Overview and Current Status of Remote Sensing
Applications Based on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs)
Gonzalo Pajares
Abstract
Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) is presently in continuous
development at a rapid pace. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs) or more extensively Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS)
are platforms considered under the RPAs paradigm. Simulta-
neously, the development of sensors and instruments to be
installed onboard such platforms is growing exponentially.
These two factors together have led to the increasing use of
these platforms and sensors for remote sensing applications
with new potential. Thus, the overall goal of this paper is
to provide a panoramic overview about the current status
of remote sensing applications based on unmanned aerial
platforms equipped with a set of specific sensors and instru-
ments. First, some examples of typical platforms used in
remote sensing are provided. Second, a description of sensors
and technologies is explored which are onboard instruments
specifically intended to capture data for remote sensing ap-
plications. Third, multi-UAVs in collaboration, coordination,
and cooperation in remote sensing are considered. Finally,
a collection of applications in several areas are proposed,
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where the combination of unmanned platforms and sensors,
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together with methods, algorithms, and procedures provide
Copyright: American Society for Photogrammetry
the overview in very different remote sensing applications.
This paper presents an overview of different areas, each inde-
pendent from the others, so that the reader does not need to
read the full paper when a specific application is of interest.
Introduction
Remote sensing refers to the technique of capturing informa-
tion at a distance (remotely) by specific instruments (sen-
sors). Traditionally, remote sensing has been associated with
satellites or manned aircraft with a set of airborne sensors. In
the last decade, the increasing developments and improve-
ments in unmanned platforms, together with the development
of sensing technologies installed onboard of such platforms,
provide excellent opportunities for remote sensing applica-
tions. Indeed, they can offer high versatility and flexibility, as al vehicle under coordination. Certainly, from a strict point of
compared to airborne systems or satellites, and can oper-
ate rapidly without planned scheduling. In remote sensing
operations with high human risk, lives can be safeguarded.
Additionally, they can fly at low altitudes and slowly, with
the ability of acquiring spatial and temporal high resolution
data, representing important advantages against conventional
platforms that have been broadly used over the years.
Watts et al. (2012), Dalamagkidis et al. (2012), and Ander-
son and Gaston (2013) provided a classification and use of
platforms where an important issue that determines this clas-
sification is the altitude they can fly, ranging from a few meters
up to 9,000 m or more. Micro- and nano- air vehicles can fly
at low attitudes with limited flight duration because of their
Department of Software Engineering and Artificial Intelligence,
Faculty of Informatics, University Complutense of Madrid,
Madrid 28040, Spain (pajares@ucm.es).
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 281
battery or energy system’s capabilities. There are vehicles with
the ability to fly at medium and high altitudes with flight dura-
tions ranging from minutes to hours, i.e., from five minutes
to 30 hours. The horizontal range of the different platforms
is also limited by the power of the communications system,
which should ensure contact with a ground station, again
ranging from meters to kilometers. Communications using sat-
ellite input can also be used, expanding the operational range.
There are several different categorizations for unmanned aerial
platforms depending on the criterion applied (Nonami et al.,
2010). Perhaps the most extensive and current classifications
can be found in Blyenburgh (2014) with annual revisions.
An auto platform or remotely controlled platform through
a remote station together with a communication system,
including the corresponding protocol, constitutes what is
known an Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) (Gertler, 2012).
According to Yan et al. (2009) and Gupta et al. (2013), UAS
are considered as the full system, including the aircraft, the
remote control station and all of the ground support elements,
communication links, air traffic control, and launching and
Mar 2020 17:42:02
recovery system, as may be required (this is the opinion of
and Remote Sensing
the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA, 2015)). Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs) are included in the category of UAS, i.e., they
can fly autonomously, although they can be also remotely
controlled (The UAV, 2015). From the standpoint of remote
sensing, the equipment of UAS is required for capturing
information, which is later conveniently handled (processed,
analyzed, or stored), but the term “UAV” is commonly used in
remote sensing. Therefore, in this paper, we will refer to UAVs
under the perspective of remote sensing operations, includ-
ing drones, gliders, (quad-, hexa-, octo-) copters, helicopters,
balloon-launched gliders, airships, or stratospheric balloon
systems and more broadly, any unmanned vehicle with the
ability to fly auto-controlled using processors onboard, re-
motely controlled with human supervision based on a ground
station (remotely piloted aircraft; RPA) or through another aeri-
view, all these systems should be considered as RPA systems,
because they need human supervision; full autonomy is not
generally yet achieved. Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier,
throughout this paper we will refer to them as UAVs. This
overview is focused on remote sensing applications based on
small UAVs of different categories flying at relatively low alti-
tudes with different take-off and landing systems, including
Vertical-Take-Off-and-Landing (VTOL), where UAVs operate in
different scenarios and situations. The potential use of UAVs
Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing
Vol. 81, No. 4, April 2015, pp. 281–329.
0099-1112/15/281–329
© 2015 American Society for Photogrammetry
and Remote Sensing
doi: 10.14358/PERS.81.4.281
in remote sensing has been reported in many works with high
performance exploring areas of different sizes, sometimes
hazardous, with assumable costs as compared to traditional
airborne or satellite systems (Jardin and Jensen, 2013). The
range of applications makes UAVs suitable tools in remote
sensing with an apparent market, which is to be consolidated,
when UAVs are widespread, which will likely be the turning
point in remote sensing, as pointed out by Esler (2010) and
Hardin and Jensen (2011) several years ago.
UAVs must navigate to perform the remote sensing mission;
for this reason they are equipped with different instruments
and sensors, such as, Global Positioning Sensors (GPS), Inertial ered without ruling out the use of all available resources for
Navigation Sensors (INS), Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) gyroscopes and accelerometers, Altitude Sensors (AS)
(Quinchia et al., 2013) or even camera-based sensors, among
others (Shabayek et al., 2011; Bristeau et al., 2011), where
multisensory fusion techniques are required (Oh, 2010). Obvi-
ously, UAVs are generally configured with control strategies for
autonomous navigation that must follow a previously planned
path, with the ability to make autonomous decisions. Obstacle
avoidance is also required during navigation. Ultrasonic sen-
sors (Bristeau et al., 2011) or 3D laser scanners (Holz, 2013)
are sometimes also used for safe navigation, where they can
be used for detecting other UAVs around them. Also, dynamic
strategies for positioning, landing, and take-off, including
VTOL, as part of the full path planning, is necessary in normal
and adverse environmental conditions, where aircraft control
in wind conditions is essential. Moreover, UAVs require ad-
ditional logistic resources to be permanently operative, such
as battery recharging or refueling.
Also, in recognition of technological developments and
advances in communications, significant progress is being
made in applications involving multiple UAVs in collaboration
or even between UAVs and ground systems, including Un- Delivered byin Ingenta
manned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) or unmanned marine Surface
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 Regarding the 17:42:02
Vehicles (USVs). Collaborations betweenAmerican
Copyright: UAVs and Society
UGVs canfor
be Photogrammetry
found in Martínez-de-Dios et al. (2011) and Maza et al. (2011),
and between UAVs and USVs in Sánchez-Benítez et al. (2011).
Some studies about indices of effectiveness of UAVs have been
proposed in Samkov and Silkov (2012).
From the approach of remote sensing, navigation and all
issues mentioned above, mission programming and flight
strategies are excluded and not specifically considered in
this overview, unless they are essential with high degree of
involvement in remote sensing tasks.
Navigation, communication, mission programming and
flight strategies have been widely discussed in the scientific
and industrial communities with abundant publications and
work. Being aware of this, we intentionally excluded all top-
ics related with power sources, communication, navigation
(including obstacle avoidance), path planning, flight control
systems, evasive maneuvering, landing, take-off, autonomous
flight, fueling and refueling or localization, including Simulta-
neous Localization and Mapping (SLAM). The Ground Control
Stations (GCS), required by some systems, are also excluded;
this is because these specific operations are not considered as
specific from the remote sensing point of view, although they
are absolutely necessary for conducting successful remote
sensing missions. Nevertheless, some of them could be of
interest in remote sensing because they can be considered as
the starting point for other remote sensing-based approaches.
By example, Pearre and Brown (2012) capture path gathering
information, using wireless link, from sensors on the ground
for path planning, but this method can be used for recovering
information from sensors installed on dynamical structures
or elements, such as glaciers or rivers with moving elements,
where methods above can be useful for remote sensing.
Thus, the overall goal of this paper is to provide an over-
view of remote sensing applications based on UAVs equipped
282 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
with a set of specific sensor technologies and also with
several UAVs working in concert with each other. With such
purpose, as far as it has been possible, we have collected most
recent technological advances, especially in the last decade,
where the boom has occurred. Nevertheless, apologies to au-
thors or possible references if some of them were not cited.
Different worldwide international associations and forums
have emerged related to UAVs, providing ideas, information
and opportunities for members, users, and researchers while
they cover most fields and application areas, including any re-
lated to remote sensing. Commercial benefits are also consid-
immediate humanitarian interventions protection or search
and rescue in disasters. Additional member relations, oppor-
tunities, and training are offered, where remote sensing is an
important activity (UAS Vision, 2015; UAVa, 2015; UAVc, 2015;
UAPA, 2015, UAVS, 2015; AUVSI, 2015). Also, local associations,
at the country or region level, become more or less active
from the remote sensing point of view.
In 2006, the NASA Civil UAV Assessment Team (Yuhas,
2006), defined Earth observation missions for UAVs, based
on user-defined needs to determine technologies, platform
capabilities, and a comprehensive civil UAV roadmap. Later,
Colomina et al. (2008) established some fundamental issues
of UAV-based photogrammetry and remote sensing as a para-
digm, identifying challenges and specific advantages.
Many institutions, research centers and companies world-
wide have addressed the challenge of designing and develop-
ing UAS, with the aim of performing different missions, includ-
ing remote sensing: NASA (2015a), INTA (2015), NOAA (2015),
USGS (2015a). The list can be completed through the websites,
where specific remote sensing missions can be found. Here,
flight regulations must be considered for effective use of UAVs
different applications (Rango and Laliberte, 2012).
Mar 2020 state of the art of UAVs in remote sensing,
Haarbrink (2011)
andprovided
Remoteinformation
Sensing and perspectives about
this issue. A survey is also proposed in Ma et al. (2013) estab-
lishing a framework with three levels (data acquisition, data
processing, and applications). In the data acquisition level,
flight, autonomy, and trajectory were addressed. Data process-
ing included photography, image matching, and mosaicking
and classification and finally, the applications, were catego-
rized as: environment and agriculture, terrain extraction, 3D
visualization and monitoring of hazards. Colomina and Molina
(2014) reviewed the use of UAVs in photogrammetry and re-
mote sensing (PaRS). This last work is structured according to
the following sections: (a) Introduction, where topics, names
and acronyms, pioneers, literature evolution are revised; (b)
Early developments, starting at the end of 19th century with
balloons; (c) Unmanned aerial systems and unmanned aerial
systems for PaRS, establishing the principles for classifying
the different platforms; what is considered an aircraft, ground
control station, communication to command and control
the aircraft and mission planning; (d) Regulatory bodies and
regulations, involving national and international agencies and
organizations; and (e) Navigation, orientation and sensing pay-
loads, covering autopilots, navigation and orientation systems,
sensing payloads. This last including visible-band, near-infra-
red, multi-spectral and hyperspectral cameras, thermal imag-
ing, laser scanners and synthetic aperture radar; (f) Processing,
image orientation, camera calibration and surface reconstruc-
tion; (g) Unmanned aerial systems PaRS applications and geo-
matic markets, agricultural and environmental applications,
intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, aerial monitoring
in engineering, and cultural heritage. Shahbazi et al. (2014)
reported on different applications including: (a) Precision ag-
riculture and rangeland monitoring with challenges and future
perspectives, including land-cover mapping and classification,
crop health monitoring, biophysical modeling attributes, soil
 (a)

Figure 1. rpa system with the remote control system (Image cour-
tesy of iscar-ucm Group, Madrid, Spain).

characteristics; (b) Natural disaster management explaining

advantages, including thermal disasters, ground displace-
ment, floods; (c) Aquatic ecosystems management, mapping
and monitoring species, characterization of water bodies; (d)
Wildlife, bird and mammal detection. Whitehead and Hugen-
holtz (2014) described the progress and challenges in the use
of small UAVs in different environmental applications, includ- (b)
ing photogrammetry, multispectral and hyperspectral imaging,
thermal, and synthetic aperture radar and lidar.
Considering the above classifications, paradigms and
topics, this paper provides a new point of view. Indeed, as
mentioned before, the overall goal is to provide an overview
Delivered
of remote sensing applications based on UAVs equipped with by Ingenta
specific sensor-based technologies.IP: 200.23.135.16
With On: Mon, 02 Mar 2020 17:42:02
such a purpose,
Copyright:
the paper is structured as American
follows. The Society
next section for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
includes
aircrafts and x-copters, where ‘x’ can be quad, six, octo, and
heli, as typical platforms of UAVs used in remote sensing
applications. Different sensors and technologies, onboard
UAVs, are also briefly described as instruments required for
such specific applications. Next, some remote sensing issues
related to collaboration, coordination, and cooperation as the
main topics in multi-UAVs for remote sensing applications, fol-
lowed by a wide set of remote sensing applications, becoming
an important contribution of this overview. Finally, the last
section contains the conclusions and future trends. The paper
is structured so that applications are independent; readers
interested in a specific area do not need to read the full paper.
The large number of references included in this overview (c)
provides a suggestion of the importance and use of UAVs in Figure 2. uav multi-rotors: (a) quad-copter (Image courtesy of
different application areas. We have preferred to provide Cartouav, La Coruña, Spain); (b) hexa-copter (Image courtesy of
extensive references, so that the readers are provided with a Airrobot GmbH & Co., Arnsberg, Germany) and (c) quad-copter
variety of topics of interest. (Image courtesy of eDroniX, Madrid, Spain)

UAVs and Sensors: Onboard Capabilities and Technologies
The conjunction of unmanned platforms equipped with
sensors onboard allows for the realization of remote sensing
missions with applications in different areas. The Unmanned
Aerial Platforms Section displays typical platforms used
for such purpose. The Sensors and Technologies Section
describes different sensor-based technologies specifically
designed for remote sensing tasks.
Unmanned Aerial Platforms
Figure 1 displays a quad-copter on the ground, with its remote
radio control system, used in collaborative missions together
with USVs (Courtesy of ISCAR-UCM Group (2015), Madrid,
Spain). Figures 2 (a) and (b) display two multi-rotors fly-
ing; they are a quad-copter (courtesy of CartoUAV, La Coruña,
Spain) (CartoUAV, 2015) and a hexa-copter, respectively,
(courtesy of AirRobot GmbH, Arnsberg, Germany) (AirRobot,
2015), used for weed patches detection in agriculture in the
context of the RHEA (2015) project. Figure 2(c) displays a quad-
rotor equipped with a multipurpose visible camera (courtesy
of eDroniX, Madrid, Spain) (eDronix, 2015). Figure 3 displays
two fixed-wing UAVs, the Cropsight and Viewer (courtesy of
QuantaLab-IAS-CSIC, Cordoba, Spain) equipped with multispec-
tral and hyperspectral, including thermal, sensors and used in
airborne campaigns for biomass analysis, based on chlorophyll
or carotenoids content, in vineyard, citrus, peach and olive

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 283

 (a) (b)
Figure 3. uav: (a) Cropsight, and (b) Viewer (Images courtesy of QuantaLab-ias-csic, Cordoba, Spain).

