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    013 009

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    GEOMETRIC METHODS OF SYNTHESIS WITH THREE ACCURACY POINTS 8-1 INTRODUCTION The geometric methods for the synthesis of planar linkages for various duties antedate the more precise algebraic attacks. They still occupy a most important place among the available proce- dures, for they are relatively fast in producing answers and, since they maintain touch with physical reality to a much greater degree than do the algebraic methods, are often more readily understood, Also, their degree of accuracy is adequate for many situations and they are valuable adjuncts to the algebraic methods, for their approximate solutions serve as useful guides in directing the course of equations or in reaching certain decisions. The relatively long development period of the geometric methods has led to many techniques hand-tailored to particular types of problems. It is the intent of this chapter and the next to dwell on the general and avoid the particular, i.e., to present general concepts that may be applied to a wide variety of problems and abstain from peculiarly specialized techniques, 216 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF LINKAGES The synthesis of linkages involves moving a link from a first position to several others, sometimes under specifications of velocity and acceleration. A sequence of problems will be used to display basic geometric concepts. ‘The solutions of the first and simpler problems of this chapter will establish relations to be considered further in the next and will be applied to more complex situations. 8-2 POLES OF THE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE Problem 1 Arrange for the transfer of a link AB from position A,B, to a second position ABs. This problem may be solved in different ways, as shown in Fig. 8-1, For example, the midnormals a: and biz to the distances A142 and B,By will intersect at Piz, Links P1241 and PB, connected as shown in Fig. 8-1a, will allow AB to assume its two positions. This solution— one may think of 4,P128, as a solid triangle pivoted about P;—is trivial but recalls that all lines associated with the plane of link AB undergo the same rotation; i.e., the angles through which they turn are equal in magni- tude end sense of rotation. The half angles A,Ps2qi2 and ByPisbi: are also equal. ‘The transfer of the link 4B may also be carried out by a four-bar linkage with AB as coupler. ‘The centers of the fixed revolutes O4 and On may be chosen anywhere along 12 and bis, respectively, the other two revolute centers being located at A and B on the moving link (Fig, 8-10). Note that this solution to the problem involves two independent choices with revolute centers at A and B on the moving link. For each center O. chosen on ars there are an infinity of solutions corresponding to different choices of Og along by;. But since there are also an infinity of choices pos- sible for O4 along ai2, it may be said that the present problem has av infinity to the square number of solutions, denoted as @?. If either O4 or Ox is chosen at infinity along its midnormal (Fig. 8-Ic and d), the corresponding four-bar linkages change into slider-erank mechanisms. ‘The number of solutions for cach situation is infinite because of the infinite choices that are available for locating the fixed revolute (Oa or Ou, a8 the case may be). If both O4 and Og are chosen at infinity along their midnormals (Fig. 8-1e), a PPRR mechanism results and the solution is unique. In the foregoing a link AB, that is, a portion of a plane with ele- ments (connections) at A and at B, was caused to move from one position to another. If the specification is altered to moving a plane containing the line AB from one position to another, the number of solutions for each of the previous situations is multiplied by © *. ‘This addition comes from having to choose two points C’ and D of the plane as locations for the GEOMETRIC METHODS—THREE ACCURACY POINTS 217 (6) Solutions: 09 / (@) Solution: unique otal Jone HeuRe 81 Problem 1, two positions of a link, 218 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF LINKAGES revolute elements; each point has two coordinates, whence four choices must be made. Derinition The point P,2, the center for the finite rotation of AB from A,B, to A2Bs, is the pole of the rotation 61+. The pole P12 is a property of the finite displacement of AB from A,B, to A2B> and is independent of how the link actually moves between these two positions. However, if A2B: is made to approach A,B,, so that A,B, and A-B: become two infinitesimally close positions, the pole Py, then becomes the familiar instantaneous center of rotation of link AB at the instant considered. Figure 8-1b depicts potentially useful angular relations that should be noted, namely, A\PixAy = B\P12B2 = 612 and their half angles AiPi2ai2 = BiPi2biz = 012/2. This observation leads to the following theorem for four-bar linkages: Tueorem I When viewed from a pole of rotation, the coupler and frame are seen under angles that either are equal or differ from each other by 180°; this is true for the two positions defining the pole. Similarly, the crank and follower are seen from the pole under angles that either are equal or differ from each other by 180° for the two positions. A situation in which the angles are equal is shown in Fig. 8-1b; angles differing by 180° are shown in Fig. 8-2. Problem 2 Design a four-bar linkage to transfer a link AB through three specified positions A,B, A2B2, AaB, (Fig. 8-3). er fo Ay \ Bs Figure &2 To Theorem I. GEOMETRIC METHODS—THREE ACCURACY POINTS 219 Figure 8-3 Problem 2, three positions of a link. The centers of the fixed revolutes 0, and O» are uniquely defined here as the intersections of ais, az: and brs, bas, respectively (Fig. 8-3). If A and B are the revolute centers of the coupler, this problem has # unique solution, Problem 3 Design a four-bar linkage of frame 040z, in which a given position ¢ and a given angular velocity ws of the crank produce a Specified position y and a specified angular velocity w. of the follower. The centers of the fixed revolutes being O4 and Ox (Fig. 8-4), the specified positions of the crank and follower center lines are defined by angles @ and ¥, and the revolute centers of the coupler must lie on these centerlines, The velocity of A is perpendicular to O4A with a magnitude v4 = (OnA)or (8-1) Similarly, the velocity of B is perpendicular to OnB with a magnitude dn = OpBux 2) and the instantaneous center of rotation of the couple AB, at this instant, is the intersection J of O4A and OsB. But since J is the instantaneous center of AB, AB rotates at this instant about / with an angular velocity 3; thus va = (Aju; and vp = (EB) or va TA vp IB 220 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF LINKAG ES Substituting the values of v4 and vg from Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2) into this last equation yields (OsA)or _ IA (OnB)w. ~ TB IB _ IA or OB ~ O14 oe 63) The solution may be summarized as follows: 1. Lay out the frame and construct the instantaneous center I corresponding to ¢ and y. 2. Choose A arbitrarily along Oal. 3. Evaluate the ratio 7B/OxB from Eq. (8-3). 4, Construct point B along Os! so that it divides the segment OsI in the above ratio. 8-3 RELATIVE POLES OF THE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE In moving a specified coupler from one position to another, we considered the coupler from the vantage of a point called the pole P:s, determined from the midnormals of the two coupler positions (Fig. 8-10). This pole, common to frame and coupler, gave no relation between the swing angles (or angular displacements) of the crank and follower. The crank (input) and follower displacements qi» and yy for a given coupler displacement are identified in Fig. 8-5a. To correlate #2 and y12 through the coupler motion, we shall consider the follower motion with respect to the crank. We do this by means of a kinematic inversion: we shall FIGURE 84 Problem 3, speci- fication of angular veloc and positions of links 2 and GEOMETRIC METHODS—THREE ACCURACY POINTS 221 Bt Om On ) Figure 85 Four-bar linkage displacements needing correlation. assume the crank fixed, thus becoming observers on it, and shall remember that in any displacement of a linkage the relative motions of all links remain the same, regardless of which link is fixed. The linkage with the crank O4A, fixed, in a position ready for displacement, is shown in Fig. 8-5). Ona linkage displacement consistent with that of Fig. 8-a, the follower displacement with respect to the erank (Fig. 8-6) is seen to be the result of two separate rotations — @,2 and yi. It is our purpose to combine these two follower rotations into a single equivalent rotation and find the unique point, called relative pole’ Ris, about which the single rotation takes place. The displacement of the follower from OB, to OB; is the result of two rotations (Fig. 8-6): 1. A rotation about 04 of angle — 12, from OB, to OnBi. Note the negative sign: if O.A1 rotates clockwise with respect to 040, then 9405 rotates counterclockwise with respect to 0443. 