of foreign capitalists who had investments in the
Country. The Chinese for one, heavily invested in industries
which included rice production, tobacco, hemp, copra, logging
and timber, manufacturing, banking and real estate. They also a
big percent Of the retail trade. Together with the Americans,
they controlled the country's foreign Iradc.
Aside from t he Chinese, the Japanese also bv and large invested
in the cottnLry. Prior to Japanese invasion in the country, the J
had already penetrated the Philippines for economic masons.
In 1903, when Baguio was chosen as summer capital, the Americans
hired one thousand five hundred Japanese workers to build the zigzag
road to that city.
After the road was completed, one hundrcd Of them stayed
and migrated to Davao to work on American hemp and coconut
plantations. By 1907. thew leader, Kyosaburo S. Ohta had
formed the Ohta Development Compa ny Soon othci Japanese
were established. By 1930, the Japanese had
practically controlled the deep-sea fishing- industry. By 1935, a
big percentage of the abaca production in Davao camc from the
Japanese corporati(ns. They likewise invested in mining,
logging, manufacturing and extractive industries. Thus, prior to
the outbleak Of World War Il, Davao had a big population of
Japanese migrants.
In these Japanese enterprises, Filipinos were often used as fronts
or dummies. Alarmed by this situation. the National Assembly
the Anti-Dummy Law in May 1939 which punished
who would allow themselves to be used as fronts by alien
businessmen and investors. The government in this manner
attempted to secure the utilization Of resources by Filipinos
There WAS also a growing apprehension over the political
and social consequCnCCS Of unchecked immigration of a big
number of foreigners, especially the Chinese and thc Japanese.
Thereupon in Mav 1940, the Philippine Immigration Law wag
enacted. The law lim;ted to the number of permitted
annually to enter the muntry.
Civic-minded citizens, supportivc Of the governmenes program
in enabling Filipinos to engage in retail merchandising, established
the National Economic Protectionism Association (NEPA) and t_hc
Consumers' Cooperative League of the Philippines. Consequently,
Filipino participation in retail trade substantially improved.
In accordance to Act No. 184 enacted by the National
Assembly in 1936, the Institute ofNational Language was
established to make a study of the different Philippine languages
for the purpose of evolving and adopting a national language.
After a comprchcnsive Study Of the country's language
condition, the institute to President Quezon thc
adoption Of Tagalog as the basis of the national language.
On December 30, 1937, Quezon proclaimed Filipino as the
national language. The teaching the national language in all
246
schools in the country began on June 19, 1940. By virtue Of Act
No. 570, Filipino was declared as one of the official languages,
July 4, 1946.
To promote mstruction among Filipinos, President Quezon
created the National Council of Ed •Ration in 1936 toservc as
advisory body on mattcrs regarding education. Dr. Rafael
Palma, became its first chairman. The council made
recommendations for the further etùtancement of the system of
education in the country. Vocation and adult education wcre
given cmphasis. Two years after, the National Assembly enacted
a law establishing vocational schools in various parts the
courlrv_
Jn trying to attain an increased number of children to go school
ing, the National Assembly passed Educational Decree Of 1940,
which shortened the. clemcntary course from scvcn years to six. The
minimum age for Grade I was raised to sevcn. School calendar was
Changed from June to March to July to April
 Other accomplishments Of the Commonwealth Government inc]
•ded the creation of thc followingnew offices: National Economic
Council. Cetisus Commission, and the Commission of Mindanao and
Sulu. Filipmization of the judiciary from the Supreme Court to the
municipal courts was completed. Woman suffrage was finally allowed
as shown in the May 14, 1935 plebiscite to ratify the 1935
Constitution. Pursuant to the Public Ikfendcrs Act. appointment of
public defenders (government lawyers) was made to extend legal
services tv the people. New chartered cities were also established —
Cebu, Iloilo, Bacolod, Davao, Zamboanga San Pablo, Quezon City,
Cavite and Tagaylay.
Three amcndmcnts to the 1935 Philippine Constitution were
ratified by the national onJune 1 S, 1940. The amendments
included the tenure of the office of the President and Vice-
President to four years with reelection for another term. Another
legislative revigion is the establishment Of a bicameral Congress
of the Philippines, with the Senate as Epper I louse and the House
Of
Representatives as Lower Housc. The creation of an independent
Commission on Electiore* composed of three members to all
elections was a ISO part Of the ævised pxovision.

2. Decade of Unrest
It was in the 1930s when Hitler's troops occupied Austria,
and Po]and and invaded Norway, tknmark. France, the
Soviet Union and the rest of Europe. Japan occupied Manchuria in
1932 and five years later invaded China. In 1940, Japan occupied the
northern part Of French InclO•China and the following year the whole
Frynch colony. America and Britain consequently imposed economic
sanctions on Japan. America froze Japanese assets in America to t
Japan from using these her advantage. Britain renounced her
commercial treaties with Japan.
The imperialistic design of Japan in Southeast Asia could
not Simply be ignored. The Commonwealth government feared
that the country would be the next target; thus it tried to lay its
groundwork for any contingency. Compulsory training of able-
bodied Filipino youths under the supervision of Genera] Douglas
MacArthur was made. Ln July 1941, the Philippine aesetve and
regular forces joined forces with the United Army. This
248
combined nulitary known as United States Armed Forces in the
Far East (USAFFE) was placed under the cornmand Of General
MacArthur.
The Civilian Frncrgencv Administration was likewisc
organized. The Philippine National Red Cross conducted
practice evacuation drills in Manila and in other towns. The first
simulated blackout was conducted in Manila on July 10, 1941. In
October cf the same year, the whole archipelago experienced
other simulated blackout.
Notwithstanding the diversificatiun and growth of agricultural
production, the living conditions of the farmers did not improve.
Exorbitan rental fees, arbitrary ejecl[on and other agrarian problems
intensified their agony. Though the previous government as'umed
control of many estates, still many tracis Of land were sold to private
American entrepreneur and big Filipino iandowners_ The problems Of
the peasants were compounded when somc influential landowners
resorted to a system of landownership Characterized by fraudulent
resurvey ot their estates,
Conscious Of their common gricvances, the peasants formed
0¾anizations to their objectives. One of these orûan;zations was the
Kapisattan Panahon Na Onc Time Has Come). composed cf lenan(s in
haciendas in Dina!upihan, Bataan; San Rafac!. San lldcforuso, Bigaa,
and Polo in Bulacan; San Pedro Tunasan in Laguna; and Lian in
Batangas. The members were concemed With the resale Of the lands
to thc tillers.
Other peasant organizations were Ma (It Has Come),
composed of tenants of E lacienda Buenavista in San Rafael and
Onus Na (It is Time) in a Jesuit estate at San Pedro, Laguna.
From 1935 10 the Outblrak of war Ln 1941, the recognized
leader Of the peasantry in Centrai Luzon was Pedro Abaa Santos,
known as Don Pcrico. A bar topnotcher arid a member of the
landed aristocracy, Don Perico was elecled in 1917 to the
Philippine Assembly. In 1929, he founded his Socialist Party,
Regarded as a traitor by his hacendcro he devoted
the remaining years of his life to the cause of the peasants. Undcr
his guidance, the peasants and rural workers conducted many
protest actions, fmm strikes to the burning of rice and cane fields
and the carting awav of farm produce.
249
3. Entry ofJapanese Imperial Forces
The Philippines was still getting used to the American
colonial lifestyle when World War Il (1939-1945) broke out. The
Countrv was drawn into this war al-iÿõTÃñïenæThe Japónese in
the country was meant to America's lines cf the
Pacific as Japan sought to expand her empire in the region.
While Admiral K. Nomura was in Washington to present Japan's
peace proposals to the American officials, the Japanese forces on
December 7. 1941
Hawaii,Ãñõ main base Of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. This resulted
to the men. The Japanese also launched offensive
attacks in Malaya, Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island, Midway
Island and the Philippines. On that tragic day, Theodore
Roosevel t asked the US Congress to declare war, which the
with only one disœnting vote.
-Ihe general offensive plan Of the Japanese was to acquire the
Dutch and British in Southeast Asia, which include
Malaya and the I)ulch East Indies (now Indonesia). In order to
carry the scheme, the Japanese navy and air had to destroy the
U.5. Pacific Fleet.
At the dawn of 8, 1941 (Philippine time), thc Japanese
bombers under the command cf General Masaharu Homma
conducted air attacks in various_2þce-s of the Philippines. They
dêSFõÿemFãiññTiiîvÄaãenses ih Dav
•rba, and Clark IGÃcoun\ry had few planes 10 forces. -American
planes on the ground were caught by
Davao was bombed twice 8. ThcJapanese were able to in
Batan Island Without On experienced its fixst wartime air
raid.
Capt. Jesus Villamor Of the Philippine Air Corps defiantly
led a flight af pursuit planes against the Japanese who were thcn
raiding Field. He was able to destroy an enemy plane the aerial
combat, which took place December On the Same day, the
Japanese invaders made their first landing in Aparri and Vigan.
Two

250
ñavao. Two days Grces, under the command Of Lt. Homma
landed in Lingayen, Pangasinan.
At the onset of the attacks. civilian structures wcrc burned and
crumbled in —Succeedütg explosions. Many were shockód. Bodies
with the wounded. Emergency operations were by the casualties to
nearbv
On December after the enem all
remaining 14 were with rawn toFort Darwinin Australia for
repair service. Il Navy patmJ bombers werc flown to the
Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia today) to join the Asiatic
fleet.
General MacA1thur was left with a few figh ters and observation
planes.
The landing of General Homma's main force. the 48th Division
in Lingayen made Gcneral MacArthur finally decide to use the War
Orange 3 (WPO-3). This was the master plan later renamed
Rainbow 5, wh ich ordered the withdrawal of all island forces to
Bataan Delaying action was to be enforced agairst the enemy
forces in Bataan until the arrival Of the U.S. reinforccment. It also
required the evacuahon of all civilians with-in the area before the entry
Of troops, The USAFFE officers and mcn hadin mind the aid while
on systemattc withdrawal.
In the afternoon of Decemtxr 24, President Quezon, his family
and his War Cabinet moved to Corrcgidnr. Those chosen to
accompany him were Of Justice Jose Abad Santos, VicePresident
Sergio Osmeña. General Basilio Valdez, and Cal. Manuel Nieto. p.
Lqurel„ Jorge B. Vargas, and other top officials in Manila were
commanded to Stay behind to look after welfare cf the people during
this time or crisis. Immediately, Laurel was sworn in as Secretary of
Juslice to take the place Of Abad Santos.
The enemv bombers were hitting Port Manila at the time
and his group were about to leave. On board SS Mayon
they wcre able to reach the island fortress. On December 30,
1941, the secone inaugural ceremonies of lhe Commonwealth
Were held outside the Corregidor tunnel. President Quezon took
his Oath af office as President Of the Commonwealth. marking
the ctlrunencernent ofhis second term. Administering the oath of
office to President Queza-'n and Vice-President Osmcña was
Chief Justice Jose Abad Santos.
251
 the City 01 Manila_from further destruction. on
26 MacArthur General the forces thy stop
Shooting. Düring that time, the northern and
southern arnues -OTFUSÄFFE were retreating to Bataan.
Almost was panic and fear. Many peopie
stayed in air-raid shelters for many days. Others went 10 the
fields, hills and fishponds, mindful of the radio broadost by the
Volte of America in Corregidor that the Japanese soldiers
committing areas they have occupied.
General MacArthur ordered all troops must have crossed
Calumpit Bridge (in Bulacan) by six in the moming Of
19Ç,_ before their explosives destroy the This was to enemy fõrn
it. By the time the people Of the -province they began to prepare
for evacuation to the outlying fields.
By January 2, 1942, the Japanese forces had already entered
Manila. The peopleof nearby areas lefthurriedly. Evacuation became
the frequently repeated word as families gathcred their portable
belongings, st-cred and preserved food and went into safer places like
the mountainsides for refuge.
For many days, the people stayed in cvacua Peoply for
threatening air raids. The bolder ones to Itturn to their to get they failed
to take along with them while fleeing hastily from the forces.
As the Japanese occupied the towns, thcir immediate task was to
rcinstate order in the area. Tn achieve this, the Japanese employed
austere rules to demand obedience from the local inhabitants. Once
this was achieved, they worked for the development and procurement
ofwar materials and strategic resources. The Japaneæ rushed to deliver
the immediate nccds of their war machinery. Many Filipinos thought
that the stay of the Japanese would take a month or thœe,
American forces made the Filipino people hope that the invading
Japancse forces will be repulsed immed iatcly.
With the formation Of the Bataan Defense Force (BDF), the
North Luzon Forces were deactiva led. The BDF established the
advance Command at Signal Hill near Mt. Samat. The firstMain Line
af Rcsistance (Ml-R) 20 miles from Moron; to Abucay. The Abucay
line stretched across the peninsula to Mauban on the west.
For three rnonths, the Filipino—American troops, which
numbered around 80,000 (65,000 Filipinos and 15,000 Americans)

252
held out in Bataan aga inst the assault Of the enemy forces. Thougands
0 f soldiers and civilians perished due to malnutrition, dysentery and
malaria.
In the midst of enemy attacks tn the Phi'ippines, president
Roosevelt ureed President Quezon to nee 10 the United States Since
the could inevitablv use him as the leader to rally Filipinos behind
Japan- President Quezon and his family left Conegidör for Australia
on February IS on board submarine Swordfish. From there, they sailed
to America. In Washington. President Quezon headed his
Commonwealth govemrnent-in-exite.
Likewise, General MacArthur on Orders Of US Pzesident, left
CorregidorforAustralia on night of March Il, 1942 to assume
command ot the newly designated Southwest PaciticArea (SWPA).
On this day, the CSAFFE was deactivated. ,ßonstituted was the united
States Army Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP) k.u1der the command
Of Major General ;onathan Wainwaght. After landing in Australia on
March 17, 1942, Géncral MacArthur madc his promise to the
Filipinos, "l came through and I shan return.
Maiör Gen. Wainwright prontdted Lieu tenant Genera) on March
21. bccame the Commander of Fibpin0-Arnerican troops, the USAFIP
(formerly USAFFE). The U.S. Air Force and Other units in the
Western Sector were able to trim down the Japanese night raiders at
the beaches cf Mariveles.
Gen. Homma'} 50-day deadline to take the Philippines had
ended. Homma failed to conquer the country, in time. He called
a halt to offensive action and waited for reinforcement from
Tokyo. he Div ision waspulled out to invade the Netherlands
EastIndies. For one and a half months, small military acaion took
place in Bataan. During this period, the Japanese gent
propaganda teams with leaflets from planes and portable
speakers, urging Filipino fightcrs to surrender. They even played
sentimental music and recordings of pleas from loved ones. 'Lhey
asked the Fùjpino soldiers to desert tileir American comrades-in-
arms. assuring them Of safe passage outside the peninsula. But
the Filipino soldiers ignored this kind Of psychological warfare.
As the battle in Bataan went on. more and more Civilians were
arriving in I lagonoy, Bulacan. Most Of the came from Abucay, Pilarr
Orion, Limay. Bagac and Mariveies.

253
These towns were totally destroyed by war. The exit point (rom the
Bataan pen insula bprrio Camachile in Orton and the nearest point cf
deliverance was Hagonoy, the closest bayside town from Bataan to
Bulacan.
'L-he POWs who were able to escape March, sought safety
in the hands ofsome Filipino families. They hid their uniforms
to.prevent Japancsc patrols or sentries from them ag
soldiers. Old women pretended to be their mothers Or older
sislcrs.
The exodus 10 Hagonoy resulted to an increase of
population from around 25,000 to 90,000 The Religious of the
Virgin Mary (RVM) based in Hagonoy proved 10 be very helpful
in providing for the needs Of the people. This was the Only
religious congregation that ovynly assisted the wounded, the
hungry and the orphaned. They placed a number Of Children
under their cuslodv. What they did was not easy, for their selfless
service could mean someihing elsc to the Japanese that might
cost a number Of lives among the religious.
At the end of March, General Homma finally got the 'nililarv
support he needed. The Japanese brought in reinforcement from
Singapore. On April 3, Good Friday (after Singapore surrendered to
Japan) the enemy forces launched their final offensive in Bataan.
Bombers attacked anything that moved. The main thrust centered On
Mt. Samat, whex hostiliLies started from S A.M. aed laslcd until 2
P.M. The forest dimmed with smoke and explosion.
The capture ot Mt. Smat would give the Japanese a kev
Observation post, which overlooked the -whole Bataan
peninsula. General Homma pressed hard on this arca to deny the
American forces the chance to regroup and mount a counterattack. I
low-ever, General Edward p_ King managed 10 pull together the
American 31a Infantry Regiment and the Philippine *out units.
Resistance began to weaken on April 7. The aggressiveness
Of the enemy forces. the long days in the battlefields and the
shortage of food and medicLne claimed the lives of many, The
next day, conditions worsened and the Bataan defense forces
were disintegrating. To prolong the fight would mean the loss of

254
more men. On April 9, around 78.000 men from Bataan under
General Edward King surrendered, while the rest headed hy Lt.
Gen. Wainwright had escaped to Corregidor and to surrounding
provinces. General King sent peace feelers to the Japanese.
Surrender negotiations were conducted in front of the public
school in Lamao. Since General King was not the senior affic.et in the
Philippines, the Japanese refused to recognize the surrender Of the
whole Bataan force. They acœptcd the surrender cf each unit as they
laid down their arms. (Today, a Shrine Valor was erected in Mt. Samat
to commemorate the historic defense of Bataan.)

255
 infamous Death March began in Mariveles and Cabcaben on
April 10, 1942. Thc Filipino-American troops were forced at
gunpoint to march from Bataan to San Fernando, Pampanga. Somc
were kicked and beaten. Those wounded had their legs Or head
wounds bandaged with shirt um-forms. were carried on army wool
blankets folded in hammocks, in bamboo poles and carried bv other
comrades. Other soldiers limped on crutches. made out of tree
branches. Those who were too sickty to walk wezp left to die. The
Japanese army had little provisions for Filipino-American POWs.
Around 10,000 lives were claimed by this infamous trail.
The POWs reached San Fernando and WCrC billeted in
schoolhouses, warehouses and vacanf lots. The next day, the weary
marchers were herded like cattle into the boxcars. Close to IDOPOWs
were huddled in every boxcar which was supposed to accommodate
only 50 people. Manv cf the weak and exhausted passengers died,
The freight train stopped at Capas. Tarlac. Fmrn there. they walked
seven more ta Camp O'Donncl, the prison çamp, Some 56n
reached the camp alive on April 15.1942.
The camp contained the barracks Of the Phi iippine Army b
efotp the Japanese octupled the area. It was actually a grvup of
unfinished strnctu made Of bambco and Cogon grass and fenced with
barbed wire. The suffering of the survivors did not end there. Those
who managed to stay alive had to endurc the dirty surround mgs, nger
and diseases, which further reduced their number
In Manitd, the people could hear successive bombir*s directed
the island Corregidoc Gencral MacArthur had established
USAFFE headquarters on this on December 24, 1941. after he had
declared War Plan Orange in effect. After the fall of Bataan, the
Japanese pounded the island daily. The Japanese also an observation
balloon daily to spot Corregidot's gun positions.
Even though the enemy constantly assaulted CorregidOr, the
in the island fortress gave downright protection to it. Inside the
Malinta a radio station had been established, called the Voice
Freedom. Major Carlos 2 Romulo, the prewar editor of thc Philippine
Herald, headed this station in broadcasting news to men iri Bataan
and In areas like Manila. Well-known wrtters like Salvador p. Lopez,
Leon Ma. Guerrero and including Major Romulo prepared the scripts.
 The Japanese were able to seize a beachhead on May 5. The
Americans tried to counterattack but were stopped by Japanese
artillery fire and the appearance ofJapanese tanks in the area. Should
21S
the Japanese forces reach Malinta TUnnel. the noncombatants
in the tunnel and the wounded in the hospital would be in great
danger.
General Wainwright decided surrender Corregidor and the
harbor forts. In the morningof May 6, General Wainwright
a message to General Homma through the Voice of Freedom offering
his surrender with men directly under him At noon, the American flag
was lowered from the flagpole and replaced with the flag of surrender.
Wainwright taken to Cabcaben, Bataan to meet Homma. Upon
learning that Wainwright only offered to surrender the harbor forts,
Homma rejected his surrender. The American general explained that
he had command only of Corregidor and its satellite islands. He could
na longer communicate with General Sharp, who tock command of
Visayas and Mindanao, because he had no radio facilities. Realizing
the hopelessness of his position, at midnight of the mc day,
Wainwright signed the surrender documents acwrdmg to Homma's
wishes.
On May 7, Wainwright was brought to Manila to a message
to General Sharp and the guerrilla leaders Luzon, saying that he
was taking command and ordering them to surrender. American
commanders in the Visavas and Mindanao debated on Whether
the orders were genuine a r;.d therefore should be followed or
whether they had been forced on Wainwright bv the þarymege„
making it unlawful.
General MacArthur himself radioed General Sharp that
Wainwright's surrender was not valid, General MacArthur
ordered Sharp to initiate guerrilla operations against the enemy
forces.
Thc POWs were brought to Capas. On August 11, 1942,
General Wainwright and rankinc Officers were shipped to
Formosa and later to Japan. On Corregidor, the Japanese

257
maintained a reinforced company with about 300 mostly
American technicians restore necessary irksžallations.
The battered Filipino and Amencan soldiers subrruttcd to the
enemy forces. They received lay down their arms. Life in the prison
camp Was a grueling sequel to the agony in
Nevertheless, the strength and will 'Of the Filipino people did
not waver even after the surrender Of Bataan and Corregidor to
the Japanese. Underground 6ucrrdla movements were put into
action by Filipino and American soldiers, well as unyielding
civilians in the coun tryside.
Chapter Test No. 8
Name: Date:

Course,Year, Section:

i. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the correct answer.

Writc the letters on the provided. (20pts.)
Commonwealth Act No. 1 is otherwi* known as
a. National Defense Act
b. Public Defenders Act c.
Eight-I [our Labor
Act d Minimum
Wage aw
2. After the zigzag mad was completed around one
hundred Japanese stayed and rrúgrated to a-
Pampanga c. Davao
b. Bulacan d.

Philippine Immigration Law of

1940 limited the
number of
200800

258
 b. 5001,000

4. The teaching of thc national language in schools

began on June 19
1936 1940 b -
1939 d. 1941
The first chairman of the National Council
for
Education was
Jose AbadSanto#Manuel Nieto
b. Rafael Palma d. Jorge Vargas

6.
Under the 1935 Philippine Constilution as amended in
1940, the tenure of office of thc President and
Vice-President was
a. three yearsfive years
b. fou r years d. six years
7. Practice evacuation drills in Manila and other towns
were conducted by the
a. Philippine National Red Cross
b. USAFFE
c. Civilian Emergency Administration
d. city and municipal gavcrnments
One hundred fifty peasants from Bulacan armed
with bolos and palhks marched to the municipal
hall of
a. San Rafael c- San Miguel b- Angat -d. San
Ildefonso
9. In 1929, Pedro Abad Santos founded the
Communist Party of he Philippines
b. Kapisanan Panahcm Na Socialist party
259
 c. Socialist Par w
d. NEPA
10. Dec. 22, Lt. Masaharu Ilonuna's main
forces landed in
a. Davao c. Manila
b. Pangasinan d- Tarlac
11. Capt. Jesus Villamor defiantly led a flight of
pursuit planes against the Japanese who were
then raiding
a. Clark Air Base c. Subic Naval Base
b. Sangley Point d. Nichols Field
12. The station Of Voice Of America was in
a- Pampange c. Bataan b.
Corregidor d_ Manila
13. Rainbow 5 refers to the the
formation Of a war cabinet
b. Quezon and family to leave Australia for the
U.s.
C. proclarnation Of Manila as city withdrawal
of USAFFE forces to Bataan

260
 14. The Filipino-American troops were forced at
gunpoint to walk from Bataan to
a. Capas, Tariac
b. Guagoa, Pampanga
San Fernando, Pampanga
d. Dagupan, Pangasinan
15. Corrcgidor surrendered 10 'he Japanese on
a. May 3, 1941 May6, 1941
b. May 5, 1942 d. May 6, 1942

Essay: (10 pty each)

I. How did President Manuel Quezon implement the Social
Justice Program under his administration?
2. Discuss Ehe_ gruesome picture of the Philippines dui ing World
War 11.
 The Japanese Occupation
1. Japanese Martial Law
On January 3, 1942, a day after Manila became an occupied
City, Homma, commander-in-chief Of I he
lapanese Imperial Forces issued a proclamation announcing the
end Of American occupation and the imposition of martial law
in thc One of his first orders was {he surrender cí firearms.
Thosc who were st-ill caught with weapons were detained at the
dungeors Of Fort Santiago and Other detention posts.
Detention camps became places Of torture. Water cure, pulling
Of fingernailsand toenails, pouring and burning Of extremities
gasoline and severe beatings were some of the abuses committed to
prisoners.
Americans and other lorrngr.ers Who were allies Of
America and Great Britain were rounded up in Manila and in
other parts of the country as early as January 4, 1942. Most ef
them were held in custody al the University Of Santo Tomas
campus in Manila, a twenty-two hectare university campus.
Other internment camps established Los Banes, Laguna and
in ùbanatuan, Nueva EcijaPriests suspected of engaging in
subversion activities were also Imprisoned like Father Rufino
Santos wha wa5 then a young priest and later became the first
Filipino Cardinal of the Catholic Church and Archbishop Of
Manila.
General Ilomma allowed the laws then in force in the
Commonwealth to stay for the moment. HC crdercd all public
officials to contú•tue their duhes.
Jorge B. Vargas, who was then the mayor Of greater Manila
before the Japanese occupation Of the city, had been instructed by
President Quezon and General MacArthur to cooperate with the
enemy. This was to avert further anguish on the Filipino people.
262
 On the very same day that the city of Manila was occupied,
Vargas met with a represcntative Of Imperial Japanese forces to see
to it that peace and order be maintained and that public utilities such
as water, electricity and be restored.
Three weeks later, on January 23, 1942, Vargas received an
order from General to assume the position of the Executive
Commissioner of the Central Administrative Organization of
Philippines. He had to coordinatc the activities of all existing
central administrative in thc Philippines and was to
scc to it that all commands of the Japanese commander-inChief
were carried out.
Movernuut was registered with the imposition of curfew, first
frotn 8:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m., and finally from midnight to 6:00 a.m.
from May 18 onwards. After the fall Of Bataan, total blackout was
lifted on May 4, 1942.
Arbitrary and executions were done by the kempeltai
(military police) any time of the day. The people were not
assured of their safety in their houses nor in the The must
dreaded Japanese word was kara, which meant two things
depending upon the movement cf the hand. When the word was
mentioned with an inward wave of the hand it meant, •'Comc
here!" The. moment Was uttered with an outward Wave Of
the hâñd it "Scram!
or '"Dismiss!" For the slightest offense. soldiers would slap the face
of the civilians.
Many were also executed on mere suspicion Uf being with
the resistance movement. Other offenses punishable by death
were arson, murder, robber-v. spreading aga inst the Japanese
forces. cutting militazy lines of communication, counterfeiting
and spy ing and printing 01 distributing anti-Japanese leaflets
l...h'ring the initial period uf the Japanese occupation, no
one Could travel without a pass from its army. This prohibition
in travel was Lifted a month and a half after the fall or
Corregidor. In Manila, the streetcar was still operational. Many
people rode bicycles and doknrs (wartirr* carriages pulled by
horses). The casco, a large bane, pulled by motorboats
Yatvsported goods and from Manila to Guagua, Pampanga.
Moet Of the passenger coaches and cars of the Manila
Railroad Company were destroyed at the of Japanese
invasion.
Taiiba, Vanguardia, Tribune and Liwayu.tav were allowed to
continue publication but under rigid censorship by the government.
Some Old Hollywood films were shown in movie houses. Many
theaters switched from movies to stage shows.
Knowing that the Church had played an important role in
shaping Filipino minds for centuries, the ]apanese did not wúsh
to
incur open hostility with the Church. As early as January 14, 1942,
Colonel Murosawa, head of the Religious Section of the Japanese
Army, issued a Declaration to Christians the Philippines in whià he
expressed the view of the Japanese army to assure freedom of
religion. By 1943, parish priests were being required to use their
pulpits to convülce the people that itwas to resist Japanese rule.
Conciliatory moves were also done to the Philippine
Independent Church. The Japanese also showed leniency towards the
Muslims. In contrast, the American Protestant ministers were
detained at the Santo Tomas Inlernment Camp.
Japanese Premier Hideki •IhjO said on January 21, 1942 before
the Japanese Diet, Japan's legislature, that the Philippincs would be
granted independence provided it recognizes Japan's program Of
establishing "the Philippines for the Filipinos" as a member Of the
Glœater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. He visited Manila on May
6, 1942. He noted that the Filipinos desire to cooperate with the
Japanese government.

2. Life During the Wartime Years

Neighborhood and district associations were o:ganized
based in an executivc order isued by Vargas on August 8, 1942.
"for thc purpose of providing means for protection under joint
responsibility. They were supposed to cooperate with the

264
Japanese Army to the residents within the ama of jurisdiction
from ant-iJapane:w activities.
Each neighborhood association was to be composed of at least
ten lanulies, their leader of which was to be appointed by their
respective town ox city mayor. Then they, in turn into d istrict
associations. The Of the district association was appointed by the
mayor with the approval Of thc directors Of the local branet Of the
military administration.
The head of each family had to report to the Constabulary
officers, the leaders of the neighborhood association, or Other
competent authorities any movement 01 bandits or other
suspicious persons in their place. He was also to report changes
within his family, such ag birth or death cf any family member.
The Sendenbu, the propaganda section of the Japancge
army, and later the Hodobu. cr Department Of Information did
its best to convince lhe people to collaborate with them. They
Sought to
promote the cultural ideas af the New Order and the policy of the
Greater East Asia Co-Pmsperitv Sphere.
Violation of Japanese orders and laws were considenpd hostile
acts, which meant death penaltv. Also punishable Wiih deaih was the
injuring of a Japanese soldier- the assailant could not be seen, some
Filipinos welt held hostage by the Japanese mi]itary.
The Japanese military authorities instituted outright
confiscalion and direc\ management of banking institutions and
public ulflit-ies; including transportation, They also supervised
the production and distribution of agricultural for systematic
extraction.
[n different parts of the country, the Japanese ref'oated inter•
island ships thev themselves sunk for revival of transport
serviceTrucks and automobiles were shipped to Japan in huge
volumes. Oil companies were forced to sell their stocks to thc armv.
This led the Fikipmos to use their improvised charcoal-fed
traasporlatian facilitiey They assumed direct managemenl of railroad,
electrical, telephone and other facilities fram different companies.
 The schools were again made opcn to the public. Books used
before the war werc again utilized, except the ones with pictures and
stories about the Americans. get the Filipinos 10 the Japanese side,
the United States and England were prajecled as benl on world power.
Japanese language and culture were ta aglit and disse'nüla\ed. Various
contests with attractive cash prizes were held to encourage further the
sludy 01 the language.
Tight restriclians on the movement of commodities by the
Japancsc had made the supply of rice, sugar, and other crops scarcer.
Prices of commodities had increased to the point when must people
could no longer afford 10 buy As months passed by, very few families
could afford to enjoy three meals in one day.
The worsening food crisis reached a point where the
populace started eating plain lugaw (rice porridge). At times
they subsisted on binatOR or boiled grains of dried corn with
grated coconut and pinches of salt. Toasted rice was brewed as
coffee but even these lowly meals could hardiv be available
regularlv.
In spite af the government's ardent call for national food
production, the peoffle suffered from deprivation and starvation.
Several well-to-do rami]ies had tD dig up the canned goods they had
placed under the ground at the start of the war.

266
 The Japanese soldiers confiscated przìay stocks stored in the
kamaìig (warehouse) of the farmers. They ransacked private
backyard

!oading their trucks with chicken and hogs. These frequent food
forays virtually stopped land production causing imminent food
scarcity and ¥òealating prices of prime commodities. A cavan of rice
sold clandestinely in Japanese money cost thousands of pesos.
Currency and banks were also closely monitored. The
Department of Finance of the Japanese Military Administration
controlled all extsling banks. One of the first that the Japanese
did was to circulate military money, aiso known as military pass
monev or war notes. It wag in peso and centavo denominations.
These bills had becn prepartd before the war.
The peso was decreed equal to the Japanese yen in its monctary
value. Since the peso was equivalent to two yens before the war, this
order favorably served the puspose of the Japanese. They found
everything cheap in the Philippines. Bales of japarese war notes,
without any foreign exchange value, were on the people. Ln local
transactions, the Filipinos used this Japanese money for the payment
of commodities, which before would cost a few in Philippine pesos.
The new peso bills looked like play money. They lacked serial
numbers. They were not backed by silveror gold leserves. Filipinos
were doubtful to accept them. The Japanese, however, threatened
punishment to anyone who refused the war notes. The threats
convinced the Filipinos to use them but they haughtily caned it
Mickey Mouse money. Others called it gurami, a small fish so
plentiful and cheap and apo, the sweet wafer for ice•cream cones,
implying flimsiness. Prewarbülsand coins immediately disappeared as
people chose to keep them for future use.
The Japanese realized the Filipinos wee apathetic about the
mi]itary money. In 1942, the Southern Development Ban_k was
established to finance projects in occupied territorieg in Southeast
Asia. The bank printed war notes and produced a modified 10 note,
which started circulating in 1943. The new notes in denominations of
1, 5, and pesos had scrial numbers this timeThe Rizal Monument was
printed at the front side.