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Helicopter hero equipped with gps, visual and infrared cameras on the pan and tilt unit, and the required hardware, and (b)
Sensor system detail (Images courtesy of J.R. Martínez-de-Dios and A.by
Delivered Ollero; Robotics, Vision, and Control Group, University of Seville,
Ingenta
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Table 1. Sensors Onboard UAVs: Auxiliary and Specific
Auxiliary Specific
• GPS • Video cameras (visible spectrum): EOS, • Ultraviolet spectrometer
• IMU stereoscopic, omnidirectional, fish eye lens. • Multi-gas detector
• Gyroscopes • Thermal cameras • Sonar
• Accelerometers • Infrared cameras • Smartphone
• Altimeters • FLIR • Particle counters (optical, condensation)
• Video stabilizer • LIDAR (Laser scanner) • Photometer, aethalometer
• Image transmitter • Multi-Hyperspectral (HyperUAS) • Aerosol sampling
• Communication antennas • Irradiance • Probes (temperature, humidity, pressure)
• (VHF, UHF) • Radar/SAR • Cloud droplet spectrometer
• Communication modems • Radiometer (multi-frequency) • Pyranometer
• Infrared spectroscopy • Electrostatic collector
• Electronic nose • Radiation gauge
• VCSEL • Magnetic sensor
• WMS • Ultraviolet flame detector
• Gas/smoke detector

orchards, always related with the photosynthesis (Zarco-Tejada
et al., 2013a and 2013b).
Figure 4a displays the helicopter HERO equipped with GPS,
and the sensor system consisting of visual and infrared cam-
eras installed on a pan and tilt unit, the hardware enclosure is
also displayed. Figure 4b displays the structure and detail of
the sensor system. (Images courtesy of J.R. Martínez-de-Dios
and A. Ollero; Robotics, Vision, and Control Group, University
of Seville, Seville, Spain). The HERO platform has been used
for early fire detection (Martínez-de-Dios et al., 2007).
From the point of view of sensors onboard UAVs, payload
and logistic requirements are two important issues to be con-
sidered to ensure the success of remote sensing missions. The
smaller platform will be more limited for payload, directly
affecting the types of sensors that can be transported and thus
affecting the attributes of the remote sensing application.
However, an advantage is that small platforms require fewer
logistics, unlike larger platforms.
Payload limits onboard UAVs represent a handicap in the
use of sensors. Under this assumption new challenges appear:
the sensors must be adapted to the platform or vice versa.
Sensors onboard the platform should not be a serious im-
pediment for maneuverability. In this regard several research
subjects have been opened, where recent advances in MEMS
are currently in continuous progress from the point of view of
systems engineering.
As reported in Dziubana et al. (2012) and previously in
Everaerts (2008), UAVs are equipped with different sensors
that can exceed twenty in number. Some of them are used
to capture data with the exclusive aim of controlling the

284 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING

platform during navigation. Some of these sensors are speed
or pressure gauges, inertial/angular measurement devices, and ment of systems equipped with capabilities such as omnidi-
also imaging sensors for SLAM. Thus, considering that such
sensors are specifically dedicated to navigation, they are no
longer considered part of the remote sensing system, although
they are critical for successful PaRS operations.
Additionally in remote sensing, different sensors work to-
gether as required for the application. Indeed, UAVs equipped
with accelerometers, magnetometers, gyroscopes (most times
embedded in an Inertial Measurement Unit, IMU), GPS, altim-
eters and cameras (optical, thermal, multispectral, or hyper-
spectral) associate each image with the corresponding GPS
location, altitude of the UAV, and orientation (pitch, roll, and
yaw angles), with the aim of obtaining geometric products,
i.e., 3D mapping, geo-referenced images, and orthophotos.
Franceschini et al. (2010) designed a flexible architecture
for UAVs, aimed to enhance performance of large-scale metrol-
ogy instruments. Portability, flexibility, ease-to-use, and met-
rological performance are required of different technologies
onboard UAVs, including: optical and acoustic instruments,
mechanical/electromagnetic and inertial tracking systems.
Table 1 summarizes different sensors and instruments for
remote sensing onboard UAVs. Auxiliary sensors are identified as
the instruments onboard UAVs required to complete tasks or ap-
plications dedicated to specific sensors, which are also identified. weight of about 3.5 kg with a size of 178 × 178 × 269 mm. It is
Sensors and instruments are in continuous improvement
and development, including the emergence of new technolo-
gies. This means that in the near future most of the existing
systems will change, becoming more effective. In this over-
view they are described as technologies with their capabilities.
Most of these technologies have been used in real-world
remote sensing applications as outlined later in the Applica-
tions Section. However, some other applications are waiting
for specific relevance, and are envisaged for potential future by Ingenta
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Photogrammetry
Sensors and Technologies
Video Cameras in the Visible Spectrum
Video cameras are systems broadly used in UAVs for remote
sensing. This subsection deals with generic aspects related to
vision-based, onboard UAVs, operating in the spectral visible
range, i.e., from wavelengths from approximately 390 nm to
700 nm. Specific video systems are also considered in the Ap-
plications Section. Blyenburgh (2014) provided a review re-
garding imaging and range sensors, and Colomina and Molina
(2013) provided a representative list of small and medium
formats for visible band cameras.
Nawrat and Kuś (2013), inside the editorial of the Part II
related to the “construction of images acquisition devices used
in UAV applications,” addressed the problem associated with
image video acquisition related to the adverse flight condi-
tions derived from operations in day or night, adverse tem-
peratures, engines producing high frequencies and vibrations,
and unexpected UAV rotations because of wind variability
or gusts. It is suggested that the design of systems be robust
enough to deal with such situations, as well as proper systems
to be installed onboard the UAVs, i.e., with appropriate weight
and power consumption and with sufficient resistance against
adverse conditions. In addition, mechanical video stabiliza-
tion devices are to be considered ensuring that the camera
video system always points toward to the direction of interest
(Bereska et al., 2013). Stability analysis and geometric calibra-
tion of off-the-shelf digital cameras was addressed in Habib
and Morgan (2005). Figure 4 depict a visible camera, onboard
the helicopter HERO, as part of the sensor system installed on
a pan and tilt unit for stabilizing and targeting in the correct
direction. The objectives of this configuration are fire preven-
tion, detection, and monitoring (Martínez-de-Dios et al., 2007).
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 285
The need to cover large areas of vision led to the develop-
rectional vision systems (Fraś et al., 2013; Haus et al., 2013).
A commercial model with a CCD-based sensor is used with
an adjustable shutter speed ranging in 10 µs to 10 s, with ap-
proximately a 45º Field of View (FOV). The camera rotational
speed is 125 rpm capturing views of 360º.
Omnidirectional systems are suitable for surveillance ap-
plications. In this regard, Gurtner et al. (2009) investigated the
use of fish-eye lenses to increase the angle of view in aerial
photography, an application broadly used in remote sens-
ing. The lens distortion should be examined for its use with
low-quality cameras. The full suite of equipment has been
installed onboard mid- and small-sized (<10 kg) platforms.
The underlying concept is its use with small UAVs for remote
sensing tasks that cannot be achieved by satellites, such as for
monitoring of power lines or pipeline corridors.
Kim et al. (2010) designed an electro-optical system (EOS)
for small UAVs, able to track objects and recover 3D measure-
ments from these objects. The EOS consists of commercial
image acquisition systems integrated with the corresponding
servo-motors for pan and tilt orientation and stabilization. A
ground control station (GCS) sends signals and receives infor-
mation to and from the EOS. The datasheet for EOS indicates a
installed onboard a platform with 2,050 mm wingspan, 79.5
dm2 wing area with an empty weight of 3.3 kg.
Li and Yang (2012) proposed the design of a UAV-based in-
telligent photography system able to capture image and video
stabilized sequences with any digital camera. The fixed-wing
UAV incorporated the following parameters, among others:
span = 3,360 mm; load = 4 kg; ceiling = 4.5 km. The images
are transmitted to a GCS. In the same way, Hodgson et al.
(2013) used commercial video-cameras, where the images are
transmitted
Mar 2020in17:42:02
real-time to a GCS.
Undesired
andvibrations
Remote or rotations (pitch, roll, yaw) in UVA,
Sensing
not detected by the IMU and affecting the image acquisition,
are compensated by developing software-based methods
for video stabilization, Fowers et al. (2007) and Wang et al.
(2012) used relevant features in the images (corners, lines)
for such purpose. This application was also addressed in
Buyukyazi et al. (2013) where the images are transmitted and
processed in a ground station. This was also the approach de-
veloped in Walha et al. (2013) based on point extraction and
matching techniques between consecutive frames.
Feifei et al. (2012) proposed a system with four cameras for
3D modeling based on triangulation from the overlapped images,
which are captured under different angles of view. The combi-
nation can reach 130°. Grenzdörffer et al. (2012) also proposed a
four-vision camera system, with weights of 80 g including lenses
with focal length of 9.65 mm. The radiometric and geometric
calibration problem (including inter calibration of the four cam-
eras) is addressed with the system onboard a quad-rotor.
Thermal Infrared Video Sensors
Differences between thermal and infrared sensors are due to
emitted and reflected energy, respectively. An infrared thermal
sensor detects radiant energy, based on the assumption that
objects with temperatures above absolute zero emit infrared ra-
diation as a function of wavelength and temperature. Accord-
ing to ISO 20473, the wavelengths of the spectral bands range
approximately as follows (Robles-Kelly and Huynh, 2013):
0.78 µm to 3 µm (near-infrared), 3 µm to 50 µm (middle-infra-
red), and 50 µm to 1000 µm (far-infrared). Some of these spec-
tral ranges can be integrated into multispectral or hyperspec-
tral sensors together with visible spectral ranges, considered
below. Colomina and Molina (2014) provided a representative
list of thermal cameras in UAVs. Infrared and thermal cameras
are devices capable of operating in adverse weather conditions

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Plate 1. Thermal image: each color represents a value of tem-
perature (Image courtesy of QuantaLab-ias-csic, Cordoba, Spain).
or low illumination, including observations during the night.
In Bieszczad et al. (2013) and PRlog (2013), small thermal
cameras were designed to be installed onboard UAVs with the
aim of carrying out data acquisition in remote sensing opera-
tions under adverse conditions. The spectral bands range
from 8 µm to 12 µm and 7.5 µm to 14 µm, respectively. The
weights of the model proposed in PRlog (2013) depend on the
optical system, being less than 380 g with a lens of 60 mm. Its
size is 57 × 71 × 38.5 mm plus the length of the optical sys-
tem. It contains analog and digital video output interfaces.
Thermal and infrared imagers were identified by Rufino
and Moccia (2005) to be useful for fire detection onboard a
fixed wing vehicle (wingspan 2.75 m and length 1.7 m). The
spectral response band in the thermal camera was 7.5 µm to
13 µm, with a weight less than 120 g. The vehicle was also
equipped with a spectral sensor covering the range of 430 nm
- 900 nm, and a weight of 500 g.
Sheng et al. (2010) described the design of a platform with
wingspan of 1,828 mm, weight about 3.7 kg, and equipped
with thermal cameras as a payload. Three thermal cameras
with the spectral band of 7 µm to 14 µm are used, with
weights of 150 g with lens or 108 g and 97 g without lenses.
Analog and digital outputs are allowed.
286 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
Lens distortion correction methods were proposed for
improving thermal imaging quality, making thermal systems
more accurate for remote sensing (Yahyanejad et al., 2011).
Bendig et al. (2012) equipped an octo-copter (<5 kg and
payload between 0.2 to 1.5 kg) with a thermal sensor (weight
of 300 g) with a mechanical trigger.
Infrared cameras together with visual cameras were used
in Martínez-de-Dios et al. (2007 and 2011) for surveillance in
forest fire detection, at times together with ground stations
for image controlling purposes. Figure 4 displays an infrared
camera, onboard the helicopter HERO, as part of the sensor sys-
tem on such a platform. Regarding the quality of near-infrared
(NIR) images, Ariff et al. (2013) reported about the findings of
quality of the captured video from a NIR imaging system pro-
totype for night-time surveillance, with potential use in UAVs.
UAV operations have been considered in indoor environ-
ments by using active systems based on infrared sensors. This
is the approach proposed in Lange et al. (2012) where the
Kinect RGB-D sensor is used to obtain dense color and depth
information in an indoor corridor, where the information is
further processed on-board.
Plate 1 displays a thermal image of a field area where each
color represents a different temperature value; red colors
represent higher temperature values and black ones lower
values. The remaining colors represent intermediate values of
temperature.
Scholtz et al. (2011) equipped a fixed-wing UAV, with a
wingspan of 2 m and take-off weight (TOW) of 7 kg includ-
ing 1.5 kg of payload, with an infrared camera (with spectral
range 800 nm - 1200 nm, and weigh = 200 g) and a multispec-
tral camera with 12 channels.
Forward looking infrared (FLIR, 2015) systems are adjusted
and developed to be installed onboard UAVs with sizes about
22Ingenta
× 22 × 12 mm and weights up to 28 g with a lens of 35 mm,
including
02 Maranalog and digital video formats.
2020 17:42:02
Kohoutek and
andEisenbeiss (2012) used a Time-of-Flight
Remote Sensing
(ToF) device with 870 nm of illumination wavelength and
weight of 1370 g onboard an unmanned helicopter to obtain
3D images representing surface structures.
Emery et al. (2014) developed a calibrated radiometer, with
a total weight of 1.36 kg, for infrared measurements of sea
surface temperature from UAVs. The sensor is designed with a
2D microbolometer array that acquires infrared images in the
8 µm - 12 µm range as the UAV flies forward.
Lidar
Light Detection and Ranging (lidar) devices are used to mea-
sure distances by exploring the scene with the light (gener-
ally pulses emitted by a laser) projected on the targets. These
systems have been adapted for UAVs, achieving lightweight
systems useful for surveillance or mapping natural and artifi-
cial structures with important improvements. Colomina and
Molina (2014) provided a representative list of laser scanners.
Nagai et al. (2004) integrated a laser with a camera onboard a
UAV for digital surface and feature extraction.
Zhou et al. (2012a) presented the advance of a premature
flash lidar, including a complete laser emitting system (diode,
conic lens, alignment, divergence angle) and pulse generator
to be installed onboard a UAV. Simulated experiments were
conducted and the results reported.
Wallace et al. (2012) used a multi-rotor UAV (octo-copter)
with maximum payload of 2.8 kg. It is equipped with an Ibeo
LUX laser scanner with maximum range of 200 m and scan-
ning at 12.5 Hz with angular resolutions of 0.25°. The remain-
ing sensors within the payload are an inertial measurement
unit (IMU) for positioning and orientation, a dual frequency re-
ceiver GPS, a lightweight antenna, and a high-resolution video
camera. This system was also used in Wallace et al. (2014b).
 Plate 2. Data captured with an altm Gemini laser scanner onboard an uav: vertical view and profiles (Image courtesy of Luke Wallace and
Arko Lucieer, University of Tasmania, Australia).

