CHEMISTRY ALLIED FOR HEALTH
solutions, colloids, and suspensions
PROFESSIONALS
COMPONENTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER:
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass
Can be classified into pure substances and mixtures
 Pure substance
o Composed of a single component
(atom or molecule)
o It has a constant composition
regardless of sample size and sample
origin
o Cannot be broken down to other pure
substances by physical means
o Further classified into two groups:
elements and compounds
 Mixture
o Composed of more than one
component
o These can have varying components
in different phases of matter
(combination or solid, liquid, or gas)
o Cannot be separated into its
components (pure substances)
through physical processes
o Further classified into three types:
ATOMS AND ELEMENTS:
Atoms
Are the basic building block of all matter. It is
composed of subatomic particles:
o Electrons, negatively charged particle
o Protons, positively charged particles
o Neutrons, neutral-charged particles
 The mass of an atom is concentrated on the
nucleus where protons and neutrons are
found
 Electrons are found in the electron cloud
rapidly moving around the atom’s nucleus
Elements
are pure substances that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by a chemical reaction
 An element is composed of similar atoms
 Arranged in the periodic table
 This arrangement can tell us about an
element’s physical and chemical
properties
 The elements are arranged in the periodic
table. This arrangement helps
predict/determine the chemical properties of
the elements
 Chemical properties that we will learn about:
atomic number, atomic mass, number of
valence electrons, ionic charge, and
electronegativity
 Elements are classified into three groups
 Metals are found in the left side of the
periodic table
 Shiny solids at room
temperature except mercury,
francium, rubidium, mercury,
and gallium
 Good conductors of heat and
electricity
 Nonmetals are found in the right side
of the periodic table
  Can be solid, liquid, or gas. o The mass of an electron is negligible
Solid nonmetals are dull in (and effectively equal to zero)
appearance compared to protons and neutrons

 Poor conductors of heat and

electricity

 Metalloids are found along the solid

line starting from boron(B) to
astatine(At)

 Properties of metalloids are

intermediate of metals and
nonmetals

 There are only seven  Bonding is the joining of atoms in a stable

metalloids: boron (B), silicon
(Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic
(As), antimony (Sb), tellurium
(Te), and astatine (As)
 The arrangement of the elements in the
periodic table gives us information in the
composition of the atoms that make up the
elements
o The number of protons and electrons
in an element’s atoms is equal to it
atomic number
o The number of protons therefore
determine an atom’s identity (which
element an atom is).
o The number of protons and electrons
are equal in an atom because atoms
are neutral
o Each element has a different atomic
number
 The atomic mass is the combination of the
mass of protons and neutrons in an atom’s
nucleus
o Atoms of an element with varying
masses are taken into account in
determining an element’s atomic
mass
formation
 Elements will gain, lose, or share electrons to
attain the electron configuration of the noble
gas closest to them in the periodic table
 There are two kinds of bonding
o Ionic bonds result from the transfer
of electrons from one element to
another
o Covalent bonds result from the
sharing of electrons between two
atoms
 Ions are charged species in which the number
of protons and electrons in an atom is
unequal.
 Ionic compounds consist of oppositely
charged ions that have a strong electrostatic
attraction for each other
 There are two types of ions– cations and
anions
 Cations are positively charged ions. A cation
has fewer electrons (e-) than protons

o The atoms of varying atomic mass

exist because of difference in the
number of neutrons in their nuclei.
These are called isotopes

 Why aren’t electrons accounted for in the

determination of atomic mass?
 By losing one, two, or three e -, an atom forms
a completely filled outer shell of e-
 Anions are negatively charged ions. An ion
has more e- than protons
 By gaining one, two, or three electrons, an
atoms forms an anion with a completely filled
outer shell of e-
 The octet rule: a main group element is
especially stable when it possesses an octet of
e- in its outer (valent) shell
 Octet = 8 valence e-
 The group number of representative
elements is related to their ionic charge
 Columns in the periodic table are called
groups.
 All elements in a group form ions with
identical charges
 Groups 1A to 8A are the
representative elements and form
ions with charge of a single value
 Elements in groups 1A to 3A are
metals and tend to form cations
 Elements in groups 4A and 7A are
nonmetals that tend to form anions
 Transition metals are found in the middle
portion of the periodic table
 Metals in these groups form up to 7 different
charges but shown in the figure above are the
common charges these metals possess when
they turn into ions
 Polyatomic ions are ions composed of more
than one atom
 The overall sum of the charges of ions in
an ionic compound must be zero overall
 Ionic compounds are crystalline solids that
have very high melting points (NaCl = 801 oC)
and extremely high boiling points (NaCl =
1413 oC)
 When ionic compounds dissolve in water,
they separate into cations and anions. The
resulting aqueous solutions conduct an
electric current.
 Minute amounts of potassium iodide and
other salts containing iodine are present in
iodized table salt to ensure adequate intake of
iodine in the diet
 Sodium fluoride is added in drinking water
and dental products to help prevent tooth
decay.
 Covalent bonds result from the sharing of
electrons between two atoms.
 A covalent bond is a two-electron bond in
which the bonding atoms share the electrons.
 A molecule is a discrete group of atoms held
together by covalent bonds
 Unshared electron pairs are called  Count the total number of valence
nonbonded electron pair or lone pairs electrons. Recall how we determine
the number of valence electrons there
 Atoms share electrons to attain the electronic are in each tom with the use of the
configuration of the noble gas closest to them periodic table of elements.
in the periodic table
 Arrange bonding electrons and
 H shares 2 e- loan pairs. From the total number of
electrons, we will allocate these into
 Other main group elements are stable when
bonds and lone pairs. One covalent
they possess an octet of e- in their outer shell
bond is equal to two electrons
 Covalent bonds ae formed when two
 Use multiple bonds to fill octets
nonmetals combine, or when a metalloid
when needed.
bonds to a nonmetal.
 Steps in Drawing Lewis Structures of
 How many covalent bonds will a particular
Molecules
atom form?
 Arrange atoms. Atoms that can form
 Atoms with one, two, or three valence e-
the most number of bonds are most
generally form one, two, or three bonds,
likely the central atom while those
respectively.
with less bonds are placed on the
 Atoms with four or more valence electrons sides
form enough bonds to give an octet
 Count the total number of valence
electrons. Recall how we determine
the number of valence electrons there
are in each tom with the use of the
periodic table of elements.