267
 Since the highest denomination was ten pesos, more bills were
required to b£ay basic-necessities as prices soared high. Salaries were
paid in bundles. Eayongs (woven buribags) of small bills were carried
to market.
Severe inflation set in as supplies ran low. Fuel shortage,
confiscation, and deteriaraLing peace and order hampered tuod
production. In March 1942, in order to meet the rice shortage.
the Japanese Military Administration intmduced a fast-maturing
grain from Taiwan called h/orai rice. Experimental farms
directly under the Japanese army control were developed to test
the
The controlled media prcciairned that this would make the
Philippines self-sufficient after a year. However, due to heavy
rains in 1942, many Of these experimental crops were destroyed.
rests hit other crops.
The cotton industry likewise did not fair well. It was readily
affected by ttnfavorablc weather and conditions. Moœover, the
abundance of pests as well as thc rcluctance of the Filipino farmers to
plant a crop that hald to tend and yet destined for Japanese war
factories contributed to this adverse situation.
The exorbitant price of meat resulted to the slaughtering ofcows
and carabaos in large numbers. Farms were running out of work
animals. The administration had to restrict the number of animals to
be killed. Only those certified to be no longer useful in the fields were
to be butchered. To on matches, some families lighted drv
Ofcarabao manure. which bum out slowly and serve as light at night.
Although factories arid stores for prime commodities were soon
reopened, they were not as free to operate. In order to assure steady
supply and affordable prices, a Japanese-controlled economy put into
effect. This involved price control measures, registration and issuance
of permits, and a ration system for basic commodities Like rice, sugar,
matches, laundry soap and cloth.
Hoarding and profiteering were banned. Retailers and
gupplier.g ordered to follow price lists issued by the government.
Pricc tagg had to be displayed Rents wcm also fixed.
Life had become harder for The residents having no land to
cultivate had to gather items ofvalue from their cabinets or
268
drawers. Things like clothes. and kitchenwares were in
buy and sel] in Manila's downtown. They spent the proceeds to
buy food, which theywould be consu ming for a few days.
Many families were forced to sell their furniture and other
personal belongings. Pushcarts loaded with furniture traveling along
the highway, was a common sight. Cascos (local boats) were also
tuqed Ln transporting these items-
The railroad train became a commem vehicie of smuggling rice
to the city at the Tutuban station, where the Japanese sentries lay in
wait for the viajeros (passengers). Among these viajerth* were
children as young as 12 years old. They fought for even available
space on the train. even on the rooftops.
To evade arrest, those carrying half a cavan or would jump
off somewhere at Solis, rondo after their merchandise had been
pushed off the freight or passenger cars by their companions.
They usuatlv did this at night. However, jumpers began to be
plagued by noétumal hijacker; waiting for viajeros to drop their
goods They would then Off with the sacks Of rice before their
owners had the time to jump off the speeding traz•'.
Aside from thc rice business, people became preoccupied
with cigarette making. Steady tobacco supply came from the
North. Sometimes the genuine tobacco leaves were blended with
dried papaya leaves.
Another trade that prospered the era Was the making of fakes and
forgeries. Some doctors made adulterated medicines, while some
lawyers madc fake d«uments. Fake Lucky Strike. Camel, and
Chesterfield cigarettes becamc part of consumers' goods. Clever
counterfeiters produced fake IDs, ration tickets and even Mickey
Mouse. money,
Due to scarcity Of food, medicine and basic serviceg,
thousands died ol' malaria, malnutrition, tuberculosis and other
diseases. Sidfatkinzo!e, the wonder drag Of the period, was sold
at a very high price. Many died on the sidewalks. Such desolate
condition brought about Increase of crime rate, which included
burglary and holdup. Others even tried to kill in order to survive
in a highly competitive and hostile environment.
Disheartened by their dismal situation in the country, a number Of
Filipinos did anything Simply to survive in the wartime years. Some
had lost their social balance and moral strength in these most Irving
times. Others collaborated With the enemy. In the midst of turmoil,
still there were Filipinos who kept their faith in God and waited for
the liberation of the country.

3. Reforming the Philippine Government

On 2, 1942, the Japanse Military Administration
announced thal political parties had been dissolved "of their
free will." The Karisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong
Piliping• (KALIBAPI). a non-ENIitical organization, was
established.

270
 KALIBAPI's aim was to bring about the rapid
reconstruction of the Philippines and the rehabihtaäon Of the
Filipino people. This organization Was designed to coordinate
all activities and services of associations and individuab
concerned with the prcmcticn of the total well-being of every
person and to foster a stable foundation for the New
by inculcating the Asian virtues of hard work, faith. self-
reliance, loyalty, bravely, discipline and self-sacrificc. Jorge
Vargas became the ex-officio president of the KALIBAPI.
Benigno Aquino was appointed director-general Of the said

At their June 18, 1943 convention in Manila, the

KALIBAPI members appointed a committee to nominate the
members of the —'Preparatory Commission for Philippine
Independence (PCPE). Four months after the establishment of the
PCPl, the first draft Of the new Philippine Constitution was
completed. Written in Tagalog and in English, the Constitution
had a preamble and twelve articles. The Constitution was quite
similar to the Commonwealth Constitution however, several
modifications were made in keeping with the requirements Of the
Japanese Occupation. This body Of laws Was not submitted to
the Filipino people for ratification.
With approval of thc Constitution by the members Of the
KALIBAPI and the clcction of Laurel as President of the Republic,
Laurel, Aquino and Vargas flew to Tokyo on September 29, where
they met with }úgh-ranking Japanese officials to discuss Philippine
independence. They made an official cal] on the emperor gn October
2. Then on OctotNr 5, these three Filipino leaders returned to Manila.
Twe days later, the government announced the inauguration of the
Republic Of the Philippines would be on October 14.
Thc Japanese worked for the enlistment of the Philippines
into East Cc-Prosperity long-range economic
plan for Japanese-conquered territories. The pool Of raw
materials from these territories would be a soulte for Japan's
as as outlets for its export prcducts.
4. The Second Republic of the Philippines
On October. 14. 1943, Manila was in a holiday rncx)d, despite the
traöëš-wa•ar. Five hundred eight hundred thousand2e021?
Ethered in front of the L#lative Buildinž-ihatiilarni.ng to witness the
of Philippine-Giepcñdcnce and the inauguratiðn of the_RepuþJic
ðfthe he afternoon , aFact ofAffiance between the Philippi_hes was
Signed by the Philippine
Minister of Affairs, Claro M. Recto and the '@panese
Rñbasgador,
_ 18 Laurel announced the appointment of his cabinet7Craro M.
Recto, minister of foreign affairs; Antonio de las Alas, minister of
finance; TeofiJO Sison, minister Of justice; Quintin Paædes, minister
ot agriculture and commerce' Jose Yu 10. ch iefjustice of the Supreme
Court, and Villa, acting executive gecretarv. The President Republic,
elected by the majority of all members Ôf the National ÃSRernbly, was
given
power by theConstitu$ion He was to serve single term for six
years. Being the commãdcr—in--chieí of all armed forces of the
country. he could place the Philippines or any part of the nation
under martial law, public safety required it. He also declare war
and make peace with the concurrence of two-thirds of all
members Of the National Assembly. And With the agreeynent of
the majority of all members Of the Assembly, he could make
treaäes with Other nations.
The Constitution did not provide for a vice-pœsident, however, the
ranking minister in the Order of prvcedence established by law could
assume presidency in the event of a permanent disability of the
President. The power to makc laws wag vested in the unicameral
National Assembly, which was composcd of provincial governor—
generals and city mayors as ex-officio members and of delegates to be
elected every three years, one from each province and chartered city
The Assembly was to meet in regular session once every year.
Tudicial power was vested in a Supreme Court, composed of a
chief justice and six associate justices who were appointed by the
President with the advice of the Cabinet. The President with the advice
of the Supreme Court appointed judges in the lower court.
 A ran the provincial Civil govemment. The governors and
citv mayors, in an ex-officio capacity became mcmbcrs of the
108-man National Assembly, Civil administration was opcrating
under the supervision of a Japanese garrison commander
headquartered at the provincial capitol.
However, civil administration was ineffectual. The Japanese
continued the local inhabitants. The garrison was tolerant of
the abuses committed by the Japanese military stationed in the
provinces. The supply requisitions were never coursed ta the local
administration. The extended 'apanese Occupation caused widespread
anxiety among the people in the islands.

231
With the inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic,
President' Laurel created to study
changes and to develop a more suitable educational program for
the country. The board advocated enhancement of the Filipino
identitv by giving emphasis to the study Of the natifM•tal
language and history. It also recommended the teaching Of
Asian history and culture.
The board also adopted the semestral system. with a
vacation long enoùgh for thê students to rš,-and in time For the
rainy season 10 lessen disruption Of classes. ßefore the outbreak
Of war, 1940, ca lendar had been changed to four terms
with only one week between terms. This exhausted both students
and teachers.)
TO direct the educational thrust more thoroughly, the
government was given moæ powers to supervise all schools, both
public. and private. President Laurel saw schools as
complementary 10 the family and church in shaping morals and
character.
The governmcnt also gent selected young men to Japan as
to Shtdy at Japanese schools, Of the Japanese
"constabulary taught them Japane.* methods Of discipline. These
 had to bc cleansed of anylhing to upecate in the new
environment.
Simultaneous With the restructuring the educational svstem,
control over med ia and culture was aLgn emphasized by t.hp H&iobu.
Movies, Stage radio programs and even letters at the post office were
checked.
Under the Laurel administration, thc media wag ugcd to
spæad more Filipino propaga nda linc- Posters and leaflets called
for the supporl of the republic- New periodicals such as Filipina/a
monthly magazine were also read not onlv in Manila but also in
the provinces. On the anniversary of the Japanese-sponsored
republic, a new Bcthperiodicalstricd a more Filipino
pe:spective rather than other publications.
also printed for the republic. showing the
nationalist orientation. One stamp issued to commemorate
showed a Filipina in traditional costume, with the Philippine flag
and the monument in the background.
In publications, the flag was highlighted. The Philippine
national anthem was translated into Taga_log. rt replaced the
Japanesc
national anthem and Awit Sa Paglikha ng Bagong Pilipinas." Even
cigarette boxes were used for the ptx»paganda. One box bore the
slogan, A Free Philippines in United Asia." Another had "Freedom
Implies Responsibility" written on the box. The brand was called

President Lautel went his Way to Filipinize the Catholic

He wrotc the pope explaining\that Filipinos would understand the
better if they ran the and religious schools. He met with
religious leaders to explain his views. The government tried to
keep the Church under some degree of control.
The Military Ad ministrat ion did thc affairs
cf the Church. The Bureau Of Religious Affairs was created as an
agency under the Executive Cornmision to Control the of
the religious orders like the issuance of permits for special
collections, meetings. and œligious parades. The Church was
ordered to report the amount of money it had received as
donations. Its financial status was obliged tobc disclosed. All
priests, ministers, and other religious officials had to secure per-
init from the gavernment in solemnizing marriages.
The Board Of which replaced the Bureau of
Information and Public Seatt•ity Of the Execuhve Commission,
was created. This prevented the printing Of reports that were not
in keeping with the republic's ideals.
Following the government's pro-Filipino line, the Knbätaang
Pangarap ni Riztll (The Youth Of and
Revtrufilnism (Revive True Filipinisrn), were organized
according to some histonans, Both civic organizations aimed at
developing nationalism consciousness. ThLs cultural campaign
wag launched somehow to make the Filipinos aware of Japancge
and Filipino native traditiorus. Somehow, prolonged exposure to
Asian spirit could win Filipino cooperation and sympathy.
Pre-war American films, previously censored, were still
shown in some mcvic theaters. Japanese films glorifying the
Japanese war machine and way of lite were also shown in between
presentations of American films as part of the cultural
propaganda.
The Japanese discouraged the Fihpmos from writing in
In a way, these Asian colonizers contributed to the promotion of
the Tagalog language. Thcy bolstered the enthusiasm of local
writers to rediscover the richness of the country's mother tongue.
Livayway, the onlv Tagalog weekly was allowed to continue
publication.

213
A number Of writers began to crcatc short stories and verses
similar to the Japanese haiku. magazines that became popular
during those days were the Philippine and Pillars. However.
ítvedom ofexpression was suppressed during thc occupation
period The writers who were limited to their subject matter had
the rural scene as the popular thcmc. Moreover. the writers were
not well compensated. •lheir income was good enough to buy
them a küo of coffee-corn.
1943 the Dramatic Philippines, was formed to Stage popular
plays in English, adapted in Tagálog. These plays were performed at
the Old Metmpolitan Theater. Under Lhe management ot a group of
college actors, the organization presented highly acclaimed plays
translated in Tagalog such as Passion play, Caesar, Golden Boy,
and Applesauce. Sa Pula, Sa Puti, an adaptation of Julian Cruz
Balrnaseda's 'sang Kuwaltang Abaka became a crowd favorite. Musical
Philippines, Incu a sister organization Of Dramatic Philippines, Inc.,
enabled classical musicians to present their performances at the theater.
Despite attempts to make indeyyndence real. many elements
Of the Japanese policy were still there. Censorship of the media
continued as before. Nippvngo classes were Still mandatory.
Listening to foreign short wave stations (except Radio Tokyo)
remained restricted.
At the forefront of Japanese attempt to establish the New Order
was the kempeitai. Being a separate army it reported directly to the
Japanese commander-in-chief in the. Philippines, and from there on to
the kempeitni headquarters in Tokyo. It had established branches
throughout the Philippines. Anywhere in the country, they struck terror
and fear.
The Japanese occupation in just about a few years had relatively
changed the Filipino outlook Because of the grim consequences of
war, they became more pragmatic, rather materialistic. The people had
come face to face with violence. They had learned to weapons to
kill the opkNnents, obviously the Japanese and those who work for
them, to the detriment of their own Safety and Security.
For want Of doing something, some men, both young and old
learned to indulge in marty fornxg of vices. Smoking, cockfighting,
dice games, mahjong. jueteng, monte and other card games became
common pastimes. Howewcr. there were also Other forms Of reaeaäon
like stage shows (m05tly of the hometown variety) and fist bouts.
People kept leaving and returning, depending upon the
situation. Th0* who could not stand the condition any longer had
 tc evacuate to other barrios. Some opted to live with relatives in
far provinces. With the enemy occupation. thc old social elite,
the wealthy land-owning families, no longer held the mmopoly
of the social circle. The rushing in of the new rich led to the riM
of a new

Everywhcrr in thc land, people lived in fear. Men did fear the
spies (like the Ganaps and Makapilig) as well as the dreaded
kempeitaz and their zoptg systcmr whereby the local males were
herded in one place, usually a public One, to pluck out the guerrillas.

5. Resistance and Restoration

What strongly nuAlified the Japanese policy of attraction
was the series of atrocities ranging from confiscation of personal
goods to wanton killing of people. There was the imposition of
severe penalties for slight violations of the law. Persons caught
violating the curfew were punished with water cum. Afterwards.
nothing would be heard about them. Pedestrians who to bow to
the Japanese military were slapped on their faces or hit With
Closed fists.
Filipinos looked at gesture as a grave assaultHealth and living
conditions deteriorated throughout the occupation.
malaria, and nutrition ailments became common
illnesses. Many people died Of starvation.
The war years Witnessed the mass contact of Filipinos and
Japanese, characterized by mutual suspicion. The Filipinos could not
simply trust the motives of the Japanese Ln promoting the national
culture. The Japanese showed unreasonable harassment and
executions Of Filipinos deemed dangerous to the new Order Of the
society
There were others who thought that the war was about
democracy and against fascism. The unprovoked attack of the
Japanese in the Philippines led many Filipinos to resist in defense
of the country.
 Thoughts in having recognition and a challenging
experience did help encouraging more volunteers for the army.
Others joined the struggle for freedom because it seemed to bC
the natural thing 10 do. Classes had been suspended For quite
time. When the enlistment of recruits for the army took place,
many young mcn signed up.
If the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor and the immediate
retreat Of Generat MacArthur to Australia marked the end cf
American assistance to the country, these ev ents were only
perceived as temporary Moved by their sense ci nationalism,
others felt that it was glonous to fight for the country's freedom.
They had realized that it was their duty to their fellow Filipmos
to defend the country from foreign aggression. Guerrilla fighters
all Over the Country kept their faith in democracy. Many wailed
for Ihe return of the Americans.
The United States Army Forces in the Philippines
(USAFIP)r Narth Luzon, was one of the earliest guerrilla units to
bc organized after the fall Of Bataan and Corregldor. The
USAFFE soldiers of Northern Luzon who had been unable to join
the American and Filipino Forces in Ba taan banded together
under two Filipino captains, Guinermo Nakar and Manuel r.
Enriquez. This was recognized as the First Guerrilla Regiment by
USAFFE headquarte1S.
Walter Cushing, ah American mine operator in the Mountain
Province led the first ambush against the Japanese, C.•ushing
organized some lwo hundred Filipino guerrillas shortly after 'he
enemy invasion. (Unfortunately, on September 19, 1942, Cushing
and two Of his men Wc-re killed instantaneously by Japanese
Soldiers atJoncs, Isabela while on a mission to contact a large
gucrTilla outfit.)
American soldiers in Northern Luzon who did not surrender
with General Jonathan M. Wainwright placed under the
command Captain Nakar and Captain George Barnett, an
American Engineer.
 Other American officers who managed to escape from
Bataan like Major Russell Vnlckmann (a West point Gradt'*le)
organized their own guerrilla units. Volckmann Set up Secret
training camps for his guerrillas. 'The North Luzon guerrillas
Were consolidated under his overall command. Among the
prominent guerrilla leaders under his direction were Governor
Roque Ablan of Ilocos and Bado Dangwa in Baguio. lie also
established a communication and Intelligence network, which
reported the movements cf the enemy. Reports from this network
were transmitted to MacArthur's headquarters in Austra lia.
Northern Luzon guerrilla army was responsible for
driving General *10movukj Yamashita's tmops from the Mountain
Province in the last days •of the war in the p hilippincs.
Marcos V Agustin, a bus driver before the War, formed a
guerrilla unit centeted Ln Antipolo- This eventually became one
of
236
the largest in Luzon owing to its membersh ip from different Sectors.
Ln its ranks soldiers, tcachcrs, lawyers, writers, laborers, drivers,
young inmates Of school'at'd a few reformed convicts. Somc Chinese
and Americans joined Agustin•s group.
•lhe Hunters ROTC (Reserve Officers' Training Co-tvs)
guerrilla group, headed by two young cadets of the Philippine
Military Academy, Eleuterio Adevoso (better known as Terry
Magtanggol, during the war) and Miguel Ver. was formed at
Ver•s house in San Juan, Manila. After the surrender of Bataan,
the group moved to Antipolo.
During the latterg\agcg of thc war. the Hunters ROTC guerrillas
cut Japanese communication lines, blew up roads arid bridges and
convoys passing th rough their territory Their newspaper,
Thunderylap, which carne out in 1943. oftentimes changed its place of
publication to confuse the enemy
Other guerrilla units were established in Central Luzon. In
Bulacan. Capta:n Alejo S. Santos, •C" Company, 31" Infantry of
the
LSAFFE, Who escaped the Death March from Bataan at Betis,
Pampanga, organ i7ed the Philippine Iæzion at h is hometown
Bustos. Captain Santos and his comrades wanted to continue the
battle against the enemy forces. No longer did they want to suffer
silently in pain.
The Philippine Legion was initially envisioned as a force Of
small combat unih; with primary mission oi destroying ctcmy
intelligence It also aimed to gather information on military
ins(allations as well as political and economic acfivities
sèonsoræd by the Japanese government- The group members
were also directed to elirrunate Filipino traitors.
In August, 1943, Captain Bernard I Anderson, a U.S. Airforce
officer, took command of the ESAFFE Luzon Guerrilla Army Forces
and appoúited Captain Santos as his personal representative in the
area. On October 12, 1943, Captain Anderson Issued a directive
confirming Captain Santos' command over ù•te Bulacan Military Area
(EM-A).
BMA had four regiments at the start By the middle of 1944, il
had a forcv over 18, (m, Thc BMA was regrouped into ten regiments
as (onows: Valenzuela Regiment (Meycauayan, Marilao, Bocaue,
Polo and Obando); Republic Regimen! (Malo]os and Paombong); Del
Filar Regiment (Hagonoy and Calumpit); Kakarong Regiment
(Plaridel,
237
Gui8u1nt0 and M. Ponce Regiment (Baliuôg, Pulilan and
Busla•;); Buenavista Regiment (San lldefon.sa and San Rafael);
Natividad Regiment (Northern San Miguel); Biak-na-Bat0 Regiment
(Southern San Miguel); Mountain Regunent (Angat and Norzagaray)
and the Batute Rcgiment (San Jose and Sta. Maria). These regiments
were named after famous persot'aees and plåees the province of
Bulacan.
 Procurement groups were organized to collect arms and
ammunitions. Some Bulacan suerTillas went back to Bataan to
lwk for Weapons buried prior to ù1Œ gurrender Of the Filipino-
American trwps in Apri\ 1942. In the latter part of 1943, the
guerrillas raided some municipal buildings to get the a_nns and
ammunitions.
Daring assaults mounted by the BMA fighters against the
Japanese garrison in MalolOs and in the Other towns in Bulacan.
Military intelligence reports continuously needed by General
Headquarters Southwest Pacific Area (GHQLSWPA) were
supplied by the BSI-A.
In August 1944, the submarine IVITtva;rka/ landed arms and
ammunition, signal equipment and other supplies at the Kalayaan
Headquar of Major Anderson in Infanta, Tayabas. Salanga Point,
just off the mouth of Masanga River became the surface point of
the Nawarhal submarine. Some officers and men of lhc DMA,
together with some loyal Dumagats of the mountains journeyed
across the Sierra Madre Mountains to bring the military supplies
to Bulacan.
Together with the group of Americans was Captain Bartolome
Cabangbang. I le manned the Philippine '*lands Detachment Of
thé Allied Intelligence Bureau. A graduate of Philippine Military
Academy, Capt. Cabangbang fought in Bataan and Corregidor.
HC was released from Capas Concentration Camp tn bc incd at
the Philippine Constabulaw He was able to escape in October
1942 and later joined Capt. Villamor in Negros Occidental, He
boarded submarine Gabriela ta Australia and thereon was trained
m communications and jungle warfare.
Airstrips were also constructed by the BMA guerrillas for the
emergency landing Of American airmen like the ones at Akle in San
lldefonso,at Atlag,Malclos and Bustos. Each ofthescairstrips had a
nmway of about 6CC yards right for L-5s, which 200 yards to get
airborne.
These airstrips did facilitate the transport of supplies and
men from the army posts in Lingayen and Dagupan to Bulacan
guerrilla headquarters and vice versa. All units of the BMA were
alerted for any ill-fated planc that would need help. They were set
to rescue these pilots before they could fau into the hands of the
Japanese. Their other concem was retrieving whatever equipment
remained intact in the damaged planes.
On November 16, 1944, three men from Admiral William Halsey's
Thåld Fleet belonging to the Carrier USS Essex were tvscued by the
Republic Regiment. (Halsey's Fleet had undertaken air strikes in the
Vlsayas prior to Genera] MacArthur'S landing in I eyte.) They were
later on escorted to BMA headquarters. Among those ferried from Akle
(home base Of BMA) to San Yose, Mindcro were Colonel Gwen G.
Atkinson, Lts. Floyd Fulkerson, Yates Hicky, Russel Reed and
Landry.
On January 4, 1945 at Camp JcrusaEem, the first air drops In
Luzon were done by giant B-25s of the US Air Fome, Crated TNT
(trinitrotoluene), arms and amrnunitions, medicines, rations and
radios for the BMA were dropped. On the evening of January 9,
1945, the Sixth Army, under Gen. Walter Krueger. landed
68.000 combat troops. Some army uniS rolled eastward to Nueva
Eciia and turned 10 Pozorrubi0-Rosa rio-Aringay Line. Others
penetrated the Pampanga and Pangasinan all Of them, including
the 37m Division entered through Bulacan towns.
In Southern Luzon, the PQOC (President Quezon'S Own
Guerrillas) engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese in
Cavite. Laguna, Batangas, and Quezon Province. In the Bicol
region, former Assemblyman and Governor
headed the guerrilla activities in the area.
The guerrilla movement in Samar and Leyte was led by
Colonel Ruperto Kangleon; while Colonel Macario Peralta of
Taclac headed in Panav with Governor Tomas Confessor as thc
Civilian leader. Mindanao. Tomas CabiJi, Salipada Pendatun and
Wendell Fertig orgartzed the guerrillas in the region,
Another guerrilla unit that confronted the Japanese forces was the
a)mmunist-led f•žukbo ng Bayan Hapon known as the Hukbaiahap.
The organization was founded on March 29, 1942 in a forest near the
boundaries of Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Tarlac. Luis Taruc was
chrrw•n chairman c•f thecommittee. Casto Alejandrino (GY), became
in command.
Other Huk leaders weæ Bernardo (Banal) from Minalin, Eusebio
Aquino Magalang, and Felipa Culala (Dayang-Dayang) from
Candaba. Other Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PkP)
members who became leaders of the I Iukbalahap asidc from
Taruc and Alejandlino were Lope de la Rosa and Mariano
FrantX)- "AntiJapanese Above All" became the battlecry of this
underground movement, mostly consisting of peasants and
workers.
The guiding principles of the Huks were found in this document,
The Fundamental Spirit. The duties and privileges oi a Hak were
discUA9Cd in another dæument, The Iron Discieline. The kind of
discipline imposed on its members was quite tough. Members found
deviating from the rules of the organization were ceportedly Liquidated
in the name of unity. For instance, Dayang• Dayang was executed by
her own men.
Katubusmt ng Bayan (Redemption of the People) was the
principal Huk publication, which started in mid—1942. It was issued
weekky with between 3,300 to 5,000 copies mi meographed. Its editors
included peasant leaders, hzde unionists from Manila and university
people. They chronicled the Huk victories against the Japanese.
The Huks Fought guerrilla batlies with the enemy forces. In mid-
January, 1945 they libcratcd much of Tarlac and Pampanga. By the
time the Americars were already Cabanatuan. there they found the
Huks had already secured the town for them. Municipal governments
attacked by their squadrons were placed under Huk auspices. The Huks
occupied a number of towns in Centxal Luzon.
There were some Filipinos who chose to cooperate with the
Japanese and aided them in apprehending the guerrillas and their
supporters. These fanatical pro-Japanese included the the Pulakanes,
Palaak5, the United Nippon, the Pampars, and the

The Ganaps were the former pro-Japanese Sakdalistas who

served as spies for the Japanese military authorities while fhc
Pulahanes (from Samara "pula" means red) acted as guides for the
Japanese in their efforts to arrest people who supported the
guerrilla cause.
The PalaaE, armed with bamboo spears, worked as guards for the
]apanese army while the United Nippon (U.N.), armed with cines, wore
army uniforms as part of the Japanese military. The members were
recruited from the Ganap Party.
The Pampars (Parnban_gang Pag-asa ng mga Anak ni Rizak)
were also armed with rifles. The Japanese military authorities in
PiHlla, Rizal Province organized the group in 1943. The group
members wore blue denim uniforms with short pants.

240
 The most dreadful one, the MAkAPILI (Makabayan:
Katipunan ng mga Pilipino) was headed by Genera] Artemio
Ricartet Benigno Ramos, and Pio This was organized after
theAmerican liberation forces had already entered the Philippine
territory. MAZAPILI was formally launched in Manila on
Lkccmber 8, 1944. amidst a gala ceremony attended by General
Yamashita. President Laurel, Ricarte, Ramos, Duran and Other
high officials.
Escalated guerrilla operations pressed the Japanese army to
Offer amnesty. Such Offer was given throughout the land but
eventually no guerrilla fighter accepted such dub ious proposal.
The 'apanese continued their propaganda to secure the
ccxycration of the pcoplc in varicvs ways like the sponscrshrp of
the Japanese Youth Leadership Program- Young Blas had
already left the pro-gram and joined the ranks of the BMA.
Since August 9, 1944. the American fighter planes began
their devastating raids on Japanese militarv installations in
Mindanao, Visayas and Manila. On September 21, 1944,
President Laurel proclaimed martial law in the country by virtue
of Proclamation No. 29,
News about General MacArthur's Pacific Forces the
Philippines through thenewspaper, The Tribune and short wave
radio broadcasts made the Japanese fiercer and more distrustful.
Japan& raiding forC8 swooped into barrtc* and assembled all
men in the barrio chapels to be warned against subversö.'e acts.
More zonzs were conducted- The male residents were detained
for days.
On Octobct 20, 1944, the Leyte beaches were severely
bombarded by Arnerican bombers arid fighter planes. The new
P-38 fighter planes had proven its prowess in air battles. With
faster velocity to go up at a higher altitude, the planes pounded
the Japanese planes belcw with btùlets from the 30/50 caliber
machine guns. The Americans once again dominated the
Philippine skies. The path to Leyte was cleared on the day,
paving the way for General MacArthur's together with his allied
285
armed forces, landing at Palo Beach. Warships formed a line of
defense to protect the American forces in the island.
Consequently, the American flag Wag raised a 120
In desperation, Japanese suicide pilots known as kamikaz£
crashed their planes thc American warships at Lkyte Gulf. The
Battle Of l£yte Gulf, the greatest naval battle in history was
fought fmm (ktOber 24 to 26. Sunultaneous with this naval
warfare were
the following battles: the Ba(tle Of Surigao Strait, the Battle of Samar
and the Battle of Cape Engaño.
(h Deæmber21, 1944, [Aurel and his Cabinet moved to Baguio.
The Japanese forces retreated to the "Yamashita lane", a battlefront st-
retching along the jungle of Sierra Madre fmrn Antipolo to Aparri.
While retreating, the Japanese took some provisions from the Filipino
civilians, massacred innocent and burned towns and village¥.
On January g, 1945, the Americans landed in Ll.ngayen Gulf.
Other American troops landed in Zambdles, Tagaytay and Batangas.
The U.S. Sixth Army, with its headquarters in Oagupan City, had
i.gsued on February 2, a letter Of instruction calling lor
Of all guerrilla units in Central Luzon m combat operations
against the enemy forces. The units Of the Sixth Army were seen
riding in a new type cf vehicle, which was later learned to be
jeeps. Others boarded armored cars and half trucks.
On February 3, an American cavalry division entered Grace
Park in the. northern outskirts of Manila. With Filipino guerrillas
as guides, they re•u-ued the suffering prisoners at the Santo
'Tomas Internment Camp.
The Japanese made their last stand in the historic city of
Intramuros. By March 3. 1945 the Americans had won the war
in Manila. Baguio was captured from the Japanese on April 26.
By July 4, the had officially completed liberating
Luzon.
The US 611' Infantry entered Kiangan, Ml. and engaged in
series Of close fighting. The .so-calicd "Million Dollar Hill"
sheltered the 14th Area Army under the overall command of
General Tomoyuki Yamashita known as the "Ttger of Malaya"
and his elite officers.
There were three infantry to entrap the enemies —the USAFIP
NL, the Division and the 32"' Division. The Buenavista boys. dctailcd
with the DJvisi0n and 32nd Division, were the first ones to come near
Of the hill. The major obstacle in blasting the place was the Japanese
woodpecker mach ine gun.
After four months in its Northern Luzon drive, the
Buenavista Regiment's task finally ended. Japan formal]y
announced through radio broadcast its final sumnder on August
14 after the bombing Of Hiroshima and later Nagasaki on August
6 and August 9 respectively. Two days later, frontline units Of
the USAFIP NL received Volckmann's order to cease firing.
Negotiations for surrender of Gen Yamashita and his trcx'ps
began after a Filipino officer Lt. Macario A. Abarillo, leading a
patrol the Infantiy Combat Company had penetrated into enemy
lines northwest of Kiangan.
From Kiangan, the Japanese officers and their respective staff
brought down by trucks to Bagabag. Nueva and flown to Luna,
La Union and finally brought up in jeeps to the American High
Commissioner's Residence at Camp John Hay, Baguio City for the
formal surrender.
From Baguio, Yamashita and his staff were brought to the
National Blibid Pnson in Muntinlupe. Yamashita went on trial in
October 1945 US. War Crimes Commission and was convicted Of war
atrocities on December 7.
On the early morning of February 23, 1946, Yamashita was
hanged on a on top of a hill overlooking the U.P. College of
Agriculture in Los Baños, Laguna. U.S. Array police unit headed
by Col. Charles Haldermann carried the execution order.
It was on September 2, 1945, thatJapan accepted defeat
upon signing a treatv on board USS Missouri at Tokyo Bay. Ten
davs after the formal sur;-vnder, Laurel was arrested by the U.S.
Arréy. He was confined in Sugamo Prison for almost a year and
returned to Manna in July 1946.