Plate 2 displays data captured at 40 m from an UAV above
ground level (AGL). The airborne laser scanning (ALS) data
was captured with an Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper
(ALTM) by Ingenta
Delivered
Gemini laser scanner with a pulse rate frequency of 70 kHz and
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 Mar 2020 17:42:02
an on ground laser footprint of 0.2 m. The plot Society
is in a forestry
Copyright: American for Photogrammetry
plantation, close to Geeveston in southeast Tasmania, Australia.
Multispectral and Hyperspectral Sensors
Multispectral and hyperspectral sensors have been widely
used in UAVs-based applications for multiple purposes. The
difference between these sensors and others is the number of
spectral bands and the wavelength range covered, including
the visible spectrum. As hyperspectral sensors are based on
line scanning through the movement of the UAV, they require
sufficient stabilization to build coherent images. Sometimes
these systems require geometric correction using specific fea-
tures and ground control points (Jensen et al., 2009 and 2011). al. (2011). Different tests conducted by Nackaerts et al. (2010)
Multispectral sensors are non-scanning, and they, in general,
provide lower image resolutions compared to hyperspectral
sensors. Ren et al. (2013) presented a strategy for spectral re-
calibration (spectral response function, central wavelength, and
bandwidth) using man-made ground targets. The CCD-based
camera with four channels (blue: 420 nm–520 nm; green: 520
nm–600 nm; red: 630 nm–690 nm; NIR: 760 nm–900 nm) was
mounted onboard an UAV with the targets on the ground surface.
Multispectral and hyperspectral sensors are often used
together with other sensors with proven high performance to
increase the remote sensing capabilities of the UAV. Colomina
and Molina (2014) provided two lists of representative multi-
and hyper-spectral sensors.
Achteren et al. (2007) described the MEDUSA multispectral
instrument, ranging in 400 nm - 650 nm with weight of 2 kg
and two frame sensors (panchromatic and RGB), designed to
be installed in a high altitude, long endurance UAV.
Jensen et al. (2008) used two multispectral cameras, cover-
ing the visible and NIR spectral bands, installed onboard a
fixed wing UAV, with wingspan of 122 cm and weight of 454 g,
for georeferencing.
Bendig et al. (2012) equipped a mini octo-copter (<5 kg
and payload between 0.2 to 1.5 kg) with a multispectral
system consisting in a multiple camera array (MCA) sensor
with a total weight of about 720 g and mechanical trigger. It
contains four arrays with spectral filters of 550, 671, 800, and
and Remote Sensing
950 nm corresponding to the green and red visible bands and
two bands of NIR. It was used together with a thermal system
previously described.
Honkavaara et al. (2013) used and described a multispec-
tral camera developed by the Technical Research Center of
Finland based on a Fabry-Perot interferometer with the capa-
bility of selecting different spectral bands with wavelengths
ranging in 400 nm - 1000 nm. The full system is also equipped
with irradiance sensors to measure different levels of this
magnitude together with a GPS. The above interferometer was
previously described in Saari et al. (2011) and Mäkynen et
and Honkavaara et al. (2012) demonstrated its performance
for UAVs, including the processing for radiometric corrections
(Honkavara et al., 2012) and considering irradiance values
(Hakala et al., 2013). This system was also used in Pölönen et
al. (2012) for precision agriculture and Kaivosoja et al. (2013)
for building raster maps for a precision fertilizer application.
Mäkeläinen et al. (2013) described the use of a 2D frame
camera operating in the RGB and NIR for orthomosaicking and
DEM production. It is built with a CMOS-based technology and
based on the Fabry-Perot interferometer.
Kelcey and Lucieer (2012a and 2012b) used a six-band
multispectral sensor, which is improved based on radiometric
and spatial correction techniques in order to achieve noise
reduction (based on dark offset imagery), sensor-based modi-
fication of incoming radiance (based on spatially/spectrally
dependent correction factors), and lens distortion (through
the Brown-Conrady Model). These corrections improved the
quality of the raw multispectral imagery, facilitating subse-
quent quantitative image analysis.
Duan et al. (2013) evaluated the in-flight performance in
terms of signal-to-noise ratio of a new hyperspectral sensor

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 287

onboard an UAV. The sensor was a pushbroom scanner with
linear CCD arrays operating in the spectral range of 350 nm -
1030 nm with 128 bands and 5 nm of spectral resolution and
1,024 pixels per line. A field campaign was conducted over
the Baotou test site in China deploying portable reference
reflectance targets.
A radiometric calibration based on the vicarious method
was proposed in Pozo et al. (2014) with the aim of adjusting the
involved parameters to better collect the information provided
by the sensor. The multispectral sensor is a CMOS-based with
six channels, weight of 1025 g, and geometric resolution of
1280 × 1024 pixels in size. This system was installed onboard
an octo-copter with weight of 2,420 g including the battery.
Imaging spectrometers were designed with high technolo-
gy to work as hyperspectral devices onboard the UAVs (Hruska
et al., 2012). The integration of these devices with IMU and
GPS allows obtaining direct imaging georeferencing after im-
age processing. Additional efforts for spectral calibration of
hyperspectral data observed from a hyperspectrometer have
been reported in Liu et al. (2014).
The ability of UAVs to fly at low altitudes, equipped with
specific technologies, allows the acquisition of images with
both, ultra-high spatial and spectral resolutions. Lucieer et al.
(2014b) described the design and operability of a new hyper-
spectral UAS (HyperUAS), a multi-rotor helicopter carrying
a pushbroom spectroradiometer in conjunction with a dual
frequency GPS and an IMU. The HyperUAS prototype acquires
hyperspectral images with 324 spectral bands and 2 to 5 cm
spatial resolutions after spectral and radiometric calibration
and atmospheric correction. Burkart et al. (2014) developed a
hyperspectral measurement system for UAVs, operating in the
spectral range of 350 nm - 800 nm, based on the Ocean Optics
STS microspectrometer with a weight of 216 g.
Suomalainen et al. (2014) designed a lightweight hyper-
Delivered by Ingenta
spectral system, with off-the-shelf components, for rotor-based
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon,signed
UAVs with weight of 2 kg. It Copyright:
consists of three elements:
American a push-
Society
for Photogrammetry
broom spectrometer with spectral range of 400 nm - 950 nm
and spectral resolution of 9 nm, a photogrammetric camera,
and a GPS/Inertial Navigation System. Geometric and radiomet-
ric procedures are designed for DSM production in agriculture.
Zarco-Tejada and Berni (2012) equipped a fixed-wing
vehicle with a micro hyperspectral imaging sensor for vegeta-
tion monitoring. These authors and co-workers in the research
group QuantaLab-IAS-CSIC (2015) have also used multispectral
and hyperspectral sensors for different purposes, mainly in
agriculture and forestry, as described later. Plate 3 displays a
multispectral image in Plate 3a and a hyperspectral image in
Plate 3b, both courtesy of QuantaLab-IAS-CSIC, Cordoba, Spain.
Some Color Infrared (CIR) cameras are designed with four
spectral channels covering the three R, G, B spectral bands and
the infrared band, i.e., they belong to the category of multispec-
tral systems. Plate 4 displays four strips built with a CIR system.
The left and right strips represent RGB images; the left central
strip represents a Digital Surface Model (DSM) with the associ-
ated color-bar representing surface heights (in meters); the Right
central strip represents the RGB plus the IR channel. These im-
ages are courtesy of QuantaLab-IAS-CSIC, Cordoba, Spain.
Radar/SAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems have been installed
onboard UAVs with successful results. Rosen et al. (2006)
proposed the design of a polarimetric SAR system with a range
bandwidth of 80 MHz for UAVs. Wang at al. (2009) developed
an operative system based on a technology that combines
millimeter-wave frequency-modulated continuous-wave and
SAR. The transmission power required is feasible in UAVs. This
system appears to be an active image sensor, which can be
used in remote sensing applications, similar to SAR onboard
satellites, where land cover for texture analysis is one of
288 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
them. Colomina and Molina (2014) provided a list of rep-
resentative SAR systems. Zaugg and Long (2008), Xing et al.
(2009) and later Zhang et al. (2012) developed robust motion
compensation approaches for UAV SAR imagery, as appropriate
for highly precise imaging for UAV SAR, which are also valid
for platforms equipped with only a low-accuracy inertial
navigation system.
Ouchi (2013) provided specifications of SAR systems
onboard UAVs operating at X (7 - 12.5 GHz) and Ku (12 to 18
GHz) bands. Koo et al. (2012) proposed a SAR-based system
operating at the C-Band (ranging from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz and 5.9
to 6.4 GHz) and single VV polarization. It was designed for
monitoring soil resources, crops, and trees in agriculture and
forestry. Wang et al. (2009), Saldaña and Martinez (2007), or
González-Partida et al. (2009) designed and developed SAR
systems working at the millimeter-wave band with the aim of
transmitting large bandwidth, i.e., high spatial resolution. Al-
though this band could represent a problem caused by motion
errors, that could be larger than the UAV operation resolution,
they can be compensated with algorithms such as the Range
Migration Algorithm or using an IMU to align target responses
(González-Partida et al., 2009). Two SAR-based instruments,
operating in the C- and X-bands, were described in Aguasca
et al. (2013). They are based on dual receiving channels with
the ability to work in interferometric and polarimetric modes
and equipped with a motion compensation unit to avoid also
motion errors.
Nouvel et al. (2007 and 2009) developed a low-cost radar
system to enable avoidance of shading effects produced by SAR
systems in mountains or urban areas with high density of trees.
With the aim of minimizing the above effects, Weiss et al. (2007)
proposed the 3D ARTINO (Airborne Radar for Three-dimensional
Imaging and Nadir Observation) imaging radar system.
A radiometer operating in the L-band at 1.4 GHz was de-
02 Marin Acevo-Herrera
2020 17:42:02 et al. (2010) and installed on an UAV,
together with aand
and an IMU
GPS Remote .
Sensing
The SARVANT platform is a fixed-wing aerial vehicle with
a six-meter wingspan and a payload weight of 45 kg (Remy
et al, 2012; Molina et al., 2013). SARVANT is equipped with a
dual-band (X and P) interferometric SAR, where the P-band
enables the topographic mapping of densely tree-covered
areas, providing terrain profile information. The combination
of X- and P-band data can be used for biomass estimations. It
is also equipped with a double optical system to cover visible
and NIR spectrum.
Schulz (2011) and Essen et al. (2012) developed two mil-
limeter wave radar, both operating at 94 GHz, to be integrated
onboard two unmanned helicopters with payloads of 30/35 kg
and maximum weight of 125/85 kg (with fuel), respectively.
The design of radars was based on the Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave (FMCW) principle, to get the highest possible
average transmission power with the best range of performance.
Chemical Sensors
Berman et al. (2012) described the design and adaptation of
the Off-Axis Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy (Off-Axis
ICOS) for UAVs, primarily described in Paul et al. (2001) and
Baer et al. (2002), with an operating principle based on in-
frared spectroscopy for measuring water vapor (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4). This sensor fulfills the
payload requirements for the UAV provided by NASA (Sensor
Integrated Environmental Remote Research Aircraft, SIERRA),
which is midsize with 6.1 m wingspan, 3.6 m long, and 1.4 m
high with a cruising speed of 28 m/s and a maximum alti-
tude of 3,600 m. SIERRA can carry a 40 kg payload measuring
40.5 cm × 40.5 cm × 30.5 cm and can provide up to 200 W of
aircraft power.
A biologically inspired electronic nose is deployed and
installed on an UAV in Bermúdez i Badia et al. (2007) based
 (a) (b)
Plate 3. (a) Multispectral image, (b) hyperspectral image (Images courtesy of QuantaLab-ias-csic, Cordoba, Spain).