 Arrange bonding electrons and

loan pairs. From the total number of
electrons, we will allocate these into
bonds and lone pairs. One covalent
bond is equal to two electrons

 Use multiple bonds to fill octets

when needed.

 A molecular formula shows the number and

identity of all of the atoms in a compound, but
not which atoms are bonded to each other

 A Lewis structure shows the connectivity

between atoms, as well as the location of all
bonding and nonbonding valence electrons

 Steps in Drawing Lewis Structures of

Molecules

 Arrange atoms. Atoms that can form

the most number of bonds are most
likely the central atom while those
with less bonds are placed on the
sides
CHEMISTRY ALLIED FOR HEALTH
PROFESSIONALS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM

A chemical change—a chemical reaction—converts

one substance into another.

Chemical reactions involve:

 breaking bonds in the reactants (starting

materials)
 forming new bonds in the products

 A chemical equation is an expression that Chemical Reactions

uses
Evidence: (Observable changes)
Chemical Equations:
• Change in color
is an expression that uses chemical formulas and
other symbols to illustrate. What reactants constitute • Change in temperature
the starting materials in a reaction and what • Evolution of gases or bubble formation
products are formed.
• Precipitation
 The reactants are written on the left.
 The products are written on the right. • Types of Chemical Reaction:

Coefficients: 1. Combination or Synthesis

2. Decomposition
show the number of molecules of 3. Single Replacement Reaction
a given element or compound that react or are 4. Double Replacement Reaction
formed. 5. Combustion
6. Reduction-Oxidation Reaction

1. Combination or Synthesis
 two or more substances react to form a
single product
 ONE PRODUCT
The law of conservation of mass:
 A + B  AB
States that atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction.

 Coefficients are used to balance an

equation.
 A balanced equation has the same number
of atoms of each element on both sides of
the equation. 2. Decomposition
 a single compound breaks down into two
or more simpler substances (elements or
compounds)
  AB  A + B  Aqueous solutions of lead (II) nitrate
 ONE REACTANT and potassium iodide react to form
aqueous potassium nitrate and a
 often must add energy (heat/electricity)
to make reaction occur precipitate of lead(II) iodide.
 Pb (NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  2KNO3(aq) +
 2KClO3(s) 2KCl (s) + 3O2 (g) PbI2(s)
3. Single Displacement
 one element replaces another element in 5. Combustion Reaction
a compound  Reaction of a compound with excess
 A + BX  AX + B oxygen in the presence of heat that
 more active element replaces less active results in the release of heat or light
element energy.
 Refer to activity series of elements  A + O2  CO2 + H2O (Hydrocarbons)
 This reaction releases energy in the
form of light and heat.
 C3H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O
 2 Types of Combustion:
o Complete Combustion
 Also called "clean
combustion," complete
combustion is the
oxidation of a
hydrocarbon that
produces only carbon
dioxide and water.
o Incomplete Combustion
 Also called "dirty
Copper metal reacts with aqueous silver nitrate to combustion,"incomplete
produce silver metal and aqueous copper (II) nitrate. combustion is
Copper replaces silver (Activity series) hydrocarbon oxidation
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq)  2Ag(s) + Cu (NO3)2(aq) that produces carbon
monoxide and/or
Remember to apply the rules in writing ang carbon (soot) in
naming, diatomic molecule, crisscross, etc. addition to carbon
dioxide
Look for the charges in the list of cations and
anions.