2. A rotation around Oz of angle ¥:2 from Op, to OB%. The angle of rotation from OxB; to 0%} is thus yi2 — gs2. ‘The relative pole Ri: is the intersection of the midnormals bj, of B,By and cy ' A second relative pole exists for a displacement of the crank with respect to the follower. We shall not consider it here, for we shall not need it. Its eonstruetion is similar to that of the pole which we are discussing, Ri © (relative pole) FIGURE 8-6 Definition of the relative pole. 222 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF LINKAGES of O»0%, and the triangle OsOpRi2 yields a + 8 = --1,/2. Since 8 = (iz — ¢12)/2, the half angle of rotation from 0,8, to 0%B%, we may write @ = —¢12/2 — Wie — gi2)/2 = —Wi2/2 and Ris is the intersec- tion of the lines cj, and z, making, respectively, the angles —@12/2 and —Yie/2 with 0405. ‘Theorem I also applies to the inverted mechanism and its relative pole Rj2: viewed from Riz, O44, and OgB; appear under equal angles, and O.0n and A,B, are also seen under equal angles. Construction of the Relative Pole for Specified $12 and Wiz Select convenient frame points 0 and Ox, and draw two lines making the angles — $:2/2 and —y2/2, respectively, with 040%. Their intersection is Ris. Note again the negative signs: if ¢,2 is clockwise, then — 12/2 is counterclockwise from OsOz. Similarly, if 12 is clockwise, then —y12/2 is counterclockwise. Problem 4 Design a four-bar linkage in which a given angular displacement $1: of the crank produces a given angular displacement y12 of the follower (Fig. 8-7). Solution 1. Assume a convenient frame Q40z, and construct the relative pole #,, corresponding to ¢12 and yrs. 2. Choose point Aj arbitrarily. 3. Draw a line Rau such that = AiR = OsRvOn in magnitude and direction 4, Choose any point By on Ruiw. By Theorem I, the desired linkage is 044,B\Oy. ‘The arbitrary choices— A; and B,—give the problem ~* solutions. The method fails if di: = 0, oF diz = 0, oF biz = Yas. ow FrauRE 8-7 Solution of Prob. 4. GEOMETRIC METHODS—THREE ACCURACY POINTS 223 Figure 8-8 Modification of timing of cam mechanism. The foregoing method may be applied to modifying the follower dwell of an existing cam mechanism without changing cams. Assume that the cam follower (Fig. 8-8a) has a dwell for 60° of camshaft rotation (input). It is desired to have the follower at dwell for 90° of input rota- tion. The solution involves slowing the present eam by making it the output link OsB of a four-bar linkage (Fig. 8-86), proportioning the link- age such that the 60° of constant cam radius corresponds to 90° of input rotation, now applied to the crank 04d. The cam link O,B must be able to rotate continuously; this condition demands that the four-bar be a drag-link (double-crank) configuration. Accordingly the Grashof rule 1+

    0408; Riu is constructed as in step 3, Prob. 4, and By is chosen along Rieu such that O4A1 + Os0n < AiBi + OnBi and A\Bi < OaAi The desired linkage is 044 1B,02, also shown in Fig. 8-9. sanse touRe 8-9 Modification of timing of cam mechanism; construction of linkage. 224 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF LINKAGES o% FIGURE 8-10 Solution of Prob. 5. Problem 5 Design a four-bar linkage in which two successive clockwise angular displacements giz and @23 of the crank produce, respec- tively, two successive clockwise angular displacements yz and ¥23 of the follower (Fig. 8-10). Solution Let d1s = dis + ges and yas = viz + ves. 1. Assume a convenient frame O40, and construct relative poles Riz and Ris. 2, Choose Ay arbitrarily. 3, Draw the lines Riz and Riv such that Be = AiRyu = OsR:0n Bs; = A.Riw = OnRi0e 4. The intersection of Rizw and Ryyv is By. The linkage, chosen from among the available ~ ? solutions (choice of point A,), isa double-rocker mechanism. The choice of A1, while good for displaying the construction, was unfortunate from an operational standpoint. An examination of the linkage, best afforded by a model, will uncover three shortcomings: (1) starting from position O,A\, the input link must first be turned counterclockwise, and then must have its direction of rotation reversed; (2) the linkage will go through a dead point when fully extended to the left ; (3) it will be necessary to disconnect the linkage when it is fully extended to the right, move the links, and reconnect them before going to the final position. ‘That the linkage does meet its specifications in a formal manner is small consolation for the roundabout way in which this is accomplished. The problem of