287
 President Osmcña tackled the task of rehabilitating the land,
which had been cruelly damaged by war. Three days after the Lky-te
landing, Osmeña was already given the power to govern all territories
liberated by thc U.S. forces. This took place at a public ceremony
headed by Genera] MacArthur.
March 7, 1945, President Osmeña signed an Executive
Order providing for the restoration of the executive departments
of the govemment as they existed prior to Japanese occupascn.
The Order, dated February 27. aLso crcatcd the deparùnent Of
information as part Of the Departmen t Of Public Irstruction
On March 8, the President sworn into office the new
members of the Cabinet. He also outlined the principles of his
government. These included the adherence to the princzptes of
freedom and democracy and the establishment of a social and
political system wherein the government officials and
employees are servants of the people. The 60vern_ment
reaffirmed the principle of Filipino. American collaboration.
 The Philippines at that time was practically without funds.
Production the onset was very slow owing to lack Of capital to
finance the rehabilitation of desiroyed machinery and other
equipment. tn the early months of reoccupation. the United
States attended to the needs of the local. populace. The
Philippine Civil Afalrs unit Of the United States Army (PCAU)
became the principal agency for relief in Manila and
the provinces. It procæded to remove municipal officials
elected by the Huks and replaced them With USAFFE guerrillas
(ideologically different from the Huks).
General MacArthur to be a man of action, at that time made
important decisions for the President. He advised President
Osrnena to immediately convoke the Congress, for it was patt of
the policy Of the American government to restore constitutional
government in the Philippines as smn as law and Order had been
established.
Osmeña was reluctant at first, that the government might
fall into the hands of collaborators whorn the American
government suspected of treason. Nevertheless Ort June 9, 1945,
the First Congress of the Philippines convened for the first time
since the election Of its members November 1941 with Senator
Manuel A. Roxas chosen as President of the Senate. By July
1945, the Commonwealth was reestablished in Manila.
President Osmeña offered Roxas beforehand to go to
Washington as Philippinc Resident Commissioner but the latter
refused. Roxas time was having in mind his candidacy for presidency.
'IV"O days later, on May 26, 1945 he instructed his men to launch his
bid for the position. The worsening relations between Osmena and
ROXas reached its climax when Roxas left the Nacionalista Party and
organized his own party. the Liberal PartvHC took many
Nac1öñaListas with him.
The election Of April 23, 1946 resulted in the victo:y Of
the Party with Roxas and Quirino as thc elected
President and Mce-President respectively Theirparty won nine
out of 16 contested seats.

289
 On May 6, 1946. Roxas was inaugurated as the last President
of the Philippine Commonweaith. The inaugural ceremonies were
held on the grounds of the Legislative Building. In his inaugural
address as the last President of the Corrxnonwealth, he cited the
groundwork of his administration - to rebuild the economy from the
ruins of war, He also advocated the establishment Of political and
economic ties with America, to help in the rehabilitation Of the
islands.

Chapter Test No. 9

Name: Dale:
Course. Year. and Seclion:—
L. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the correct answerWrite
the lellers nn the blanks provided- (30 pts,)
President Quezon and General MacArthur
instructed Mayor Jorge Vargas cf Greater
ManiEa to
a. cooperate with the authorities
b. organize resistancc groups in the country
c. surrender the firearms of he officials
d. join them in Corregidor
2. '[he Japanese term which means "Come here! n or
"Scram!" depending upon the movement Of the hand
refers to
a. Kcmpeitaj c- Sendcnbu
b. Hodobu •d. -Kura
3. BY an executive order issued by Vargas August
1442, neighborhoxl and district axsociatio:vs
were organized for the purpose of promoting
the cultural ideas Of the New Order
b. convincing the to follow the policy of the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
 c. providing means for protection under joint
responsibility
d. fighting against the Japanese military forces
4. The word below that does not refer to the military pass
money is
a. gurami c. Mickey Mouse money
b. apa d- apulid
5. Ln 1942, the Japanese Military Adnunistration
introduced a fast-maturing grain cal led homi rice
from
a. Borneo japan b- Taiwan d- Vietnam
6, The appointed diœctor-genera/ Of the
KALIBAPI

a. EknignoAquino c. Jorge B.
Vargas
b. laurel d. Claro M. Recto
7. In the 1943 Philippine Constitution, in the event Of a
permanent disabilitv cf the President, the one who
assume presidency was the
Chief Justice Of the Supreme Court
b. Vice-President c. Ranking minister in the order
Of precedence established by law
d. Ambassador
8. During the Japanese period, pensiottades were sent
to study at
a. government camps
colleges c,
government centers
• d. Japanese schools
The National Education Board during the yapanesc
period the teaching of

291
 a. Philippine Yústoty and culture
b. Japanese history and cultitre
c. Asian history and culture
d. World history and culture
50 Pula, Sa Pufi, a popular stage play, is an
adaptation Of
a. Applesaucec. Passion Play
b. Golden Boy d.
ll. The American mine operator who led the first
ambush against the Japanese was a Russell
Volckmann
William Halsey c.
Anderson
d. Walter Cushmg
12. Among the prominent guerrilla leaders under Major
Volckmann's command were Governor Roque
Ablan Of Ilcxos and Bad0 Dangwa Of
a. Abra c. Cagayan b, Baguio d. Isabela
13. Captain AleiO Santos of the 31 •l infantry Of the
USAY•FE, organized the Philippine Legion at his
hometown in
a. Angat C. San lldefonso
b. Bustos d. San Miguel
14. Mcutain Regiment of the BMA referred to
guerrillas in
a. Angat and Norzagaray
b. San Ildefonso and San Rafael
c. San Jose and Sta. Maria
d. Southern San Miguel
15. Ih August 1944, the submarine Nawarhal landed
arms and ammunitions at the Kalayaan
Hcadquarters Of Major Anderson in
a. Bataan c. Layte
b. Cavile d. Tayabas
16. This PMA graduate who escaped the Philippines to
Australia and manned the Philippine Islands
Detachment of the Allied Intelligence Bureau
was Tornacruz b, Bartolotne Cabangbang
c. Viudcz
d. Santos
17. Airstrips for emergency landings were cot-Ftructed in
Atlas, Malolos; Bustos,- and Akle,
a. San Rafael San Eldefonso
b. San Miguel d. Ba liwag
18. prior to General MacArthur's landing in Leyte, air strikcs
in the Visayas were taken by the forces under
a. Bernard Anderson
b. Krueger 24?

c. Charles Haldennann
d. William Jalsey
19. The duties and p Of a luk soldier were discussed in
a. The Fundamental Spirit
•The Iron Discipline
c. Katubusan ng Bavan
d. Thunderclap
20. The local guerrillas in Samar and Leyte were
headed by
a. Ruperto Kangleon
b. Tomas Cabili
c. galipaòa Pendat-un
d. Macano Peralta
21. Fomer Sakda]istas who served as infottñcrs and for
the Japancse called
a. Palaaks c. Pampers
b. Ganaps d. Pulahanes
22. The Pulahanes who aligned themselves with the
Japanese came from
a. Cavite C. li0COS
b. Tarlac Samar
23. The One who did not join the MAKA PILI from the
following was
a. Artemio Ricarte c. BlasOple ab.
BenignoRamcx d. Pio Duran
 24. Simultaneous with the Battle Of Leyte Gulf were the
Battle Cf the Battleof Cape EngañO and the
Battle of
a. Agusan c. San &emardino Strait
b. Cebu Surigao Strai
25. The Japanese forces retreated ta the "Yamashita Line" a
battlefront stretching from AntipolO to

n. Apart i c. Kalinga
F b. Benguet d, Isabel a
248
26. In 1945, the US. Sixth Army established in Luzon its
headquarters in
a. Manila c. Mt. Province
b. Dagupan City d. Tarlac
27. Joining the American infantry to entrap Yamashita
and other were BMA guerrillas from the a,
Buenavista regiment
b. Republic regiment
c. Mountain regiment d, Kaka rong regiment
28, Yamashita and his staff formally surrendered to the
American High Commissioner at
a. Luna. Union
b. Camp John Hay, Baguio c,
Bagabag, Nucva Vis
d. LOS Baños, Laguna
29, formally accepted defeat upon signmg a treaty on
board Missouri at
a. Hiroshima C. AtlantiK City
b. Florida d. ibkyoBay
30. Manuel Roxas ran for presidency under lh•e
Nacionalista Party
 b. Federal party
c. I .iberal party d, Democratic
party
Essay: (10 pts. each)
How did t heJapane* m.ñitary rule the country before and after the
inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic? Why did a number
Of join the guerrilla movement against the Japanese?
3. How did the war in the Pacific end?

The Republic
L Roxas Administration (1946-48)
Two months after the last Commonwealth election,
Philippine sovercignty was finally recognizcd with Manuel
Roxag as the President Of the Third Republic Of the Philippines.
On 4,' 1946, at exactly 9:15 High Commissioner Paul V- McNutt
read President Harry S. Truman's proclamation announcing to
the world the withdrawal American sovereignty and the
recognition of the independence of the Philippines.
To [he accompaniment Of the American National Anthem,
Commissioner McNutt the American flag. Thereafter, President
flÿg to the Ngtional Anthgl- He tooú his oath of office before
Manuel Sup!emc Court. In his inaugural address,
President Rcxas thanked the (W the United States in 1398 and
urged the people to have faith in the goodness of America-
Following the inaugural address was the public
signing of the US-Phižippine Treaty of General Relaticrw Based
oa this treaty, the United States withdrew and surrendered an
rights of supervision, a)ntrol or sovereignty over the Plüljppincs.
Likewise, the United States would represent the interests Of the
Philippines in countries where there is no Philippine
representation, pending the establishment of Philippine
diplomatic service abroad.
In the final part of the inaugural rites, a chorus of 1.0m voic-
B sang the Philippine Independence Hymn. Closing the
ceremonies Was the Invocation Praver by Most Rev. Gabriel M.
Reyes, the Archbishop of Cebu.
When Roxas assumed his post. he sckved the
Senator Claro M.
cto re s . 10 amnestied. He fought his legal battles with the People'*
Court and was acquitted.
The Philippines as seen by the administration could not
rehabilitate its economy without American aid and investment.
Subsequently it legislated by the United States
Congress to grow and industrialize. On April 30, 1946, the VS.
Congress passed two laws that were intended to help the
economic recovery of the country.
The Philippine Trade Act, also known as the Trade Att.
provided for the continuation of free trade with the Philippines
and the States from to 1954- For the next 20 years from 1954 to
1974, Philippine exports to the US. will pay a gradually
increased tariff rate. The val Of the ESO was fixed at half an
Ameflcan dollar.
The Phñippine Rehabilitation Act on the other hard, also known
as the Tydings Act resulted to the creation of the Philippine War
Damage Commission to take charge Of war damage payments.
President Roxas really wanted to rebuild the Philippine
economy even if it meant sacrificing national patrimony In
return for American support, the government went its way to
amend the 1935 Philippine Constitution to give parity rights 10
Americans. This obliged country to grant US. citizens and
corporations the same rights as Filipinos in the utilization and
exploitation of Philippine natural resources. In addition,
American citizxns and corporations enjoyed the right to acquire
land of the public domain. right to acquire grazing. fishing and
mining rights, and the right to engage in the ownership and
operation ofpublic utilities. The people approved the parity
amendment issue in the plebiscite or 1947.
Taruc and his colleagues in the Democratic Alliance
weæ against the parity rights amendment because they perceived
it as more disadvantageous to the Filipino people. The Huks
together with a new patty, the Democratic Alliance, composed
Of and peasants, succeeded in electing Taruc and their
other members to Congrvs.s in 1946, Up the a tleged
Of President Roxaä, the passed a resolution ejecting Taruc and
his SIX fellow party members from Congress on the ground of
alleged electoral frauds and terrorism committed by the Hulks in
Parnpanga an? Nueva Ecija. The removal from office Of Taruc
and his companions paved the wav to the amendment cf the
Constitution.
Another government action that generated varied opinions wa s
the military issue:-The Military Bases Agreement signed on March
14, 1947, gave the U.S. free use Of 23 sites far 99 years (shortened to
25 Yeats in 1959) renewable on expiration Of this treaty. The largesl
active bases were the Clark Air in Pampanga

251
and Subic Naval Base and the US Seventh Fleet base in Zambales. A
01 the Military Agreement granted American m ili tary
authorities an exclusive jurisdiction over al) offenscs or crimes
committed by American personnel within the bases or nutsidc while
in the performance.
Taruc returned to his people and thereafter cooperated with
President Roxas in the pacification campaign in the
coLmtryside. it was during the pacification campaign thal Taruc
and Mateo Castillo got an intelhgence report that they would be
killed by their adversaries, among whom were allegedly
govemtnent officials. The two Huk leaders took precautions as
forewarned. Whereas, Juan Felec the peasant leader or Nueva
Eclia who did not receive the warning on time, was kidnapped
and murdered while in the company of MPs who were supposed
to provide hizn security in his pacification campaign from barrio
10 barrio. Following this tragic incident was the killing Of Jose
]nven, a labor leader.
believing that the Roxas administrötw-n was bowed On check
ing the movement Of the masses b'/ liquidating its Icadcrs, Tantr
wrote a letter to President Roxas reminding the tatter of their
demands, which Were mentioned in three prior conferences with the
governmcnt. These included the following: the temporary right of the
people to keep their firearms due to present insecurity, protection 01
constitutional rights, removat Some government officiats like
Governor (Pab 10 Angeles) David Of Pampanga and the creation Of
social welfare prcjccts and agrarian reform.
The Huks also demanded the collectivization of farmlands and
the abolition Of tenanl farming. They wert:• ablc to organize a new
rebel government with its Own rruhtary and administrative pr»cedure.
The government military and the Huk.s were plunged into
hos£ilities. The civilians. caught in the crosfire, lived In fear and
hunger as agricultural production decreased to constant skirmishes
between the contcndlng forces. The government had Spent millions
of pcSOs to apprehend Tdruc and his men. For two years the Roxas
administration tried to pacify thc local dissidents but failed.
and order situation President Rt»as issued a
pr;clama on March 6, 1948 declaring reorgani7.ed-äJteFäÑiïai
assOãñGns
to commit acts of sedition. People
having affiliation w ith these eroups were cons-idered as
enemies of the State and thus, liable to arrested and imprisoned.
proclamation outlawing the Huks and PKMs in effect to
indiscriminate arrests and detention Of people suspected to be
aiding the rebels.
As early as July 29. 1946, President Roxas had already issued
Republic Act No. 4 that called for the surænder of fimarms not later
than 31. The 1 luks upheld the principle of the people's right to bear
firearnF. There was this sentiment among the Huks that their physical
Survival depended on their kccping their arms and ammunibons.
 There were wealthy landlords Who hired civilian guards to
assail lluk regions. Wil\ful disregard for civil rights was shown
in the Masico Affair in Laguna, in which a group Of Old and
young men were machine-gunned. The same transgrpssion was
committcd in Maliwalu, Bacolar in Pampanga where a group Of
men and Women were fired upon while they were having a party
at night. Those who committed these acts wele not penalized for
their cruneg. Intemal strife ensued as local dissidents continued
to defy the duly constituted authorities,
The peasants and workers were socially and economically
dislodged due to societal constraints. There were irstances
wherein the landlords backed by their civilian guards, coerced
their tenants into signing 50—50 agreements, with crop paid by
the tenants. •Iflis was u-uconsistenl with Republic Act No. 34
(approved e-m September 30, 1946) which gave the tenants a
better share in the rice harvests, with 70% for tenants and 30%
for the landlordFraudulent practices like iakipan, which
consisted in paying 100% interest; consisted in paying 50%
interest on a loan; and pasunod, where peasant Was forced to
borrow from his landlord whether he liked it or not, continued
to oppress the rnaSSCS.
Post-war unionism became active. In 1948, Committee
on Labor Organization (CLO) unions led strikcs in such
large corporations as the Philippine Refining Company,
Benguet Consolidated Mines, Manila Trading Company,
the Luzon Stevedoring Company, and Franklin Baker in
Laguna
After the CLO's initial successes, the rartido Komunigta ng
Pilipinas (PKP) member* in the organizing committee began to invite
non-affiliated labor leaders to Cipriano Cid who was then the first
CLO president was succeeded in 1947 by Amado Hernandcr.
President Roxas incessantly undertook
ether activities to welfare. 15, 1948,
President Roxas state:æt òiÝthe to (he Unitedšáîëš at thc
Kellymteater Clark Base,
The audience enthusiastically At that time, he was no longer feeling
well. By evening, condition became worse. At around g•30 p.m., he
died Of heart failure at the residence Of Major General E-L Eubank
at Clark Field.
days later, Vice-President klpidio Quirino took his oath of
Office as President OF Philippi nes, serving the unexpi red term of
the late Piesident Roxas, His first official act was the proclamation of
a state of mourning throughout the country for the former Chief
Executive.

2. Quirino Administration (1948-33) president Elpidio Quirino took

the task Of resolving the peace and order situation of the country so
that economic mobilization could be achieved. To realize this
ot*ctive, the President sent his brother. former Judge Antonio Quirino
to have a dialogue with Taruc and his mcn to know what the Huks
wanted
Through the. representatives of the Manila Chronicle, LP.
Soliongeo and a photographer, the meeting Wilh Taruc was set on
Junc 6 in a barrio between the towns of San Miguel and Baliwag,
Bulacan. The were not readily to the public. Taruc allegedly entered
intc an with Judge Qu_rino, which led to his jubüant entrv to Manila.
On June 21, Taruc went to Malacdñang and in his presence,
President Qurino issued a proclamation granting amnesty 10 Huk and
PKM Icadcrs and members. The amnesty given was absolute, and
ccvcred crimes ofreikllion, sedition, illega I association, assault,
resistance and disobedience to persons in authority.
The Huks agreed to surrender their arms and ammunitions to
dulv constituted authorities within a period of fifty days following the
amnesty grant. Taruc resumcd hLs in Congress and collected his three
years' back salaries.
Threehours after the fifty-day period, a clash between the 507th
MP Company and a band Of fifty Huks occurred in a barrio of
Cabanatuan. Fighting between the military and the Huls ensued.
Taruc accused the Quirmoadministration of bad faith when it
to give the peasanls on-the-spot permits for possessing firearms,
w•h2ch they need for self-defense. HC denounced the ntm-
compliance of the government to the agreement, •Which was
approved by Judge Quirina, According to him it Lncluded the
following: scrapping of the Bell Trade Act; no resumption of trade
with Japan; division of large estates for distribution to tenants;
release Of all Huk prisoners; industrializition; and no militarv bases
agreement with the United States. Judge Quirino disproved Tacuc•s
allegations.
The HILk rebellion became more intense in 1949 to 1950. The
H uks continued terrorizing Central Luzon and the provinces around
Manila. They believed that programs regarding land reform not
instituted. There was no break-up of vast landed estates. The
government did not re lease more than imprisoned Huks and PKMs.
The Parfido Konmnisža Piltpinas (PKP} decided to place
their main emphasis on an armed struggle. The PEP worked out
a systematic expansion program and changed the Hukbalahap to
Httkbong Mnpagpa:aya Bayan (HMB) Or Army of National
Liberation.
The peace and order contingency reached its climax when on
April 28, 1949. Mrs. Aurora Aragon Quezon, the late President
Quezon's wife, her Baby and ten others were ambushed in
Bongabon. Nueva Ecija. Taruc denied any Huk Involvement in
the incident.
In-the presidential elections of November 8, 1949.
President Quirino was elected, besting Jose p, Laurel
(Nacionalista party) and former Senate President Jose Avehno
(rebel Liberal). He promised to restore the people's faith in the
government.
President Quirino created the President's Action Committee
on Social Amelioration (PACSA) to aid the needy the Labor
Management Advisory Board. to advise him on labor matters
and thc Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing
Administration (ACCFA) to help the farmers market their crops
Rural banks were also established in the rural areas to facilitate
credit facilities. President Quirino also lattnched Economic
Mobilization Program" to employ natural resources, manpower
and technical know ledge for economic progress.
Nongovernmental organizations were also given approval
from the administration. In 1949, the Philippine Jaycees (Junior
Chamber of Commerce) was organized. It is best known for the
*lection of the TOYM (Ten Outstanding Young Men) in
various fields Of endeavor. In promoting news and information.
the Philippine News the first news agency in the country was
established in 1950.
1951, Fort Santiago was declared a national shrine.
During Spanish this as a detention where many Fi
suspected of rebellion died. It served the same purpose during
the Japanese occupation.
the realm ofdlþlornacy, President Quirino impressed foreign
heads o! and world statesmen by his intelligence. He represented the
Republic in his official travels to the United States, Europe and
Southeast Asia.
The Bell Mission was sent by the United States to survey all
aspects Of Philippine economy. It found out that the Country had low
income, excessive volume of imports, misdirected investment,
mounting deficits and Corruption in the government.
The Bell Report recommended the lowing: improvement of
produchon, higher taxes. a more efficient collection cf government
revenues. a minimum wage law. a tax on the sale of foreigt exchange,
reforms in public administration and land reform.
The principal item of the Bell Report was the
recommendation that the United States grant 5230 million in
economic aid provided the Philippine Government would
implement the Mission's suggested programs To securp (his aid,
President Quirino had to accept the recommendations of his
American advisers. Thus on November 14, 1950, the Quirino—
Foster Agreement wag signed wherein the Americans would
decide on how Philippine money would be spent. Under the
provision of technical cooperation, the Philippines had to accept
American overseers in various departments, especially those
dealing with military, economic and educa tiOnal matters.
The U.S. Pentagon-State Department sent the Melby Mission to
the Philippines to look into the mititary equipment needs of the
Philippine Armed Forces and to set up a program for improving its
counter-insurgency capability. The joint U.S. Military Assistance
Group (JUSMAC) Was assigned the task Of implemen ting the Melby
Mission'S recommendations, especially On anti-E Campaign.
Strict security measures were implemented to check tebel
activities. HMB suspects were arrested and taken to Camp
Murphy.
256
Ramon Magsaysay, the Secretary of National Defense based his
activities on the governmeat's objective in eliminating the HMB
threat. %cretary Magsaysay urged President Quirino to suspend
the writ cf habeas corpus to able to detain the Conununist suspects
beyond the six-hour limit pending the filing Of charges.
President Quirino sent Magsaysay to meet a rebel leader,
Commander Arthur or Tadano Ri7at who wanted to surrender-
Rizal told Magsaysay about certain high ranking rebel officers
who were operating in Manila. 'Iffie Militarv Intelligence (MIS)
of the Armed Forces of thc Philippines (AFP) worked to hltnl
down the nerve center of the HMB Politburo, the admmistrativc
body of the HMB Central Committee.
Before dawn of October 8, 1950. twenty-two uruts of the Armed
Forces, aided by the Manila Police raided several places
simultaneously. Among those arrested were Atty. Jose Lava, Federico
Bautista, Simeon Rodriguez. Salome Cruz, Ramon Espiritu, Angel
Baking and others. Important rebel documents were taken and
presented as evidence in court- The Manila Court of First
byJudge Oscar Castelo pronounced them guilty Of the crime
of rebellion. They were sentenced to life imprisonment. This resulted
to the demoralization of a number of HMB members. Many
surrendered and were brought to Mindanao for rehabilitation.
In Septernkær 1951, the Philippine government signed a peace
treaty with Japan. However in early 1952, the agreemenl was
suspended because the Philippines demanded $8 hillion in war
damages. Pending the conclusion of talks on the issue, the Philippine
refused to ratify the peace treaty.
In the last days of the Quirino administration. Moises Pad
illa. a Nacicnalista Party candidatc for town mayor was mauled
and murdcrcd. After a painstaking investigation. Magsaysay
ordered the arrest of Ncgros Gcvemcr Rafael Lacson, allegedly
involved in the crime. As a result, Magsaysay unquestionably
turned out to be the hero Of the people or "man of the masses" for
his crusade for peace and justice.
Magsaysay was able to project his image to the public as
simple and dedicated man. When the proper opportunity came.
305
Magsaysay resigned from his cabinet position and joined the
opposition, the Nacionalista Party which subsequently
nomin•ted him as the presidential standard bearer. This time, he
would run against the Chief Executive.
Magsaysay's presidential campaign WàS characterized by
his emphasis on both the barrio and the mases. He moved from
barrio to barrio and listened to the grievances of the common
people. He shared with them hLs h amble and projectcd himself
as friend Of the people. He became more pcvu)ar with his slogan,
"land fer the landless."
TO ensure peaceh.:), clean and honest elections throughout the
country, the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL) was
formally inaugurated in August 1951 with Jaime Ferrer, as the
Director. Throughout the Phùippincs, NAMFREL chapters were
organized. Rallies were held and leaflets were distributed to urge
citizens to vote freely and vigilant against poggible fraud. the 1953
presidential elections, the Liberal Party lost. Nacionalisla Party's bet
Magsaysay won a decisive victory over the incumbent president.

3. Magsaysay Administration (1953-57)

On December 1953, Ramon Magsaysay and Carlos p,
Garcia were inducted into cffrce at the Luneta amidst a million
spectators. Both of them were dressed in barons opened the
gates of the .VLalacañangJ?èbgg to the masses. HC arir{k.
instead Of the liquor to exchange toasts with foreign
diplomats- He banned nepotism. Moreover, naming towns
plazas, and

To implement Magsaysay's land reform, three legisla lions were

made. 'The Agricultural Tenancy Act of 1954 regultcd to the shift of
share tenancy system to leasehold System. This law also provided the
reduction of land rentals as weEl as the pmhibition Of eject-ion of
tenants except for just cause. The Court of Agrarian was also created
to determine if there was a just cause in the ejection of tenant. The Land
Refu:rm Act Of 1955 was aLso passed to improve landlord-tenant
relations.
 The Presidential Assistant for Cornmunity Development (PACD)
was also established to ensure rural development. The PACD
created for increased productivity, building of feeder roads and
improvement of government services in the barrios in the field of
health and education.
Community roads and irrigation projects Were expanded.
Agricultural experts were sent to the barrios to instruct farmers in
improved agricultural production. Loans were extended to
farmers through the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative
Financing Administration (ACCFA), Marketing associations,
known as Farmers Cooperative and Market-b-lg Associations
(FACOMAs) were organized throughout the country. The
legislation approved by the Congress on August 11, 1955
empowered the President to break up
Large landed estates. Lands were to be distributed to tenant farmers.
Some public lands were also distributed to qualified settlers. During the
first year of the administration 28,000 land patents, covering 241,000
hectares were issued. following year, the number of land patents was to
33,075. 1955, the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation
Administration (NARRA) resettled some 8200 families in twenty-two
settlement projects.
It was during term that Japan agreed to pay war brought about by
World VVär

Mitigation of peasant fiArest became the most successful

achievement of the Ma saysay adminižtration. Early jr. 1954,
Pœsident secret "Ninoy" S. Aquino, jr., journalist of the Daily
Mirmr and known Filipž.nc war cot-resEžycìent irt Korea, to con
er with Taruc.
After four months of_negotntLQnsAa.ruc May 17, 1954
tuyconditien@h• sucrendered to the and d tdžrecogräzed the
autho+ity of President MagsÐeay. Taruc was tTicd in kourt•and
sentenced to twelve years in Jail. Many of his men likewise surrendered
or were arrested, except Dr. Jesus Lava (later became the chief of the
Communist Party of the Philippines), who was captured in May 1964
in a house on P. Lconcio St.. Manila. The back of rebellion fell into
government custody.
307
 To counteract the communist activities in the Philippines
and the rest of neighboring countries in the Southeast Asian
teglon the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was
established in Manila. On September 8, 1954, the SEATO,
patterned after the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
was founded with the *Gnawing member-states: Australia,
Franœ, Great Britain, New Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand
and the UrLited States.
Senator Claro M. Recto had been lukewarm to the idea of
SEATO, for such organization might unnecessarùy provoke some
Asian neighbors.He was also against the commitment of Filiýo

troops in foreign wars particularly in Indochina. On the *nate floor,

Recto mentioned that President Magsaysav had committed the
Philippines in•exœss of his constitutional authority.
Recto opposed Magsaysay on several issues. This inciudcd the
Foreign Investment Bill. which allowed private U.S. investment in the
rhibppines, labeling it as another American scheme to impede the
country's economic development.
Another issue that Recto crilicized was about the signing of the
Agreement that took place on December 15, 1954, signed by
Senator Josc Laurel and James Ling:et,' in Washington D.C. Thig
agreement provided for the gradual abolition of free trade bctwcen the
U.S. and the Philippünes from January 1, 1956 to Julv 3, 1974.
Accordülg ta hum, such agxeement would perpetuate the status of the
PhilippLnes as an economic saleüite.
Recto's Riza\ Bill, which proposed to make Rizal's Noti Me
Tangere and Et Filibusterispno compulsory in all universities and
colleges was apposed in the Senate by Decoroso Rosales, brother
of Archbishop Rosales; Mariano Cucnco, brother of Archbishop
Caenca; and Fran&co Rodrigo, former president of Catholic
Action. Their contention was that the measure would violate
freedom Of corßticncc and religion-
On May 12, 1956 the controversial bill was finalEv approved by
a substitute measure authored by Senator laurel and basedõn the
proposals of Rose]ler T. Lim and Emmanuel Pelaez. It was now
possible for students to be exempted from using the unexpurgated
edition of the Noti and Fili on grounds of religious beliefs. By virtue
of Republic Act No- 1425, thc Rizal Bill was éígñed as a law on August
26, 1956-
President Magsavsay, who Was hoping for reelechon died in a
fatal airplane crash at Mt. Manunggal in Cebu ort March 17, 1957. The
next day, March 18'•h, Vice-President Carlos P. Garcia was màucted
into office to complete the last eight months of Mag.saysay in officc.
In the pæsidenäal elections of November 12, 1957, Garcia ran
under the Nacionalista Partv with Jose Laurel, as his running Irate. Jose
Yu]D and Congressman Din•sdado Macapagal of the Libera\ Party;
Manuel Manahan anà Vicente Araneta of the Progressive
Farrt:; and Senator Claro M. Recto and Lorenza Tahada of thc ì_apiang
Maknbnns'l (Nationalist Citizens ran for President and VicePresident
respectivelv.

260
The elect-ion of 1957 was lecordcd in history as one of the
noisiest and most expensive, Garcia won his four-year term as
president, but his Liberal Party rival defeated his running mate. Voters
were allowed to split their votes for president and vice-president.

4. Garcia Administration (1957—61)

December 30, 1937. President Carlos P. Carcia and
VicePresident Diosdado Macapagal were inducted into
officeUnderscoring the socioeconomic problems that confronted
the country. President Garcia anchored program of government
in austerity, which involves temperate Spending, imports
and less extravagant rnption.
President Garcia expressed himself as against alien
domination in the national economy. August 28.1958, the
National Economic Council passed Resolution NO. 204.
officially promulgating the Filipino First policy of thc
administration. The resolution called for the adoption Of
guidelines giving preferential treatment to Filipino
businessmen.

309
 Not surprisingly, Garcia's nationalistic policies caused
disapproval from foreign business quarters, The American
Chamber af Commerce vehemently opposed the measttæ. A. V.I
l. 'attendorp, editor of the American Chamber Of Cornmerre
Journal, mentioned that the passage of the NEC resolution would
willfully destroy cx_isting industry Filipino Chamber Of
Commerce tesigned from the International Chamber Of
Commerce because of the latter's opposition to the policy.
On November 1 6, 1958, a coup d' etatplan Of a group Of
military men was reveak•d by Bartolome Cabangbang,
Congressman from Garcia's home province Of Bohol. According
to Cabangbang, the initial steps consisted of a propaganda
campaign to brand Garcia as a communist supporter and to build
up Defense Secretary Jesus Vargas_as the heroic defender Of the
Philippine democracy in the 1951.1953, 1955 and 1957 elections.
Garcia's administration was also criticized for graft and
cormption. Cabangbang claimed that the coup planners had not
gone beyond the first stage of their because they could not get
the support of the armed forces.
As a result of the publications of Cabangbangs revelatiors, a
suit was filed against him by Colonel Nicanor Jimenez. one
of those alleged to have been involved. Cabangbang Won the
case.
Vargas and the Chief of Staff, General Alfonso Arellano
later resigned.
Nevertheless, a considerable number Of accomplishments
may be attributed to the Garcia adminisäaäon. Them was the
revival of Filipmo culture. Filipino folk dance grouþ like the
Dance Troupe were encouraged. The government sponsored the
annual Republic Cultural Heritage Awards for Filipino scientists,
artists, musicians, fiction writers, and historians. The Dr. 'ose
Rizal Centennial Commission wag created to supervise the
compilation of writings Of Dr. Rizal. International goodwill by
state visits to Japan, the United States, Suth and Malaysia were
also made
 stronger.
In the ptt•sidenHal clection of November 14, 1961, the results
showed that Garcia's zealous campaign had not garnered adequate
electoral support. Craft and corruption in the bureaucracy continued
plague the society. The administration failed tc stop inflation,
smuggling, and criminaEty. President Garcia lost his bid for reelection.
The Liberal Party once again into power.