Ag+1 NO3-1  AgNO3

Cu+2 NO3-1  Cu (NO3)2

4. Double Displacement Reduction-Oxidation Reaction

 Exchange of ions between aqueous
solutions of two compounds.
 AX + BY  AY + BX
• A common type of chemical reaction
involves the transfer of electrons from
one element to another.
• When iron rusts, methane and wood burn,
and a battery generates electricity, one
element gains electrons and another loses
them.
• Ared + Box  Aox + Bred
• Oxidation and reduction are opposite
processes, and both occur together in a
single reaction called an oxidation–
reduction or redox reaction. A redox
reaction always has two components—
one that is oxidized and one that is
reduced.
• A compound that loses electrons (is
oxidized) while causing another
compound to be reduced is called a
reducing agent
Balancing Chemical Equations
Write a balanced chemical equation for
the reaction of propane (C3H8) with
oxygen (O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water (H2O).
1. Write the equation with the correct
formulas.
C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O
The subscripts in a formula can never be
changed to balance an equation, because
changing a subscript changes the identity
of a compound.
Balance the C’s first:

Balance the H’s next:

• Zn loses two electrons to form Zn2+, so Zn
is oxidized.

• Cu2+ gains two electrons to form Cu metal, 2. Balance the equation with
so Cu2+ is reduced coefficients one element at a time.
Finally, balance the O’s:
• Each of these processes can be written as
individual reactions, called half
reactions, to emphasize which electrons
are gained and lost.

3. Check to make sure that the

smallest set of whole numbers is
used.

• A compound that gains electrons (is

reduced) while causing another
compound to be oxidized is called an
oxidizing agent.
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Problem: Write the equilibrium constant expression

for this reversible reaction:
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Reversible reaction: A reaction that can be made to

go in either direction.
Solution: The equilibrium constant expression is:
 If we mix CO and H2O in the gas phase at high
temperatures, CO2 and H2 are formed:

Note that no exponents are shown in this equilibrium

 We can also make the reaction take place the
constant expression; by convention, the exponent “1”
other way by mixing CO2 and H2.
is understood but not written.

Problem: When H2 and I2 react at 427°C, the

following equilibrium is reached:
 The reaction is reversible, and we can discuss
both a forward reaction and a reverse
reaction.

The equilibrium concentrations are [I 2] = 0.42 mol/L,

[H2] = 0.025 mol/L, and [HI] = 0.76 mol/L. Using
these values, calculate the value of K.
Equilibrium: A dynamic state in which the rate of the
forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse
reaction.

 At equilibrium there is no change in

concentration of either reactants or products.
Solution: Equilibrium constants are usually written
 Reaction, however, is still taking place.
without units. Note that in the above solution, the
Reactants are still being converted to
units of concentration cancel.
products and products to reactants, but the
rates of the two reactions are equal. LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE

Equilibrium constant, K: The product of the
concentrations of products of a chemical equilibrium
divided by the concentrations of reactants, each
raised to the power equal to its coefficient in the
balanced chemical equation.
For the general reaction:
Le Chatelier's Principle: When a stress is applied to
a chemical system at equilibrium, the position of the
equilibrium shifts in the direction to relieve the
applied stress.
 We look at three types of stress that can be
applied to a chemical equilibrium:
o addition of a reaction component
o removal of a reaction component
o change in temperature

Addition of a reaction component

The equilibrium constant expression is:
  Suppose this reaction reaches
equilibrium:
 Suppose we now disturb the equilibrium by
adding some acetic acid.
 The rate of the forward reaction increases
and the concentrations of ethyl acetate and
water increase.
 As this happens, the rate of the reverse
reaction also increases.
 In time, the two rates will again become
equal, and a new equilibrium will be
established.
At the new equilibrium, the concentrations of
reactants and products again become constant, but
with different values than before the addition of
acetic acid.
The concentrations of ethyl acetate and water are
now higher, and the concentration of ethanol is
lower.
The concentration of acetic acid is also higher, but not
as high as it was immediately after we added the
extra amount.
The system has relieved the stress by increasing the
components on the right side of the equilibrium.
We say that the system has shifted to minimize the
stress.
Removal of a reaction component:
Removal of a component shifts the position of
equilibrium to the side that produces more of the
component that has been removed.
Suppose we remove some ethyl acetate from this
equilibrium:
If ethyl acetate is removed, the position of
equilibrium shifts to the right to produce more
ethyl acetate and restore equilibrium.
• The effect of removing a
component is the opposite of
adding one.
Problem: When acid rain (H2SO4(aq)) attacks marble
(calcium carbonate), the following equilibrium can be
written:
How does the fact that CO2 is a gas influence the equilibrium?
Solution: CO2 gas diffuses from the reaction site and
is removed from the equilibrium mixture. The
equilibrium shifts to the right and the marble
continues to erode.
Change in temperature
 The effect of a change in temperature on an
equilibrium depends on whether the forward
reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
 Consider this exothermic reaction:

 We can consider heat as a product of the
reaction.
 Adding heat (increasing the temperature)
pushes the equilibrium to the left.
 Removing heat (decreasing the temperature)
pushes the equilibrium to the right.
Summary of the effects of change of temperature on a
system in equilibrium.
For exothermic reactions:
 An increase in temperature drives an
exothermic reaction toward the reactants (to
the left).
 A decrease in temperature drives an
exothermic reaction toward the products (to
the right).
For endothermic reactions:
 An increase in temperature drives an
endothermic reaction toward the products (to
the right).
 A decrease in temperature drives an
endothermic reaction toward the reactants
(to the left).