Delivered by Ingenta
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Copyright: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

Plate 4. Four strips obtained from a cir system: Left and right strips represent rgb images; left central strip is a dsm, with the associated color-
bar representing heights; right central strip represents the rgb plus the ir channel. (Image courtesy of QuantaLab-ias-csic, Cordoba, Spain)

on thin-metal oxide technology, for humanitarian demin-
ing, which is sensitive to different volatile compounds. This
device is installed onboard a blimp built with a hull filled
with helium. It is 4.5 m long, with 1.2 m diameter, and 6 m3
of volume, with a payload of approximately 3 kg.
Gas emissions come from different activities. Indeed,
greenhouse is an emerging activity in agriculture with gas
emission. Methane is a gas flowing in gasification plants or
refineries. Regarding gas detection with UAVs, Khan et al.
(2012a and 2012b) proposed a VCSEL (vertical cavity surface
emitting laser) sensor for measuring H2O, CO2, and CH4 in
greenhouses based on Wavelength Modulation Spectroscopy
(WMS); the device is installed onboard a helicopter with
payload capacity of up to 5 kg. The UAV is 133 cm long, 41
cm high, has a main rotor diameter of 156 cm, with a flying
mass excluding payload of approximately 4.7 kg. Malaver et
al. (2015) integrated a solar powered UAV (3 kg payload) with
wireless sensor networks (WSN) to measure concentrations of
CH4 and CO2 in greenhouses. The UAV was equipped with a
gas sensing system based on nanostructured metal oxide and
non-dispersive infrared sensors.
Volcanic gases were measured at La Fossa crater, Vul-
cano Island (Italy) by McGonigle et al. (2008) with an UAV
flying through the plume and equipped with an ultraviolet
spectrometer for the SO2 flux and a multi-gas sensor system
consisting in a non-dispersive CO2-H2O infrared spectrometer,
an electrochemical SO2-H2S sensor, and a H2 semi-conductor.
Different ratios of CO2/SO2 are measured. This multi-gas sen-
sor technology was also installed onboard an UAV for analyz-
ing volcanic gas compositions of Shinmoedake, Kirishima

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 289

volcano, Japan (Shinohara, 2013). The weights of such
systems vary from 1.5 to 3 kg. The UAV used in Shinohara
(2013) was a helicopter with a fuel engine and 710 mm stan-
dard carbon fiber blades; its weight is 5.2 kg. The helicopter
dimensions were 1410 × 465 × 190 mm.
Krüll et al. (2012) used sensors for gas and smoke detec-
tion based on semiconductor technology. Hydrogen produced
in open fires and also hydrocarbons CxHx, generated during
the fire evolution are detected. They are also able for dis-
criminating among dust, mist, or other aerosols. The UAV is a
quad-copter with a diameter of about 1vm, a weight of about
1 kg. Data are transmitted to a ground control station though
wireless local area network (WLAN).
Sonars
Misnan et al. (2012a and 2012b) experimented with 2D sonar
and the associated analytical process for ranging and mapping
surfaces with an UAV flying at low altitudes. The transmitter
and receiver are placed close among them to achieve maxi-
mum accuracies. This technology, based on sound waves, is
rarely used in UAVs for remote sensing, but is used widely in
navigation where ultrasonic sensors are useful in UAVs for col-
lision avoidance during navigation.
Communications/Data Transmission
In remote sensing applications, communications become
of special interest either for coordination and collaboration
between UAVs or for data transmission. With such motivation,
GPS and VHF/UHF antennas were integrated into UAVs (Strojny
and Rojas, 2009).
The data acquired in UAVs must be transferred for process-
ing or for integration with other systems or data. High-speed
modems were designed for high-speed wireless data transmis-
sion, suitable for surveillance or reconnaissance tasks (Rupar
et al., 2009). Delivered by Ingenta
Bhaskaranand and Gibson (2011) developed a low-com-
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plexity encoding approach Copyright:
for high speed data transmission.
American Society for Photogrammetry
Data transmission represents a challenge particularly with the
growing interest for its use in real-time applications, includ-
ing those that send real-time video for monitoring events.
Municipalities and other institutions are demanding high
performance surveillance services, where video strips must be
transmitted to a GCS for monitoring purposes (Israel, 2011).
Embedded or blade antennas are elements onboard UAVs
for transmission or reception. The embedded operational
systems preserve the aerodynamic characteristics of the air-
craft (Patrovsky and Sekora, 2010). Abdelkader et al. (2013)
used antennas to identify lagrangian micro-sensors drifting in
flooded areas to monitor the evolution of the flooding.
The Smartphone proposed in Yun et al. (2012) and Kim et
al. (2013) uses 3G internet accesses for communication with the
ability to become a remote server for storing images and data.
Radio communications, including UHF, are feasible for im-
age transmission, after compression, achieving ranges of 2 to 5
km with low and high directivity antennas (Wada et al., 2015).
As an intrinsic element in communications, UAVs can be
used as nodes in WSN, establishing links to other nodes which
can be fixed or moving, including other UAVs (Antonio et al.,
2012). Additionally, the UAV can serve as a sink of data col-
lection to be sent to other nodes. Also in the context of WSN,
Tuna et al. (2012 and 2014) proposed a team of UAVs, tested
with helicopters, for establishing an effective communica-
tion system considered as essential after natural disasters for
rescue operations. The proposed system is a post-disaster so-
lution where each UAV in the team has an onboard computer
which runs three main subsystems responsible for end-to-end
communication, formation control and autonomous naviga-
tion in communication with a GCS. Different works addressed
the wireless communication problem where the experiments
were conducted for testing some problems related to this
290 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
issue, involving positioning, coverage, throughput, or channel
modeling among others (Zhan et al., 2006 and 2011, Burda-
kov, 2010; Li and Zhang, 2010; Xin et al., 2010; Olsson et al.,
2010; Yanmaz et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2011, Yanmaz, 2012;
Zhou et al., 2012b; Rohde et al., 2013).
Atmospheric Instrumentation
Corrigan and Ramanathan (2008a) introduced a set of atmo-
spheric instruments specifically designed for UAVs, specifical-
ly: (a) optical and condensation particle counters for detecting
particles in the atmosphere above 10 nm; (b) aethalometer for
measuring the concentration of particles based on the absorp-
tion of a beam of light; (c) sampling of aerosols; (d) probe for
temperature and relative humidity; (e) cloud droplet spec-
trometer between 1 and 50 µm; (f) pyranometer for measuring
solar irradiance; (g) photosynthetically available radiation (400
nm - 700 nm); (h) liquid water content probe for measuring the
water in the clouds; and (i) video camera for cloud detection.
Corrigan et al. (2008b) described the use of several devices
for data air analysis, including a meteorological system (pres-
sure, temperature, and relative humidity), an optical particle
counter, and an aerosol absorption photometer. These systems
are installed onboard an UAV with a maximum takeoff weight
of 27 kg, a wingspan of 2.6 m and an overall length of 1.9
m. The aircraft can lift a 5 kg payload in a 12 l compartment
while carrying 8 l of fuel.
Bates et al. (2013) measured vertical distribution of aerosols
on Svalbard, Norway. The UAV was equipped with: (a) one
mixing condensation particle counter;(b) one three-wavelength
absorption photometer, a Multi-Channel Chemical Filter
Sampler (MCCFS) consisting of eight, off-the shelf filter hold-
ers with 13 mm of diameter and a magnetically driven, rotary
valve manifold to distribute the vacuum/flow from one central
pump to each of the separate sampling channels; and (c) two
probes of temperature and relative humidity to collect data at
02 Maratmospheric
different 2020 17:42:02
layers. The aircraft weighs 16.3 kg with-
out payload and and Remote
fuel (27.7 kgSensing
maximum takeoff weight). The
wingspan is 2.7 m, height is 0.62 m, and length is 1.92 m.
A spectrometer probe and an electrostatic collector for aero-
sol measurements, size and distribution, were the instruments
adapted for UAVs in addition to temperature and humidity
relative probes for measurements (Claussen et al., 2013).
Pressure, temperature, and relative humidity are atmo-
spheric variables that can be measured with specific instru-
ments onboard UAVs. In Mayer (2011) and Reuder et al. (2009), a
SUMO (Small Unmanned Meteorological Observer) system with
wingspan 0.80 m, length 0.75 m, height 0.23 m, and TOW of 580
g was the system equipped with such sensors with the ability of
capturing data at 2 Hz. Cook et al. (2013) used a probe, onboard
a wing-fixed UAV, with humidity and temperature sensors for
coastal atmospheric research in New Zealand.
Brown et al. (2011) described the upgrading, for the deploy-
ment on the Global Hawk UAV platform, of the existing high-
altitude monolithic microwave integrated circuit sounding
radiometer, with a 25-channel cross-track scanning microwave
sounder with channels near the 60 and 118 GHz oxygen lines
and the 183 GHz water-vapor line. The upgrading consisted of
the addition of a front-end, low-noise amplifier developed by
JPL, to the 183 GHz channel. This instrument was used in three
hurricane field campaigns for atmospheric observations, in-
cluding temperature, water-vapor, cloud-liquid water, convec-
tive intensity, precipitation, and 3D storm structure.
Radiation Instruments
Some nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents (Wikipe-
dia, 2015) have motivated the design and development of radi-
ation sensors onboard UAVs; one of which was the instrument
proposed by Towler et al. (2012) onboard a helicopter with
20 kg of weight, together with imagery sensors. The sensor is
a lightweight sodium-iodide scintillating crystal to convert
gamma rays to visible light photons. A photomultiplier am-
plifies the flashes in the crystal to voltage levels, which are
supplied to an electronic device to convert the analog signal to
spectral information and finally transferred to a ground station
computer. Several processing techniques are also proposed for
gathering measures and mapping the radiation effect.
A ranger fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicle was designed
in Kurvinen et al. (2005) and equipped with three different
radiation detector types to locate plumes with different activi-
ties and also to avoid saturations in some detectors, namely: (a)
a dose rate meter, GM; (b) a cintillation detector, NaI(Tl), and (c)
a compound semiconductor detector, CdZnTe. These sensors to-
gether with a visual camera were conveniently encapsulated and
installed on an UAV. Pöllänena et al. (2009) using a commercial
CsI detector in the area of (137) Cs and (131) I, which were able
to detect radioactive particles during the flies on board UAVs.
MacFarlane et al. (2014) developed a new instrument to
provide rapid and high spatial resolution assessment of radionu-
clide contamination. The full system consists of an unmanned
hexa-copter equipped with a gamma ray spectrometer, a micro-
controller, GPS, and lidar. The goal is to rapidly and remotely
detect ground-based radiation anomalies with a high spatial
resolution. Source samples used within this study were speci-
mens collected from the Cornubian batholith, Southwest UK.
Magnetic Sensors
A high-resolution 3-axis magnetic sensor has been mounted
on a helicopter to generate detailed magnetic maps and to
identify various ferrous objects in the soil in the work of Eck
and Imbach (2011). The specifications of the helicopter are:
main rotor diameter of 3.20 m, payload weight of approxi-
mately 30 kg including 10 l.
Multisensor Technologies
Although generally speaking, UAVs are equipped with
variousby Ingenta
Delivered
sensors for both navigation and detection. Here we address
IP: 200.23.135.16
On: Mon, 02 Mar 2020sensing goal. Some years ago, Ollero and Maza (2007)
multisensor technologies from the point
Copyright: of view
American of remote
Society
for Photogrammetry
sensing applications providing insights.
MAVIS (Massive Airspace Volume Instrumentation System)
project addresses specifically the design of multisensory tech-
nologies (Sobester, 2011 and 2014).
Vierling et al. (2006) designed a multisensory system on-
board a tethered balloon with the following equipment: a dual
channel spectro-radiometer with wavelengths from 350 mn -
1050 nm, an RGB micro-video camera, a thermal infrared sensor
sensitive to the spectral range of 7.6 μm to 18 μm, a GPS receiver, research must be united for effective actuations (Chao and
tilt sensors, an analog compass sensor, a wireless video trans-
mission device, meteorological sensors for measuring relative
humidity, temperature, barometric pressure, and wind speed.
Some areas of application have been identified, including
canopy vegetation analysis, atmospheric data collection, trace
gas flux measurements or aquatic remote sensing among other.
Martínez-de-Dios et al. (2007) used a fleet of three UAVs
in cooperation for fire detection. One UAV (Helivision-GRVC)
is equipped with infrared and visual cameras; Figure 4b
displays details of this system. The second UAV (Marvin)
is equipped with an ultraviolet flame detector, provided
by Hamamatsu. This device is based on the photoelectric
effect of metal and gas multiplication and operates on the
wavelengths range of 185 nm - 260 nm. Finally, the third
UAV (Karma) contains a stereoscopic system with two visual
cameras for 3D mapping.
Multisensory systems for disaster monitoring and man-
agement are designed in Choi et al. (2009) and Choi and Lee
(2011). In the latter, a rotary-wing UAV is equipped with two
digital cameras (470 g and 115 g), a laser scanner (7 kg), GPS
(75 g), IMU (3.4 kg), and a communication system, based on a
RF link with a ground control station. A computer, a gimbal,
and a power supply are elements on-board for data process-
ing, compression, and transmission.
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 291
Zhou and Reichle (2010) proposed a mathematical model
for multi-sensor data integration consisting of video stream,
GPS, a three-axis magneto-inductive magnetometer, and a
high-performance two-axis tilt sensor (inclinometer), for both
photogrammetry tasks and navigation.
The use of Smartphones can be considered as multisen-
sory devices. They have been proposed for photogrammetry
applications onboard UAVs (Yun et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2013).
Smart phones can operate in broad areas under 3G telecom-
munication networks, they are equipped with MEMS sensors,
including accelerometer, magnetometer, gyroscope, and GPS,
which allows image acquisitions with the required informa-
tion to generate photogrammetric products.
With the aim of obtaining direct georeferenced images,
captured from an octo-copter (1.5 kg of payload and 4.8 kg
total weight), Rehak et al. (2013) integrated a consumer-grade
digital camera, a geodetic-grade RTK-GPS/Glonass/Galileo
multi-frequency receiver at 10 Hz sampling frequency, and four
MEMS-IMU chips with a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA).
Data fusion is required for combining the information
provided by different sensors. With such purpose, Jutzi et al.
(2014) proposed a method that weights the data captured with
both a visual camera and a lightweight line laser scanner for
3D mapping production.
A multisensory system has been integrated onboard a
quadrotor in Roldán et al. (2015) to measure temperature,
humidity, luminosity, and CO2 concentration in a green-
house. The integration has been carried out in the Raspberry
Pi device because its performance.
UAVs in Collaboration, Coordination, and Cooperation
Collaboration, coordination, and cooperation are relevant
concepts when several UAVs are programmed to achieve a
remote
17:42:02
noted that aand
multiple
Remote UAV-based approach increases the
Sensing
spatial coverage, improves the reliability due to redundancy,
allows the simultaneous intervention in different places, and
makes possible the teaming of specialized UAVs. Coopera-
tion of UAVs for different tasks has recently received special
attention. Each vehicle has assigned a portion of the goal and
all collaborate to achieve the global goal with the maximum
performance and accuracy as possible. This is an added value
for these concepts in remote sensing, where technologies and
Chen, 2012). Obviously, the systems included in this section
are designed for specific missions and applications. Because
of the special characteristics, they have been included in this
section, although some of them appear later in the Applica-
tions Section, under specific applications. Table 2 displays
different strategies applied under collaboration in coordina-
tion and cooperation for remote sensing missions and perfor-
mance. Different applications, where cooperation becomes
efficient are also reported.
Distributed systems architecture and control-based strate-
gies are critical in UAVs formations, networking, and collabo-
rations for effective performance (Maza et al., 2010; Richert
and Cortés, 2013). Maza et al. (2011) proposed a multi-UAV
distributed architecture where each vehicle is in charge of a
task or set of tasks. This architecture has been validated in
several applications, including: surveillance, wireless sensor
distribution, and fire detection and extinguishing.
In most cases, early intervention is crucial, particularly in
emergencies; cooperation and collaboration can be the solution.
Cooperative control strategies in UAVs for detection and track-
ing are assigned to each vehicle an area, element, or specific
task. This approach is described in Pack et al. (2009) for track-
ing ground mobile units emitting intermittently radio frequen-
cy signals. Tracking means that they must fly in coordination to
 Table 2. Collaboration: Strategies and Applications
Strategies Applications
• Distributed architectures • Surveillance • Search and rescue
• Multi-agent systems • Visual perception • Wireless sensor distribution
• Data fusion • Tracking (ground mobile units, contaminant clouds) • Nuclear radiation detection (simulation)
• Multiple UAVs • Fire (prevention, detection, tracking, extinguishing) • Disaster monitoring
• UAVs/USVs in collaboration