how to remedy this situation will be enlarged upon in See. 8-5, GEOMETRIC METHODS—THREE ACCURACY POINTS 225 8-4 EXAMPLE: LOGARITHMIC-FUNCTION GENERATOR If the output and input variables of a linkage are proportionally related to the variables of a specified funetion such as y=f(q) or z= g(x,y) the linkage is called a function generator. ‘The linkage for z = g(x, y) will obviously require two inputs, oue for each of the independent varia- bles x and y. In what follows, we shall not consider such double-input function generators: our attention will be directed to the simpler situation represented by y = f(z) requiring only a single input. The principle of a single-input function generator of the four-bar type is shown in Fig. 8-11. The independent variable « is to be repre- sented mechanically by the rotation ¢ of the crank O44, or input, with the follower OpB rotation ¥ displaying the dependent variable y. The discrete relations between z and ¢, y and ¥ are usually made linear, but they need not be. ‘As an example, we shall design a four-bar linkage to generate the function y = log z in the interval 1 < x <2. The independent variable ranges from x = 1 = x, to x = 2 = ay, or we may say that the range Ax = 2, — a, in general terms. The range of motion or angular sweep of the z pointer (link 4A) corresponding to Ax will be designated Ag = 4; — ¢y; this range is arbitrary and will be taken as 60° counter- clockwise. On the assumption of linear relationships, any value of x within the interval of generation is related to its ¢ value by o— _ Ag o-& _2-% z—a, Ac a6 ar The dependent variable ranges between y, = logz, = 0 and scale, linear y-scale, linear % Ye TO > * On Crank: input 8 Follower: output viauRE 8-11 Principle of four-bar linkage function generator y = f(z). 226 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF LINKAGES ys = log zy = 0.3010, and the range is Ay = yy — ys. The corresponding range of motion of the y pointer is Ay = yy — ¥.; the actual value of Ay is arbitrary and is chosen here as 90° counterclockwise. The variables y and ¥ are related within the interval of generation through the linear relation ee v ty or yoy ay av ay In this example, the four-bar linkage will be designed to give an exact value of the logarithmic function at only three points of the y-z curve, corresponding to three values of z at the accuracy points. Let Z1, a2, Z1 be the accuracy points; they are chosen with Chebyshev spacing in the interval 1 < a < 2, that is (Fig. 8-12), a = 1.5 — 0.5 cos 30° = 1.067 1.5 + 0.5 cos 30° = 933 The corresponding values of y are tn = log 1.067 = 0.0282 2 = log 1.5 = 0.1761 ys: ya = log 1.933 = 0.2862 The change in x from the first to the second accuracy point is aye = a2 — m1 = 15 — 1.067 = 0.433 and from the first to the third accuracy point ain = ty — 1 = 1,933 — 1.067 = 0.866 10 12 14 16 1s 20 mee 2 2, Ficuaz 8-12 Three accuracy puints with Chebyshev spae- ing in the interval 1 $6 =~ 6 = 60" pap a 8, $31 $y noel = 26" 1-4, = itt * fey —~bs=4 FIGURE 8-13 Function y = log z, 1 < x < 2 to be generated. The corresponding changes in ¢ are therefore _ Tyg 0433 ae ou = b2—d1= “Qe 7 (80 = 26 bis = bs — or = 52° Similarly, the change in y from the first to the second accuracy point is ys — yx = 0.1761 — 0.0282 = 0.1479 and from the first to the third accuracy point Ya — yi = 0.2862 — 0.0282 = 0.2580 The corresponding changes in ¥ are Von = va = May = Oy 0 Yas = os — a = 77° All pertinent data are assembled in Fig. 8-13. The problem is now reduced to the terms of Prob. 5, Sec. 8-3, and the solution proceeds as shown in Fig. 8-14. A frame length O.Oz of 4 in. was chosen and the relative poles Ry, and Ryz constructed. An angle g: = 90° and a crank length O4A = 3 in. were selected, giving the Point Aas shown, The lines Ri, and R,,0 were drawn to give B, at their = 44° 228 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF LINKAGES intersection, The desired linkage is O4A:BiOp in the first position. Measurements from Fig. 8-14 yield O4Ay = 3 in. OeB, = 1.68 in. 0405 = 4 in. ALB, = 5.8 in. va = 32° From Table 8-1, go = de +4 = 90° or ob, = 86° vi = ve + 8.5 = 32° or v. = 23.5% The linkage was next redrawn and fitted with ¢ and y scales (Fig. 8-15). A cursory examination shows that the follower rotations ¥iz and 2s will be produced as the input rotations ¢1+ and ges are imposed. Consideration of the link lengths shows the device to be a double-rocker linkage. The performance of a linkage is gauged by how accurately it gener- ates the specified function (Table 8-1). In Fig, 8-15, 11 values of ¢ were