5. MacapagalAdministration (1961-65)
On December 30, 1961 , Diosdado Macapagal with his running
mate Emmanuel Pelaezwereinducted office. In addressing the
Congress on January 22, 1962, President Macapagal targeted the
following areas for his administration: self-sufficiency in the Staple
food of the people, that will provide more income and a
well-formulated SOCi(Xconomic program. He promised to Strengthen
the sense of morality of gcvcmment by instituting modes of rcform and
set the example of honest and simple Living,
On the eve of the turnover of Malacañang to him, Garcia
appointed more than 200 Followers tosome important posi
in the govemment. One of these was that cf the Central Bank
Governor. It was given to former Secretary Of Finance
Aytona by outgoing President Garcia. MacapagaJ appointed
Andres Castillo to the said position. 30th appointees held at the
Same building. On January 2, 19622 the Philippine Constabulary
Rangers, called in by Castillo through Defense Macario Peralta,
besieged the building to throw out Aytona
Aytona then filed with the Supreme Court an appeal for the
issuance Of a writ Of prohibition and mandamus with preliminary
injunction to pull out Castillo from the Central Bank Governor's
chair. The Supreme Court in its decision, upheld Castillo as the
legitimate Governor of the Central Bank.
When Macapagal occupied Malacañang. he vowed that he
would root out graft and corruption in the government. I ligh
government officials. from cabinet to congressman were

311
constantly the focus Of public attention owing to rumors Of
Illegal transactions involving mill ion Of pesos.
On Malth 3, 1962, Secretary of Justice Jose W. Diokno ordered
the Nat-ional Bureau of Investigation (NH) agents to raid the offices
Of the Industrial and Business Management Corporation on San Luis
Street (now Teodoto M. Kalaw St.). Arrested were Harry S. Stonehill
and his associates John L. and Robert P. Brooks, The NBI raided sorne
forty widely scattered business establishments owned by Stonehill
Seized during the raids were huge amounts Of cash,
eleclronic devices, which included telephone-tapping instruments
and telephone•jammingdevice, and most importantly, (he so-
called Book, a small orange book containing the names Of
persons in and outside the government. who allegedly received
various sums from Stonehül.
During the congressional investigation Of the Stonehill case.
President Matapaga[ Ordered t_hp immedia te deporlalton of Stonehill
and Robert P. Brooks since their presence constitutes a menace to the
welfare and security ot the country The order was severely criticized
by many. Senator Arluro M- Tolentino, a Nacionalista called the
presidential order a dangerous preœdent.
Six months after his election, Pœsidcnt Macapagal issued an
executive order shifting Philippine Indepcndenee Day from the
traditional July 4 to June 12. the day, when in 1898, Philippine
Independence was proclaimed at Kawit, Cavile. July 4 was then
declared Philippine-American Friendshtp Day.
In continuing his campaign for nationalism, President
Macapagal encouraged the usc of the Filipino Languagc in
diplomatic passports, diplomatic credentials. school diplomas,
traffic signs and stamps as well as naming of typhoons. It Was
dunng his term that the Philippines officially filed her claim over
North Borneo (Sabah) on June 22, 1962.
President Macapagal, who loved to call hinvself the "p-x'r
boy from Lubao," saw thc need of beneficial changes in the
countryside.
On August 8, 1963, Republic Act No. 3844 or the Agricultual
Land Reform Code was signed into a law after stormy debates
in the Congress. Under the Code, share tenancy system in
agriÇulture had to be replaced with agricultural leasehold
system. It provided for the pu rehase Of private fazmlands and
distribution Of lots to landles tenants on easy terms of payment.
Experiment in leasehold system was conduct«d in twelve towns
in Central J.uzon, declared as land reform areas by President
Macapaga]. Plaridei, Bulacan became the first land reform The
new system had reportedly improved the liv mg conditions in the
land reform areas.
The President also sponsored notable pro}ects like the
construction Of the North and South Exprt¥';way, housing for soldiers
and government employees, beautification 01 Rizal Park and the
establishment of the Philippine Veterans Bank.
In external affairs, lhe Philippines had been cultivating
closer relations with Asian countries. President Macapagal
proposed a conference among the leaders of the Philippines,
Indonesia and Malaya. Ihc conference held in Manila from June
7 to 11. 1963 resulted to a 16-point agreement known as the
Manila Accord approved on July 31 and was signed by President
Macapagalr President Sukarno of Indonesia and Prime Minister
Tunku Rahman of the Federation cf Malava. Then on
August 6, the three national leaders issued the Man_ñá
Declaration, which laid down the principles that would direct
their countries known as MAPHILINLX) (Malaya, Philippines,
and Indonesia).
In preparation for the creation of the Federation of Malaya,
which would include Malaya, Singapore, Sabah (North Borneo)
and Sarawak, President Macapagal refused to recognize the
establishment of Malaysia to force the tatter to the country's
territorial claim to Sabah.
In the 17th century. Sabah was given to the Philippines as a
part Of the agreement between the sultan Of Sulu and sultan cf
Brunei until it Was leased 187B to British North Borneo
Company which had no authority to bestow Sabah to Malaysia.
The contract Of tease of 1878 used the word ••pad)ack" whith

313
means "lease" according to Dutch, American and Spanish
scholars. British had translated it to "cession. "
The Philippines, in an attempt to resolve the Sabah issue
suggested that the question be elevated to Wortd Court for
decision,

but the Malaysian leaders refused. On September 16, 1963, the

Philippines severed diplornatic ties with Malaysia. Malaysia closed
its embassy in Manila as well. IIL[NDO ceased to operate.
The President's integrity and impressive record of
accomplishments made it possible for him to lead his people and
withstand thc pressing needs of the nation. Despite governmenys
concern to solve the problem of peace and order, graft ard corrupdcm
as wcl] as inflation, (he Nacionalista Party took advantage of public
displeasure on some iAsues ike the decontrol policy
which favored foreign investors and the floating tate of the peso.
Instead of P2 to $1, the peso devaluated 10 the dollar at a P3.90.
Many hopeful candidates exercised various political schemes in
upcoming elections. Senate President Ferdinand E. Marcos had his
film biography shown titled ng Trždhana O¶ritten by Fate). It did a
lot to project a good image of the leading character the movie. People
came Eo knaw the life story of Marcœ.
Senate President Marcos was born in Sat-tat, Norte in
1917. While he was still a law student he was Mcriminated in a
politically motivated murder. Released cn bail, he graduated at the
of the Philippines (U.P), topped the bar, appealed his own case
and won acquittal. During World War n, he served as an intelligence
officer of the liberation forces. In 1949 he was elected to the House of
Representatives and to the Senate in 1959 under the Liberal Party. [n
1964 he joined the Nacionabzta Party and became the party's
presidential bet His wife Imelda and her cixie of "Blue Ladies" gave
him fun suppor\, His popuhr maxim, "This nation can be great again,"
won thc hearts Of the Filipino people.
In the ptpsidential election of November 9, 1965, the
Liberal Party lost. The Nacionalista Party once more became the
party in power. Marcos won a big majority.

6. Marcos Administration (1965—1986)

314
 FOE more than 40 million Filipinos, what they wanted to see at
that time was whether or not the pæsent government can providc the
leadership necessary to restore peace and harmony in the society
During the first {erm of his administration (1965—1969), President
Fcrdinnnd E Marcos met the enormoug task of restructuring the
country's social and cconomic conditions.
Prior to his term of office, the national treasary was primnrüy
empty due to heavy government spending. The government-owned
bank itself, the Philippine National Bank (PNB) was nearly insolvent,
due to unpaid loans to government corporations, which amounted to
more than P400 million. President Marcos -was able to stabilize the
government finances by means of effective collection or taxes foreign
banks and governments-
To achieve self-sufficiency in rice and com, financial aid
and technological assistance were extended 10 farmers. More
aid to agriculture was offered hy the government thr•yugh the
construction of more irrigation systems, cultivation of a cice
variety called ER8 belter known as Miracle Rice and ether fast
grow:ng rice secds. This Miracle Rice propelled the Green
Revolution in ricc production in many Third World countries-
Building of mote roads, bridges, schoolhouses and other
structures Like the Cultural Ccntcr of the Philippines (CCp)
complex in 1969, which consists of a theater for the performing
arts, museum, and an art library were likewise done to best serve
the needs of a gmwing popula tion.
Vigorous campaign against smuggling, kidnapping, drug
trafficking and other crime syndizates was also given emphasis,
since the peace and order situation was quite alarming owing to
the rising incidene of criminality
__upid developmcnt and economic progress characterized
President people were satisfied peaormànce,
1969. to be for a second term. On Decembet 30, 1969, he took his
oath of office in the native language, the first ever for a Philippine
presideril.
President Marcos also met opposing views during his first term
office. The people were surpriMd when he allowed the Philippines
to give military support to the United States in the
Vletnam War. Late in 1964, when Marvos was st-io

315
the Senate President, he opposed the bilk providing for the sending of
a military engineering battalion to Vietnam. He made clear that the
sending of Philippine combat troops to war is unconstitutional. Bascd
on the 1935 Philippine Constitution, the ccmml_ry war as
anirustrument of national policy.
No less than 3,000 members of the vouth sector demonstrated
on the first dav of the Manila Summit scheduled October 24 to 25.
1966: They rallied near the American Embassy and the Manila
Holel, where U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson was billeted.
Thev denounced the participation af the country in the War as
well as condemned the abuses and brutality of the police who
last their temper at the height of thc political protest.
The police reacted by filing charges against forty-one
students for breach Of peace and assault. President Marcos
order?d the dropping Of the charges against the students to put
the Situation in order.
The Summit was held regarding the settlement Of the war in
Vietnam. Delegates from the United States, Thailand, Australia, New
Zealand, South Vietnam and South Korea were invited. The
conference œsulted to the preparation Of three documents: a joint
communique; a declaration of peace and progress in Asia and the
Pacific; and the goals Of freedom.
The joint communique pertained to the summary of the
discussions Of the Seven nations. with emphasis on conditions
in Vietnam, the search forpeace, econom ic stabi hty and
progress. The declaration Of peace and included the following
ideals: that aggnSSiOrt must not sucœed; that the bonds Of
poverty, illiteracy and disease be broken; that the economic,
social, and Cultural cooperation within the Asian and Pacific
region be strengthened; and that there be reconciliation and
peace throughout Asia. The third document, Goals of Frcedom"
contained commitment to achieve the ideals contained in the
second document.
President Marcos succeeded' in including in the communique
that aid to South Vietnam refers not to military but economic and
social assistance. Any Philippine effort to increase her aid to South
Vietnam shall be subjected to constitutional and congæssional ethics.

316
 Be that as it may, Marcos was reelected for a second term.
He based he; campaign on his achievements which t-,clude the
increase Of gross domestic prôdüct. expansion Of
and the breakthrough in rice production in whi& madc us an
exporter of the product.
With the clobai economic crisis brought about by the rising oil
price, the Philippine economy was adversely affected in the 1970s.
Aside from economic recession, civ il unæst ca used by the
ascendancy Of politics, graft and corruption continued to afflict the
nation. There was also the upsurge of communism and subversion,
The increasing gap between the rich and the poor became more
evident.
1935 PhihppineConstilu110n was sen by the Maru.rs administration as
unablc tocopc with the new s'x-iœconomgc problems of the country.
Due to the deplorable canditions of the country, student
militarism became intense. Realizing the need for unification and the
importance Of knowing the student organintions, anltu_ils, and
fraternities were .
Among the militant groups were the (KM)
and the National Union of Students of the Philippines (NUSP)_
Professors and other intellectuals played a mapr role in providing
support. Some had formed and headed their own organizat ions and
provided some radical ideas through lectures, meetings, syrnposia and
classroom discussions. Aside from them, various labor groups closely
associated themselvcs with sludent.movemetits.
In January 1970, President Marcos met N USP Presidenl Edgar
Jopson Of the Ateneo de Manila and other student leaders
Sin a dialogue at Malacañang. This took placc four days after a riot
took place following the State of thc Nation Address oi the President
on January 26.
These youth leaders were calling for a nonpartisan
Constitutional Convention. Thev wanted an assurance that the
president would not run for a third term for this is by
the present constitution. However, the dialogue was
unproductive,
Another confmntation occurred between riot police and about
2,000 demonstrators outside the Palace. The demonstrators Were
attempting Ec ram a firp truck thróugh 4 Of Malacañang. This is now

317
known as the "Battle of Mendiola." By dawn, six St-ttdcntg had
already been killed. The press dubbed these events as the beginning
of the First Storm.
Protests and riots continued- After holding a Peopl€s
Congress in Plaza M iranda. around 3,000 youths and railitant
groups attacked the US. embassy in Manila in Febraary They
were accusing the United States with being a fascist imperialist
power supporting the Marcos administration. Various Manila
became nurse ries Of student activism.
The following month, the Movement for a Democratic
Philippines organized a Peoplc's March, a 23-kilometer march
frum Quezon City— Manila Rotonda along thc streets of
Manila and ending at the Post Office building (Plaza Lawton)
in Manila. 1hr. marchers were prevented from entering the U.S.

318
 By the early 191k two separatist groupg, the Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLF) the Now People's Army
(NPA) waged guerrilla warfare against the Marcos
administration. Nur Misuari, a respected intellectltal and
campus radical at the Univers ity of the Philippines (in the mid-
1964)s) formally established the MNLF in an island off the coast
of rerak, Malavsia in 1971. Muslim secessionist movement in
Mindanao was gaininc ground. Mtsuari was among the first
group of 90 trainees who for the independence Of the Moro
nation (Bangsa Moro). Founded two years thereafter was the
National Democratic Front (NOF), serving as the political arm
of the Communist Party Of the Philippines (CPP)It was given
the duty to make strategic alliances with militant, government,
and other opposition groups. The NPA became the military force
(Hukbo) of the CPP.
The political dissension reached its peak in the so-called
"Plaza Miranda Massacre" on the evening of August 21, 1971
during the proclamation rally Of the Liberal Party (LP)
candidates for the 'Ocal electiorË scheduled cn November S,
1971.
Unidentified men on the platform hurled two fragmentation
grenades and killed 8 persons and injured 120, including most of the
oeppsition senatorial candidates. Among those injured were JOVitò
Salonga, John Osmena, Eddie Harde, Ramon Mitra. and Eva Estrada
Kalaw. CPP-NPA under the direcii6ñ Of Maria after that they
had caused the bombing. Sison had anticipated •that the split of
political leadership In a revolutionary situation would lead to a
communist takeover.)
President Marcos blamed the communists for the bombing
incident. vowed to impose tnartial aaw if the communist attacks
persist. On the same day. President Marcos issued Proclamation
No. 880, suspending the privilege Of the writ of corpus in order
to maintain peace and order and preserve the authority of the
State. However on January 12, 1972, the President restored this
constitutional right, except for those who were a 'ready in
detention.
Terrorist bombings of public and private property and residences
ensued. On September 11, two explosions hit the main office of the
Mani2a Electnc Company. Assassination attempts on President
Marcos. Congressman Eduardo Coiuanscor Senator Jose Ray and
Defense Secretary luan Poncc Enrile were allegedly to be carried out
by the rebels. 'lhcSC destabilization efforts would warrant the
imposition cf martial law in the country.
Senator Ni-noy Aquino who became the most oulspoken critic
of the Marcos administration in various issues, mentioned in his
privileged speech. that sour€esin the Armed Forces had revealed to
plans for Sagittarius, which would place Manila and environs
under martial law, Soon this revelation became a dismal realitv.
On September23, 1972, at 7--30 President Marcos appcarvd on
nationwide radio and television to formally announcc that he had
placed the entire Philippines under martial law as of 9 p.m. of the
previous day.
The implementation Ofmartial law in the country was
pursuant to Proclamation No. 1081, which he had signed on
September 21, 1972. This law was deciated by the President save
the Republic" from lawlessness and st-rife The constitution was
suspended The Congress was dissolved and President Marcos
governed by issuing presidential decrees, letters Of instruction
and other rules deemed favorable 10 the society.
Under martial law, President Marcos being the Chief
Executive had emergency powcrs. The President suspended the
writ of habeas corpus and curtailcd the freedom of speech.
press and asembly, He also irnposed strict implementation of
curfew.
Political opponents and detra r.tors were arrested and detaincd.
Among them weœ Senators Ninoy Aquino, Jose Oiokr,c and Ramon
Mitra, Teofislo Guingona, Jose Nolleda, Jose Mari-Velez
(radiotelevision commentator) and journalist Maxima Scliven.
Mass media were closed and placed under military
Some of them were later permitted to reopen but under strict
censorship. Even public utilities and industries were seized and placed
under government control. included the Manila Electric Company
(Meralco). Philippine 1 Distance Telephone Company, and the [ligan
Integrated Steel Mill
Student demonstrations, public political meetings and labor
strikes were strict?y prohibited- All schook were for week.
Curfew was impcsed from midnight to 4 a.m. Travel ban was
imposed on Filipinos who wanted to go abroad, except on
official
The ban was lifted on August 22, 1977, together with
the curfew.
A force Of nearly 1,000 men attacked Marawi City
21, 1972. The assailants called themselves the Mindanao
RêvoluUonary Council for Independence, led by a former p Chief of
Mar-awi City. After the incident. Nur Misuan his Bangsn Moro Army
(BMA) likewise initiated armed struggle in Sulu, Cotabato, and
Zamboanga.
Amidst conhßion the country, Pæsidcnt Marcos outlined
his land reform pmcram in accordance to Presidential Decree
NO. 27. This law provides that all tenants whose landlords own
more than seven hectalps Of rice and com lands are to be sold at
a price two-and-a-half times the average annual pmduchon- The
eligible tenant would receive a Certifiœte of Land Transfer
(CLT) Identifying his cultivated area and promising him thc
right to purchase the land.
President Marws took forceful steps against the heightening
illegal drug tradc. On 3, 1973, he ordered the immediate execuficn of
Lim Seng by firing squad for drug trafficking. The highly publicized
execution. shown on national televtsion was meant to serve as a
warning for drug dealers.
A new constitution was promulgated. The 1973 Constitution
established a modified ofgovernment with the Prime
Minister as the head of the government and the President as
ceremonial head of state. Both wem to be elected by the unicameral
National Assembly,
321
 the plebiscite Of January 10—15, 1973, the citizen assemblies,
composed of voters (including the 15-year olds) were to have ratified
the constitution by 95% positive majority, in open and group voting
by raising their hands..(The assembly could declare a quorum with 20
percent attendance,) At noon Of January 17, 1973, President signed
the constitution and thus such body Of laws Was put into effect-
Ml, Mamos ruled as and Prime Minister undermartial law
powers until 1981. The transitory of the constitution
legalued all decrees, proclamations and orders of the President, and
extended húg term of Office beyond 1973.
President Marcos sought popular sanction of his acts by
referendums. A referendum held on July 27-28, 1973, asked the
people to decide whether they wanted President Marcos to tinue
beyond 1973- According tc the official results. 90% of the voters
voted yes. President moreover, continued emergency powers under
martial law as approved by 92% voters in a third held on
February 27-28, 1975.
Aside from saving the Republic, President Marcos aimed
to form the New Society His proposed reforms for the building
Of this New Society are bà*d on the acronymu PLEDGES.
Peace and Order
L Land Reform
E Economic Development
D Development of Moral Values
G Government Reforms Reforms
s Services
TO check the abu_rws Of the military men, President
Marcos established the military tribunals to by military and
who commit crimes-

•Ihe citizen assemblies used to ratify the constitution and

annendments subsequently became the barangays. 'Ilie
Kabataang Barangay (Youth Council) was later added at local,
provincial and national levels of government, headed by
Marcos, the president's eldest daughter. At the end of 1975, the
Sangguniang Bayan was created in cvcry town council. The
National Legislativ
Advisory Council Bayan) was created in September 1976.
Before conducting the first national elecEon under Martial Law,
President Marcos implemented a new Election Codc of 1978. Marcos
Formed the Kilugang Batong Lipunan (KBL or New Society
Movement) which fielded candidates in all regions, headed by
Mrs. Imelda Romualdez Ma in Metro Manila.
The opposition parses Of the past, such as the Liberal party
boycotted the elections. However, Lakasng Bayan (Laban or
People's. Power) led by former Senator Benigno Aquino Jr.
became the principal contending party Of the KBL for the
national ciections. This election about a landslide victovy for the
KEL
In 1975, the Metro Manila Commission was Organized through
Presidential Decree No. 824 to supervisc community development
and services in the National Capital Region. IIS first governor was
Mtg. Marcos, the First Lady.
Mrs. Marcos sought for the const-ruction Of edifices for the
Filipino people. 1975, the Marula Planetarium, a dome-shaped
structure inaugurated, It was primarily built for students to ponder on
lessons about celestial bodies while seated.
The Philippine International Convention Center (PICC) was
made operational in 1976, The Structure was regarded as the
most modern m Asa on world conferences and
meetings.
To provide low-cœf shelter facilities to urban families. the
BLISS program (Bagong I ipunan Improvement of Sites and
Services) w as established on June 11, 1978.
In 1976, President Marcos disclosed to the public regarding the
country's policy of establishing telations with communist countries
such as the People's Rcpubl.ic Of China (June 9, 1975) and the Soviet
Union Oune2, 1976).
Relations wi±l the United States contin ued, this time with
some amendmcnts to RP-U.S. Military Bases Agreement in
323
1947, where the S. acknowledged the sovereignty of the
Philippines over the American military bases. The contract also
provided that the US. would pay rentals to the Philippines for
the of the bases.
In 1979, through the joint cooperation Of the Philippine
government and the United Nation* High Commission Of
Refugees (LINCR), the Philippine Refugee Processing Center
(PRPC) was estabhshed in Morong, Bataan for the war refugees
from Vietnam, Kampuchea and I.aos. In 1980, the Light Rail
Transit Authority was to construct the first light railway
transit (l .RT) systcm In the country. This was to case the
problem of traffic and congestion from Monumento to Baclaran.
Several opposition groups including the church hierarchy
sought for the end af martial law. Urban insurgents carried out
series of bombing* in Manila in defiance to military rule.
Finally on January 17, 1981, President Marcos signed
Proclamation No. 2045 ending martial law in the country
Changes in 1981 gave birth to the "New Republic" historically
speaking, the Fourth Thilippùve Republic.
On rune 16, 198b the first presidential election after the lifting
Of martial law was held. President Marcos (KEI. presidential
candidate) won a new six-year term. He prevailed over Other
candidates-Alejn Santos of Naeionalista Party and Bartolame
Cabangbang Of the Federal party. Santos was a former guerrilla
leader defense secretary while Cabangbang was then the president of
the USA movement.
Opposition to the Marcos administration persisted as the
during the ensued. Protestations against the
administration continued to be restrictpd under the provisions
of the Presidential Commitment Order (PCO) and arrest and
seizure without warrant orders (ASSO). Thcsc laws a;lowed the
president to order the detention ofanyone suspected cf
subversion or rebellion.
After a three-year exile in the United States, former Senator
Ninoy Aquino, the leading opposition spokesman, returned via China
Airlines (CAL) on August 21, 1983 at around 1:00 p.m. When he
decided to come back in 1983, the government tried to slop him,
noting that some people wanted to ki31 him. Yet he was able to fly
back to the Philippines.
Ninoy Aquino, born in 1932 entered politics at the age of 22 and
became the youngest mayor, then governor and finally a senator of
the Philippines- Ile was married to Corazon Coiuangco 1954. He was
imprisoned in 1972 after martial law was declared. I spent nearly
eight years in a military detention cell at Fort Bonifacio. President
Marcos allowed him to leave the country in 1980 and to move his
family the United States to undergo a heart bypass Suyery.
Upon Aquino's arrival at the Manila International Airport,
he was shot dead while go" down the planc. He was in the
custody of the guards from the Aviation Security Command
(AVSECOM)Government reports placed the blame on Rolando
Galman, the alleged gurynan. •They laid the body of the near
Aquino on the airport tarmac
The assassination led the country into the forefront of
international news. Thousands Of Filipinos sympathized with
Aquino's bereaved family. Many joincd his funeral march. His
assassination was reported to have Instigated the Filipinos to
fight the evils of dictatorship.
The battlecry "Ninov. bindi ka nas-iisa" and other Similar
were heard in various Aemonstratinns that had erupted in
Melro Manila and other areas in the coun(ry. Many militant and
causeOriented groups weæ organized. They called for an end to
Marcos regime. These groups included the following: August
TwentrOne Movement (ATOM), Justice for Aquino, Just-ice for All
(JAJA), and Bagans Alyonsang Makabayan (BAYAN),
The opposition members the Batasan took the step in filing a
case for the impeachment of the President for graft and corruption.

325
culpable violence of the gross violation of his oath of Office, and
other high Crimes. On August 13, 1985. the impeachment
signatories filed the resolution. On the same date. the
pregovernment KBL, with the majority vote of 105 (over 55
opposition members) decided to rt•ject the resolution to
impeach the President.
Investigation of Aquino's death and that of his alleged killer,
was assigned to a five-man independent body created pursuant to
Presidential l:kCTpe No. 1886 issued by President Marcos on
October 14, 1983. The body known as Agrava Fact-Finding Board
(AFFB) was headed by Mrs. Corazon Juliana Agrava, a retired Court
Of Appeals Justice. The four other members were businessman Dante
Santos, labor leader Ernesto 1 lerrera, lawyer Lucianc Salazar, and
educator Amado Dizon.
After almost two Yeats of investigation, AFFB submitted
two reports to President Marcos the Minority and Majority
Reports. The Minority Report, written by the Chairman alone,
submitted on Qtüber 23, 1984, stated that the Aquino Murder
was a military conspiracy. It implicated that only Brig. Gen.
Luther Custodio (commander Of the AVSECOM) and SLx
other soldiers. Chairman Agrava cleared General Fabian Ver
and Major General Prospero Olivas Of the crime.
The Majority Report by all the fourmembers of theboard
confirmed that Aquino's murder was a military conspiracy with a
soldier as an assassin but it Implicated 26 men in the cru-nee
including General Ver. Mai. Gen. Olivas, Brig. Gen. Custodio and
others.
President Marcrxs referred the two reports 10 the
Sandiganbayan for trial Of the 26 accused people (including one
civilian). The trial of the Aquino-Galman double murder case.
known as the "Trial of the Century," began in February 1985
and lasted for seven months. On December 2, 1985, the three-
member Sandiganbayan presided over by Justice Manuel
Pamaran. released its verdict unanimously acquitting all the 26
accused- The people were skeptical on the outcome Of the
prosecution.

326
 In 1985, the Philippine political and economic scenario
worsened. Thcrc was a slow down of economic activities
largely brought about bv the increase of Oil price in the world
market. In contrast, the country' s traditional exports such as
sugar and coconut Oil were experiencing price The
scheme, which started in 1984 thmugh
Sariiing Sikap livelihood program suffered a setback due to
graft and corruption in the bureaucracy. Foreign investors were
apprehensive to expand resources because Of political
instability. Furthermore, the anti. Marcos demonstrations
affected the tourism industry
To have enough supply Of foreign exchange and to restructure
the country's foreign debts, President Marcos negoäated with foreign
creditors which inciude the World Bank, International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, and the International Monetary
Fund (IMF)- The country's foreign debt has reached billion.
The country's foreign creditors pressured President Marcos to
institute reforms as a condition for the grant of additional econonuc
and financial help. Since the President needed a new mandate from
the people to carry out a national economic recovers' pmgram, the
Batasang Pambansa enacted a law scheduling a special presidentia'
clcction on February 7, 1986. 'This was to prove that Mr. Marcos was
still in control of the situation.
'Ihere were several opposition leaders who would like to run for
presidency and one of them was former Senator Salvador "Doy'
Laurel, son of the late President Jose Laurel wha was nominated in
June 1985 by the United Nationalist Dcmocraäc Organization
(UNIDO).
Majority of the opposition and other anti-Marcos groups
proposed Mrs. Corazon "Cory" Aquino, wire of the slain oppositon
leader, be the presidential standard bearer. Mrs. Aquino agreed to run
if at least one people would sign a petition urging her to run for that
position. Joaquin "Chino" Roccg, who organized. the Cory Aquino
for President Movemcnt (CAPM), was able to obtain mare than a
million signatures nationwide.
Thc snap presidential election February 7, 1986, witnesed
for the first time, a woman Candidate under the joint INDO-
PDPLaban Party (United Nationalist Democratic Organization-
People's

327
Demcxtatic Party-Lakas ng Bayan). Doy Laurel, upon the
advice of Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin decided to sacrifice
his presidential ambition for the sake of a united opposition. He
became the vicæ presidential candidate.
In the official tallies made by the Commission on Elections
(COMELEC), as certified bv the. Batasang Pambansa, the
Tcieatino ticket won. But as tabulated by the National
Movement for Free Elections (Namfrel), with their Operation
Quick-Count, Aquino and Laurel had a margin of around
800,000 votes to win against the KBL candidates.
There were reports of fraud, ballot box snatching. vote buying,
and intimidation during the snap elections. Thirty compute workers

328
walked out of the COMELEC tabulation center at the Philipp
International Convention Center VLCC), protesting that the resu.kts
were being mampula ted.
On Februarv 15, 19S5„ the Catholic Bishops' Conference Of the
Philippines Issued a pastoral letter to be read in all Catholic
churches, saying that the govcrnment had last its rn0Jal bt1Yi5 due
to pieces of evidence Of electoral fraud.
The following day, Cory Aquino led a rally called
Bayan (Victory of the People) at the Luneta Grandstand. Over 2
milhon people attended the assembly. She proclaüned a victory for
the people despite the proclamation Of Marcos as the winner. She
vowed to lead a civil disobedience campaign against Marcos. She also
allowed the boycott of crony-owned companies and products. She
presented an initial list Of crony enterprises that would be the target
of consumer boycotts. These included the three major newspapers, the
San Miguel commercidl empire (which was then contro[ied by
Eduardo Coiuangco, her cousin but a strong Marcæ supporter) and
number Of banks reportedly managed bv Marcos cronies.
While the anti-Marcos sentiment the country becoming more
intense, a group Of voung officers Ln the Armed Fomes Of the
Philippines (AFP) Was planning to overthrow the Marcos
dictatorship. The group was known as Reform the AFP Movement
(RAM). This movement started Ln March 1985.
This group of Officers who graduated from the Philippine
Militarv Academy wanted the restoration of professionalism in I he
military and to rcgain its honor and pride. Minister of Defense Juan
Ponce Enrile secretly sympathized With the RAM. The RAM
snid1Crs were also known as reformists
Colonel Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan, chief security officer of
Enrile, together with the reformists dccided to stage a coup d' etat after
President Marcos and AFP Chief Of Staff Fabian C. Ver faltered
RAM's pleadings. Nonetheless, the President discovered the
coup plot. Many Of the reformists were arrested.
the RAM soldiers sought refuge at the Ministry of
National LVense building at Camp Aguinaldo in Quezon City.
Gcneral Fidel V, Ramos, the AFP Of staff and Philippine
Constabulary Chief, sided with the reformists. He took control of
 Philippine leadqnarters at Camp Crame, acros Epifanio de IOS Santos
Avenue (EDSA) from Camp Aguinaldo.
On February 22.1986, at 6 p.m., MinisterJuan Ponce Enrile
and Deputy Chief of Staff. Lt. Gen. Fidel Ramos, gave a press
conference announcing their withdrawal of support for the
President. Minister Enrile admitted that it was Mrs. Aquino who
the elections. Marcos had won through fraud. He called on
Marcos to step down from his office. He also asked the people
10 support the military defectors. Immediately, Jaime Cardinal
Sin through the Radio Veritas, appealed for public support.
Thousands Of people went to Epifania de IOS Santœ Avenue
(ET*A) to form a hurnan barricade. On February 23, the Marcos
loyalist troops under General Ver prepared to attack. At about 8 p.m.,
Of the same day, armored and carriers under the command of Brig.
Gen. Artemio Tadiar, arrived at k DSA in front of Camp Crame to
assault the camp.
soldiers were not able to carry out the plan because Of
thc people blocking the way Guns and tanks were met with
rosaries, flowers, sandwiches and even hot coffec from
demonstrators
At dawn, marines captured the Logistics Command inside
Camp Aguinaido. The Air Force Strike Wing with seven
helicopter ips led by Côlötiel Antonio decided defect to the
rebels' side. Reformist soldiers led by Colonel Mariano Santiago
took 4, the government television station. At Villarnor Air rebel
helicopters had already assaultedMalacañactg wag being fired
upon.
Mr. Marcos. by that time was advised by U.S. Senator Paul
Laxalt to *cut now and cut cleanly" meaning that, he should now step
down and leave. Senator Laxalt, a close confidante of U.S. President
Ronald Reagan. was called up by Marcos earlier that day to get an
indication cí mood in Washington. President Ronald was said
to have offered political asylum in the united States.
the morning of Februarv 25, Ferdinand Marcos took his
oath of office at the Malacañang Paíace grounds. Before the end
of the ceremonies, somC television channels went off the air after
the rebels destroyed their trarsrnission lines. By 9:00 p.m„ of the
same day, Marcos and his family and some friends fled
Malacañang Palace and were taken by four U.S. helicopters to
Clark Air Base in Pampanga, then to Guam and finally to
Honolulu, Hawaii by U.S. military planes.
Within minutes after the Marcoses had fled, the palace guards
left their posts- The people in front of the Palace gate stormed into
the building. Many Filipinos celebrated the downfall of despotism
after the four-day People Power Movement that prompted President
Marcos to seck refuge in America. (Mr. Marcos died on September
28. 1989 in Honolulu. I body was returned to the Philippines In
1992.)

Aquino Administration 0986 — 1992)

On February 25, 1986, Mrs. Corazon C. Aquino tock her oath of
office at Club Filipino San Juan, Metro Manda simuktaneous with the
œth-taking ceremonies taking place at the Ma]acañang Palace for Mr.
Marcos. After the MarcosCS had left the palace. President Aquino im
mediately worked fonthe reorgamzation of the government, At the
onset of her administration. she formed a provisional govcmment,
restored the freedom cl speech and pœss, released political detainees,
dissolved the Batasang Parnbansa. appointed new Supreme Court
Justices and orde12d the resignation of incumbent government She
establ ished the Presidential Commission on Government
Reorganization (XCR) under Luis Villafuerte. The Presidential
Commission on Human Rights (PCHR} was also created under the
leadership cf former Senator Jose

On May 5, 1987. the on Human Rights replaced

the PCHR pursuant to Executive Order No. 163. Aside from its
primordial task investigate cases Of human rights violations
durmg the previous administration, the Human Rights
Commission has the power to examine the administration and
conditlnns of jails, prisons or detention lacilitics. The
ccrnrnission shall also investigate the violations committed by
the present government, as well as private parties.
 'The Presidential Commission on Good Government
(PCGG) Was also created æccver the ill-gotten wealth taken by
corrupt government officials. This was chaired by former
Senator Jovito Sa longa.
The Constitutional Commission. pursuant to Artclc V Of
Proclamation NO. 3 (issued on March 25, 1986) was ass'gned to
draft the 1987 Philippine Constitution. With 48 members, tinder
the chairmanship Of Justice Muñoz-pal.ma, the Constitutional
Commission convened on June 2, 1986 at the Batasang
Pambansa Building in Dilimark, Quezon City.
The pro-pcsed eon-'titution was approved by Corsfitutional
Commission on thc night of October 12, 1986, by a votc of 44—
2. Delegate Decoroso Rosales signed subsequently by affixing
his thumb-mark at his sickbed on October 14, 1986, in favor of
the draft. Delegate Lino Brocka had earlier.
The plebiscite held On February 2, 1987 led to the ratification cf
the proposed corvititutioa after the people Voted in favor of it. This
body of laws superseded the Freedom Constitution, which had
repealed the 1973 Cnurter of Marcos regime. The 198? m•åhppine
Constitufon a provision limiting the presidency to a single six-year
term.
On May 11, 1987, the first election under the new Constitution
tock place. It was for the Members of the Congress. The election of
al] Of the Was held to that Of
the Congress. The barangay elections were held ort March 28, 1989.
To improve t.hc living standards in the rural areas, President
Aquino launched the Community and Employment and
Development Program (CEDP). Infrastructure projects as well as
opportunities were made possible through this program.
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL)
pursuant to Republic Act No. 6657 was implemented on June
10, 1988. '(his was designed to include all agricultural lands not
only to lands devoted to rice and com. This law instituted the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) 10 promote
justice and industrialization.
 From 1988—1989, the Program for Decentralized Educational
LkvelOpment (PRODED) was instituted in all public elementary
*hools tv enhance the qua lity standard ofeducation in the said level.
In secondary education. the Secondary Education Development
Program (SEDP) was likewise adopted
The launching oí a five-year program by the Depaffient of
Tourism (DOT) known as "Philippines: Fiesta Islands of
improved the tourism industry, Festive celebrations were made in
differpnt parts of archipelago to attract more tourists and generate
income not only for the townfolks but for the government as well.
The Aquino administration intensified the privatization Of the
business Sector. The 1987 Constitution does not favor an economy
managed or controlled by the state. Regarding the justice system.