increase the reliability of the team where identification among

the units plays an important role (Heredia et al., 2009). Col-
laboration of multiple UAVs allows for data sharing, including
images between the different vehicles (Quaritsch et al., 2011).
In order to improve performance in remote sensing mis-
sions, an important issue concerning collaboration between
UAVs consists of the anticipation of anomalies in some units
within the fleet. Bethke et al. (2008) proposed a method to deal
with these effects under the framework of multi-agent systems.
Cooperative visual perception, from heterogeneous multi-
UAVs, was soon identified as useful because of its potential
in visual perception tasks (Merino et al. 2006a and 2007). A
fleet of heterogeneous UAVs (one airship and two helicopters),
equipped with various sensors (infrared, visual cameras, and
fire detectors), cooperate in automatic forest fire detection and
localization tasks using a distributed architecture based on
the blackboard communication system (BBCS). Research has
pointed out that heterogeneity increases the complexity of
the problem, but also provides several advantages such as the
possibility to exploit the complementarities of different UAV
platforms with different mobility attributes and also different
sensor and perception functionalities. Merino et al. (2015)
proposed a decision and control architecture for multi-UAVs
teams in forest firefighting. Different techniques derived from
infrared and visual imagery were applied.
A fleet of UAVs is proposed in Jensen et al. (2009) underDelivered by Ingenta
the assumption that redundancy and distributed information
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 Mar 2020 17:42:02
are more profitable. The UAV fleet is used
Copyright: for measuring
American Societywind Figure 5. Mosaic
for Photogrammetry builtRemote
and with more than five hundred images from dif-
Sensing
speeds and acquiring data for 3D photogrammetry. ferent uavs (Image courtesy of J.R. Martínez-de-Dios and A. Ollero;
Zheng-Jie and Wei (2013) proposed a strategy to achieve Robotics, Vision, and Control Group, University of Seville, Spain).
maximum coverage in surveillance missions when multiple
UAVs are involved. In this way, Cook et al. (2013) proposed a such as ground or marine. Here, distributed architecture
control learning-based strategy for target tracking in urban areas, becomes again critical for resolving conflicts, tasks allocation,
where the goal is to achieve maximum coverage with three UAVs. and their distribution or sensor data fusion coming from all
Motion estimation and relative displacements between vehicles or systems. Maza et al. (2011) proposed a distributed
several UAVs in collaboration also represents a challenge. Im- architecture for autonomous cooperation involving UAVs, wire-
age matching, with blob-based and estimation of homography less sensor/actuator networks, and ground camera networks.
between images obtained from different UAVs was addressed Murphy et al. (2008) used aerial and sea surface vehicles
in Merino et al. (2006b). The images are aligned by reducing in cooperation for monitoring and analysis disaster for the
the global alignment error leading to a refined homography re- Hurricane Wilma.
sulting in a mosaic built with more than five hundred images Based on simulation and statistical analysis, Lanillos et al.
acquired from different UAVs. Figure 5, adapted from Merino (2014) studied the advantages of using the expected observa-
et al. (2006b), displays a mosaic obtained by the method de- tion heuristic in multi-vehicle coordination for search. Coor-
scribed by the authors. dination of a team of autonomous sensor platforms search-
A cooperative UAVs-based system for monitoring and tracking ing for lost targets under uncertainty is studied. A real-time
forest fires was explored in Casbeer et al. (2005 and 2006). Coop- receding horizon controller was developed in continuous
eration for surveillance in fire detection with a fleet of three het- action space based on a decentralized gradient-based optimi-
erogeneous UAVs was studied in Martínez-de-Dios et al. (2007). zation algorithm and by using the expected observation as an
Multi-UAVs systems are designed, as appropriate, for rapid estimate of future returns, which is an estimate of the possible
intervention when the remote sensing task is urgent. Han et cumulative rewards that are obtainable in the future.
al. (2013) proposed this type of systems for nuclear radiation A team of UAVs is used for patrolling and surveillance of a
detection, where two scenarios are simulated with the aim of network of roads in Las Fargeas et al. (2015). A cooperative
mapping the contour of actuation. surveillance task is formulated as a NP-hard problem based on a
Sinha et al. (2009) tested a coordinated strategy for track- heuristic approach analyzed with completeness and complexity.
ing a contaminant cloud in urban environments where multi- The cooperation between UAVs and UGVs (Tokekar et al.,
UAVs work together under a simulated scenario. 2013) and USVs also becomes an important challenge; Figure
Mase (2013) proposed the cooperation of electrical and fueled 6a displays a quad-rotor onboard a patented landing platform
(gas, oil) vehicles to cover non-overlapped areas in disasters. (Cruz et al., 2015), specifically designed for precise approxi-
Cooperation and collaboration is not only limited to air ve- mation with full orientation during the landing operation,
hicles themselves, but can also involve other types of vehicles two USVs and the UAV are all in cooperation for search and

292 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING

 (a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Quad-rotor landed onboard a usv (boats property of Distance University of Spain, uned), and (b) Landing platform (Images
courtesy of ISCAR-UCM Group, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid, Spain)

Table 3. Applications: Areas and Topics

Areas and topics
• Agriculture and forestry • Vegetation
• Crops and weeds • Coverage
• Trees in forestry • Development
• Forests
• Soil and others
• Disaster monitoring • Photogrammetry
• Hurricanes, typhoons and tornados • Digital elevation models and 3D mapping
• Earthquakes • Mosaicking, ortho and geo-rectification
• Fire • Measurements
• Nuclear leaks • Cadastral applications
• Spills detection
• Floods • Atmospheric
• Avalanches • Observation
• Epidemiology Delivered by •
Ingenta
Air analysis and pollution
• Humanitarian
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 Mar 2020 17:42:02
• Cultural
Copyright: American Society for Photogrammetry
• Localization • Heritage and Remote Sensing
• Rescue • Archeology
• Surveillance • Wildlife: inventories and monitoring
• Traget detection • Fauna
• Tracking • Flora
• Environmental monitoring • Urban environments
• Volcanic inspections • Surveillance
• Soils • Tracking
• Aquatic environments • Road information
• Canopy • Urban configuration
• Rural roads and geological infrastructures • Facades analyisis
• Urban terrain reconstruction

rescue missions in marine environments (Sánchez-Benítez et
al., 2011). Figure 6b displays the same landing platform with
the quad-rotor, from CartoUAV (2015) company, onboard with
an enlarged level of detail. The use of the landing platform
can be extended to different scenarios and environments.
Applications
The number of applications where UAVs become useful tool
seems almost unlimited and is continually growing. We have
considered different applications grouped under major topics.
Then, when appropriate, we break them down in other subtop-
ics. Obviously, this does not mean they are exclusive and surely,
other applications not covered here could be also relevant.
The European Commission (2007) identified a set of cur-
rent and potential UAV procurements, including: (a) govern-
ment (police, civil security, border security, coastguard);
(b) fire-fighting (forest fires, emergency rescue, other major
incidents); (c) energy sector (oil and gas industry distribution
infrastructure, electricity grids, distribution networks); (d)
agricultural forestry and fisheries (environmental monitoring,
crop dusting, optimizing use of resources); (e) earth observa-
tion and remote sensing (climate monitoring, aerial photogra-
phy, mapping and surveying, seismic events, major incident,
pollution monitoring); and (f) communications and broadcast-
ing (Very High Altitude-Long Endurance (VHALE) platforms as
proxy-satellites and Medium Altitude-Long Endurance (MALE),
or Small and Mini-Unmanned Aerial Systems (S/MUAS) as
short-term, local communications coverage). Nowadays,
many developments have followed these lines with success-
ful results. The overview about the current state carried out in
this paper focuses on a set of applications classified under the
specific topics displayed in Table 3 for various areas. This di-
vision is established considering the main application, taking
into account that some type of overlapping among them may
occur. Indeed, when a disaster occurs, humanitarian localiza-
tion and rescue are tasks to be executed immediately. Pho-
togrammetry (mosaics, ortho-rectification) is an application
useful with great relevance in agriculture, cultural heritage,
and archeology or urban environments, among others.