chosen at 6° intervals; the corresponding values of ¥ were constructed and converted to nen. The error is the difference between y = log z and Yynecs. The maximum value of the error in y was found to have a Figure 8-14 Synthesis of function generator y = log z, 1 < x < 2, three accuracy points. GEOMETRIC METHODS—THREE ACCURACY POINTS 229 Table 8-1 TABULATION OF VARIABLES INVOLVED IN FUNCTION GENERATOR y = logx, 1 <2 < 2, THREE ACCURACY POINTS _— SO VARIABLES 2 y= log 2 6 Dea ¥, Dee TATIAL VALUE mao ts Ye FINAL vaLve us = 0.9016 o ws MAXox oF Vantarton [2% = #/— £2= Sy = wy ~ we = 0.9020] A6 = 67 — 84 = 60°] ay = Yr — Yn = 90° rinse rece nas aa - Jeu = be + (er = zor = vet = Wry cr 1 = 1.067 vi = 0.0282 rhie met rou sxconn acctmacr | x= 1.50 ve = 0.1761 fea oe 30° | ya = ys + 82.5" Point Tmo accumcy | 21 = 1.933 ya = 0.2862 orm + 56° Va = ve + 85.3" Powe Vamiaz10N — 61 = 26°] vie = ye = va = a4? From vinsr| 2, — 2 = 0.433 | yz ~ yi = 0.1479 70 srcoxp VARIATION yrow ringt| zs — x: = 0.866 ou = gi 61 = 52°| gn = gs — a = 77° yo Tmno magnitude of 0.003, which corresponds to 0.003/0.30 = 0.01, or I percent of the total variation in y. In the design of this function generator, as in most problems of kinematic synthesis, errors of three types may be present, viz., graphical, Mechanical, and structural. Graphical error comes from the inevitable inaccuracies of drafting (Figs. 8-14 and 8- It is the result of the accumulation of small errors made in laying out angles, drawing perpendicular or parallel lines, or taking the intersection of two lines. The graphical error is spread at random over the whole range of operation of the mechanism and does not Vanish at the accuracy points. It is a function of the designer's skill and Judgment and the scale to which the graphical construction is carried out. Mechanical error results from imperfect machining of the parts, play in the joints, and deformations due to loading. The evaluation of 230 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF LINKAGES 3 (deg) oy 26 0 Fy, = 32° (y, = 0.0282) On On FIGURE 8-15 Angular relations in function generator y = log z, 1 <2 <2. The mechanism is shown at the first accuracy point. the mechanical error in terms of the tolerance under which a mechanism is built is considered in Chap. 10. Structural error, as noted in Sec. 5-5, is the difference between the mechanically developed function ymecn and the desired funetion y = f(z), with no other errors present. The structural error is easily recognized, for it vanishes at the accuracy points. It may be decreased by modifying the distribution of accuracy points or increasing their number. The error appearing in Table 8-2 is the result of both structural Table 8-2 ERROR IN LOG-FUNCTION GENERATOR, THREE ACCURACY POINTS 2 | ooo | vn bre eq log x Ymeon Ymeen — log x 1.0 0 -1 0 —0,003 —0.003 1a 6 12.5 0.041 +0.042 0.001 1.2 12 23.5 0.079 0.079 0 13 18. at 0.114 O.114 0 14 2 43 0.146 0.144 —0, 002 15 30 52 0.176 0.178 0.002 1.6 36 60.5 0.204 0.202 —0,002 17 42 69 0,230 0.230 0 1.8 48 7 0.258 0.254 —0.001 1.9 54 83 0.279 0.278 ~0.001 2.0 60 90 0.301 0.301 0 GEOMETRIC METHODS—THREE ACCURACY POINTS 231 and graphical errors, and since its distribution bears no relation to the accuracy points, it may be assigned mostly to graphical error. The use of a larger number of accuracy points (as shown in the following chapter) would therefore be of little use in improving the accuracy of the present linkage. In other cases, however, a larger structural error is present, and the use of a greater number of accuracy points is then justified. A case of this type will be considered in the next section. The satisfactory performance of the linkage may be ascribed to several factors, including luck. For one thing, the function possessed no violent changes within the interval of generation. Next, the several arbitrary choices—ranges of motion of erank and follower, starting angles, frame length O.Oz, and crank length O4d:—happened to produce a mechanism with well-proportioned links and good transmission angle throughout the desired interval in z. Just how to recognize, and hence avoid, an unfortunate choice cannot be reduced to definite rules. When cireumstances combine to produce a poor linkage, the only remedy is to base a redesign on different arbitrary choices. This is done in the example of the following section. 8-5 EXAMPLE: SINUSOIDAL-FUNCTION GENERATOR The problem considered here is the design of a four-bar linkage to Benerate the function y = sinz in the interval 0

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