2BC
death penaltv was abolishd to givc the criminals a chance to
rehabilitate. For capital offenses, the penalty imposed was
perpetua or Life imprisonment.
In 1988, Presidcnt Aquino made foreign trips to strengthen
friendlv relations with Other ties Which include China.
Switzerland, Italy, Hong Kong and Vietnam.
Ch 13 Of the samp year, Aquino Signed Republic
Act (RA) NO. 6675 known as the Genenc Act. It provided for
the prescription and production Of drugs and medlÇ1nes
identified by their generic namCS to promote drug safety and
ensure the adequate supply Cf drugs at the lowest price. The
Departinent of Health pursuant to Executive Order NO. i 19
adopted the use of generics. Community Health Service was also
established In every to the of every Community.
Despite the government's popular support, opposition
within the well insurgency Slow pace of economic
development in the country aroused discontent. In December
1989, a coup attempt was staged against the Aquino administra
tion. The U.S. Air Force jets assisted the Philippine government
forces in suppressing the mutiny.
 In rkcernber 1990. 16 military men were convicted in the
Aquino-Galman double murder cage. lowever, the mastermind
of the military conspiracy was still unascertained The issue was
reopened and investigated after 'he Supreme Court had declared
a mistrial of the case.
It was also during the Aquino administration that the review
of the Military gases Agreement (MBA) between the U.S. and
the Philippines took place. This review was reported to have led
to an agreement increasing to $1.2 billion, the total amount Of
U.S. economic and military aid to the Philippines during the last
two years Of the RP-US Military Bases Agreement.
On September the Philippine Senate, by a vote of 1211 , rejected
the RP-US Treaty of Friendshi p, Cooperation and *curity, which
will take the place Of the RP•CS Military Bases Agreement upon its
expiration. The eleven votes in favor Of the treaty's ratification weir
below the two-third votes needed to ratify a treaty as prescribed by
the Constitution.
who voted for the retention of these bases were
Senators ileherson Alvarez, Edgardo Angara, Neptali Gonzales,
Ernesto

281
Herrera, Joey Lina, John Vicente Pater-no, Santanûla Rasul. Alberto
Romulo, Leticia Shahani and Mamintal Tamano.
Those who voted "no" to bascg were Jovito Salonga Juan
Ponce Enrile, Agapito Aquino, Joseph Estrada, Teofisto
Guingona, Sotero Laurel, Ernesto Maceda, Orlando Mercado,
Aquilino Pimentea, Rene Saguisag, Wlgberto Tañad.a, and
Victor Ziga.
The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, which spewed lahar to nearby
provinces in Luzon affected the pcasible extension of the bases
agreement With the Clark Air Base in Pampanga with heavy
tons Of volcanic ashes, the U.S. government decided to move its
servicemen and their families Ou t of the country. Not far from
Clark Air Base, the Subic Bay Naval station Was also in
 The *fles of volcanie eruptions caused by Mount Pinatubo took
place from July 12 to 15, 1991. Its ayhfalls reached as far Metro
Manila, Mindoro and Patawan to the South and Cambcxiia to the east.
as the world's worst volcanic eruption in the 2C•
century, the Mt. Pinatubo eruphen has caused great loss of lives and
properties.
The country was again bvan environmental disaster after it had a
dreadful one a year earlier, which took place on July 16, -1990 at
4:26 in the afternoon (DST), where two Strong earthquakcg struck
Luzon.
Typhoons arid floods had the wear and tear Of many roads and
highways. Duc to deforestation and illegal logging practices, which
had started in the past administrations, even mild typhoons caused
some flash floods ard devastation such as typhoon "Ering" in Ormcx,
Leyte on November 5, 1991.
The Philippines likcwise suffered economic losses from El Niño
in 1990 I P4.1 B ($158 M) in damage was recorded mostly in
agriculture. As expected, the El Niño phenomenon extended a long
drv spell which has resulted in the drying up of water sources,
reduction Of water supply, the Consequent damage to livestock and
agricultural crops nationwide and the rise of various diseases
aggravated by the long drought.
In the midst of these natural disasters, the government
managed to mobilize its regional, provincial, urban and
municipal sub-units to coordinate operations in badly affected
areas.
8. Ramos Administration — 1998)
President Corazon Aquino. prohibited by the Constitution to run
for a second term, endorsed Defense Minister Fidel V. Ramos in the
1992 presidential elections- Ramos won under a new political partv,
the Paytido Lukas Tao, bagcd on his long-held political doctrine of
people empowerment. Many of its members called themselves non—
tradilkÞnal politicians like their leader. Elected Vice-President was
former movie star, San juan Mayor and senator, Joseph "'Erap
Estrada.
 Upon his assumption of office. he worked on an Agenda far
Reforms to make the Philippmcs a New Industrialized Canntry (NIC)
by the year 2000. Five after Pmsident Ramos assurned Office, he
announced the creation Of a "Malacaôang of the South," to "bring
Malacañang closer to the people."

At the or-set, President Ramos had encountered which. were

remnants of the prev ious two and these were as follows:
mass poverty, ailing economy, power crisis, high crime rate, graft
and corruption, environmental problems and insurgency. triggered
President Ramos to formulate his aggnda for reforms to achieve
progress and stahilitv. TO SCCuæ the President Ramos
dismantling Of and cartels. Legislative measures were also
approved to increase domestic and foreign investments, human
resources and enhance country's links with other nations in the
global economy.
[n 1992, around 781,000 new jobs became available in
fnam percent was red uœd
tn 8.4 percent as of Ð7. From 1992 to 197, the per capita income
increased from $800 to $1,240. Ovcrseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)
were to receive protection With the
Of Act of 1995. Ten additiona3 labor attaches
weæ deployed in countriëšwhere (Kerc an' large concentrations
Of OFWs.
On July 8,
1992, Crime
Cornrnis$ion hcad._ After a year 0 its operations, the PACC
had encountered various crime syndicates, arresting Over 150
of their suspected members and forcing 58 others 10 voluntarily
surrender.
 On health care services. the government
pursuecLpxgygntive ñrograrns, which have r_ecosmtion._
Dclivs•— Of services areas was made possible through the
"doctors to thc barrio program," Thc avcrage life expectancy
gal.ncd a new ceiling from 67.5 in 1992 10 69.1 years in 1995
While Ramos administration hag been promoting artificial
methods Of birth control, the Catholic Church continues to
promote abstinence or natural birth canlro] methods among
couples. The Catholic Bishops' Confcmnce Of the Philippmes
(CBCP) in a pastoral letter read in churches nationwide said that
the government's birth control program would destroy family
ties It also virtually endorses abortion.
Ramos launched _the Agenda (SRA) on June
1,'71994, "to Yclp the poorest of the poor
-the triúst depressed categàry-fravebeett-
the beneficiaries Of poverty-alleviation measures that include
housing projects. agrarian reform programs. employment
opportunities and heallh care initiatives.
-lhe Smokey Mountain, once. the center of abject poverty, was
translon-ned into a model, affordable and clean for residential and
commercial purposes. In terms OF public infrastruchtre, from 1992 to
1998, the government has completed the construction and upgrading
Of 36,050 kilometers Of roads and 45,464 lineal meters of bridges.
The Philippine National Railwavs, (PNR) line
(Albay) was rehabilitated. used to be nonopcrational since 1986. The
Pasig River Ferry service was also revived to promote the use of
inland Waterways as an altemative means Of trarBport.
In Metro Manila, more infrastructure were also — the
cilCumfervntia road known as C-5, two more Light Rail Transit (LRD
syslems. the Manila Skyway, and the New Ninoy Aquino
International Airport Terminal (NAIA In Other parts Of the country.
additional intemational airports were opened Subic, Clark, General
Santos and Zamboanga.
The adrruni5Lratiori Started the interlinking Of the major island
grids into one national power grid Wilh •he completion of thc Leyte
Cebu tntprconnection Ln 1997 and Leete-Luzon interconneetlon in
1998.

337
 Programs and were also implemented to protect the country's
environment and conserve its natural resources. Critical areas such as
the Tubbataha Apo reefs, Boracay, and the Ifugao rice terraces were
protected and rehabilitated under the National Integrated Ptolected
Areas System (NIPAS).
The government embarked on an intensive foreign relation
campaign based on economic diplomacy. President Ramos
expanded global linkages by building and strengthening
partnerships through foreign trips which have Ixen much
criticized.
The United States continued to be the couttry•s top trading
partner, accounting for 26.78 percent of the total 1990 and 26.66
percent in 1991 The country's trade with Japan had been on an
uptrend, with 19 _84 percent Of the country's total trade during the
year.
The People's Republic cf China (PROC) continued to be the
country's leading communist trading partner. The increase of
Phil ippine exports to PROC in 1991 was attributed to the huge
demand for manufactured fertilizers.
In the pursuit of peace and in nation building. the Ramos
administration was able to forge a just and honorable Face With
the Repormang Alyansang Makabansa (RAM) and the Moro
National Liberation Frant (MNLF) by iniEiating dialogues and
agreements, This won the respect of the world as evidenced by
the 1997 United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) peace prize awarded to the country.
Peace talks were also held with the Moro Islamic Liberation
Front
Cornmunist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and National Democratic
Front that they may "rejoin the mainstream Of civil society. " It was
on Septcmber 15, -1993 when President Fidel V. Ramos Signed
Executive Order Na. 125, Defining the Approach and Administrative
Structure for the Government's Comprehensive Peacc Efforts. It
directed the government to pursuea comprehensive peace process
along the Six Paths to Pcacc as recommended by the National
Unification Commission (NUC). The NUC recommended the
Creation Of the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace
Process (OPAPP), which managed and implemented the mandate Of
the government.

338
 The Philippines once regarded as "the sick man cf Asia" has
transformed trito a nation towards the path of peace and sustainable
development. Under his management, President Ramos devised a
new plan which he called "Philippines 2000," his blueprint for
national economic recovery to transform it into tiger economy
by the next millennium.
The pragram intended to have economic development that win
be propelled and sustained through the promotion of efficiency in the
marketplace and the advancement of social equity in of asset reforrrus.
It also included iœst sharing of the benefits of growth and effective
people participation in the political and economic
mainstream.
Despite the reversal of economic Interests m Asia since late
1996 and 1997, the Ramos administration managed to keep the
local economy stable. 'lhe lalgc number of overseas Filipino
workers (OFWs) and Filipinos who do business abroad provided
a steady supply of dollar supporting the local
currency against the exchange rate shifts.
During the early 1990s, militant activities by Muslim separatist
forces continued in Mirtdarao. In 1996 the government finally
reached a peaceful settlement with one of the largest rebel groups in
the country, thi Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). The signing
of the GRP-MNLF Peace Agreement on September 2, 1996 in
Malacañang Palace formally ended the armed conflict in Mindanao.
The GRP-M.NLF peace accord specifically provided for the
establishmcnt of a Special Zone of Peace and Dcvclopment in
Southecn Philippines (SZOPAD), consisting of 14 p'ovinces; the
Southern Philippines Council for Peace Development (SPCPD);
and a Consultative Assembly. it also called for the integration of
MNLF forces into thc Armcd Forces of thc Philippines (AFP)
and the Philippine National Police (PNP). The peace agreement
also included economic assistance 10 the region.
[n 1997 Ramos's supporters sought amend the constitution;
however such Charter Change (Cha-Cha) movement was denounced
by different sectors including the Catholic Church. It was viewed ay
a scheme allow the president a second term, which the 1987
Philippine Constitution had forbidden.

339
 At the end of President Ramos's term, the observance of the first
Centennial of Philippine Independenœ was carried out through the
National Centennial Commission (NCC) and other nongovernment
organizatioas (NGOs). The NCC through a five-yea: plan, assigned
themes for every year for five years from 1994 to 1998, cach one
laying the foundation far the success of the major celebrations on June
12, 1993 until January 23, 1999.
The Centennial Programs had the following objectives:
revive love Of country, restore appreciation for the true Filipino
identity, relearn the values of the country's historic struggle for
independence and these for development of the fulure; and
generate greater active participation in the centennial
commemorative celebration to accelerate nation-building. The
desired effects Of the Philippine Centennial gave birth to its
slogan, "Kalayaan, ng Bryan.
Ln the May ggg elections, President Ramos and the
ruling coalition supporied Jose de Venetia, the House Speaker.
However, it turned out that the opposition had the popular support for
the presidency Joseph Estrad a, vice-president under the Ramos
administration bcc-ame the next head Of the state.

9. Estrada Administration (1998—2001)

President Joseph "Erap" Estrada from the lapú'n ng Masaptg
(LAMP) took his oath Of officeon June 30, 1998 at the historic
Baragoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan. On the same date, he gave his
inaugural address at ïhe Quirino Grandstand where he promised
brmg peace 10 the people and harmony to the society. He also pledged
to fight corruption within the government and continue thc• economic
reforms Of the past administration. Elected VicePresident was Gloria
Macapagal-Arrcyo from the LAKAS-NUCD.
" para n;ahlrap•• became the campaign slogan of former
Vice-President Estrada. drov e his election campaign vehicle
JEEP, which contains his pro•poor program of govcmment. It
meant Justice, Economv, Environment and Peace. JEEP covered
Mr. Estrada's visior. of govemtnent. It revealed his tcn "steps"
toward a dynamic and ptogrcssive Philippines, namely:
Efficient bureaucracy to gencratc more income with less

340
 Economic recovery through fiscal reforms
Check all forms Of criminality, particularly kidnapping,
bank robberies, drug trafficking and other heinous crimes
Stronger to unify the nation
Encourage private busmess as government's partner in
nation building
Deliverv of basic scxial services to the people
FCCd secunty through better agricultural technology
Providing education to every Filipino
Harnessing Filipino talents in and technology
Sustainable development through a comprehensive
envirvnmental program
(Source: MagNcgosyo, May 1999)
It was Mr. Estrada 's identity with the masses that launched him
to the presidency the May 1998 elections- He won over his opponents
that included formcr Speaker Iosc de Venecia, former Defense
S&xetary Renato de Villa, former Manila Mayor Alfredo Lim,
Senators Raul Roco and Miriam Defensor-Santiago
In the midst Of economic turbulence Ln the Asia-Pacific region,
President Estrada stirred high hopes to Institute reforms aimed at the
development of the country 's scxial. economic and political
wellbeing. Government support were ERAP (Enhanced Retail

the National Food Authoritv (NFMçomponent. These retail stores

assistance to families especially in remote barangays, in view of the
administration's goal to weed out poverty.
In Kuala Lumpur, Malavsia, Estrada received assurances cf
ecgn½'xnie-aid amoúnång the isšištance to be extended
E¥developed_econcmics from the Asia Economic Cooperation
(APEC) forum._
President Estrada was desiHiated as the •Third Worlacountries
in the Sixth APFC meeri_né In He voiced theconcerññf developing
ecóhörxueS. leaders later approved the proposal of President Estrada
calling for greater multilateral aid to crisis-hit Asian economics.
Twenty-one APEC member states include Australia. Brunei
Darussalam, Canada. Chile, China, Chlnesc Taipei, } long Kong,

341
Indonesia, Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand,
Papua
New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, 'Ihailand,
United States Of America and Many Of the Southeagf Asian
countries facing the challenge of how all economies Of the
APEC member states can benefit from the opportunities
presented by globalization.
The Philippine and U.S. governments had signed October 9, 1998
the counterpart agteement on the Visiting Awt•ement

342
(VFA) which sought tc define the legal treatment Of F*IO
troops visiting the United States. Domingo Siazon and Thomas
I lubbard Signed the US-RP Visiting Forces Agreement. The
Philippine government lobbied for Sena•te concurrence by
mentioning military and economic benefits from doing so. The
VFR was submitted to the Philippine Senate on October 6, 1998-
The VFA in the eyes of the Philippine government provided
for the mechanism for regulating the and conditions
Of US armed forces and defense persönncl in the Philippines.
The government also stressed that much could bc gained from
the military technology and equipment that will be given to the
AFPJoint exercises were perceived help improve the skills of
Filipino in military operations.
US Deferuse %cretary Willia m Cohen emphasized that the
VFA was not directed against any country, particularly China,
which has an existing territorial conflict with the Philippines
over the Sprallys.
US Department of Defense streqgcd that they were not seeking
military facilities or bases.
Facing the task cf reform, President Estrada made moves
towards the acraahzation of his visions. The administration had
successful negotiations regarding the Subic controversy. The
congressional pork barrel. seen as a source of graft, was
abolished. There was the lowering Of interest rates, promotion
of savings and reduced dependence on foreign borrowings. A
presidential task force against crime was established. There was
also the peaceful resolution of the Philippine Airlines' labor
strike.
'l he ground crew union of the Philippine Airlines (PAI ended
its five-day strike after signing an agreement with the management,
under the ofthe National Conciliation and MediaBon Burd (NCMB)
of the ržpartment of Labor and Employment (DOLE).
The end of the strike, the *cord to hil PAL in a span Of two
months came about after nearly 15 hours of non-stop ncgotiations
between the two sides. The PAL Employees Association (PALEA)
agreed to cease all pickets and the Strike within 24 hours from the
signing of the agreement. The management guaranteed not to carr.mit
any retaliatory action against the striking PALEA members,
PAL and PALEA agreed to reduce the airliY1e's workforce by
1,8tk.) employees. all PALEA mernbcrs. This became effective on
August 16, IBS. But the affected employees were given
and benefits like privileges for them and their
opportunity to attend livelihood seminar; organized by PAL for
a period Cf years; ScparåHôñ benefits in two installments;
benefits fmm the PAL LkpcndcnË Medical Plan for three years;
and first prcfcrcncc in hiring. in thc cvcnt PAL increases its
manning complement in the future.
The agreement carne after President Estrada direct hard
solving the conflict, -iðgether with the-efforts of
The PAL
túnagement was guided by the directions of Chairman Lucio Tan and
President Jose Garcia. The PALEA board, headed by its President
Alex Barrientos signed for the union.
The government intensified -ts drive against illegal tetruiters.
Administrator Rey Regalado mentioned that the Philippine Overseas
Employment Administration (POEA) closed 11 illegal recruitment
agencies in the year on 1.3 closure olders he had issued. More than
400 cases Of illegal recruitment were brought to the POEXs legal
assistance division. 80 perccnt Of which had already duly filed with
the special pmsecutors.
The deregulation reforms initiated during the past
opened up an abundance of business opportunities for
the industrial machinery and materials industry. With the
liberalization of foreign exchange, reforms followed in
telecommunications, shipping, aviation, automotive industries— all
which required industrial machinery and materials, including metal
and steel manufactures.
Laws intended to create business environment conducive
to local and fnrvign investment were enacted in the year 2000.
They included the Retail Trade Liberalization Act (liberalizing
foreign ownership of retail firms), the General Banking Law Of
344
2000 (reforming the financial system), the Electronic
Commerce Act
(estab lishing regulations promoting E-commerce), and the
Regulation Code (enhancing capital market competitiveness).
In infrastructure, President Estrada's three-xearebuilding_
the bridge program was funded through the assistance of the
Austrian government. One of the steel bridges undertaken by the
program was Installed in the country in the remote barrio of
Mesalipit, San Miguel, Bulacan. This 50•meter long bridge cost
PI 6
million.
Senior Deputy Executive Secretary Ramon Cardenas, who
chaired the President's Bridge Program 's Technical Working
Group, indicated that 61 steelbadges had been completed in the
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (AR-MM) since the
propct started last 1999. more bridges had been opened tmder
the "Tulav ni Erap"— Salam (Peace) Bridge Project in four
provinces Of ARÚM, namely: Maguindanao, Lanao del Sur,
rawi-Tawi and Sultl„ The projectwas likewise expected to spur
socioeconomic investments in the whole of Southern
Philippines and convert the region into the next food basket of
Asia.
The Metrostar cr the MRI Ill along the stretch Of EDSA
Was finally made operational after three years of construction.
This tail system has provided not only speedy transportation for
commuters to their destinations but also helped ease the heavy
flow of traffic along EDSA particularb' on peak hours.
The government had provided measures to pursue its
housing program. To intensify its housing project, the
government had required subdivisions being developed to have
a portion for socialized housing.
Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council
(HUDCC) Spea rheaded the governmenYs low-cost housing
HUDCC Chairwoman Leonora Vasquez de Jesus
intrtxluccd thc multi-window lending system endorsed by
President Estrada, to make housing finance system more
accessible to the marginalized sector. Such system placed under
the President's National Shelter Program, planned to build
350,000 shelter units per year until the end Of Estrada's term in
2004.
In the commitment of providing shelter for the homeless,
President Estrada did raise funds for the new building of the
orphanage Of the Asociaciort de Damas de Filipinas, which was
destroyed by a dawn fire in 1998, killing at least 24 children and
injuring others. He also provided the equipment and facilities
needed by this institution for efficient management.
One Of the events that rocked the country was the hostage
drama in Mindanao, which involved foreign nationals as well as
Filipinos. The Abu Sayyar, a gmup Of Muslim extremists,
abducted twenty-one western vacationers in an island resort in
Sipadatl, Malaysia and one Filipino resort worker, Roland Vila.
The brought the hostages to jungle camps in 1010. This
was followed by the kidnapping of two French journalists and tw o
local TV reporters and 13 "prayer warriors" of a religious group
including leader. The hostage crisis, which lasted for several months,
projected the Abu Sayyaf to international notoriety.
All hostages were able to ret-um tn their families except Roland
Ulla, still being held captive by the Muslim extremists. Task Force
Comet, an operational arm of the military, was assigned to launch
offensives against the Abu Sayyaf to reKue remaining captive Ulla
and to neutralize the terrorist group.
Taking into account the pcaCe condition in Mindanao, a
Philippine travel ban was issued bv the German government to
its nationals. Nevertheless, the ban had been finally lifted after
five months. Tourism Secretary Gemma Cruz Araneta disclosed
on October 20, 2300 that the German government had issued a
new travel advisory stating that fravel to the Philippines is safe.
However, thc advisory stil discouraged German tourists from
going to some parts of Mindanao, specifically Jo)o and Sulu,
where military operations continued against the Abu Sayyaf.
346
They were allowed to travel to Northern Philippines with
comfort and safety
The Urfted Statrs government was the first to issue a have!
advisory advising its citizens to skip the Philippines because
of bombing incidents that hit Mindanao and some areas of
Metro Manila.
Abu Sayyaf leader GhaEb Andang also known as Commander
Robot told chief government negotiator and Flagship
Secretary Robert Aventajado that his 50up was not In any
manner involved with the kidnapping of the American Jeffrey
Craig Edwards Schilling in Zamboanga City.
Schilling was in the Philippine3 for several months and
married to Ivy Osani, a cousin cf Sabaya. another Abu Sayyaf leader.
Osani, a widow of a former Abu Sayyaf member, happened to be
the nephew of the slain founder of the Abu Sayyaf, Abduraiak

Abu Sabaya tagged Schilling dS an agent of the Central

Intelligence Agency (CIA) which the US Embassy denied
vehemently. The authorities had verified reporls (hal Schilling stayed
in Zamboanga for six months. Thcte were also reports that Schilling
himself had been seeking out this rebel group.
One rebel group (hat opposed the administrations of the past
wanted to return to the negotiating table. -Muslim leaders
subsequently approved a manifesto urging the Estrada
administration and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF)
tD
 resume the peace negotiations that were scrapped following the
outbreak of hostilities Mindartao. was also supported by al least
groups comprised of organizations from the religious, professionals,
farmers and other sectors of the Bangsamoro
Lawyer MacapantOn Abbas, Jr. Of the Royal Houses in
Mindanao pointed out that for the peace procexs to proceed anew, it
Was necessary for the government 10 declare a cease-fire. Criminal
charges and warrants of arrest again-st MILF chairman Ustadz
Salamat Hashim, vice-chairman for Mifitary Affai.es, Al Haj Murad
and MILF spokesman Eid Kabalu were also asked to be dmpped_
Manila was once again shuddered by inconsiderable
demonstrations and strikes which loudly protested on injustice,
stunted growth and progress af the country's economic lite, and the
perpetuating povertv of the great rnat\ses of the country 's popula bon
_ The public had also given their views about Malacaöang's pmp-
'_rsal to amend the constitution and allow foreigners to own land in
the country These problems had been the issues of mtxst debates in
the land.
While Cardinal Sin demanded Ecr President Estrada's
resignation, Cebu Archbishop Ricardo Cardinal Vidal
maintained his silence and refused to thc movcmcnt to remove
the President from office. HC merely advised the President
toùange and reform his ways.
Senatc President Franktin M. l)rilon and len of his coneagues in
the rejected 'he cat) for holding a snap pœsidenhai elections as an
answer to the current political agitation brought about by the jueteng
gambling payoff charges leveled agairust President EstTada. They
gave varied easons discarding the Senate resolution fi\cd by Senator
Juan Poncc Enrile asking both the Senate and the House of
Representatives 10 pass a law authorizing the holding of snap
cicctions.
Secretarv Lim cautioned the people to bc vigilant. He clarified
that economic rccovcry program of Lhe administration had already
made concrete gains. He also added that, if the constitutional process
or the rule of law would not be followed there would be chaos,
anarchy and violence; and the country would transformed into a
banana republic instead
The Office on Muskim Affairs Executivc Director Acrnad
M Tomawis hope that the MLtslims and other Filipinos would
remain steadfast in their support to President Estrada amid the
According to him. the administration
prioritizes the plight Of the and the marËinalized people in
running the affairs of the nation.
Just a day before 2000 yearend, 14 people were killed instantly
and more than 60 others were wounded in five bomb explosions in
Metro Manila. The Philippine National Police (PNP) Command under
PNP Chief Director General Panfilo Lacson directcd all PNP units in
Metro Manila to assist and provide security and maintain peace and
order in the wake of these bomb attacks.
The first bomb blasted at around 12 noon in a coach of
the Light Railway Transit (LRT) at Blumcntritt station on
its way to
Monumento. Fifteen rmnutes later, another explosion hit Plaza
Ferguson in Ermita, some 200 meters away from the United States
embassy. The third bomb blew up and ripped Off the roof Of Edsan
bus at the northbound lane cf EIYSA in Cubac, Quezon City in front
Of the Superlines bus terminal. Another bombing incident followed at
the NAIA cargo (erminal area in Pacaöaquc. Then at around 2:20
p.m., another bomb explosion took place ata Petmn gasoline station
locatcd across EDSA from Dusit lotel in Makati City.
Four officials of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF),
headcd by Chairman Hashim Salamat were charged of multiple
frustrated murder by the Department Of Justice < DOJ) in connection
with thc December 30 bombings in Metro Manila. The M officials
have also pending cases with the DOJ in coruuectiort with the May 17
and 21, 2000 bombings of malls in Metro Manila.
According to PNP Sen ior Supt, Raul Bacalz(.', the December 30
bombings had been conceived by the MILF and the plots were
unearthed an undated document coded "Feasibility PrcjecË that
detailed the bombings and economic sabotage in MetroManila. The
document Was taken from Camp Bushra in Lanao del Sur and
349
detaiEed thc plots to bomb malls, the Light Railway Transit, water
districts, provincial trains. and other structures
President Estrada condemned these bombing incidents that
rtxked Metro Manila and said that those behind it have resorted
to acts of desperation and cowardice in order to satisfy and
advance their political agenda.
With the ongoing impeachment trial. President Estrada
continued his provincial vtsits particularly in Mindanao and in the
depressed areas in Metro Manila The government has talea*d more
infrastructure funds through the regional offices of the Department of
Public Works and Highways (DPWH) for the President's Mindanao's
development projects- This was part of Malacañang's confidence-
build ing measures to push his campaign against poverty.
While the staging af anothcr People Power revolt was being
contemplated by some sectors in the ¾'ciety, the President himself
cited another evident emerRency situation, i.e., the sight of
uncollected garbage in the Metro Manila. The dumpsitc at San Mateo,
Rizal was closed at the end of that year when its operating contract
expired. The Payatas dumpsite in Quezon City was earlier blocked in
JL[lv 2000 after a landslide killed more than 200 people living in the
area. San Mateo and Payat;Ls have been receiving some 6,000 tons of
solid waste a day, from Metro Manila's 12 mill-ion population.
In the midst of a garbage President Estrada ordered or. January
11, 2001 the reopening of the San Mateo Landfill- The residents of
San Mateo and Antipolo however, vehementlv raùied agairkst this
memorandum by preventing rucks from unloading of garbage
from Metro Mania. Vtfith no alternative site for garbage, the
government tried to dispose some of the metropolis' trash on
Island, 45 kilometers (31) miles) from Boracay, a premier tourist
destination. This proposal was also thwarted by public protest.
On the other hand, the Department cf Trade and Industry, ediher
sought the delay Of the implementation of the Clean Air Act, which
intended to improve the environmental compliance of industries, This
was to give the industries mom time to raise mcmey and acquire new
technology to compliance. Majority of the industries had to retool
their operations.
 As the future of the country became mote uncertain, Senator
Pimentel resigned his post as Senate head ill the evening of January
16, 2001 after the motion to have the sealed envelope opened wag
defeated in an 11-10 vote by the Senate impcachmcnt tribunal. The
second sealed envelope fram Equitable PCI Bank allegedly contained
bank records of President Estrada alias "Jose Velarde" totaling some
P3.3 billion.
The 11 senator-judges, which included Senate Pro-
Tempore Blas Ople, %nate Majority Leader Francisco Tatad,
Senators
Teresa Aquino-Oreta. Robert Jaworski, Nikki Coseteng, Ramon

Revilla, Gregorio l•lonasan, Juan Ponce Enrile, Miriam

DefetŸsorSantiago and Vicente "'Tito" Sotto repcted the prœecution•s
motion to open the second envelope. For them. the trial should be
limited to the articles Of impeachment as spceified by the House of
Representatives. The so-called Velarde account was not in the atticles
of Impeachment,
The 10 senator-judges who voted that the second envelope be
opened in the "interest Of truth" were Senators Rodolfo Biaznn. Raul
ROCO, Franklin DriJon, Teofisto Guingona, yuan Flavier, Loren
Legarda-Leviste. Rene Cayetano, Ckrreña. Jut Magsaysay, and Nene
Pimentel.
The House prosecution panel, headed by Minority Leader
Feliciano likewise tendered their resignation in the wakc of the Senate
decision. Joker Arrovo, a member of the prosecution pane), hinted a
constituáona] crisis d tie to the stalemate 'hat emerged following the
irrevocable restgnatiort Of the I prosecutors. However. Senate
Majority Leader Francisco Tatad conveyed to the public that the
impeachment court had not been disbanded It had simply recessed to
allow the to address the problem presented by the resignation Of
prosecutors.
Maiacañang expressed optimism that President Estrada's
impeachment trial would resume soon. His lawyers were ready
to their pieces Of evidence to prove false the
prosecution's charges against him. Acting Pres Secretary
Michael Toledo that if the case would close following the
351
resignation Of the prosecutors, it would not be the fault of the
defense panel. House Speaker Amulfo Fuentebella made clear
that thev have developed certain options on the
prosecutors' resignation as he assured all the decisions they
would make in the process would be the decÉion of the House
as a whole.
House Assistant Majority Leader Francis Joseph Escudett> (1st
district of Sorsogon) pointed out that one way to resolve the deadlock
at the Senate impeach ment tribunal was for the 1 louse minority to
choose another set Of 11 congressmen to Serve as prosecu tors in the
impeachment trial agairust the President. Nevertheless, Covet-nor
Singson avowed before the Integrated Bar Of the Philippines (IBP)
regional convention, that if he would not be satisfied with the decision
of the Senate in the ilnpeachment ca*, he would surely bring the fight
to the highest court, which is the
On January 16, an hour after the Senate had rejected the
of the second containing batik documcnts alleged Velarde account,
thousands of Filipinos went out of the streets to show protest. The
demonstxatorg stayed at F.DSA Shrine for four days (January 16 to
20, demanding President Estrada to step down from office-
The Church once again lived up its role as the moral guardian af
the society. Jaime Cardinal Sin initiated the prayer rally at the shrine
with Vice-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, and former Presidents
Corazon Aquino and Fidel RArnos present in the area. After the
resignation of the prosecution panel, more Filipinos trooped to EDSÀ.
messages were instrumental in drawing a mammoth crowd at ED"
Shrine. Countles mobile phones were buzzing with the latest text
messages about Malecañang and the protest rally. Nearly two million
people went to the streets-
At the same time, pm-Estrada rallyists gathered at Mendiola
Bridge near Malacañang as early as 12 noon of Januaty 17 denounce
the 10 senators who voted for the opening of the second envelope. Tnc
pro-Erap supporters stayed in the Mendiola area to secure all entry
points leading to Malacañang.
PrEsident Estrada intended to finish his term until 2004. He
appealed to those exemising (heir right to expression and assembly
for calm and sobriety and assured the public that the government is in
control of the security situation. He even n:žed out the possibilitv of
resignation as called for by his political opponents. He asked the
Filipino people to allow the constitutional process to take its course.
Nonetheless, the last-minute defecti(ns of politicians even gave
mom tension tc these tumuliuous days. -f hey, 100, aligned
with the people demanding Estrada to step down from office.
Mass resignation of the Cabinet was triggered by the defection
of thc Armed Forces led by the ChiefofStaff, General Angelo Reyes.
The military announced through media that they had already
withdrawn their support for the EstTada presidency. invoking Article
2, Section 3 Of the 1987 wherein the Armed Forces of
the Philippines shall protect the people arid the State. Likewise,
Director-General Paafilo M. Lacson, chief of the Philippine
National Police announced at a press conference that the PNP had
also withdrawn support for President Estrada, stressing that the police
organization the decision of the citizenry.
The pronouncement of the military was a powerful blow to the
President. Nonetheless, Preyident Estrada still refuSed to and insisted
on a snap presidential election. However, the President together with
his family, reported]v left Malacañang after knowing that the Supreme
Court had already issued en banc resolution declaring thc seat of the
presidency vacant and could not be constitutionally replaced by his
successor.
The Supreme Court likewise through its resolution
authorized Chief Justice Davide to administer the oath of
office of then Vicepresident Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as the
14th Prcsider\t of the Republic, succeeding President Estrada.
However, the deposed Pmsidcnt insisted that he did not resign
hut merely left Malacañang
Palace to prevent bloodshed as protesters were already close to
Malacañang to physically eject him from his

10. Arroyo Administration (2001-present)

President Gloria Macapagal-Atroyo was catapulted into
power by the People Power Rev elution [l EDSA, which
ended on January 20, 2001. Facing the task of leading 76 million
Filipinog in rebuilding the nation towards peacy and progress,
353
the President urged the people to help her in the "healing
proce*s" of the count-ly For her, healing should be with justice.
The Suplpme Court had its deliberation on tour petitions filed in
its office involving the presidency of Gloria Macapagal-Arrovo. Two
petitions sought clarification from the tribunal on whether Mrs ,
Arroyo is Acting President or President. Another p&ition asked the
High Court to declare Mrs. Arroyo as the du]y Pmsident.
The fourth petition pleaded for the nullification of -Mrs. Arroyo's oath
as and to declare her as Acting President.
On Marth 2, 2001, the Supreme Court upheld the legitimacy of
the Arroyo government in a unanimous decision vote. The High Court
ruled out that President Estrada had effectively resigned his post with
his acts and statements and declared Mrs. Gloria _\ßcapagal-Arroyo
the du_lv coti*tituted President af the Philippines. Nine justices voted
without reservation, while four justices reserved their votes on the loss
of immunity from suit of Mt. Estrada. The High Court gave
Ombudsman AnLano Thslertc the legal authority to file the cases of
the former President which include plunder, perjury, and illegal use
of alias before the Sandiganbayan.