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 293

Agriculture and Forestry
Remote sensing is a classical and traditional approach widely
applied in agriculture and agronomy for different purposes
(Atzberger, 2013). Farmers have expressed some requests to
monitor crop conditions in their fields using UAVs. In Zhang
et al., (2014) a quad-copter equipped with optical and near-
infrared imagery has been used to monitor fertilizer trials,
conduct crop scouting, and map field tile drainage in Ontario,
Canada. The results of a preliminary investigation into the use
of aerial surveillance techniques to estimate weed-patch areas
were presented very early by Thornton et al. (1990) using a
low-altitude helium balloon based on imagery for mapping
the wild oat distribution in a wheat field. This platform was
later used in Jensen et al. (2007) for detecting attributes in
wheat crops.
Since the beginning of the development of new generations
of UAVs, these platforms were considered a well suited tool,
under different configurations, in agriculture and forestry
because of their potential (size, weight, flight speed, altitude)
(Grenzdörffer et al., 2008; Gay et al., 2009). Currently, they
continue offering new opportunities as well as new chal-
lenges (SARS, 2014). Herwitz et al. (2004) and Furfaro et al.
(2005) used early-unmanned aerial platforms in a plantation
of Kauai Coffee Company in Hawaii, equipped with multi-
spectral imagery and a local area network for camera control
and downlinking images. UAVs are recently becoming part of
remote sensing applications in agriculture and forestry with
very different and diverse applications; some of them gaining
in performance while being inexpensive compared to tradi-
tional platforms. Zhang and Kovacs (2012) and Stefanakis et
al. (2013) identified a research agenda to develop UAV systems
and define methods for precision agriculture. In this regard,
Urbahs and Jonaite (2013) proposed the main features for us-
ing UAVs in agriculture applications, including weight,Delivered
flight
by
duration, flight altitude, payload, and IP:
engine.
200.23.135.16 On: Mon,
A categorization of mobile platformsAmerican
Copyright: and resulting research
Society
for Photogrammetry
applications were reported in Zecha et al. (2013) where UAVs’
design and characterization are focused on their use for agri-
cultural tasks. More specific works dealing with the develop-
ment and testing of a UAV aerial platform for agricultural tasks
equipped with multispectral cameras can be found in Link et
al. (2013). An overview of works involving the development
of technologies, systems, and methods for UAVs are examined
and studied for agricultural production management in Huang
et al. (2013), where limitations of current UAVs for agricultural
tasks are reported, as well as future needs and suggestions for
development and application of UAVs in agriculture.
In the context of agricultural and forestry, the control of
biophysical variables is of special interest for various pur-
poses, such as chlorophyll and biomass determination for site
specific treatments or forest stands. Several methods and strat-
egies have been developed for the control of such biophysical
variables, as described below. Specifically, Grenzdörffer and
Niemeyer (2011) have used the bidirectional reflectance distri- respectively. The third instrument is a hyperspectral imaging
bution function (BRDF) for computing bidirectional reflectance
properties of plant surfaces. A quad-copter equipped with
four vision-based cameras carefully configured is designed to
cover a field of view from four different perspectives.
Salamí et al. (2014) provide a review of UAVs used for sens-
ing vegetated areas, including precision agriculture, forest,
and rangeland applications, where sensors, tools, payloads,
and platforms are considered with their categorization. Ap-
plication areas of UAVs in agriculture and forestry are quite
diverse, whereas the topics considered in the next section
provide an overview of this.
Crops and Weeds
Crops and weed management in precision agriculture are
two key activities for different purposes, such as yield
294 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
estimations, herbicide applications, and pesticide control
resulting in cost savings and minimal environmental impact.
The wider use of UAVs in this area consists on the acquisi-
tion of information using sensors onboard, to serve as inputs
to other agricultural systems, such as tractors, that apply agri-
cultural treatments. Nevertheless, an exception is the system
described in Huang et al. (2009) where a low volume spray
system is designed to be installed and integrated onboard an
unmanned helicopter to apply crop specific treatments. A
helicopter, powered by two gasoline engines, with rotor diam-
eter of 3 m and maximum payload of 22.7 kg, was equipped
with the sprayer system consisting of boom tubing and
nozzles, spray pump, control box, and spray tank for chemi-
cal with a total weight of approximately 11 kg. The sprayer on
the UAV was designed to spray 14 ha of land on a single load
at a low volume spray rate of 0.3 L/ha.
Despite this standalone application, this overview is
focused on the first type, i.e., UAVs equipped with sensors
onboard that provide data for subsequent analysis and treat-
ments when required.
Many applications in crops are oriented to the genera-
tion of maps for monitoring weed infestations and coverage,
biomass estimation, yield prediction, or crop stress. Imaging
maps are commonly georeferenced and ortho-rectified, where
positioning accuracy becomes an important consideration in
map generation.
In this regard, Sugiura et al. (2005) developed a system
based on an unmanned helicopter for precise mapping in
maize fields. They applied geometric corrections based on a
real-time kinematic global positioning system (RTK-GPS), an
INS, and a geomagnetic direction system (GDS). An imaging
sensor installed under the fuselage captures images. The large
errors of the GDS data, due to a geomagnetic warp surrounding
theIngenta
helicopter, are corrected based on the parallel crop rows
after
02imagery
Mar 2020was17:42:02
collected.
Cross-pollenization
in maize
and Remote crops was studied in Vo-
Sensing
gler et al. (2009) because of the importance to achieve the
coexistence of conventional and genetically modified maize
with the aim of achieving acceptable yields. The impact of
elevation differences between adjacent donor and receptor
fields on rates of cross-pollenization was analyzed using a
Geographic Information System (GIS). Digital images were
captured with a digital still-video camera mounted on an
unmanned helicopter.
Quantification of nitrogen status of rice and winter wheat
were studied in Zhu et al. (2009) and Yunxia et al. (2005),
respectively, to avoid under/over fertilization. Hyperspectral
imagery was used for computing chlorophyll content to char-
acterize spatial and temporal variation in crop production.
Øvergaard et al. (2010) used three radiometers as sensors
to estimate yield in wheat fields and also grain quality. Two of
these instruments are point spectroradiometers covering wave-
lengths ranging from 485 nm - 1650 nm and 350 nm - 2500 nm,
system with wavelengths in the range of 400 nm - 1000 nm.
A spatial stratified random sampling method was applied
for crop area estimation using medium spatial resolution and
UAV imagery, which is useful for subsequent regional distribu-
tion in specific areas (Pan et al., 2011).
Agüera et al. (2011) used two digital compact cameras for
acquisition of RGB and NIR images onboard a quad-rotor. The
NIR images were acquired with a camera equipped with an
optical filter that allows the radiation with wavelength greater
than 920 nm, these systems weigh 130 and 250 g, respective-
ly. The aim of this work was to compare an NDVI related with
sunflower nitrogen status based on greenness determination
derived from the leaf chlorophyll content.
Costa et al. (2012) described an architectural design based
on UAVs which can be used in agricultural systems for specific
 (a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) uav flying a maize crop field to detect weeds patches for site-specific herbicide treatments, and (b) Weed density map
obtained from uav images with three levels of weed infestation (Images courtesy of F. López-Granados and J.M. Peña, Institute for
Sustainable Agriculture, csic-Córdoba, Spain; adapted from Peña et al., 2013).

applications where UAVs are used for spraying chemicals on
crops controlled by a WSN deployed on the crop field.
Samseemoung et al. (2012) designed a low altitude remote
sensing (LARS) helicopter, with 6 kg and payload capacity of 5
kg, equipped with a commercial true color camera (RGB) and
a color-infrared digital camera (G-R-NIR) for monitoring crop
growth and weed infestation in a soybean plantation flying at
altitudes up to 15 m. Also a LARS system based on a helicop-
ter, with weight of 6 kg and payload of 5 kg, equipped with
a multispectral imaging system was proposed in Swain et al.
(2010) and Swain and Zaman (2012) to determine the crop riceby Ingenta
Delivered
coverage with the aim of predictingIP:rice yield for planning
200.23.135.16 On: and
Mon, 02 weed
expectation. Bendig et al. (2013a and
Copyright: 2013b) obtained
American Societycrop sur-
for Photogrammetry
face models in rice fields based on stereo images with the aim
of analyzing crop growth and health status. The platform is an
octo-copter with payload of 1 kg equipped with a true color
RGB sensor with a weight of 400 g. In the context of corn yield
prediction, Geipel et al. (2014) used a hexa-copter, equipped
with standard navigation sensors (IMU, GNSS) to acquire RGB
imagery, which was later ortho-rectified with production of
DEMs and maps leading to the computation of vegetation indi-
ces. Rice paddies were characterized in Uto et al. (2013) based
on a miniature hyperspectral system onboard an UAV.
Torres-Sanchez et al. (2013a, 2013b, and 2014), Peña-
Barragán et al. (2012a and 2012b), and Peña et al. (2013) used
a quad-copter, with payload of 1.25 kg, with a lightweight
700 g CMOS multispectral sensor with six individual digital
channels and sometimes a commercial high-resolution RGB
true color camera. Both cameras can be installed separately
onboard for deriving vegetation indices for crop and weed
detection for generating weed coverage maps with the aim of
site-specific treatments in maize crops. The images, stored in
SD and CF cards, are preprocessed for correct channel align-
ment suitable for accurate ortho-rectification and mosaicking
purposes before the map generation. A set of georeferenced
ground control points (GCP) is used for such purpose. Small
changes in flight altitudes can produce important differences
in the ortho-images resolutions. A study about accuracy in
wheat fields infested by broad-leaved and grass weeds was
carried out in Gómez-Candón et al. (2014), where precision
mapping for farm applications are built using a quad-copter
equipped with a device providing CIR images. Different
studies were conducted in Peña et al. (2015) quantifying the
efficacy and limitations of remote images acquired with an
UAV for detection and discrimination of weeds affected by
the spectral, spatial and temporal resolutions. Crop pests and
monitoring for prevention and cure when infestation has oc-
curred were studied and addressed in Yue et al. (2012).
Figure 7a shows an UAV quad-rotor, from the CartoUAV
(2015) company, flying a maize crop field to detect weed
patches in order to design site-specific herbicide treatments.
The images are conveniently mosaicked and segmented for
crop row identification and crop versus weeds discrimination
with the aim of building density maps of crops and weeds
coverage. Figure 7b shows a map obtained from UAV images
showing three levels of weed infestation (low, moderate, and
high, in an ascending greyscale), crop rows (in grey) and free-
Marzones
2020(in white). The image displayed in Figure 7b is
17:42:02
adapted from
andPeña et al. (2013).
Remote Sensing
Honkavaara et al. (2013) used a multispectral system (see
the Multispectral and Hyperspectral Subsection) for biomass
estimation. Different vegetation densities in wheat and barley
crops were obtained according to the amounts of seeds and
fertilizers applied, which allowed for determination of the
effect of these quantities in the health and growth stage of
crops. Different experiments were also conducted by Jannoura
et al. (2015) to monitor crop biomass based on RGB images
captured by a true color camera onboard a hexa-copter.
Rabatel et al. (2014a) proposed various methods to obtain
simultaneously visible and NIR bands for agricultural applica-
tions, including weed monitoring. Red (R) and NIR data were
obtained from a uniquely modified still camera, which was
achieved by removing the blocking internal NIR filter in the
camera, inserting a red long-pass filter in front of the lens and
getting Red and NIR as linear combinations of the raw channel
data. In a second system, in the context of the RHEA project
and its associated second conference (RHEA, 2015), R and NIR
bands are obtained by a couple of compact still cameras, one
of them being modified as before. A specific image registration
procedure was developed for such purpose (Rabatel and Lab-
bé, 2014b). Aerial images of wheat were acquired by a camera
onboard the UAV from AirRobot (2015) company, Figure 2b, as
part of the activities in the RHEA project with the aim of pro-
ducing georeferenced maps for follow-up, site-specific treat-
ments in wheat fields. Hunt et al. (2010 and 2011) replaced
the internal hot-mirror filter with a red-light-blocking filter to
get data in the near-infrared, green, and blue bands, i.e., CIR
bands. Leaf area and green normalized difference vegetation
indices were correlated in fertilized wheat crops.
Aerial reflectance measurements were conducted in Link-
Dolezal et al. (2010 and 2012) in winter wheat for crop moni-
toring purposes based on georeferenced images. The UAV, with

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 295

wingspan of 2000 mm with payload of 1.3 kg, was equipped
with a multispectral sensor with weight less than 1 kg.
Monitoring of wheat crops was evaluated and quantified
in Lelong et al. (2008) based on the computation of different
vegetation indices from images acquired in the visible and
near-infrared spectral bands. The work of Perry et al. (2012)
was the focus in this line for determining phenotyping traits.
Wal et al. (2013) used UAV for crop monitoring to overcome the
problem of using satellite in areas with a high density of clouds,
improving performance. An effective example is a lidar system
onboard a helicopter working together with a camera operating
in the visible spectrum for infrastructure inspections and crop
monitoring in unfamiliar scenarios (Merz and Chapman, 2011).
Sullivan et al. (2007) used a thermal infrared sensor, with
bands 7 µm to 14 µm, onboard a UAV to assess the water
stress in cotton canopy. Meron et al. (2013) analyzed different
technologies for crop stress detection based on measures of
temperature in foliage. The data were captured from thermog-
raphy sensors.
Córcoles et al. (2013) used a quad-rotor to determine the
leaf area index with a digital RGB camera onboard. Leaf area
index was studied in Duan et al. (2014) for three typical row
crops (maize, potatoes, and sunflowers). Data were acquired
in-situ and from a UAV equipped with a 128-band hyperspec-
tral imaging sensor ranging from 350 nm to 1030 nm with a 5
nm bandwidth.
Verger et al. (2014) described an algorithm for determining
the green area index in wheat and rapeseed crops. A fixed-
wing UAV with 2 kg of weight, including the payload, was
used and equipped with a four CMOS-based system to acquire
images in four spectral bands based on interferential filters
operating at 550 nm (green), 660 nm (red), 735 nm (red edge),
and 790 nm (NIR) with well-defined sensitivities.
Saberioon et al. (2014) studied the status of nitrogenDelivered
and
by Ingenta
chlorophyll content in rice leaf by analyzing the visible bands
IP: 200.23.135.16
On: Mon,
from images. In-situ ground-based results
Copyright: were checked
American against
Society
for Photogrammetry
the images captured with an integrated camera fixed-wing UAV.
Faiçal et al. (2014) designed a control strategy to apply
pesticides in crops involving UAVs and WSN deployed in the
ground.
Hung et al. (2014) apply a learning-based approach for
classifying three invasive weed species on the north-west
slopes of New South Wales, Australia. A filter bank was used
for feature extraction, and an explanation of the images cap-
tured was acquired with a high resolution commercial true
color camera onboard a hexa-copter with 1.5 kg of weight.
Burkart et al. (2015) used a hyperspectral flying goniometer
system, based on an octo-copter equipped with a spectrom-
eter mounted on an active gimbal for collecting multi-angular
hyperspectral data over wheat fields for vegetation indices
analysis based on BRDF.
Trees in Forestry
Important trees in forestry, where UAV-based applications
have been of interest with significant performances are citrus,
peach, olive, vineyards, and pistachio. Nevertheless, the ap-
plications reported in this overview can be easily extended to
other different kinds of trees. Biophysical parameters can be
estimated using different vegetation indices. Based on these
parameters, several image-based products can be obtained:
leaf area index, chlorophyll content, water stress detection,
health of plants, canopy analysis, photosynthesis, mapping of
areas (including 3D), or soil analysis among others.
Stress on citrus fruit due to water content was monitored
in Stagakis et al. (2012); they applied structural and physi-
ological indices for such purpose, obtained from a multi-
spectral camera operating in the visible and near-infrared
spectrum. Zarco-Tejada et al. (2009, 2012, and 2013e) and
Berni et al. (2009b) determined water stress, leaf biomass, and
chlorophyll content of the canopy in citrus, peach, and olive
296 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
orchards. They used a micro-hyperspectral imaging system,
2.7 kg weight, with six-bands and configurable filters with
different wavelengths centers (490 nm to 800 nm), which is
synchronized with an IMU for ortho-rectification. Also, a ther-
mal (FLIR) camera, weighing 1.7 kg with spectral responses
ranging in 7.3 µm to 1.3 µm, is used for measuring differences
of temperature between the ground and the crowns of trees.
The UAV is an auto-piloted helicopter with a fuel engine.
García-Ruiz et al. (2013) used a six-narrow-band multispec-
tral camera equipped with filter arrays at several wavelength
centers. Its weight is 700 g, and is installed onboard a six-copter
with a weight about 2,000 g. They compute vegetation indices,
which allow the analysis of loss of greenness in citrus trees.
A multi-spectral camera, acquiring high-resolution images
at 10 nm bandwidth in the visible and near-infrared, onboard
an UAV, was used in Guillen-Climent et al. (2012) to model
the fraction of active radiation in citrus and peach orchards
with unstructured rows, being useful in applications for pre-
cision agriculture.
Yield estimation in citrus (orange trees) was obtained with
a mini-helicopter and a machine vision system (MacArthur et
al., 2006).
Berni et al. (2008) applied the factor known as “crown leaf
area index” in olive trees for chlorophyll content analysis
based on two camera-based instruments: (a) a multispectral
system (2.7 kg) with six individual sensors with interchange-
able optical filters; and (b) a thermal camera (1.7 kg) with
spectral response in the range 7.5 µm - 13 μm. These sensors
were installed onboard a rotary wing UAV with 7 kg of payload
and in a fixed wing UAV with payload of 5.5 kg.
Health canopy in olive orchards was studied in Zarco-
Tejada et al. (2013d) based on reflectance and fluorescence
analysis. Different vegetation indices are obtained through
hyperspectral
cameras with spatial resolution of 30 cm and
26002
spectral
Mar 2020bands ranging in 400 nm to 900 nm.
17:42:02
Vineyards and
andgrape vinesSensing
Remote have been crops of special inter-
est very early (Johnson et al., 2003). Different sensors are used
for determining measures related to: chlorophyll function
and photosynthesis activity, leaf area indices, or plant health
status among others.
Berni et al. (2009a) used high-resolution thermal images to
obtain the tree canopy conductance and the crop water stress in-
dex in olive orchards. A hyperspectral scanner with 80 spectral
bands in the 0.43 µm to 12.5 μm spectral range was used on-
board an airborne system. Also an UAV was developed to carry a
thermal device in the infrared (FLIR) and a multispectral imaging
sensor (ranging in 7.5 µm to 13 μm). Calderón et al. (2013)
used multispectral (six-bands), thermal and hyper-spectral (260
bands) imagery for computing some indices (xanthophyll, chlo-
rophyll, carotenoids and blue/green/red) for determining the
water stress in olive trees caused by soil-borne fungus in some
regions. The UAV used for the multispectral and thermal acquisi-
tion had a 2 m wingspan for a fixed-wing platform at 5.8 kg TOW.
Hyperspectral images were acquired with a larger UAV with a 5
m wingspan for a fixed-wing platform having 13.5 kg TOW.
Relations between chlorophyll fluorescence and photo-
synthesis were analyzed by Zarco-Tejada et al. (2013a) in
vineyards. The results are validated against other terrestrial
systems, such as infrared gas analyzers sensors. An auto-pilot-
ed 2 m wingspan and fixed-wing platform at 5.8 kg TOW was
used to carry thermal and multispectral sensors and a wing-
span fixed-wing platform with up to three-hour endurance at
13.5 kg TOW. Zarco-Tejada et al. (2013c) used hyper-spectral
imagery to determine the carotenoid content in vineyards
related to the photosynthesis. A six-band multispectral cam-
era and a micro-hyperspectral imager with 260 bands are the
sensors used onboard the platforms.
The structure from motion was explored in Mathews and
Jensen (2013) to determine canopy in vineyard with a RGB
commercial digital camera. Leaf area index measurements
were also obtained with successful performance results, com-
parable to the ones obtained by lidar technologies.
Turner et al. (2011) provided a method for mapping vine-
yards based on visible, multispectral and thermal imagery.
Efficient water use regulating the irrigation schedule and
determining results of special interest for efficiency concerning
plant bio-physical parameters and physiological status are stud-
ied in forestry. In this regard, Baluja et al. (2012) analyzed the
water status variability in vineyards based on multispectral im-
ages (six-bands from 580 nm - 800 nm), including visible and NIR
bands. Gonzalez-Dugo et al. (2013) computed a crop water stress
index (CWSI) for determining the water status in an orchard with
an UAV, 2 m wingspan, fixed-wing and 5.8 kg TOW equipped
with a thermal camera. Gago et al. (2014) computed leafs water
stress in an experimental vineyard with an UAV hexa-copter
equipped with a thermal camera and an additional RGB camera.
Zarco-Tejada et al. (2013b) computed the CWSI in vine-
yards, with the aim of determining different irrigation levels,
using both a multispectral and a thermal camera on board a
2 m wingspan, fixed-wing platform, with a 5.8 kg TOW. The
spectral band-set center comprises wavelengths between 530
nm and 800 nm. CWSI was also computed in Bellvert et al.
(2014) based on canopy temperatures measured with infrared
temperature-based sensors placed on top of grapevines to
map the spatial variability in water deficits in a “Pinot Noir”
vineyard. CWSI was correlated with leaf water potential in Zar-
co-Tejada et al. (2012). This correlation was also tested using
thermal imagery captured with a sensor with spectral range of
8 µm - 12 µm onboard an UAV.
Primicerio et al. (2012) used a hexa-copter for site-specific
vineyard management based on canopy analysis from NDVI
and equipped with a multi-spectral CMOS-based camera, with
weight of 200 g and wavelengths of 520 nm to 600Delivered
nm (green),by Ingenta
630 nm to 690 nm (red), and 760 µm IP:to 900 nm (NIR). On: Mon, 02
200.23.135.16
A helicopter carryingCopyright:
an imagingAmerican
payload ofSociety
approximately
for Photogrammetry
1 kg was used in Nebiker et al. (2008) for deriving plant
health, based on the computation of the percentage of dam-
aged leaves within a grape vine. NDVI values are obtained by
RGB (CMOS-based) and NIR (CCD-based) sensors. The RGB and
NIR images are captured on different flights for subsequent
geo-referencing and ortho-rectification.
Gonzalez-Dugo et al. (2015) conducted different studies in
a commercial pistachio orchard located in Madera County,
California to determine the spatial variability in water status
and irrigation needs based on thermal imagery computing the
CWSI. The UAV platform used is described in Zarco-Tejada et
al. (2012 and 2013b).
Plate 3 displays a plot, corresponding to a forestry plantation, validated against point clouds from terrestrial laser scanners.
obtained with an ALTM Gemini laser scanner, described above.
Forests
In forest or forested areas, UAVs are also useful. They allow
flying over the forest stand for different purposes. Canopy
analysis, including gap patterns, and 3D mapping are two
relevant areas where UAVs are used.
Dunford et al. (2009) proposed a classification approach,
based on imaging analysis, to quantify riparian areas and
vegetation in the Mediterranean region, where standing dead
trees are identified as well as unhealthy or dead canopy. Some
potential and limitations were also reported, such as typical
problems derived from sizes and payloads of UAVs or illu-
mination or vibrations/undesired movements in the sensor
during flight. Advanced technologies have been designed for
minimizing such effects, including cameras with auto-iris,
gimbals, or three-axis stabilized platforms.
Whalin (2012) proposed the analysis of tree canopies to de-
tect the health based on infrared analysis. This allows detect-
ing and fighting beetle pests as well as other diseases affecting
forests, which can also be monitored.
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 297
Wallace et al. (2012a) used a lidar scanner, together with
an IMU, GPS, and high-resolution visible video cameras
onboard an octo-copter for tree height estimation and forest
inventory. A very high-density point cloud (up to 62 points
per m2) is achieved for the measurement of tree location, as
well as height and crown width, which were assessed over
individual isolated trees. Lidar was also the technology used
in Wallace et al. (2011, 2012b, 2014a, and 2014b) for forest
inventories based on change-detection analysis with high per-
formance, including error assessment. The stability of canopy
maps in forested areas was analyzed in Wallace (2013) based
on a lidar system onboard an UAV. Wallace et al. (2014b and
2014c) used laser-based technology onboard an octo-copter
in a four-year-old Eucalyptus globulus stand for determining
stage of growth and the rate of pruning, respectively, with the
aim of achieving high quality timber. The laser consists of
four parallel scanning layers each with a scan frequency of 12
Hz, being capable of recording up to three returns per pulse
with a transversal beam divergence of 0.8°.
Hernández-Clemente et al. (2012) used multi (hyper) spec-
tral imagery to obtain biochemical (chlorophylls, carotenoid,
xanthophyll) measurements in forest canopies with conifers.
The UAV was a 2 m fixed-wing platform capable of carrying a
3.5 kg payload. The camera consisted of six independent im-
age sensors and optics with user configurable spectral filters.
Tree height canopy measurements were obtained in Zarco-
Tejada et al. (2014) from a RGB camera manipulated to capture
the near-infrared spectral band, i.e., a CIR device previously
introduced.
Dandois and Ellis (2010 and 2013) obtained high-resolu-
tion 3D maps in forestry vegetation from RGB images captured
with an UAV. They achieved similar performance as was
obtained with lidar systems. In this regard, Tao et al. (2010)
computed dense point clouds from images captured with UAVs
forMar
3D mapping purposes.
2020 17:42:02
A mini-UAV
and-borne
Remotelidar system was constructed in Lin et
Sensing
al. (2011). The UAV is a helicopter with weight of 4.5 kg, being
able to transport a payload of about 7 kg. It is equipped with
laser scanners of 1.2 and 1.6 kg for assessing its validity in
high-resolution 3D mapping for tree height estimation.
Fritz et al. (2013) used an octo-copter for tree stem detec-
tion in open stands. The UAV is equipped with a consumer
camera fixed on a flexible mount, which enables tilting the
camera vertically and horizontally. In five steps, a dense point
cloud is generated: Scale Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT)
operator for generate tie points, image matching of SIFT fea-
tures, bundle adjustment to estimate camera parameters, clus-
tering the image, and dense reconstruction. The method was
Chisholm et al. (2013) used a quad-copter equipped with a
lidar operating at 10 Hz with 1,081 beams per scan, with scan-
ning angle of 270° and range of 30 m for below-canopy surveys.
A map of horizontal cross section of the forest was reconstruct-
ed and the diameter-at-breast-height of 12 trunks estimated.
Fallen trees are surveyed from an unmanned helicopter in
Inoue et al. (2014) in a deciduous broadleaved forest in east-
ern Japan as a key factor in biodiversity and biogeochemical
cycling. The UAV was equipped with a consumer-grade digital
camera a GPS and a laser range finder for the production of DEMs.
Other Applications
Soil monitoring in agriculture becomes an important task be-
cause yield can be estimated based on its evaluation, wherein
UAVs can play an important role. Biasio et al. (2010) used
multispectral imagery (a device with three visible and two
infrared channels) to monitor the soil composition in agricul-
tural fields to estimate crop yields based on the computation
of vegetation indices in farmlands.
Corbane et al. (2012) addressed the study of soil surface
characteristics in vineyards with the aim of determining
infiltration and runoff with hydrological multitemporal clas-
sification. Part of the data were collected around solar noon
with a commercial visual RGB camera onboard an UAV.
Aquatic weed surveillance was described in Göktogan et
al. (2010). The UAV is a rotary-wing vehicle with length of 2
m, maximum TOW of 15 kg, and a fuel engine equipped with
a 3-CCD video camera. The images were captured and stored
for subsequent treatment and analysis.
Geipel et al. (2013) proposed a software-based framework
for connecting sensors and processor(s) onboard during the
flight; this is intended with the aim of exploiting this poten-
tial against platforms that only store information for follow-up
ground processing. They deployed a prototype for microcli-
mate monitoring equipped with low-cost sensors, includ-
ing temperature, humidity, and imaging sensors specifically
adapted or designed for agriculture applications.
Disaster Monitoring
Regarding disaster monitoring it is worth to consider two
relevant aspects, the first related to prevention and the second
to response after the event has occurred. According to this
category, pre- and post-emergency topics are to be considered.
Several years ago, Bendea et al. (2008) identified the need
and usefulness of UAVs for operations in disaster areas conve-
niently equipped with advanced sensors and technologies. Its
use in National Parks for surveillance was also considered as
convenient in prevention tasks (Restas, 2006).
Hurricanes, typhoons, tornados, earthquakes, fires, nuclear
incidents, spills in the ocean, floods, and avalanches are clear
causes of disaster where UAVs can play an important role.
These are manmade or natural events where UAVs have been
applied, but they are not exclusive and can serve as founda-
tions for future applications in disasters. Deployment of UAVs
to build a network of sensors has been considered useful in
Delivered by
disaster management applications (Quaritsch et al., 2010).
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon,
Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Tornados
Copyright: American Society for Photogrammetry
UAVs in the Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel (HS3) pro-
gram launched by NASA (2015b), were equipped with different
high-tech instruments to monitor hurricane formation and its
evolution. A multisensory technology was used including a
radar scanner and wind lidar, both based on the Doppler Effect,
multi-frequency radiometer based on interferometry, and a
microwave sounder. One UAV “catches” data inside the storm
(winds and precipitation) and a second one “explores” the en-
vironment. A hurricane post-disaster assessment was conduct-
ed in Adams et al. (2010) based on imagery analysis captured
by a RGB camera with a weight of 250 g onboard a helicopter.
Chou et al. (2010) applied imagery technologies with a com-
mercial camera with weight of 1.2 kg onboard a helicopter with
8.5 kg of weight and payload of 5.5 kg. This system was used
to analyze changes take for disaster monitoring following the
MORAKOT typhoon. Rescue operations were studied in DeBusk
(2010) for follow-up analysis caused by the tornado Alley.
Earthquakes
Seismic hazards were evaluated in the old city center of
L’Aquila, Italy after an earthquake with an octo-copter (Domi-
nici et al., 2012) capturing high quality images on roofs and
facades of structures with a reflex digital camera. Baiocchi et
al. (2013) used stereoscopic techniques for 3D reconstruction
of buildings for determining possible damage in such build-
ings in the same city for post seismic analysis. The platform
is equipped with two cameras operating in the visible and
infrared spectrum, respectively, and a GPS.
After the Tohoku, Japan earthquake in 2011, important
efforts were made for the NEC (Wada et al., 2015), where UAVs,
equipped with optical sensors, provided a rapid interven-
tion with abundant information during several imaging-based
surveillance tasks. After subsequent developments and
298 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
improvements, the different technologies were integrated in
the UAV, including: communication, control, sensing, image
processing, and networking. Thanks to all these technologies,
the UAVs can provide communication links where terrestrial
areas are damaged.
Li et al. (2011) proposed a method for image rectification
and mosaicking without control points in earthquake disaster
areas with the aim of early intervention. A CCD imaging sensor
was installed onboard a UAV with payload of 4.5 kg.
Fire
The use of UAVs, equipped with sensory technologies, was
early identified for its potential use in fire detection (Am-
brosia et al., 2003, 2009, and 2011; Ambrosia and Wegener,
2009; Ollero et al. 2006; Rufino and Moccia, 2005; Wu and
Zhou, 2006a and 2006b; Wu et al., 2007). UAVs progressed to
more sophisticated and precise technologies and methods
with high performance, including the design of an effective
architecture (Pastor et al., 2011). During crisis management in
fires, it is essential the coordination between fire brigades is
critical for extinguishing the fire. Persie et al. (2011) proposed
an integrated GIS where all relevant geospatial information is
automatically distributed to all levels of the organization.
During years 2006 to 2010, NASA and US Forest Service
conducted several missions over different forest where the
NASA Ikhana UAS capabilities were demonstrated and verified
for processing multi-spectral data onboard the UAV (Ambrosia
et al., 2011), including fire monitoring. The great possibilities
for using thermal imaging cameras in firefighting were defined
in Hinkley and Zajkowski (2011) thanks to the collabora-
tion of the two institutions mentioned above. Forest wildfire
monitoring was also addressed in Zhou and Cheng (2005).
Martínez-de-Dios et al. (2007) used a fleet of three hetero-
geneous UAVs (Helivision-GRVC, Marvin and Karma) for fire
Ingenta The fire is detected by means of histogram analysis
detection.
02 learning-based
using Mar 2020 17:42:02 strategies. These UAVs explore different
and Remote
areas in cooperative Sensing
surveillance; if a fire is detected, they
provide positioning of this incident using to the system’s
GPS. Maza et al. (2011) proposed a distributed architecture of
multi-UAVs with this identical purpose, where fire detection
tasks have been carried out and tested under the proposed
approach. Figure 8 displays a fire monitoring sequence at
different levels of detail, where the polygons surrounding the
active flames identifies its position and extension. In the se-
quence of the four images in the bottom partion of this Figure,
one can see its expansion and evolution at different times.
Martínez-de Dios et al. (2011) and Merino et al. (2010 and
2012) designed and tested three UAVs (two helicopters and
one blimp) equipped with infrared (non-thermal, operating in
the far-infrared band) and visual cameras in combination with
cameras distributed on ground stations. Fire measurements
and remotely sensed locations are supplied for the interces-
sion of the response brigades for resource planning against
the fire. Figure 9 displays the Interface Human Machine (IHM)
in the GCS, where visible and infrared images are visualized.
Positioning coordinates and other dynamic parameters are
also displayed, including the UAV trajectory and a tele-opera-
tion connection.
The system used in Krüll et al. (2012) for early fire de-
tection, described in the Chemical Sensors subsection, is
designed for detecting component of gases that identify the
existence of fire.
Nuclear Leaks
Nuclear leaks represent a very high-risk event, with a great
hazard at all levels, often at a great distance distances from
the event, where immediate action in post-disaster effort is an
immediate priority.
In this regard, Han et al. (2013) simulated a nuclear di-
saster for rapid intervention with the aim of delimiting the
Figure 8. Fire monitoring with flame identification and its expansion over time (Images courtesy of J.R. Martínez-de-Dios and A. Ollero;
Robotics, Vision, and Control Group, University of Seville, Seville Spain)