298
 Regarding the Estrada impeachment trial, the Senate had
Officially concluded on Februaly 7, 2021 its role as an
impeachment court. Thig Was based on Resolution 927 filed
by Senate PresidentPimentel. The resolution also contained
that the pieces of evidence in irnpeacžtraent casc No. 001-
2000. including the second be to the archives.
The Senate by 18-0 vote. unanimously confirmed the
designation Of Teofisto Jr. as the new vice-president following
a resolution sponsored by Sen. Loren Legarda confirrrf_ng the
nomination Uf Guingona for the position.
In her first few days as the Chief Executive, President Arroyo
directed government officials to forbid her family and from entering
or influencing directly or indirectly official transactions with the
government. These transactions include the procurement or purchase
of property- supplies and materials, appointment of government
personnel and recommendations for positions in all government
agencies and offices.
In an effort to make the new President more acœssible to
the general public, Malacañang came up with a scheme to allow
everyone to send their suggestions and opinions to the Chief
Executive via Short Messaging Service (SMS) called "Text
GMA Service. Presiden tArroyo also placed in one Of her
administration's priority programs the ir•tallatjon of modem
telecommunications facilities in every municipaliOr. The
Depart-rnent Of Transportation and Communication (DOTC)
was assigned to provide these telecenters which include a
telephone line, a personal Computer, a scanner, a printer or
copier, and an Internet connection
The Arroyo government at the outset was constrained by
the country'S fiscal condition. with 17225 billion budget deficit
inheri ted from the previous administration. The President and
the Congress leaders agrecd to reactivate last year's national
budget to finance government expenditures. To £hé ballooning
budget deficit. President imposed frugality on all
government agencies.
 PrwidentArroyo estabEshed her priorities and set the d irection
for economic recovery. Efforts poverty reduction and promoting
good governancewere amongthepillars ofher administration. Mrs.
Arroyo likened her style of government to that Of her father, the late
President Dit*dado Macapagal, with concern for poor, the tvliance on
free enterprise, fight against poverty and the emphasis on gocial
equity and land reform. One of the major thrust¥ Of the government
was the intensified program Of opening new job opportunities
by attracting more venture capital from overseas as well as local

As referred to in the State Of the Nation Address on July 23,

2001, President Arroyo pointed Out that the government financial
institutions had about P20 billion available for mass housing
prograrruq. In the first days of lousing and Urban Development
Coordinating Committee Chair Michael T. Defensor, shelter wag
generated for more than 100,000 families, with 12450 million in
housing loans released for ernp]cyees in the A rmed Forccs and police.
teachers, local government employees and private sector workers
Implementation Of the community mortgage program Was done where
landowners were persuaded tn sell their lands to squatters residing on
the land. 1he government provided the financing to the beneficiaries
who in turn should pay at least P40C to P500 per month for a number
Of years until such the full payment to the lot puxhagcd has been paid
in full.
9'lid Waste Management Act, Republic Act (RA) 9003 was the
first piece Of legislation that Mrs. Arroyo signed as President. 'Ihi.g
law sought to institute mechanisms of waste minimization, resource
appropriate collection and transport services, and treatment
and disposal of garbage. The law also empowered the local
government units to pursue their respective solid waste management
systems in their area ofjuriNiiction. RA 9003 symbolized the reforms
that the new administration would like to irnplement.
In the second quarter Of 2001, the country•s Gross
National Product (GNP) which was 3.5 percent, was higher than
the market's estimate Of about 2.25 percent growth. lhc
cconomy showed sufficient restliency in the midst OF political
turmoil. It was during this period when the government faced
destabilization attempts, including the May attack on the
presidential palace by people supporting detained former
President Joseph
A year after the second People Power Revolution, president
Arroyo affirmed that she had shown capable leadershap during her
first year Of administration. The GNP growth rate In 2001 was 3.7%.
The country benefilled from its electronics indusrry, (IT-enabled
services, tourism, transport and telecommunications, among others)
due to stnactural reform measures designed to enh ance prnductivity
and markct competition, such as the liberalization of retail trade.
telecommunication and utilities. NEDAnoted the return of investor
confidence for the increase of gross domestic capital formation
by 4.3 percent from 2.3 percent in 2000. This was augmented
by investments in public construction and breeding stock and
orcha rd development.
The President focused on the Ronomy and implemented propoor
programs to provide jobs, food, education and hot.Lsing for Filipinos
at the end of her term. This included her Kapit-btsix [aban sa
Knhirapan (Kalahi) program for poverty alleviation projects and
services and the Ahon Kabtlhayan Project of the Ginintuan at
Makabayang A]ay (GMA) Foundation.
an effort to stabilize the country, presidentArroyo
supported the passage of legislations in congress such as the
Power Reform Act and thc Anti-Money Laundering Law. TO
improve rice productivity and generate Of jobs between 2002
and 2004, the Department of Agriculture (DA), Department Of
Trade and Industry (DTI), the National Food Authority (NFA)
and their respective agencLes promoted the larges-cale use Of
the hybrid rice technology. This was pursuant to Administrative
Order No. 25 (AO 25) which targeted hectares (ha.) in 2002;
200,000 ha. 2003; and 300,000 ha. in 201k. The hybrid rice
program was adopted by the administration under the GN'IA
CARES Rice Program. In other highly populated countries tike
China and India, the hybrid rice technology was proven to be
successful.

357
 TO fulfill the vision Of promoting economic growth and
agricultural modernization in Mindanao, the Philippine
govemment entered into an agreemcnt with the World Bank
(WB) for its $289.5 M loan funding the twelve-year program in
the area. The Mindanao Rural Development Program ig in
Charge of the irnplementation Of the project envisioned to add
ress Mindanao's need for food security by improving
agricultural productivity, mcbility for goods aná services and
Imal in using and managing own
TO rcfurbish the educational system, the Department of
Education VcpEd) has provided the Basic Education
Curriculum (BEC), otherwise known as the millennium
curriculum. The BEC was pursuant to Republi< Act NO. 9155,
"An Act Instituting a Framework of Covernance for Basic
Education, Establishing Authority and Accountability.
Renaming the Department Of Education, Culture and Sports as
the Department of Education, and for Other purpcses."
 9155 trartsfcrrcd to thc Philippinc Sports Commission,
the sports promoting functions of the I)epEd. It also gave the
National Commission for Culture and the Arts, the culture
promotion functions of the department. The collegiate higher
studies functions were given to the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED).
The 2002 restructured BEC focuses on the 3Rs, namely: reading,
writing and arithmetic, as wcll as science and patriotism. Il includes
the integration of values in all learning areas elementary to seccndarv
levels. The curriculutn consists of the following subjects: Filipino,
English, Math, Science and Makabavan.
The millennium curriculum decongests the overcrowded
subject areas It seeks to prepare the students' readiness for
lifelong learning. BEC strcgscs integrative and intcracfivc
teaching-learning appmacheg. "fhcsc involve group learning
and sharing af ideas between teachers and students and among
students- President Arroyo had outlined that one of the pillars
towards winnLng the war against poverty is quality education
_ Education offers opportunities for people to acquire skills and
becomc more prrxductivc
The Arroyo administration with an ardent reganfl to pcaceEul
settlement, extended amnesty to NPA guerrillas who wish to rejoin
scxiely. also avowed 10 resume aborted peace talks with the
secessionist groups. Plysident Arroyo expressed concern to restore
peaœ order thmugh negotiations with both the communists
(NDF/NPA) and Muslim separatists (MILF). She ordcrcd the
immediate suspension cf offensive military operations agaitxst them
ag a prelude to the administration's conciliatory move.
The Muslim leaders wanted the full implementation the 1996
Peace Agrecmcnt signed on Sept. 2, between the Government of the
Republic of the Philippines (GRP} and the -Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLF) On the Other hand, the National
Democratic Front (NDF) discarded the peace negotiatiorus with the
Philippfrže government two years ago following the approval the
Senate of the Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA), which allowed US
forces to hold training exercises in the country.

359
 The GRP pcacc panel left for Oslo, Norway via Paris to resume
formal peace talks with their counterparts the which began on April
27, President Arroyo sent offa five-man team headed
by former Secretary Si]vcstrc Bello The GRP peace panel
included Agrarian Reform Secretary Hcmani Braganza, Riza
Hcntiveros, Rene Sarmiento, and Ally. ChiloGascon. 'the
President expressed the government's willingness to discuss the
NOF's political demand with an open mind.
Rcgarding the military strikes in Afghanistan, President Arm
yo offered to tho United States the use of its former military bases
in 'the Philippines for refueling US iets. This was in support of the
war against terrorists harboring Osama bia Laden and his al-Qaeda
organization, primary suspects in the September attacis on thc World
Trade Center in New Yolk and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C.
The fourth jetliner, which crashed in Pennsylvania, was believed to
be the handiwork of these terrorists. The sepratist MILF denied any
link with international terrcrigt Osama bin Laden, the prime suspect
of the Belies of attacks in America that lcft nearly 6.000 people dead
and several others wounded. Muslims in the country talied for
moderation in the continumg campaign to wage war against
terrorism.
Ln an attcmpE to end terrorist elements in the country, the
Department of National Defetise cited support for the military
exercises between the United States and the Philippines, which was
officially opened on Januarv 31, 2002. The exercises dubbed as
B'žikaf,'iä 02•1 or Freedom Eagle was expected to take place for a
period of six months. This was sanctioned under the RP-US Visiting
Forces Agreement duly ratified by the Philippine Senat12 in 1998.
The command slructure of the Balih2tat1 (shou]der to shoulder) wag
under the command of the Armed Forces.
Some US military personnel and Filipino soldiers had been
directed to participate in joint milftarv training exercises held in
Basilan, Mactan Ail Base in Cebu, Zamboanga del Sur. and
Camp Ern-ile in Zamboanga City. US forms were not allowed
to operate indepcndcntly in Philippine territory at any time-
However. the American ãoops were allowed to fire back and
take a defensive position against an assault during the training.
 The government made its staunch commitment against
terrorism. Mindanao, particularlv, had suffered much from
decades of local insurgency. In he: second State of the Nation
Address (SONA), President Arroyo described terrorists and
criminals as enemies of the State. She brought her call for a
strong Republic,
declaring ''total war" against criminals and terrorists. She out
that a strong republic musk be able to win the twin battles against
terrorism and poverty. It should efficiently deliver basic services to
the and uphold the law- Furthermore, it should be autonomous of
dominan t classes and sectors to represent the people's interests.
To strengthen the society and the Family; President Arroyo ard
former President Aquino headed the campaign for peace by thei_r
Prayer Power Campaign 2002. The campaign scught to consecrate
families to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the immacuJate Heart of
Mary. Praying the rosary and masses were hcld in big churches and
campuses around the country. This wag part of preparations for the
4th World Meeting of Families (4WMF) on January 22 to 26, 2002
with the Philippines as host.
The WtvIF is held everv three years upon the invitation of
the Pope. the pontifical head of the Catholic Church. It is a
reunion where families gather to pray and deeper, their
understanding of how the Chrisliar, family can iks role as the
initiator of evangelization in the modern world.
The Holy Fa ther Pope John Paul Il named the Third
Millennium, the "Asian Millennium" because it is the
mil}ennium for the pmclamation of the Name and Gospel of
Jesus in Asia (with four billion pcoplc). The Pope chose the
Phüippines as the venue for the 4WMF. Seventy million out of
120 rnil]ion Christians in Asia ate in thc Philippines. Despite
the eagemess af the Pope to attend the WMF as*emhly, doctors
shove aside his travel to the Philippines due to his frail
condition- The Holy Father sent Alfonso Cardinal Lopez
Trujillo to the countrv.
One of the top priorities of the Arroyo administration prior to
its end in 2004 is its ænewed and intensified campaign against illegal

361
drugs. interior Loca\ Goverr.snent Secretary and Dangerous Drugs
Board (DDB) OIC-Chairman lose D, Lina ordered the mobilization
of anti-abuse councils nationwide and the monitoring of drug testing
centers by ioca) chief executives The DDE's arm, the
Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA), created by Republic
Act No- 9165 and established in July 2002, is expected to crush the
P150 billion or more or so illegal drug basiness in thecountry. The
Philippine Nat-ional Police (PNP) Anti[Ilegal Drug Task Foxe has
been assigned to validat2 thc arrest and filc appropriate charges on
drug pushers and drug-users.
 TO restrict the addiction to smoking, the Congress likewise
pa*ed the 2003 Tobacco Regulation Act (Rcpubljc Act NO, 9211)
which imposes an absolute ban on Smoking in public places and
restricts the packaging, use, sale, distribution and advertisement rtf
ciearettes and ather tobacco products. Preside-itArroyo signed this
law as pa rt Of her administration's to a cleaner, healthier,
and safer world. The increasing prevalence of smoking in the
Philippines with around 20,000 Filipmös who die every year due to
tobacco-related diseases, prompted many Filipino legislators to
regulate the distribution and use Of cigarettes in the country.
"lye country has been facing a lot of persisting challcngcs. It ig
in need Of feasiblc solutions to achieve lasting peace and
The government alone could not carry out the arduous tasks.
The Phlhppines. naturally With bountiful resources and a
historic past, has withstood the difficult times, [t is resilient yet
staunch like a bamboo. Thc nation has striving for its primary
concern, its people from its forcmost säength, the Almighty
God.
Faith, industry discipline, and seruse of teamwork through
the spirit 'NN11d inspire and the capacity Of the people
to promote Sustainable There is no easy formu)a to avoid a
political or economic crisis. Perhaps, each individual should
give each other hope and irspiration whether in times Of cnsis
or not.

Chapter Test No. 10

Name: Date:

Course,

Multiple Choice. Choose the Icttcr Wilh the correct answer.

Write the letters on the blanks provided. (SO pts.)
 Following President Roxas' inaugural address was
the public signing of the
a. Bell Trade Act
b. Yd ings Act
c. U.S. Philippine Treaty of General Relations
d. Military Bases Agïeernent
2. The Military Baœs Agræment gave the •US free
use of 23 base sites for
a. 50 years 99 yea.!S b 75 years d t 00
years
3. Disregard for civil rights was shown by the
MP's in the Masco Affair in
Ba lean c. Quezon b Lag Ona d.
Pampanga
4, Fraudulent practices like takipan, consisted in
pay Ing
50% interest c. 100% interest
b. 70% interest d. 120% interest
5. The first president of the Committee on Labor
Organization was
Cipriano Cid
b. Amado lernandez
Taruc
d. Mateo del Castil]o
306
6. The alleged "sec:æt document" between Judge Antonio Quirino and
Luis Taruc included scrapping of the
Eel] Trade Act
b. Tÿdings Act c- L: S. Philippine Treaty of General
Relations d- Military Bases Agreement
7. Best known for the selection of the Ten Outstanding Young Men
(ION) is the
a. Philippine Jaycees
b. Philippine News Service
c. Lions Club
d. Rotary Club

8. The JUSMAG was assigned the task of implementing the

recommendations of the
Bell Mission
Melby Mission
PACSA
d. Agreement
9. Atty. Jose [Æva, Fcderico Bautista and other HMB members were
pronounced guilty by the Manila
Court of First Instance for the crime of re-beuion b
sedition possession of illegal firearms

Magsaysay ordered the arrest ofNegros

Governor Rafael Laæon for allegedly being
arson involved the murder of
a. Taciana Rizal
b. Moises Padilla Jaime Ferrer d Juan
Feleo

307
11. Building Of feeder mads and improvement of government
services in thc barrios in the field of health and education
during the Magsaysay administration we:e made possible
through the
a. NARRA c- ÅCCFA b- FACOMA d. PACO
12, To confer with Luis Taruc regarding his surrender, President
Magsaysay sent
a. Dr. Jesus Lava c. Clam M. Recto
b. Nino}' Aquino d. Carlos P. Romulo
13 The SEATO was established in 1954 primarily to counteract
a. poverty c. communist activities
b. terrorism d. economic sabotage
14. The Bill ended with a unanimous approval
Of a substitute measure written by
a. Roseller Lim c. Emmanuel Pelaez
b. Jose Laurel, Jr. d. Claro M. Recto
15. Garcia ran under the Nationalista Party with his running
mate,
Jose Yulo
b. Diosdado Macapagal
Lorenzo Tañada loge
Laurel, Jr.

16. President Garcia anchored his program of

government in austerity which as a policy

a. discipline in bureaucracy
b. less imports temperate spendinb
no presidential junkets
Policy of
the Garcia administration was officially
promulgated by a passed by a Filipino
Chamber of Commcrcc b- American
Chamber of Commerce
 c. International Chamber of Commerce
d. National Economic Council
18. In 1958, a coup d' etat plan of a group of military
men was revealed by
a. scc, Jesus Va rgas
b. Cong. Bartolome Cab-angbang c- Col.
Nicanor Jirncnez
d. Serb Claro M. Recto
19. The Dr. Jose Rizal Centennial Commission was
created during the administration af President a- R.
Maggaysay c. E. Quirino IL Macapagal d. C.
Garcia
20. One of the Philippine presidents who not a
member NaciOnaiiSta party was a- R.
Magsaysay c. D Macapagal
b. C. Garcia d. F. Marcos
21. The legitimate governor of the Central Bank as
ruled by the Supreme Court its decision in 1962
was a Andres Castillo Dominador Aytona
b. Jose Dickno d. Macario Peralta
22. Seized during the•raids done on the offices
owned hy Harry Stonehill was a the so-called
Blue Boa k containing the earnings of the
corporahon
b. names of companies owned by Stonehill
names Of persor.s in and outside the govern. ment
who allegedly received various sums of money
from Stonehill names cf government officials
who allegedly supvwrted Stonehill in his
ccmmexial tran-
23. President Macapagal loved call himself the "poor
boy" from
a. Angat c. Lubao b- Bacolor d.
Tarlac
24. Before President Macapaga]
issued an exccutive order changing (he
Philippine Independence Day to June 12, this
historic event used bc on
January 23 e, August 23
b. luly 4 d.
15
25. Experiment in the leasehold svstern during the
Macapagal adminústration was made in its first
land reform aæa which was
a. Baliwag c. Plaridcl
b. Malolos d. San Fernando
26 Sabah was given to the Philippines as a part of the
agreement between the sultan of Sulu and the
sultan of Brunei until it was leased in 1878 to a-
United States ofAmerica
b. Great Britain
c. Federation Of Malaya
d. British North Borneo Company
E
27. lginuhit ng Tadhana," which was shown in
theaters, is a film biography of
a. Diogdado Macapagal
b. Ferdinand Marcos
c. Ninoy Aquino
d. Hartzell Spence
28. Yor fo President Marcos' term. the
governmentowned bank which became nearly
insolvent due to unpaid loans Of government
corporations was

368
 a. Philippine National Bank
b. Land Bank Of the Philippines
c. Development Bank o£ the Philippines
d. Bank Of the Philippine Islands
29. The joint communique of the seven nations that
participated in thc Manila Suzu•nit in gave emphasis
on conditions on
a. North Korea c, North Vietnam
b. South Korea d. South Vietnam
30 In 1970, the youth leaders protesting at Mendiola and
then at Plaza Miranda wanted an assurance that
President Marcos
a. should release all political prisoners
b. would not run for a third term
c. should not undermine commulist activities
in the country
d. would not commit the in the crisis
3]. Nur Misuari, a respected campus radical at UP in the
m id-60* formally established the MNLF in 1971 in
an island Off the coast of Perak,
a. Indonesia c. Mindanao
b. Malaysia d. Thailand
32. as the political arm of the Communist Party of the
Philippines was the
a. New People's Army b -
Bangsa Moro Army
c. National Democratic From
d. Kabataang Makabayan
33. Senator Ninoy Aquino mentioned in his
privileged speech that according to some sources
in the Armed Forces, Manila and its environs
would be placed tunder martial law as found in

369
 a. Oplan Capricorn b
Oplan Leo
Oplan Sagittarius
d. Oplan Virgo
34. The Implementation of martial law pursuant
Proclamation 3081 was signed by President Marcos

a. Stember 21, 1971 b.

September 23, 1971
September 21, 1972 d.
September 23, 1972
35. In 1973, Pæsident Marcos ordered the immediate
execution of Lim Seng by firing squad for a, murder
kidnapping b, rebellion d. drug trafficking
36. In the plebiscite of January 10-15, 1973, the citizens'
assemblies composed voters were reported to have
ratified the constitution in open and group voting by
a. casting their ballots
b. raising their hands
c. having a forLrm first then castmg their bal
lots
d. writing their names on either 0yes" Or no"
paper
37. The 1973 Constitution established a
a. presidential form Of government b, pa
rliamentary form Of gov C. modified
parliamentary form Of
d. dictatorial government
38, In the 1973 Constitution, the extensiœt Of the term
Of tÑ President beyond 1973 was contained in the
a. preamble

b. bill of rights

370
 c. amendments transitory prov isions
39- In the 1978 national elections. the principal
con tending pa rty Of the Kilusang bagong
Lipunan
a. Liberal Party
b. Lakas ng Bayan Party
c. Laban ng Bayan Party
d. Naclonaljsta Party
40. The Philippine Refugee Processing Center (PRPC
was established in
a. Bataan c. Cavite
b. Batangas d. Laguna
41. Pœsident Marcos allowed Ninoy Aquino to leave the.
country in 1960 to
a. confer wi th rebel leaders to achieve peaæ
b. Stay with his family in after the
president ial pa rdon undergo a heart bypass
surgery in America
d. undergo a knee operation
42. The president of the Statehood USA mavcment who
ran agatnst Mr. Marcos in the 1981 presidential
elections was
a. Alejo Santos
b. Bartolome Cabangbang
c. Prospero Olivas
d. Luther Custcxiio
43. The acquittal of all the 26 accused in the
AquinoGalman double murder case was made kv the
a, Agrava Board c. military tribunal
b. Supreme Court d. Sandiganbayan
44. Mrs- Corazon Aquinc agreed to run for president
in 1986 if at least One million people would
sign a petition urging her to run for that position

371
 at least t-wc million people would sign a petition
urging her to run for that position
c. President would .æsigtl
d. the political parties in opposition uni te.
45. In the Tagumpay ng Bayan rally. Mrs. Aquino
vowed to
a. improve living standards in the rural
areas
b. reform the Armed Forces of the
Philippines lead a civil disobedience campaign
against
Maxos
d. reorganize the government
46. During EDSA l, US Scnalor Paul said 10 Mr. Marccs
to "cut (now) and Cat cleanly" meaning that
a. the people should be advised not to support
the military
b. there should be the restoration of
professionalism in the military
c. he should proclaim Mrs. Aquino the wu-Lner
Of the elections
d. he should now step down and leave
47. The Constitutional Commission of 1986 was
chaired by
Jose Diok10 b Ccciiia
Muñoz.Palrna Jovito
Salonga
d. Corazon Aquino
"Philippines: Fiesta Islands of Asia," a five ye
program WIS launched by the
a. Department Of Tourism b-
Department of Foreign Affairs
372
 c. Executive Department d
Bureau Of immigration
49, The RP-US Military Bases Agreement expired in a-
1990 c. 1992 b. 1991 d- 1993
50. The historic signing of the GRP-MNLF Peace
Agreement took place on September 2, 1993
b. September 2, 1 c-
September 15, 1993
d. 15,
51 The National Commission assigned themes
for every year from
a. 1992-1998 c. ma-1999 b- 1994-1998 d. 1994-
1999
_ 52. P:tsident Estrada gave his inaugural address at
the
a. Quirino Grandstand
b. Barasoain Church
c. Manila Hotel
d. Malacañattg Palace
53, Globalization affect the *PEC countries
consisting Of
18 member states c. 21 member states b. 20
member states d. states
54- During the Estrada administration, one Of the Steel
bridges ulstal.led in the country could be found in one Of
the barrios of
Bustos c. San fldefonso b- Baliwag d. San Miguel
_ 55. For President Arcyo. healing should be with
a. charity c. compassion
b. justice d. equality

373
 56. The Supreme Cottrt gave the Ombudsman the legal
authority to file the Cases of former President Estrada
wh includc plunder. illegal uses Of alias and
a. graft and comtption c- bribery
b. pct-jury d. tax evasion
57. The first piece of legislation under the Arroyo
administration Was about
a. air
b. power reform
c. anti-money laundering d, solid waste
management
58. lhe GRP peace panel lcf( (or peace negotiations with
the NOF in
a. Swifzerland c. Norway
b. France d. Malaysia
59. Republic Act NO. 9155 transferred the culture
promotions functions to the
a. Department of Education
b. National Commission for Culturc and Ihe
Arts
c. Commission On Higher Edu<ation
d. Department Of Tourism
60. Ihis natural gas project dubbed as Victoria 3 is
located in
a. Cagayan c, Tarlac
b. Palawan d. Sulu
Essay: (10 pts. each)
How does the Arroyo government combat terrorism in the
country?
2. Explain the changes brought about by the millennium
curriculum in the Eterr,entary and High *hool levels.

374
3. What does the Fourth World Meeting Of Families tell
us?

375
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Index
1935 Constitution, 188.211 1973 Constituucn, 270.280
1935 NaticnaJ elections, 200 )987 Constitugion. 279
1935 Philippine Consntut.lon. 1996 Peace 302
251.268 World Mcg-ling Of
1953 Pœsidential elecuons. 258
Allam. Sultan JamaluJ. 126 African continent, 20 Age of
Abad Santos, Jose. contact. ACCFA
Abad 212 {Agricultural Cooxrative
Abad. Juan, Financing Administralion),
Abanllo. Lt_ Macano A.. 243 255.259
Abaya. Federico Isabebo. Aglipay, Bishop 188,
Abba. 58 192.
Abbas, Macapanton, Jr., AgbNyan Church. 193
Abelardo. Nicanor, AVIO River, 99
Ablan. Gov. Roque, 236 Agonci"o. Dona Marc& Man. no,
Abongines of the Philippnes. 40 162
27 Agrava, Corazon Juliano, 275
Absolute Spirit. 2 Agncultural Credit Cooperative
Abu Hakr, 52 Financing Administration
Abu Sabaya, 292 (ACC.FA). 255.259
Abu Sayyaf, 292 Agricultural Land Reform Code,
Acab. 142
Academx reforms, 88
Agricultural modernization in
Academy of Drawing and
paint. ing. 89 Mindanao, 301
152 Agncultutal 41
Act of Declaration ofPhitip. pine Agncultural Iracuce, 43
IndeFrndence, 162 Agricultural revolution, 42
Acta de Teieros, 149 Agricultural Temncy Act of
Adam and Eve, 16 1954. 258
Admiral He, 50 Aguinaldo, 147, 162,
Adnano. Numenano, 136
Adrianco. Macario. ISO Aguinaldo, Emilio. 145, 147,
Aetas. 148,
AF FB (Agrava Fact Finding 149, 151. 155. 156, 162, 163. 165,
167, 169. 176, 188,
Board), 275
AFP (Armed Forces of the exile of, 152
Philippines), 286, 289 government, 176

381
 183
movernatt, 192
Agusan, 27
Agusnn. Marcos V.. 236
Ailing 283
Albay, Anda, Gov. Simon de, 1 19
Al"'de-Mapr, 83, 93 Andang, Ghilib, 292
Alcarazc, Don Juan de, 113, Andtzscn, CalË. Bernard L. , 237
114 Andres Malùng's Revol£, I i 7
Akjandñnc, Castro, 239 Pangasinan (1660-61). 116
Alexandrian 17 Angara. Edgardo. 281
Nim 46 h/ipia, 56, S Anjrnat life, 18
7 Aliping namamahay 5 68
Áliping Annivecsaries ofthe Filipino
Atitao, 123 national hcrocs.
53 Anti-clcrical a)mrnentary,
Almazan, Pedro, 17 133 Anti.numrny , 209
Al-Qaedd organization, 303 scatiment ir. the country, 277
Anti.naüonalist law, 181
Alvarez, Heherson, 281
Apa, 227
Alvarez, Mañano,
Apacible, Galicano. 135
Amadeo. 131
Aparri, 24
America, 223
APEC (Asia Pacific Fconomlc
American cavatry, Z42
Cooperatic,n), 288
American c010Nal era, 22
[pe, 194
American colanial
govern1T*nt. Cecilio, 168
Anxncan Aquino de Belen, Gaspar, 90
era, 191 Aquino, Agapito, 282
jazz. Aquino, Benigno. 230.259. 27C
liberalism. 128
Anxti£an militafy tule, 75
Anzricdn mine 01*rator, 236 death. 275 mvegigation
inthe Philippir½s, of, 275 murder. 275
American rnnde 'lessing, 190 375
Alœrican new.nper. Aquino, Pres. Catazon C., 276,
American 1 90, 194 277, 283, 297 administration
American period, i SO ('983-1992), 279 foreign tr.ps,
American pris01ET, 78 281
American public schools, 188 Aquino, Eusebio. 239
American revoiuhon. 19C Aquino.Galman double murder,
American rule, i8i trial, 275
Sddier, Arandia, Gov Gen. Manuel de,
American, of, 155
Americanistas or prŒÀmertarzs. 79 Anaea, Gemma Cruz, 292

383
Ataneta, Glezorio, 166 Filipinas.
Araneta, Vicente. 160
Archaeologu•ai relics, 48 image Paz, i 79
ofGanesha, 48 Ganida, 48 Or91mzers, 179 Xsthenosphere.
18
gcxì Garuda x-ndant oí
AtaydeL Juan. 134
Pahwan, 48 gold Image of
de Manila, S
Agusan, 48
Archaxology, 5, 7, 40
Atlas,
ofSt. Lazarus. 22 ATOM (August 'I wenty•One
Architetxural plan, 19t Movement), 74
Arellano, Cayeldno. 192 83, 102
Arellano. Deodato. 136, 139 Augustin, Gov, Gen. Basilio,
Arellano. Gen. Monso. 262 151, 192 Augustiman
Arevalo, Bonifacyo, 136 misstonønes, 94 Aurora.
Aristcx:racy, Australc Melanesian, 40
Armed Forces Of Phitiñnes. 257. 277 Austrian 290 of the, 290
ARMM (Autorwrnous Region in Regrotl m Muglm
Muslim Mindanao), 291 Mindanao (ARMM), 23
Army of National 255 Avancena, Chief Justice
Army ofthe Republic, 169 61 208
Artechcdera. Bishop de. 125 Aventapdo, 292
Arroyo 189
2004), 29b, 299 direction for Aviation Command
economic ery. 299 (AVSECOM), 274, 275
programs. 301 AVSECOM Secunty
thrust ofgovernment, 299 Command), 274, 275
Art Of SO (songs), 48 Awit sa
Artacho. Isabelo, 151 p.aghkha ng
Artifact. 47 Filipinas", 233
Artworks, 55 Aytoaa. Dominador, 262
Arza. Don Manuel de. 120
29
Ashfalb, 282 13
Asia Pacific Economic Coopera- Babuyan Channel,
Bacabo. Raul, 194
member States, 288
Badja«š), 32, 33, 64
Asian KÆlømzers, 233 Bagbag Rivers, 76
Bagobos, and B'laans of
Asian and cunure, 232 Asian
Davao Sur, 32
Milknmum, 3N

384
Bagong Lipunan mprovement of Basa. Roman. 138, 139
Ste:' Services (BLISS), 273 Basco. Jose, 92
RJgong Srbol, 182 Baguio Basis 60
City, 24 Hasi, Geronimo,
Bagumbayan 131 revolt (1807), 121
BahtiÆ, 62 cause. 121
aghay 63 Defense Force. 215.21
Bala6ac, 20
Bataan Peninsula, 2 i 6, 217
45 discovery
Bataan, 17 fanof. 224
of, 45 historic defense, 217
Balareay Dmasalang, 145 surrender 0", 219
73 32
Palatuun Mçuntain, Z$ Pambansa. 2-,'5. 279
Iklikatan. 303 Bates, John. 175
Balingit, Pedro. I l 46. 58 Barn.
Ballot box snatching. 276 Sorscgon, 7
Balmoã. Joaqutn, 197 Bars, 28 smauest,
Barnbalito, SO 28
Bamboo jaw MIPS, largest, 23
Banal, Juan, Banda Bartle La Loma, i 75
Pas'S. Bank Of Bagbag River. 176
Banle of Cape Engaåo, 242
Col. Harry 1M Battle of Imus, 147
Bangsa Moro. 271 Baffle of Maaan. 74
Bangsa Mato Army (BMÂ).
Baffle of Manila, 163,
Bankaw. 1 13, 1 14 Baffle Of Manila Bay. 155
Bankaw's revolt, Leyte. (1622), Battle of Marawi, 123
Battle of Mendi0!a, 108
Banks. 227 Battle Mount Puny, 151
Bantl]an. 125 Battle Of Pinaglabanan, 143 Bat-
Barangay, 40, 41.56, 57 elections, tk 01 San-at, 242
280 Battle Of Sungac Strait. 242
Barasoain Church, 165, 168 Battle Pass. 178
Bathosa. Duarte, 71 Battle Of Zap-ate, 146
Barcelona, 135 Bautista, Ambrosio Rlanzares,
Bareuo, 180 162
Barnett, Captatn Georget 236 BAYAN (Bagong ÀIyansang
Bam. 63 Makabayan). Z 74
Rarong 258 34 splnt
Basa, Jose Marta, 131 131 Of, 34

385
 Spirit, 305 Bognot. Clñlo,
Baybuyin, 4 Bonifaciß, Andtes, 136, 138
227 140, 141, 142, 143, 149, 162
Bayot. Col. Francieo. 122 day,
Beatcrio de la Comparüa de Jesus, monument,
SS Bonifacio. Ciriaco, 150
BF-C Basic Educanon Bontoks.
Curricu'um), 301 Btä:bec, Ptxlro. Bothoan, 60
120 Bitlmv. 189
Beil. Major, 176 Bourbon, P rin& Aifoaso de, 13.4
Belarnuno. Vito. 146 56
Beliefs and ntuats, 35 Btagam.a. Herntini, 303 Brandel,
Ben Mission. 256 Fernand, 3
Ben Report, 256 Brigand. "a, 181, 182,
Bell Trade Act, 255 passage of, 182 ßriones,
Ben. Gen. Franklin. IN) Samuel S Brocka. Lin),
Bello, Silvestre 111. 303 2SC
Belk-volent Assimilation Brooks. Robert P. , 263
manon. 174 Eudimaa. Súan Pangiran, 123
Beyer, Henry Otky, 6, 7. 34 Buenavisra Regiment, 238
Beyer's rmwahon theory, 35 Buencamino, Felipe, 179
Biak•na-Bato Republic, 151, 152 Bugtûng (riddles),
auhonty Of. 156 Bwlding structure, 94 Bukaneg,
152 Pedro. 90
BiC01, 28 Bulacan. 24 guerillas,
Bicol Region, 23 238
Bicolanog. 31 63
Bia Laden. Csama, 303 Buranuns, 46
Binazc*, 2Zá Bureau of Religious Affairs,
(Otnndo). 47 Bunal comas, 43
Birth control, 284 methods
of,
Cabanalan, 58
Bisruta, 47 Cabanatuan. 223
Blanco, Father Manuel. 91 Cabangbang, Capt. Rartolome,
BLISS, 252. de Be 'Dngay, g 2
Blumen1riLt, Ferdinand. CabiLi, Tomas,
Board of Informalton. 233 Cabinet crisis of 1923, 185
Boat building, 48 Cabot. Sebastian, 76
Body ornaments. 44 Cagayan, b,

386
Cagayan reØon, 23
Cagayan River, 26
Cagayan Valley, 8
Cagaya1Eillo palawan.
Cagraray, 7
Qagsawa, Zó
CAL (China Airiines), 274
Calarnjdnes. 2 Calac.
Caiatagan, 7
Calderon, Felix C. , 167
Calendar, 62
Ithgious, 95
Caticut, 'Odia, 69
Camp Agwnaldo, 277
Camp Bushra in lanao del
Sur 294
Camp Jerusalem. 239
Cai-np John Hay, 243
Camp Murphy, 256
Camp O'Donœl, 2 IS 219
Cape Good 69, 75
Verde Islands, 70
Capnal offenses, 281
CAPM (Cory Aquino
President Movenkat),
Capture [LManila, 'S 7
Caratullo Mountain. 26
Caratzlio Range, 24
Fesuval, 97
Caraga AdministraDve Region,
23
Cardenas, Ramon, 291
peopk of. 113
Cariñc, 120
CARL (Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Law),
Cabarruyan 7 Cheng Cheng-kung, 100
Carreon, Francigo, 183
Car,iUa. 139
224, 228
Casäl]o, Andres. 262
Castillo, Mateo, 252
Cacccbism, 133
Catholic Church, 284
Catholic devotion, 1 94
Catholic rehgion, 82
Cathokicism, 94, 102,
Catholiss beliefs,
Cave of Banardo Carpio, 141
Caveman, 34
Cavite Mutiny of 130. i32 CBCP
(Carhoüc Bishops' ence of
the Phi)ippirzs), 284
8, 77
Cebuancs. 3]
CF,DP (Corntltuaity Employment
and Development Program). 280
Cctcbes Sea, 22
Cenozoic era, 19 teniary
period OF the. 19
for Causus Commission. 211
136 Census day,
CerRennia_l programs, 28)
slcgan, 28?
Central Luzon. 23
Central Mindanao, 23
CcnLrai Plain in I_uzm, 24.27
Cea•xal Visayas, 23
Ceront A]varo Saavedra, 76
Cha-Cha (Charæt Chance), 286
C.hm•npa, 46
Chans, ) 7
Chau-JlAua, 2), 49
27
387
 Chief of Medang. 47 Claveda, Gov. Gen. Naraso.
China, 7 125
China Airlines (CAL). 274 Juan, 95
China Sea, 2] C.bmates, 20, 30 warm
Chiaese, 30 and cow, 20
immigration, 93 in the Cloth wcavil*, 45 Coabtjon
Philippines. 97 party. 188
tnettha_ats, 33, 99 Coastal shelf. 20
mestizes, 98 Australia. 21
of Southeast Asia. 20
Chocolate Hills, 26 Cobble tools. 42
Chrisäan, 33 Code of Kalanöaw.9, Il
history, 97 Cuftadia de Jose, 193
Filipincs, 75 Cohen. William. 289
marriage, 78 Cojuangco, Corazon,
tek*ion, 33 Cojuangco, Eduardo, 277
way of üfe, 95 Cokgio de San Juan de Lettan,
Chlistianity, influence of. 93 88
Cole-gio de Santo Torms, 88
Christianization of the Filipinos.
College of Manih. 87
Christianized Malays, 30 College cf San Ignacio, 87
49 College ofSanta Potenaana. 8B
Church, 224 Colorum organizaucn, 194
Church and stare. 167 separaöoo CoJorum retrll.on. 195
of, 167 Colerums. 193. 194,
CIA (Central IntelligetEe Columbus, 69
Agency); 292
90 (X)MELEC
Cid. Cipriano, 253
(Commission on
Cit-talo HisÞW-Filipino, 134
Elecaons),
CO' ofthc Most Holy Name of
lesug, 77 Commander Robot. 292
Ciudad dcl &mrissin-10 Nambm de Commission cn Ekction, 2 Il
Jaw. 7? on Labor Organization.
253
Civilian emergency
Commonwealth Constitution. 200
212
Commonwealth Of Philippines.
Civilization, 187. 208 the transition, 208
Clark Air Base in Pampanga 282 Commonwealth Xnod. 208
Clark Field Ail Base in Pampa- CommunxaOon, 33. 128
251

388
 Improverrx•nt ia. 128 Cory Aquino President ment
Commumsm. 198 (C,APM). 276 32
Marústo. 3 Cotton iMustry, 227
Communist Party Of the Philip Council of Trent, 129
pines. 198 Council Of War, 150
Community 45 Court ofAvanan RelaÓons. 258
Court of Indusmal RelatiorE. 208
Congesor, Gov. 239 estabbshment, 208
Congress Ofthe Philippines, Il CPP (Communist Party Ofthe
Conley. prosecution of, 186 Phthppines), 285
Craftsmen. native. 98
Constabulary, 225 Creation, story of, 16
Constantlno. Renato. 3.4 ofthe Pacific". 22
69 Cruz, Juan Matapang. 181
Constitution, drafbng Of. 187 Cry of Baltmawak. 143
Cbnstitunonai Cornrmsqon. 279.
Cuban,
Ctnstjtutional Cbnvention. Consntution.
1949 Cry rebels,
(_nnsultauve Assembly, 156 143
Consumer Cooperauve League of revahnon. IS4 struete.
the Phibppmes, 110 153
(-'utala, Felipa, 239 art of
Continental shelf, 20, 21
the early Filirnnos. 50
Act. 1 û9. 183
Cults, 24
Copxr, 29, 3D
artifacts, 6
mines, 24
Cultural Center Of the
Corcueta. Gov., 124
(CCPh
Cordilkra, 62 Cultural '29
Cordilkra Administrative Cultural evolution, 40
(CAR). 23 Cultural tradition, 3
Rarge, 24 Core Culture. 33.35, 46
popuhtlon theory. 35 Curfew, implementation 270
Core tools, 41 Currency, 227
Cornisn, Rear Admiral Cushing. Walter.
Samuel. 102 Custodio, Bng. Gcn_ Luther. 275
Correador, 217, 2tS. 224
Custotns and traditions. 48
Maltnta tunnel. 219 Of the early Filipino, 48
Cutabay, Felix, 1 12

389
DA (Department
301 de Espinosa, Gomez, 75
Dagohoy, de Folgueras, Gov. Mariano. 122
Dagohoy'g de Gama. Vasco. 69
J829). de Gam. Marshal Martin. 79, 80.
Cause. 118 98 de legus, Gtegona, 138 de
Vagvma la Cruz Palans, Juan. 103 de la
Daily Mirror, 259 C-yuz, Apolinario, 122
Dandan, Father Pedro, 131 de la Cruz, Jose. 90
Dapitan, Zamboarga del Norte, 6 de la œuz, 189
Dataga (Caeawa), 26 de la Rosa, Lope, 240
46 vatu. de la Torre, Gov. Gen. Carlos
9, 56. 57 Datu Matia. 129, 130 de la Vida,
ßa]ensusa. 9 Datu Jose, tgo de Alas, Severino.
ßangtaya, g 177 de Lavezans, Gov. Guido.
Datu Dumaresil. 9 110 de Legazpi, Agustin, 111
Vatu ,11 de Miguel 77
Datu Puburong, 9 Loaysa. Captain Garcia Jafie.
Datu 9 76 de Reyes.
193, 196 de los Rios, Gen.
Datu Surnakwcl. 9 Diego. 16-4
Datu zula. 74 105 Santos, F,pifdnlo. 108 de
Datu Macabaog, '9 Matqtnna, Gov. Gen. Felix
Datu Mdóidone, 79 Berengucr, 93 de Mas. Don
Davao del Sur. 8 S.mbaldo, 93 de Morga. Dr.
•Da»n Man". 34, 35 Antcruo, 6 de Natividad,
Dayag, Gabriel, 112 Dekfina Ilerbcsa.
DDB (Dangerous Drugs Board), de Oliver. Fray Juan, 90
304 de Aguilar. Geronirtn 9] de
Agurto. Msgr. Pedro. 90 de Alba. de Otaduy, Eulogio, 93-94 de
F, Juan. 79 de Anda, Gov. Gen. Pcåalusa, Gov. Gen. Gonzalo
Simon. 100, Rcxwillo, 98 de R'vcra, Gov. Gen.
Fernando Pnmo, 93 de Salazar.
de Arana, Pedro, 78 de Bekn,
Archbishop DOmingo, de
Gaspar Aquino, 90 de rknavides,
Salceao. Juan. 80 de Santo Tomas,
Fray Miguel, 88 de RusLamante,
Fray Pearo,
GOV. Gen. Fernando Manuei.
92 de Camuz, Juan, de de Urdancta, Fatlkr Andres. 77
Chaves. rapt. Pedro. de Valderama, Fr. Pedro, 71 de
de Corcuera. Gov. Gen. Setas• Vega, Col. 1 1500, 184 de
Lan Hurtado, 85, 99

390
Venccia, 287, 288 de Vera, Fr.
Melchor, 114. 116. 124 de Villa.
Renalo. de Villalobos, Ruy
Loxz, 76 Death march, 21s,
Death penalty. 226, 281
Decade of unrest, Declaration Of
the Philippine lndesxndencc,
167
Deelaration ofthe Rights OfMan
(1789), 136
48 PECS
(Departmetu ofEducalion.
Culture and 301
Defensor. Michael 300
D&nsorSanaago, Minam, 288
Deglaaation, 20 del Cano,
Juan Sebastian, 75 del
Castillo, Francisco, 146
Pilar Regiment, 237
del Pilar, Gen. Gregorio. 157,
178 del Marceloll.
132,
134. 135, 141 del Pilat. Pio,
del Rosario. Súador V..
168 del Rosario. Tomas. 179
Delgado, Fr. Juan J. , 22
Delgado, Gen. Martin. 164
Democracy.
pri'Yiples OF, 191
Lkmocrata pally, 186
Democralic Alitance. 251
DemocrarÉ government. 79.
193
Labor 193
Dem. Alfred, 126
Department of Edxaticn
Ed). 3G1 on the 3Rs, 302
Department Of Environment and
391
Natural Resources (DENR). 26
Department of lnR'rmation, 243
Department of Justice (DOJ), 294
Depattrrænt of and Em. ployment
(DOLE), 289
(DND),
Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH). 295
Department of Tourism (DOD,
280
Departmxnt ofTrade and Indus-
(DTI),295
OfTransportation ark'
Comrnunxauon (DOTC), 299
Gccrge, 208
Despotism. dowrfall Of. 279
Dcspujoi, Gov. Gen. Eulogio,
Deve101Rd Iron Age, 44
Dewey. armored cruises, 155
Dewey. George. 155, 157. 163
Dewey •s flagship Olympia. 189
Vewey•s 163
Diaz. Bartolome. 69
Diaz. Caróido Lol*Z, 92
Din. Aliml.'d, 102
Diokno.Jose W_, 263.290.179
Diakno, Narciso. 187
Dionisto. Patricio, 298
Digierto. Ombudsman Atiiano,
298
Range, 25
Dizon, Amado, 275
Dtzon, Marina. 135
DND (Dcpanmeoc of
 D&nR). 303 28
Z*x-triaa Early M<ai Age. 43 Eastern
Visayas, 23
Ecological zones. 33
DOJ (DepartñkTt OfJustice), Economic development, 260, 286
294 224 Ecooomtc tmblbzation. 254
DOLE (Department Of J.abΠand Economic tirory, 2
Empbyrneni), 289 Edevoso, 237
Domingo, Damian, 89 EDSA, 278
DOT (Departnxnt orTounsm), EDSA Shrirœ. 297
Education, basic, 87
DOTC (Department ofTransl»r.
Edlxatlonal decree, 88
and Communication),
299 Educational system, 88, 32, 301
Egbett, Harry 0., 176
DPWH Of Punic
Works and Hghways). 295 Eight. Hour Act the
Dr. Jose Rital Centcnmal Com. Mnurnum Wage Law. 208
mission,
262 Drake, 102 Niao O
DraE, Sir 101 El NIno phenomenon in 1990.
Dramatic Philippines. 234 282
siger orgamzation Of, 214
Brig. Gen. William, ,
102
Dressing. 48
manner Of. 51 Ekphas 6 Ekphas Beyeri, 7
mode Of, 48 kmbrctdety, worts Of, 94
Dribn, Franklin 293 Emergerx—y 270
EncomeæžEms, I of. 1 10
DTI (Depart-men of Trade ana
81. 82
295
Engbsh 33, 188
Dujicls, 151
277, 278,
Dranaeacs,
Ennquez, Capt, Manuel 236
Cary, 8
Oupuy de Lorne. 154
Environmental problems.
Duquc, Faustino, 141 Equality, 121 ERAP
Retail Access for the Poor), 285
Duran, Pio, 241
Esrxleta, Bishop Miguel Lino de.
Dutch assauhs, 101
Duties to obsetved the Sons Ofthe Esteban: non Francisca. 1
Country. 140 Estrada, Joseph, 282, 287, 290,
293. 295.297, 298

392
 992-2900), Fernandez, Dionisk),
Fernandez, Fathet Agusnn, 142
cases of. 298 Fernandez, Ramon,
irnxachrrxnt trial; 295, 299 Fennndez. Uipiano, 14' Ferrer,
opemng of the envelope, 296, Jaime, 258
297 slogan, 287 Naval de Manila, 101
vision of government. 287 Figueroa, Capt. Esteban
Ethnic dances. C I Rodriguez de, 123
F.thmc tribes, 33
Europeans in the 100
Filipinization in 1916, 181
Fvangehsla, A¶zetio, 7
FilipinizaLiDt1 oftlË judiciary.
F.vangelista, Crisanto. 197
Fvargelista, General, Filipino, 223
Executive Order No. 163, 279 Filipino, christianization of, 94
F.aped:tions by the Sea«iar", IZá Filipino-Amencan troops, 2 1 S
Filipino-American collaboration,
Fabrics, 94 Filipino-Arnetian relations, 174.
Fajardc, Gov. Diego. 114 Fajardo.
Sixta, FiUpino.American war, 179
Fall ofManila. Filipino church, 193
Farmers Cooperative aru estabbshment of, 193
Marketing Associations Filipino comlx}sers. i90
(EACOMA), 259 Filipino ffistory, 46
Fasctsm, 235 Fihpino Lilndownet-s. 212
Fasting (sawm), 53 Filipino language, 263
Father of Filipino painting. 89 Filipino loyalty, 254
Father or Ilocos 90 reaffirmation of. 254
Fauna, ZO Fililino Masont Lodge, '35
Feast of the Immaculate Concep Fiiipiao nationalism, 127, 131
doll, 95 the rise of. 127
Federal Party, Fjüpino peopEe, 30
79 Filipino pzehistory, 44 the
Federation of Malaya, 264 phase
Feleo, Juan, 252 Filip!no 134, 135

Fe\ivx:, Julian, 162 Fi\ipino scuipto:s,

Feåipina. 21, 76 Filipino seœ\enxnt, 55
76 Filipino society, 41
Feiiu, Gen. CNaguer, 145 Fitipina soldiers, 303
Felizatde, Cornelio, h83 Filipino writing, 49

393
Fiüpinos, equality of, Santiago, 102. 137, 142,
First Congress of the Philippines. 256
244 Fossils, IS
First Philippine Commission. World Meeting ofFami1ies,
174, 176 304
Fishes. 29 Fax. RObert B, 7; g
of. 29 Fanco, Domingo, 136, 137
Fishing people. 41 Franco, Mariano,
Fttst congressiona\ law I 179 Fratetnitv, t 21
181 Fraud,
Fruy Batod, h 33
de FilipimL<, 9 1 French Revolul.an, 121
Flõ'õdE Maria 1 1 "Friar PottR-11y".
de Ma», 97 Fruits, 27, 49
Florida, 36 Funston, Gem Frederick, lig
Flowering plants, 27
cî, 27 Fioviers, Gafrnldon Law, 183 de
species of, 4& Filipinas. 168
Flowers of Mavi Gaddangs of 32
Fluvial condition, 20 Gallcoa trade, 94
FolED:ras, Gnv. Marianode. 122 Gažman, Rolando, 274
Folk epics. 48 the Bicol Galul, Januario, 1 78
*landiong, 48 the Iñlgao Gamboa, Joaquin. t 20
Alim and Hudh", Gunaps, 235.
48 the JløcanD Lam- Gzn_asak'i.
ane, 48 Garœs, isatxl,
the Gaxia Olive, Col. Francrsco, 144
Kalinga Garcia, Jose Antonio. 290
cbe
MaRÜtndanao 48 the Carlos P., 260.
Maranao administration, 261
Fo\k healers, 62 Gascan, Ally. Chito, 303
Folk sulMs1tucn. 194 General Ranking Law of
Foradada, Fr. FrazEixo, 193 290
Foreign Inveqment Bill, 260 AZ', 281
Foreqs, 23. 27 Genests I: I . 16
Gewaphers.
Fort BonifaclD, 274
Fort of San Felipe in Cavite, 144 Geography and Resources, 22
Fort Pila_r, formälion, 19

394
Geological Foundation, 19 Greene. Geœral. 163
Geological monuments,
Geology, 17 study of, 1 7
Gik•rilla
German fleet, 156
Guerilla 239
Gil. Manano,
Gtwrflla_s, 235
Circn, Lt. Col. Pedro 1.50 GtZTtero, Fernando Ma. , 168
Guerrero, Leon Ma.. 199, 218
Glacial period. ZO Gœvarra. Father Jose Manas J 3)
Guillermo, Fausdno. 144, 183
Glaciation, 20 183
Glaciers, 183
Glorious Fourth, 190 Guil*ona, Tecfisto. 270, 282
GNP {GriE5 National Pralua) Gumapos, Pe010. 116
Gunpowder, manwaaurcr of. SO
Gammi- 227
Gold. 83
Gutbz. Car), 6
Gold mines, 24
Gold mining,
Golden of zarzikla. 189 Haz*røa system, 195
GOMBURZA. the execution of. 193
HGdji. 53
Gonrz_ Dr. , 183, tu, Hag'* 32
196 Haldermann. Col. 243
Gonrz. Esteban, 72 Hanuk (Antique), 9
Gonzales. Nq*ali. 281 Hare-Hawes-Cutunß 186
GovernmeÑ, Hari Tagalog, 17
279 Harrison. Gov. Genera), 189
Governmerz finances. 266 John. '64
Graft and corrult_lorl, 262, 275. 283 Health and Imag conditions, 235
Grand Ov*ra House, 184 Health care programs, 284
Grayson, Pnvate Willie, Hegel, Georg Wilhelm
174 Friednch.
Bntaul, coasune of, 23 2
Great story. 46 Heneral Mtcng. 145
Greater East Asia Herald ofthe Revolution, j6S
Ca.Ptosxnty Hero-worship, 194
Spirre, 225, 226 Herrera. Emesto, 275.281.282
Green Revolution, 266 Herrera, Fray Diego, 78

395
HiboWHibOk in Camlguin, 25 House of Representative (Lower
Hidalgo. Resurrecdon, 133 cnme House), 185.
rate, 283 Hubbatd, Thomas, 289
High school system in the coun• HUDCC (Housing and Urban
try. 179 Devei.cpment Coordinati%
Hilario, Jose, 198 CourEil), 291, 3CO
Himalayas, 20 Huel, Lt. Col. Joaquin. 123
Hirnamaylan, Negros Oa:idental Huk. 254
10 239, 252
Hindi Patay (l Am Na Dead). rebellion. 255
239, 252
Hispatuzation ofthe natives, 86 Mapgpalaya Bayan
Historical man,
History, i, 2.4 Høks, 240, 253 dl*ies and
sources Of, a, s privikges, 240 guiding
Hitler's 211 Finciples of, 240
225 Human bones, 7
Hollywood talkies, 189 Hutrøn 35
Holmes. Atlhur, 18, 19
Human rights,
Hobcene 20 violations. 279
Holy Church, I '4 flutterer, Kati, 8
Holy rather Popc John Paul Il, Hutton, James,
Hob images, 95 Hydroiegic cycle, 17. 19 orbiculßtwn,
42
Black Nazarene. 95
Cristo 95
Our Lady of Peace and Good
Iba10iS, 32
Voyage, 'S
46
Santo Eng if-pro, {Cagayancs), 31
95 fitly Land, 69 Gov. Gen. Henry C.. 183
"cly Qur'an, 54 fugans, 24, 62
Holy week, 96 Jgin¼hiz rud*ana, 265 revolt
Homma, Gen. Masaharu, 213, of the. 1 12
214, 216, 217, 218, 224 InWated Steel Mill. 270
Homo sapiens, 7, 34 Ilk-gal associanon. 252
Hoaasan, Col. Gregorio (laces, 6 of, 1 17 Ilocos
"Gnngo", 277 Horai Region, 23 Ilonggas, 31
nee, 228
Hospitality, 34
Images, (K)pular, 95

396
IMF (InternmiomlMonetary
Fund), 276
Inangbayan (mother country). I
23
b2
Isnegs, 32
, 33
Izquierdo, Rafael de. 131
Indexndcncc, 176
for, 76
Indevendenze of the Philippi:ys, 250 Jacinto, Ernùo, 139, 141, 142,
recognition of, 250 143
Indian btetature, 46 Jagor, Feodor, 5
Indian Ocean, 75 JAJA {Justice for Aquino, Justicz
In-dia• for All), 274
Indigenous culture, 33 Jama•Mapuns of 32
IndigenoLs grouþh, 32 Janglarû. Atx1uraJù, Z9Z
Japanese army, 218
Japanese artillery, 218
country, 48 Japanese Forces, 213, 242
Japanese garrison, 238
Javanese haùu, 234
people, 33
Insects, 28
entry of, 212 japaœse
sxcies of, 27 invasion. 209 Japanese
Institute of National Language, marnal law, 223
210 122 Japanex method of
Inter 232
Interisland steamers, 169 Japaneœ
Intrrnational airport, 2M Japanese Military Adminisn
internationdt Monetary 222, 229, 233
(IMF), 276 Japanese ocxupaOon. 223, 234
Iranuns, 32 iron, Japanese polo of at-tracüon, 235
linn Age culture, 35 Japane* trades, 101
Irrigation 258 Jaudenes, Gen. Fermrn, 163
isabeia, 24 Islam, Javter, Restituto, 138, 141
pillars of, 53
JEEP (Justice, Economy, Enn
ÌsIanyic faith, 5t
ronrnenl and Peace), 287
Island Origin 40
Jefferson. 128

397
J5us Christ. 90 Kalinga(s). 32, 6-4
pastcn cf. 90 Kabngas tattoo,
tir birth of, 96
Jewelry, 44 227
Jihad, Kamúw, 241
Jirnaguayu Constitution. 152 Kankanays, 32
Jimbangan. Datu All , 127 Kantaon in 25 Kanlaon
261 volcano, 2b
Johnson. L.M.. 162 Kapisgnan Mgbarinag.
Johnson, Pres. B., 267 Xapeanan panahon Na, 2 12
Jones Law, 185 Xap•At. 16
Jopson, Edgar "EdJop'i , 268 Kanm ul
Jose Marti, 194 leadership Makhdum. 52
of, 154
139
V&rde", 295
Jovea, Jose, 252 punan at
Jud_'.aary. 211 Kakarot8 Real,
of, 211 145
JVSMAG (Joint US, Military Kati punan blood compXt, 187
Assistance Group), 256 Katipunan Cournis. 143, t 47
system, 2M Katipunan faa:ions, 148
Katipunan, 138, 139
nag. 182
Of. 144 organ
Of, 141
Kabungsuwan, ShanfMuham•
mad, 52, 53
58
(Yesteday, Today, and
Tomorrow), 182
237
145
Kelly Theater in Air Bax,
Range,
28 254
25 224, 234.235
Kalaw, Ta»dOtO, 189 14 Klar-gan, 242, 243
KAI-IBAPI sa sa P#inasj, Kinabalin, 25
229 22. 70. 76, 77

398
King Charles 92, 93 de Bay, 80
King Ferdinand VII. 121 25.262
King 70 Laámbim Ofthe 138
Ring Philipn, 70, 80, 82, 129 L_aandula, 80
King Vk-tor Emmanuel Il, 131 Súyman, revolt Of, 1
Kiram. Jamasul U, 1 '5 Von,
Kcxiru. IO
55 LAKS-NUCD, 287
Gen. Wüer. 239 Lake (TaaL). 9
Kuala I .akRmana, Franascot 100
Laktaw, 136
I ,arnadrid, Sergeant, 131

6090
LAMP (lapian ng Mawg

Lanao
Land
Land
LumpuJ, 288 Land strunre Of the PNljpptaa,
Kudarat, Sultan Muhammad 19
Dipatuan, 124 Land tenure system. 195
Kurnakata, 25 Landlords, 253
224 Landbrd-tenatt relations. 195
196 55
Lanuza, Romualdo. 135
.260
Vanguatdia. 224
Labor Day, 197
Lwambrc, General, 146 Nesm 10
LacsotL, Gov. Rafael, 257 Laurel admrms&abon. 232
Lacson. panfilo, 294. 29; Laurel, Doy, 276
Lacuna, Gen. Urbano, 178 Laurel. Pres. p., 185, 214,
Ladia, Pedro, 1 232.241.242.260
182 Laurel. So-tero, 282
Lady Angkatan, 47 Lava, Dr. 259
Bienvemdo. 290 Lavezans's Reversal Of Legazpi•s
Laguna. 8, 24.223 Pol,cy, 1 10

399
Lawton, Gen. Henry W. 18S Literature, written, 48 oral,
US. Senator 278 48
Lead. 29. SO
140E)sphere.
Le•ders Of tribal communibes, 32 Llvrtihood, 33
Avebm. 8 or, 33
Mrgt£ Lopez de. 78, Liwayway, 224.253
LlarK•u-a, GCR. Mariano,
deathof, IIO expcditjon,
78 Miguel 56
Local governrnent. 192
Locke, 128
Le-#nds, 17,48
myths, 17 Y.. 8
Lerrwry. 8
135
Lenten season. 96 Nicholas,
Leon Eilat, 153 94
Leyte 241 Lonønus. story Of, 96
Leyte Cebu 284 Jaeaa, 133,
completion or, 264
Saivador P.. 218
Leyva, 135
Lopez , SLxto, 164
Libera Party, 258.2
Tr«e Martites". 144
Llbetal Spanigh
{1815),
Los 223
128 LRT (Light Rari Transit), 273,
spread of, 128 284.294
LucirR'. Geœral, 144
Litwty, 12
Luengo, Don Manuel, HZ
43
226
Filipina, 137
General, 181 capture
Ltht Rail Authority. 273
of, 181
58
Lukban, Justo, 179
Lim, 288
Lim-Ah.Hong. 110 58
invasion of, 98 Luba, Gea. Antonio, 134, 176.
Limasawa, 72, 113 Luna, Juan, 133
chieMinof, t 13
Lina, Joey, 282 Luzon. 23
Lingayen Gulf, 7. 242
Linguistic innuenee ofChina. 51 M, Ponce Repment. 238
Lisabeta, 74 Mabil" Plan,

400
Mabini, Apolinario, 136, 163 Malacanare 178. 258,
Macapagal, Thos-dado, 261.
262-264. 29-9 Mah', 30
0961-65), 262 Malay Peninsula, 34
Macap¥l.Artoyo. Glotia, 297 (who knows), 182
298 adenirtislfàticn, 298 Malay-Polynesian, 41
Gen. Arthur. 175, inhabitants of, 41
Malaysia, 22
MæArthur, Gen. DD*g. \42. zos,
Malinta tunnel,
209, 214. 215, 215, 218, 2ž9,
222, 223. 236, 243, Mak)bs, of, 1 14
244 Ma'nlas 168, t92
Jacinto, 1 16 Mažolos
Ernesto, 282 RepubhiC, 165, 167, 169
Magaiat's Revolt, Cagayan Maiong. L 16
Matyar, Gen. Miguel, 151,
Magaaüu, 59 180.
Mag,zuayzn, 5
Magdalo, 145, 149 garteMeTed in Lipa, ISI
Maedalc conspiracy, 149 Man. emergence of,
Maedato Council. 148 Manahan. Manuel, 260
Magdala coops, '45 Manaiastas, ia 1932, 211
Magdiwang, and Mandayas, 32
fœces, •i 47 32
M¥üan, Ferdinand. 22, 70 Maniago, Don Francisco, 115
Masaysay. Pres. Rarmn. 259 Revolt. (1660).
administraüon (1953-57). 258 cauges, 1 15
fatal a-uh at Mt. Manuagal in 154, 155,
Cebu, 260 Manna. 22. 23, 110. 157.
presidenlia( ampaign, 258 Of. 102
Mahabharata. 46 sL1treMet of, 157
22.$7 Manila, of, L 57
Ma-i, 21 Manila .4aznž, 264
Main Lire Resistaræe (MLR), Manila Bay, 23, 29, 80
Menila Chmnide, 25-4
Makabulos, Gen. Fraœisco, 153 Mangla Declaration, 2"
Makapagal, Major Lauro, 149, Manila Company (Mera¥
CO), 270
MAXAPn.1(sJ, 235, 240, stage
of, 52 Manila Internatioml Airport, 274
52 Manña Pianerarium, 272

401
Manih Railroad Company,
186,
224
Marrila Summit. 266 32,

Manuel, E. Arsenio,
ManufEturing of carriages. 98
Manuguic, Agustin, t

402
 43 MAPHiLiNDO MaLa, Rayrnundo, 142
(Malaya. Philip pines, and Mathematics,
Indonesia), 264.265 Mat-makil*. 62
Maps, 17 Ma-Tuan-ha, 49
Maragondon. 150 Mauricio, 13t
Maragtas. 10 Ma.yi, 21
Maragtas Code, 9 Maynilad, 17
story. 9 Mayon volcano, 25, 26
Mar-awi City. 270 Manua. 73
Filipina 162 Martha
Filipina, 162 MBA (Mtlitary Bases
Marci& Alfed, 5 Agreemeat).
Marco, Jose E, 10. Marcos, McCulloch. 155
Ferdinand.
story of, 26S McKJnky, Pres. William, 174.
Marcos, Pas. Ferdmand E., 22. 179
271, 273, 276. 278, McNau. Cnrnrusstorrr, 250
administration (1965- Mecca. 53
1986), 265, 273 rceime. Medicine, 62
charter of the, 280 Medteval f11_1P1no, 49

Maria ReØdor. Antoruo. 131 Melby Mission to the

Manams Islarø. 131 Philippines,
256
Maklllng, 23 Mari-
Melliza. Ra•munda.
VeLez. Jose, 270
MERALCO,
Martial Law, 270. 274
Mercado. Orlando, 262
implementation of, 270
Mercator. Gerardus,
271
Martinez, Archbishop,
Merit't. Major Gen. Wesky.
Martinez, PtaOdo. 150
163
Marx, Karl, 2 Mesozoic era, 19
Masanga River. 238
de san"',
Masangkay, Guinermo, 141 Maal Age, 44
Masao, 73 Meteorite, 19
Mttro Marula Commission. 272
ATair in I.agurn. 253
Metropolitan Manila, 2 J
Masotue 10¥5,
Metmpohtan Thater, Z34
Masonic order, 137
M Ages, 69
Mass poveny, 283
Migrancn theory, 34.35
MILF (Moro 'siamz Liberation Monto'o, Admiral 155
Front). 292.293.294 Moors. 70
Military Academy ot Malolos, Morales, Fr. Gaspar. 118
Morals and character, 232
Military Conspiracy , 275
Morayta. Mguej, 134. 135
Military Tribunals, 272
MoŒa. Antonio de. 56. 129
DOIlar Hill". Motga, Or. Antonio de. 6
242 Monones Festival, 96
M'ndanao Revolutionary Courxtl
for Independence, 271 Morong freedom fighters, 151
Mindanao, 8, 76
124
court, SO
dynasty. 50 Motion of tectonic plates. 19
emXr0r.50 Mount Apo in Davao del Sur, 25
50 Mount Banahaw. 23, 14
Miocene epoch, Mount Diwalwal, 29
Miracle Rxe, 264 Mount Makiling.
MIS (Military Intefligence Set- Mountain 23.24.25
de 96 CaraballO Range, 24
Mtsuan. Sur. 27) Cordillera Range, 24
Mltra, Ramon. 270 Daguma Eanae, 25
MM -F (Moro Naticna_l Libera- Diwata Ranges,
Oon Front), IS', 302 M Kalatungan-Kitanglad Range,
civilization, influerxes 25
of, 32 Mount Pulag. 24
M01bogs. 3Ž SicrTa Madre. 24
Mo!lkcas, 70 Tec-AÞ Range, 24
Monarchy, 131 Mountain 510xs, 30
restoration or, 131 Moulaiacus Of
Mongolian area, 20 24
Moreoloid people, 2 i Moumains, 23
Monotheism. 53 Montalan, MRT,
Julian. 183. Mt. Bulusan, 26
Montalban Gorge. 1 ' Mt _ Makii.ng, 26
Montectaro. Pedro A. 10 Mt. Pinatubo. IS, 282 eruption
Montesquieu, 128 ihe of, 282
thoughts of, 128 Mt. Satnat, 2 7 capture
Montinoia. RutR-rto, 187 of, 217
Muhammad ul.Halim. National Commit* on
Mohammad, 53 Geological Scterx•es
Munoz-Palma. Cecilia. ßNCGS), 26
279 National Council of
Murad. Al Ha), Education,
Murata, Shozo. 231 210
Mutosawa. Colonel, 225 National Cultural Treasure Ofthe
Murphy, Gov. Frank. 27, 200 Philippines. 43
Museum of Archeology, 7 National Defense Act. 208
Muskal heritage, National Economic 21 ) ,
Musical ingruments, 48, 60 261
Mus\im gcups of Mindanao. 32 National F.conomic
Mushm nú.sioaaries, 53 Protectioty ism
Muslim separatist forces. 286 CNEYA), 209
Muslim traders. 51 National CCOmmic recovery
Muslim wars (1578-1898), 123 gram. 276
Mushrn wed4i0$ 61 National Education Board. 232
Muslims, 175 Natlonal ekctinn_
Myths, 48 National hymn, 162
National indqi•ndence. 137
Nortxcto. 188 Nauonal Movement for Free
Nacionaliga 257, 273 Elections (NAM 276
Nape-nal Museum, 7
NAIA U (Ncw Ninoy Nabonal EX)hcy, 266
Aquino NaDonal Soddisl Pam'. 188
International Airport Terminal). Naoonal Courril. 186
284 Naoonahsm. for. 263 of,
Natc Military paa, 149 131
Nakar. Captain Guillermo. 236 Native darxes. 51
Nakpl], Julio, 162 Natives, 87
NAMFREL (National Natividad, Delfina de,
Movement Free Ekag)tu),
258, Natividad Rrøment, 238
276 NATO, 259
Nattonai 168, 233 National Natural
Assembly, 187.210, 231 Nature and 31
National Capital 272
Naval battk ofPalahoan, 99
Navotas, warnars in, 110 Me (Touch Me Not).
NCC (Natioml Cenre_nnial
NoUtdo, 270
Commission). 2Sé
Nomadic, 33
NCMB (National
and Mediaton Nomura. Admiral K. , 213
Board). 289 Non-Malays. 31
Needlework, 94 Noriel, Gen. Mariano, 146, 157
Ncgntos, 30.34 Norma] School. 89
Negri•tos or aetas of7amba1es, North Borœo (Sabah). clam
, 263
Myth Luzon Forces, 215
341 Northeastern Mindanao, 6
32, 40 Northern in the Cagayan valley
Neolithic xnod, 42 (1621), 1 12
New Kaopunan. IO Northern Luzon. 6, 24
New Republic. 273 Northem Mindanao,
New Sœl.ety, 272 Norzagaray. 47
New Stone Age, 42
New Novena,
New York World, 154
Newspaxr. 232
ÑFA (National Authority),

NGO (Non-Government
Organizanon). 286
NIC (New Inaustnalized Coun283
NRto, COL Manuel, 214
1935 ConsDtunon. 188, 211
1935 National elections, 200
1935 Phibppilk Const'tunon,
251.
1953 Presidential ekctions. 258
1973 280
1987 Phihpvnœ Constitl_riôn,
279
1996 Peace Agree-nynt, 302
(Nabonai Intemated PTŒ
tected Areas Sys;em). 285
Nczaleda, Archbishop Bernar• 270
dino, 192 Georgc,
NCC (Nanonal t Ora. Antonio, 198
Commission), 285 Oraa, Gov. Gen. 123
Ni.zstra Senora de SalaTf'ao. Orang Bandjar. 46
97 Orang Dampuans. 46
Nueva ECiJa. u, 27, 223 Orchids. 27
Nueva 24, 27 varieties of, 27
(the Orient, 69
prehistoric Fople). 41 Nutnuon Orrumcnts. •H
ailments. 235 Orteltus. Abraham, 17,
Orngas, Francisco. 180
OSIåS, Camilo. 168
Oban"o, 47
Csmena. John. 282
Obando, Gov. Gen. Frar£sco
Osmena. pres. Sergio. 168. 184,
de,
186. 167. 188. 208, 214.243.
Obando Fesnva_l. 97 244 Os-R0x Mission. '86 ons,
Obras Pias, 92 GOV. Gen. E)well, 175,
Ocampo, Pablo. 166, 185 Ottoman Turks, 69 Out Lady Of
Occupted Pluhppines. 224 the Most Holy Rosan',
OccanC8raphtc research. 18
OFW (Overseas Filiplno pacadua. Francisco, 1 16 PACC
Workers), 2M (Presidential Anti-Crime
Ohta, Kyosaburo S., 209 Commission), 28.3
55 P.ACD (Presidenttal Assistance
55 tor Community Development),
Ola. Gen. Simeon. 184 258
Olaguer.Feliu, Generat. 145 Paafic Ocean. 22.24. 71
Old stone Age,
epoch, 19
179
Olivas. Major Gen. Prospeto.
Pahlyas Festival in Ltxban, 96
275
Pana, 47
Ongiunco, Doroteo, 136
Pakpak. Datu Arnai. 127
Ongpin. Maria 8
PAL (Phlhppine Airlines),
OFApp (Office (f the Presiden
Palalx'an, Naval Battle of, 99
tial on the Peace Process),
285
Palamg, Samar. people of. I IS partao
Palans, Juan dc la Cruz, 120 17
palans•s (1762-65). 120 9
cause of, 120
Palawan, 21, 23
227
PALEA (PAL Employees Assa-
cianon), 289
Paleohthjc pmod. 41
Rafael, 139, 158, 179
Parnuan. Justice 275 P.mbansang
Kaisahan ng
PAsicm, 90
(PKM), 252
Pasong •lirad, 178
Cave. 141
Pasymg
Pampanga. 6, 27, Patadpng, 63
Pampanga Revolt, first. (1585), Patemo, Dr. Pedro A.,
Pampangueåos, 31 152. 166
Panay, 9, 60
P anay Island, 6 Patano, Maximu 131
Panoy Pira, 79
Paterno, Socorro. 8
Paterno, Vicente.
282 Paterno Plan. 16b
lit Panno, leodoro, 142
59 paMc*ic printers,
3 141 Pavan. Fr. Maria. 10, 11
1 Jose 49 Payatas dilrnpite
ParacaLe, 80
Paranaque, 102 xople City, 295
of, ìa2 Pardo de Tavera. FCGG (Presidential Commission
Joaquin, 131 on Gocxj Governmel). 279
PCGR (Pres idennal
Commission oa
Government
Reorganuabon), 279
PCHR {Philimine Commission on
Humaz 279
PCPI (Preparatory
Conumssx»n for
Philippine

408
230 Philippine archixlago, 16, 19
Pcacr Traty ofParis, philippae Armed Forces, 256
127 Philippine army, 218
Peace treaty mth Japn, bartaeks. 218
257 Philippine assembly,
Pearl Harbor, 213 tirst. 184
Pearl of the Orient, 22 Philip•pkzz Cuvil
Pearl of the Orient Affairs Unit the United
Seas. 22 States Army (PCAU),
Phflippme Commission,
Peasaru orgamzanons. 212
swond, 179
Pei-Poa.Tao, 50
Philimxne ,
Festival, 97
2"
122
232 Phlhpptae Constabulary
empowerment,
283
people Power Phihppine 230
Movement. 279 Phibppinc dem.xracy.
people power rcyott, 261
295 Phihpptne dialeas,
people Power.ReVOlution
Il at 94
EDSA. 298 Huhpplne economy, 128,
peopk's court, 250 251 transformation
people's Republic Of Of,
China. 273 Peralta. Philippine fug. 181,
262
242
Perez. Gov.
Free 89
Gomez, 82
PhLbppine General
Gregorio.
Hœptal, 191
187 Peñco, Don, 212 Philippine Herald, I R9
periçxlicals, 232 Philippine history, 3,
Pcrreira, JOE. Philippi'k Immigration Law. 210
189 PhiuppLne
Persåing. Gen. Independence, 163,
, 208. zsc way.
188 263
Peso, 227 siifiing. 263
Phllip 11, 79 p"xlamaOon,
162
 Of. 208 war Philippuk SXaety, 30
cf. 174 nuhpptne Philippine soil, 19
Indexnderf Church. Philippilu• sovereignty, 250
Philippine Tourism Authority
Phibpmne International (PTA), 26
Corwc•ndon Center (FICO, 273, Philippine Trade Act,
277 210 251
Phihppine "slaturc,
Philippine Veterans
185, 187
Bank. 2M
Loq Distarxe
Philippine War Damage
Tekphone, 191 creation
Cammission, 251
of. 191
PhilipNne, 19
Philippine Nabonal Bank, 26b
Philippine Nabonal Police, 304
Anti.lllep.al Drug
Force, 304
Day, 263
PhJ1ippme National Cross, Philtntnes: Fiesta
212 Islands Of
PhilippiJR News Service,
256
Philippix Aa Of 191
1902. Pigafetta, Antonio, 71, 75
185
Pilapil. Fr. Manano. 90
Philippur port
1834, Phil' pptne Pilgrimage to Metra,
Pilgrims. 24
pcRtery. 234
Phili pplne Prcresging
Pimentel, Aquilino Q,
Center (PRPC), 273
Pimentel, Narciso, 187
Philippine
Rehabilitation A't, Pineda. George, 189
Philippine Republic. Pirate traders, 51
183 first. 161, Plantir% ofsome speaes
second, 232 Offlow. ers. 48
234 18
Plays. accLaimed, 2M
Plaza de Armas, 144
asend
. revolution. PLEDGES, 272
162, 169. Plastccene. 6, 21
Pkistocene epoch, 20, 40

410
Pbocene Popular couxil.
PMA (Philippine Military Popular
Acaaany), 277 epics,
Popular plays, 2
Population, 30
Rail profik,
- 33
Porceiain, 50
Pobktc. Bernardo, 239 Of. 50
Pascual, 179, Poltugtkge, 69
180 Postma, Azuoon. 47
POEA (Philippirx Post-war unionism,
Em290 Pottery 43
Poems, 48 manufacture
Gen. de. Of, 43
146, 151 Power crisis, 283
Pratt, E, Spencec,
Poh' ju*içe. 208 prayer Power
Political asylum, 278 Campaign, 304
189 Prayers and 133
Pöbóca_l fide Of, 54 Pre-Christian fasalog,
46 Pre-historic 40

S"4y• ofPkñippiæ I
Prelismry, 5
oppoœtus. 270
Pratænt•s Action
da»ng, kali, 54 Committee
Social Amelioration
(PACSA), 255
283
Presideatlai
230 Commitmerl Oú•r
Ponce, Domingo, 97 274
pope Nexander , Presideadal NO. 1886,
69 pope XV. 275
POX Inmcent X , NO, 27,
271
88 V. 129
era, 21
Pre-war fiVms, 233' Pulaagi, 27
education, CS 122, 123, 193
Primûry soutes, 5 Puhran, leade: of. 4? pun rao
Primo de Rwera, 152 King. 50 PWong.
Prince Henry, 69 Pyr(Xlastic flows, 25
Pritu:e 91
Prince Phùip Of
Asturias, 22 Qu'ran, 55
55 Qu:en Maninewanöwm, g
Princess Pararnisuli. Qtxzoa Memorid Circle, 191
52 Quezon, 24
Prirx:ess 9, Il Quezon, Pres. Manuel L.,
PROC Republic of 185, 184, 214,
2žF, 216, 223, 239
285
Quingua (Plarjdel), 176
P'(E1arnabon Nu_
Quiriao, Ptes. Elpidio, 244, 254,
2Œ*5, PRODEO
(Prouam trdized adm{nislration (1948-53), 2g
EdEatiDnaj 280 Quinno.Foster Agteerœnt, 256
PmfeŠs10tt OF faith. 53
Pro,JaNnese. 240
Racial ptei'xiice,
Radical gop¥ndist,
Eaaks, 240 Radio Vet-ins, 27 S
Raha B aginda. 52
Rahman. Abdul 2"
Rairffiesr„ 20
Rajah Baganda. 52 Rajah
Hutnabon, 73
Rajab 72
Rajat•tMåtanaa, 79,
Provisiona 77, 78, 79 RAM
l Philipïine Republic, 151 AFP Movernent),
PRPC (Phibpplae 277 RAM Alyaasang
essing Center), 2 73 Makibansa), 2"
Ptolemy, 17 Ramadan, 54 month
Public Deferxiers Act,2il of, 54
Pueblo, Ramayana, 46
Ramos. Benigno, 200, 241
412
Ramos, Fatha Marcial Fux-ia, Republic Regiment, Z)7
Republican government in
V-, 277, 278.283. Bulacan, 192
R_ßidenä2 , 84
administration (1992-1998),
135
2.83,
235
Ramusia, Giovanni Barista; Rcüii Trade Act.
22 Randan, C. B..
290
Ras-ik(, Santaniaa. 282
Revolt in Cebu, 153
cause. 1"
237de Santa Cara, Revolt of Davao, The, 14
Rxoæ_zn.rration Aa, 181, 182 cause, 114
Ravnquissas, 69 Revolt Of Gumapos (1661), 117
ClaroM_. 187, cause of. 117
131.259. Revoir ofLandia(1643), 114
260 "Red cause, 114
Christmas", IOD Rcvolt OfPahris in Pangulnan,
Reformisu. 27?
Regidor, Antonio Maria, 131
Revolt of Tambkct, Bohol (1621-
Resrnesžts, 237
22), 113 cause,
Rhna 56
i 13
Religious fanaticism. 194
Revolt of Bayot Brot1Ers
Religious 122 (1822), 122 cause, 122
Revolt af Hermarn
Revolt ofthe (1601). 112
Puk(žUo.4i). 122 Revolt the Irrayas, 112
RepvbUc. ocan at the, 168
Revolucion, 135
Republic No, 4, 253 Revolution. 192
Republic No. 281 Act phase 192
No. 300 Revolution of 1896, 142
Republic Act No. 91". 304
Revolutionaries, in
Republic Act No. 92M,
Zambates, 153
Rep%Hic of Spain, 130 Revoludonary Congress, I
Repubbc of the PhiEpptGes, 22,
Revoluoonuy Government, 163
ultra, 250 declaration of. 163 emissaries,
R£ügiaus of the Virøn Mary. 217 169 Revtrumn_ism, 233
The, 232 Reyes. Angelc, 297
Reyes, 169 Rocc. Rau'.
Reyes, Major Jose, 169 Rodnguezr Archbishop Juan A..
Reyes, Most Rev, Gabriel M 89
Rodriguez, Beruta.
250 Roj0, Archb"$hop Manvel
Roes. Sevenno. AxtoaiO, 101.
Rhinoceros. 6 Roman, Col, 117
Ricarte, Roman Catholic Thurch, 67
Artem_10,
22,
Roman Cathobctsrn, 193
152, 241 Romuto. G.. 282
Rice (_iÅnaty Ramu10, Carlos P.. 189
Ramulo, MaJcrC,arbs P.. 218
Rice production, 266.267 Roosevelt, pres. Theodore, 213,
Rights and freedom. I IC 215
10 Roosevelt, pres. 187
Rio Grande. 176 Root crops, 32
R.ktual player, 53 Rosales, Deccroso,
Rituals. 24 ROTC, 237
Rivalry in the Katipunan, 147 Rousseau. 128
River system. 23 thought Of, 128
Rivera, Fernando prima de. 151 Roxas, 135
Rivers, 26 Rosas, Pres. Manuel A, , '66.
Rizal, Dr. Jose, 22, 129, 187, 244. 254 administration
134, 136. 137, 142. 194 (194648). 250, 252
RP-US Military Bases Agreement,
Day. 190 273,
137 RP-US Treaty Fnends•mp, 281
Monurrrnt, 232
Rizal, Joxfa, 135, 138 Ruins of watt 244
Rilal, Fac'.ano, s Saduk.
Tacúno, 257 9
RizaL, Trinidad. Sdguisag, Rcnc, 282
135 Rrzal bill. Sahul Sheif. 20,
-Laguna.Batangas,
Sakay, Macario, 141. "4, 183
183 resistaru:e forces in,
183 surtender of. 183
Rizahne Republic, 22 Sakdal. 199
Dr. James. 10 mayernem, 199
Roces, Joaquin "Chino" 276 Sakdallsm, 199
414
Sakdalistas, 199, 200, 240 Santa Iglesia, 194
Sdamat, Hastiim, 294 SaZacnazan, 9 7
Salamat, Magat. I Æ 1 Santaxn, Ft_ Fraxisco. 9
(proverbs), 46 Santiago, 71
LIÉano, 215 Santiago, COL Mariano. 278
Sakedo, Juan, 99
Salitran, 146 Saaco Tomas Intemment Camp.
Sahnga, Felifk, 1 1
i Jovito, 28 sait, Santo Tomas, Fray de, I
Saluas 23 Santos, Alejo S.. 231,
Salvador, Ambrosio, 136 Santos, Dante,
Samais or del Sur, 32 Santos, Fr. 223 Santos,
Samar, 72 Lope K.. 196, Sažaneaai Bay.
Saxnpaguira, 91 Sar*ing Sikap Iwelihood
Samson, Apoltaario, progratn
San Antonio. 71 Sarin•WEk. 5.S
San Carlos Univa•sity, g
Sarmiento, Pedro. n I
San Cnsto½hli, 194 mountiinof,
Sayid Abu Baki, 52
194
scam
San Juan dei Montc, 1 75
baffle. Schflling, Jeffiey Crug Edwards,
San Juanico Strait. 27 S'hool, 226
San Lazaro Hospital, 95 Schuman Commission,
San Matco 295 174 Scclr, William
San Miguel, Gcn. Luciano, Henry, 9, 10 Sea
182, vokanaes.
death of, 183 Sedfhor spreading, 18
San Pascual Baylo, 97 Seasons, 30
Sande, oov. Francisco de, 123 dry, 30
Sandiko, Teodoro, 187 rainy,
56 Sanzumang Bayan, 3C wet,
272 30
Sang"', 9 J SEATO. 259
Sansk:it, 46 Second Philippine Republjc, 232
Sanskrit 49 inauguration or, 232.
Secondary sources. 5
Santa Clara, 97
Sama Crzz Mayo, 97
 controversy, 129 Gabriela,
Secohsizatioa movement, Sibman
Secularization of Philippirx pat. Sin. Archbishop Jaime Cardinal,
ishes, 132 276, 278, 293.
Sedillot, Dr. Charles Emmanuel Singapore, 22
Sdition Law. 181 Siogian. Gregorio,
SEDP (Secondary Ed'x:ation Sin*", 34, 55
Development Program). 280 Sino-Philippine relauons, 49
ScõsrnundD. Caihio, 1 78 Sityat, Lt. Maaxl, 142, 169
Scgovia, 78 Smith, Gem Jacob, 180
Stgui, Archbishop Jose, 123 Smokey Mountain,
Self•nagcUa1icn.
Snap electcns,
tradition 96
Snap presidential &cbon, 298
Senate imxachnynt tñbunal, 295
Social aristocracy, 128
Senaœ(Cppcr House). 185
Social 51
Sociaå sLratiñcaticn system, 56
Lim,225
Serrano L.dklaw, Pedro, 133. 135 Social we'fax. 95
Sha:if Muhammad Socialist Part', 212
Kabungsawan, s? Scz-•wazt 70s Am:gos dd
Sharif ul-Hashtrn. 52 Sokljers, Japanese. 227
Sharp, General, 219 Sotheitn, Wilhelm G. U, 7. 8.40
28 glory ofthe Solid Mana¿-emeat Act. 300
sea. 28 tridacaa Soliven, Maximo, 270
gigas, 28 pisidum, SONA (State of the
29 dzess), 303
Shoemaking, GC Sotelc, Col. Antonio. 278
Shrine of valor, 217 South China Sea, 22
Siazoa, Domingo. 289 Southeast Asia, 45
Siesra Madre Mountains, Southern Devc'opment Bank, 227
23R Sierra Madre RarW!, 24 Southern Mirdanaø, 23
SigaLa, 7? Southern Tagalog, 23
Si•Xalac. 16 Pacific
Sikatuna, 77 Area. 216,
SiXawy, 17 236
Silaae. Cavite, 146
Silang, 103, 109 war, 155
Revolt (1752-63), 1 19, 120 cause, Spanish colonial era, 3
1 Spanish colonial rule, 169

416
end of, t 55 Submanne Ga-Wa, 238
Spanish colonies. Submanne Na-ugrkal, 238
Spanish conquest, 78. de Las Islas Filipinas, 6. 129
Spanish consötuñon or 1812, 121 128 st., (Cebu). 73
Spanish Constiruöon of 1858, 167 SulayrMn. 79 revolt of, [10
Spanish Cortes, 155 Sulfathtazole. 229
parkiamentary rules, 165 Sultan Aijmuö Din I. 125
domination m the pines, Sultan Kudarat, 32, 126
127 fleet, Sultan Mabztunaw, 9 Suhan
Spanish t SO Sarif. 52
Spanish friar, 133 Suluan island. 72
Spanish government, 125 , 152 Sumakwelcodes, 10
Spanish Guardia Civil, 169 Summer capital,
Sparush revolution, victory Surnoray. i 15
of, 130 Revoh, Samar causeof.
Spanish rulers in the country, I Il 115
Spanish seülement in Luzon, 124 44
Spanish-Filipino forces. 1 14, 115 Sunda Sheif, 20.21
SPCPD (Souùkrn Philippine Sung Dynasty, 21
Courkil Peace and Superstitions, 48
Develop286 Supreme Council. 136 officers
69 of, 138
Spiritualists. 24 Spraays, Court. 211, 279
289 Supemzo
SRA (Scx•iaL Reform 284 (Presøent), 139 Surabao,
Sri Vijaya power. 46 Artonio.
St. Francis Xavier, 76 Surrender, 102 terms Of,
tx•atificationof, 113 swift, Charles Syllabic
Statutes ofUniversal Masonry. writie, 47 SZOP AD (Slxcial Of
16b and Development in
Steam launchers, Southa•tl Philippirœs), 286
Stegodon, 6
Stone tools, 42 types
of, 42 T'boli',
"Strait orAll Saints". 71 Taal in Batangas. 25, 26
270 Taal Vokano, 25,
Subanuns, 32 Tabon ves, 7
Subr Navai Base, 252 42
Subic Naval Station. 282

417
Tadlar. Brig Gen. Anemio. 278 Terronst elerrænts in che ,
Taes, 303
Taft, Gov. William Howard, 179. Thailand.
Day.
aamitiigtfäbon, 179 19
Tali Commission,
American kgacy, 18B
Tagalog,
The AnErican RuE 174
Tagalog lanai*. 49, 233
The araupclao•s 2i
Tagalog regor, 23 rag"
Republic, 1$3 The Biak.tu.Bato Repubhc, 151
Script, 47 The De&ration of the
ragbanua, 32 PhlUppine
•rago Apo Range. 25 Indcpendcnœ, 163
Tailoring, 98 The Federal parry. 179
Taiwan, 22 The
•lat Plac'do, Hilana, 178 BibÞ. 240
The Kalipunan, 137
224 Council, 147
Marmntal. 282 Council. 147
113 the capital of, 147
Tanada, Lorenzo, 260 The Makabulos Consannion, 15)
-ranada. 282 The martyrs Of Aklan. 146
rao't Bato, 32
Agremeat.
Tapar•s Revolt. Panay (1663),

II 18
The PhillWine 136
239, 251, 254, 255, The Religious oftlE Virgin Mary.
Teatro Comico, 91 • 217
232
Nueva Luna in
The Revolt Of
117 cause.
artifacts. 41
The RevoÌt of Davao, 114 caux.
Pabb, 166, 167 114
movement, 19
Tello, Gov. Francisco. 112
Tenazas, Rosa, S
Terrero, Gov. Gen. Emño, 126.
127

418
 Arturo M., 20
141, 182 arrest,
182
ToEncirY', Giùllermo, 19 i
Tamblott Bohol -romawis, Acmad M.. 293
cause, ] 14 assemblages , 41
Revolt Twvgga,
(1521-22). 113 Torres, Gen. Isidro, 153
cause, 113 Total Economic MONIization
The Revolution 1896. 142 Prop-am, 255
{f Baler, 164 To-tai History, 3
The Spanish.Amencan War TO YM
(189R), (Ten Yo.
The Thirtæn of , Men),
256
The Tonåo (1587-88),
1
The Trihme. 241 Tradir8.61
Theater oft_kr earth, 17 Tradnional FlbÞno ties,
Theucr, 61 55
Orbi$ rmarw-n, 17 128 improvement
The of Ca_rpiO, tn, 128
17 Tram•k. 190
Theory of caugropbism. 7 Travel ban, 270
Theory oftonnnental daft, 18
Traveling 97
trory of place tectonics, 18
164, 174,
Theory ofScientific Social Evolu3
180
Theory ofthe Earth, 17
Tbobum. Bishop M., 190
Treaty
70, 76
T'bomasites. 188
"Trial ofthe Century", 275
Tidere. 75 Trias, Mariano, 148, 162, 183
Tribal communities, leadas of,
, 242
32 224
Tingco. IOD
75
Tirad Pass, 178
Tropical climate, 30
Ti,urays, 32
Tropicalju*s 23
TOb:xco, 229 monopoly,
93
Regulation 305 Tryi10
TOÞ. 225 Cardinal,

419
Tutuba_n suciun, 228 UInvers:ty ofSan Ignacio,
Twain. Mark. 165 University ofSanto Toru, ZZ3
TydirvMcDume Law, 187, University Ofthe 7
208, 209 IJrN2ton&h GOV. Gen Artonw
Typhoon Uring in 2M de, 126
US MIEtary xrsonnel. 303

Act.
251
US. Bartlestup Maiœ Havana, USAFFE, 21 t, 214, 216, 236, 244
Cuba, 134 US-Phi Lippiœ Treaty Of General
U.s. warship Maine. 153 sinking Relanons, 250
Ofthe, 153 vaidez, Gen. Basilio, 214
Don Feupede, 117 Valentine's Day,
291 Valenzuela Reiment, 2M
UNCR (United Nüions Hitl Dr. PLO, 142
Commission Of Refugees). 273 Vargas, Jesus, 261
UNESCO Nauons Educatio Vargas, Jorge B., 214, 223.224,
Sciemific CultNral Organization), 230 VasQœz, Leonora, 291
285 vegetables. 27, 49 Velasco,
UNDO (United Nationalist Viceroy, 77 Vet, Gen. Favian.
Democratic Organization), 276 275, 277, 278 vet, Miguel. 237
VFA Farces Agtæ
UNIDo.PDP.1-atnn Party
288.289
(United
Vi'Þos, 229 VlŒs.
Nationalist Demat-
Demoãa6c fomys of. 234
Otgamzafior» rauc patty-Lakas
276 vuc,ia. 71.75
Unift»rrnianan theory ofgeology, Vidal. Archhsmp Ricardo ditto
17 293
197 Vina. Jose Garcia. 189 Villafirrte.
Leon,
Ruy Lopez
United Nadons High Commission
Vil_labbos expedition, 77
Of Refugees (UNCR), 273
Vülamor. Capt. Jesus. 213
States Army Forces in the
Villaruel. Faugina. 136
Philippines, 236
Villegas, PamaLeon, 153
United States Congress. 25) Vinzons. Gov. Wenceslao. 239
Universidad de Santo Tomas, 88

420
Visayans, 31 Water pollution, 29
Visayas. 8, 23 Waves ofmigration, 34.35
"Viva la Flhpina", 94 in. 94
142 Wcav•.R industries,
Vivien Don Diego, 100 Wegener, Alfred, 18
Voice Of freedom. 218 Western colonizers. 129
Vokanx 19 Wcstean Msndamo, 23
Volcanx •peaks of 25 Wegem Pangasinan, 24 shores
21 of, 24
Volcanoes 25 Western Visayas. 23
Apo in Davao, 25 WWIer, Gov. Gen. Vaìenano.
Banahaw Qxzon, 25 127
Bulusan in Sorsa*on. 25 Whale Shark. 29
Hibok-tubok in Camiguin, 25 Willis, Dr. Bailey. 21
Iraya in 25 Wilson, Larry. 6
Kanhoa in 25 WiLson, Pres. Woodrow. 185
Makatunng in Laxwo, 25 1766, 121
Mayon in Albay 25 in Winemakire, 60
Zambde5, 25 Woman suffia8e. 21 1
Tul in 25 Wood, Gov_ Leonud, 185. 186,
Volckmann, Major Rus*il, 235 195 woods, 27 Worcester. Dean.
Voltaire, 189
Of, 128 128 World 276
WorkWarU, 2, 6,22
Writ oftubeas corpus,257, 270
Wriaen Literaturc, 48
Admiral 156

Y•Ami 23
276 Y 32
Y Gen. TomoyuE. 236,
241, 242, 243 surrenckr
Wainwrght, Gen. Jonathan of. 243
216.217, wakd City. 163 Yengbo, Gen. 144
Wagg-Ta-yuan, 49 settlement Emrxror, SO
267
War Plan OranF, 214, 218 z
Waray-waray. 31 Zabala, Don Antcrüo, 119
Washllzton nay,

421
Zabala, Gen. Antonio,
Zaminb 1 7
Zambales Mourfain. 24
Zambab. Marcos. 100 t 89
Zhu
Ziga, VEtor, 282

422