Delivered by Ingenta
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 Mar 2020 17:42:02
Copyright: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

Figure 9. Interface Human Machine in the gcs: visible and infrared images, dynamic parameters, trajectory, and tele-operation (Image
courtesy of J.R. Martínez-de-Dios and A. Ollero; Robotics, Vision, and Control Group, University of Seville, Seville Spain).

extent of the affected area. A set of UAVs in cooperation was the proposed model also considers weather forecasting for the
the proposed system. Also, simulated experiments were car- purpose of replacing stationary sensor networks.
ried out in Smídl and Hofman (2013) to model the tracking of Post-disaster surveillance with measurements after radio-
a plume of air contaminated by a nuclear leak based on UAVs; active leaks is possible for monitoring the disaster and its

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 299

development (Towler et al. 2012). Siminski (2014) reported
regarding the monitoring of the Fukushima, Japan plant’s
radiation with an UAV; this post-disaster intervention with
persistent observation minimizes the threat and hazard to the
inhabitants and response personnel.
Oil Spill Detection
Oil slicks and perhaps other pollutants on the sea surface are
becoming more prevalent creating large contaminated areas.
The field-of-view of the camera-based systems onboard UAVs
rarely covers the entire area. To address this problem with
a single UAV equipped with a camera, Lanillos et al. (2009)
proposed a strategy for boundary detection of a surface that
is partially imaged with the camera. Each image contains a
segment of the oil spill extent, and the UAV is used to search
for joining consecutive segments to close the full boundary.
A simulated scenario is used for testing and an optimization
strategy is selected for closing the complete contour.
The oil slick detection problem was addressed in Muttin
(2011), where the UAV guides a ship for subsequent oil conten-
tion and recovery, based on a non-linear dynamic model for
the aerial umbilical including variable length domain and
material elasticity using different numerical examples.
Floods and Avalanches
Some years ago, nanotechnologies were seen as useful for
weather observation (Manobianco et al., 2008). Now these
technologies are proposed for monitoring flash floods from
UAVs. During the first phase, a number of transmitter sensors
are deployed inside the potential area where the flood could
occur, and then UAVs, equipped with receiving antennas,
identify each sensor position and build a distribution map.
Abdelkader et al. (2013) used lagrangian (mobile) micro-
sensors emitting a unique identifier (ID), similar to the radio-
frequency identifiers (RFID). When transmitters are dropped,
Delivered byframework
UAVs track their movements using passive receiving antennas.
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02Multiple
This application is very appropriate
Copyright:forAmerican
multiple UAVs in col-
Society
for Photogrammetry
laboration to build a map of the transmitters.
In post emergency situations, Weng et al. (2011) used UAVs
for monitoring debris flow in Zhouqu County area in China; a
collection of high-resolution images was acquired to evaluate
the disaster.
SAR-based systems onboard UAVs were considered to be
used for detecting and studying temporal evolution of wet
snow in avalanche prone areas (Malnes et al., 2015).
A new research topic emerged to study the feasibility of
utilizing 4G-LTE signals in combination with UAVs for search
and rescue of avalanche victims (Wolfe, 2014).
Epidemiology
Fornace et al. (2014) have used a commercially available UAV
for mapping landscapes with the aim of detecting potential
areas for future human infections with the zoonotic malarial
parasite Plasmodium knowlesi. The flights were conducted in
two study sites in Sabah, Malaysia and one site in Palawan,
The Philippines. Spatial information to integrate movements
of human and macaque was recovered and analyzed to local-
ize the focus of epidemiology infections.
Jones (2014) provides a review about trends in plant virus
epidemiology, focusing on new or improved technologies ap-
plied to research in this topic. UAVs, equipped with different
sensors, are considered useful tools for the future to acquire
sufficient knowledge of different types of plant epidemics,
their development, and how they could be controlled.
Barasona et al. (2014) have used UAVs to capture informa-
tion about the spatial epidemiology distribution of tuberculo-
sis in the ungulate community in the Doñana National Park in
Southwestern Spain).
300 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
Humanitarian Localization and Rescue
When a disaster has occurred, people risk their own lives to
rescue others trapped due to the consequences of the event.
As mentioned before, disasters involve people requiring
urgent rescue. Tsunamis, earthquakes, shipwrecks, fires, or
nuclear leaks are typical examples of these events. Simulated
and real scenarios are used for experimentation with UAVs.
Rapid intervention is crucial in the early hours of the event
for effective search and rescue. With such purpose, Naidoo et
al. (2011) designed and simulated a stable UAV quad-copter
platform equipped with three main modules, each with
different sensors onboard: (a) communication (wireless and
radio controller); (b) vision system (cameras and sonar range
finders); and (c) attitude and heading reference system (GPS,
magnetometer, accelerometer, and gyroscope). This system
was successfully simulated.
Molina et al. (2012) used an unmanned helicopter
equipped with thermal and optical cameras for search and res-
cue, considering that operations could be conducted at night.
In search and rescue tasks, the time is a critical parameter
for the survival of the trapped or missing persons. Search
strategies in UAVs equipped with camera-based systems must
be optimized, so that the search is done focusing on areas
of maximum probability in minimum time. Cameras with
sufficient field-of-view for recognition, combined with ef-
ficient path planning strategies are suitable for such purpose,
such as the methods proposed in Lin and Goodrich (2009),
where different simulated scenarios were used for testing. In
this way, Lanillos (2013) proposed a minimum time-based
search strategy for moving targets in simulated scenarios with
uncertainty. Several agents (UAVs) collect information from
the sensors onboard for target identification and location. A
flight path planning process based on a probabilistic Bayesian
Ingenta was established for early actuation.
Mar 2020simulated observations, based on different alti-
17:42:02
tudes and sensor
andconfigurations
Remote Sensing were studied in Waharte and
Symington (2010) to assess the robustness of the target detec-
tion for the purpose of covering the full area to be examined.
A camera with birds-eye view, onboard a quad-copter, was
used for search and rescue in Symington et al. (2010), where a
tracking approach is proposed for a static target. Image video
sequences were used for training, where key-points invari-
ant to translations, rotations, and scale changes are used for
recognizing the target (persons) on the image. This goal was
achieved by applying image-based similarity measurements
and different parameters from the observation model to up-
date a recursive Bayesian estimator.
Rudol and Doherty (2008) combined thermal and color
imagery to locate areas with high probability of presence of
humans to be rescued. The thermal camera, mounted on a
pan-tilt-unit, discriminates temperatures and locates human
temperature ranges; the CCD color camera at a later stage veri-
fies the presence of persons. The UAV platform was a helicop-
ter with total length of 3.6 m, including the main motor and a
maximum TOW of 95 kg.
Coyle (2014) described some cases where UAVs have been
used for early rescue in snow avalanches. Fixed-wing aircraft
or rotary-wing copters, equipped with video cameras and
infrared imagery sensors, are mentioned.
Mardell et al. (2014) have applied simulation techniques to
compare the performance of image inspection modes for visual
search and rescue tasks in wilderness areas based on an UAV re-
mote sensing system.. Live video and serial visual image analy-
sis (a static image remains in view until replaced by a new image
rate) captured from a downward facing camera were analyzed.
Surveillance: Target Detection and Tracking
Surveillance is an important issue in UAVs applications; most
tasks described above involve this application. For example,
Desikan et al. (2013) used several UAVs to avoid un-authorized
entry in aquatic ecosystem (park) to enhance the conservation
of endangered aquatic species in its natural habitat.
Specifically, target detection and tracking are two impor-
tant challenges in surveillance: often with partial information,
because the target could be only partially observed due to large
areas not covered by the onboard sensors on. This challenge
occurs when tracking is conducted with sensors having a
limited field of view, such as camera-based or lasers. In image-
based applications, the key issue in target tracking is the object
matching between successive frames, so that an object can be
located from one frame to the next. This analysis is not with-
out significant problems in outdoor environments, such as the
ones reported in Kwon et al. (2013), where sunlight reflections
on water surfaces become confused with objects. Relevant fea-
tures of objects must be extracted to be matched; in this regard,
super-resolution techniques have been applied in video sur-
veillance for improving images quality (Camargo et al. 2010).
Al-Helal and Sprinkle (2010) and Siam and ElHelw (2012)
proposed a solution for tracking a target moving in the ground
based on visual detection, where significant features, such as
corners or specific lines are used for guiding the process.
Hong et al. (2008) applied a continuous wavelet-based ap-
proach for target tracking in video sequences for surveillance
purposes. They converted target trajectories in a spatial-
temporal domain into target energy volumes in the frequency
domain where different motion parameters were integrated to
obtain three target energy densities, which then serve as cost
functions for estimating target trajectories and sizes.
Vehicle detection, traffic tracking, and monitoring are top-
ics of special interest in surveillance, where UAVs can play
an important role. Coifman et al. (2006) proposed a roadway
monitoring approach form UAVs. Kanistrasy et al. (2013)
provided a survey on this area with additional references
to by Ingenta
Delivered
related topics, including road and IP:
moving vehicle detection,
200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02
vehicle counting, trafficCopyright:
flow and behavior. LiuSociety
et al. (2012)
American for Photogrammetry
used UAVs for moving vehicle detection and tracking based on
similarity measurements between consecutive frames in the
video stream. Skoglar et al. (2012) proposed a method to track
several vehicles on roads based on vision sensor with gimbal
capabilities. All targets are monitored with simultaneous ac-
tive search, and also for identifying new targets. The vision
sensor is oriented towards the field of interest.
Xiao et al. (2008) and Miller et al. (2008) proposed sev-
eral techniques for tracking persons in video sequences from
UAVs. The first work used video cameras for tracking ground
vehicles and the second one used infrared images.
A target tracking approach, based on a monocular camera
(pinhole model), for determining ranges from UAVs to objects
was the approach proposed in Choi and Kim (2014). A guid-
ance law is also proposed for such purpose.
Different transformations and approaches have been
proposed for target detection and tracking. SIFT and variants
such as the Mean SIFT, were proposed with the aim of match-
ing objects in successive frames (Fang et al., 2011; Chao-Jian
and San-Xue, 2011). Gleason et al. (2011) described a method
based on Mean SIFT for vehicle detection and tracking in rural
areas with the aim of detecting potential threats in oil and gas
pipelines with extension to other applications in these kinds
of environments. Automatic aerial surveillance systems in
buried gas and oil pipelines based on UAVs were considered in
Zaréa et al. (2014).
Fang et al. (2011) proposed particle filtering based on the
mean-shift algorithm captured with an UAV. Rodríguez-Canosa
et al. (2012) described a compensated optical flow-based
approach between consecutive frames for tracking objects,
where low frequency vibrations caused by the UAV are con-
veniently balanced. Lin and Saripalli (2012) applied a Hough
transform-based approach for road detection and tracking in
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 301
desert environments from images acquired with a commercial
camera onboard an autonomous helicopter. Ruangwiset (2009)
introduced a path planning strategy for target tracking from
UAVs. A chaotic biogeography-based optimization approach to
target detection has been proposed in Zhang and Duan (2014)
where the chaotic strategy, the dynamic ergodicity popula-
tion and global searching avoid local optimal solutions during
evolution. An inter-row tree tracking technique was applied
in Thamrin et al. (2012) based on Structure from Motion (SfM).
Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring operations are an interesting area
inside remote sensing, where UAV technology has much to
contribute. Research in this field is one of the key pillars
(Hardin and Hardin, 2010). Anderson and Gaston (2013)
provided a broad revision of UAV-based applications covering
several areas, where ecology is one of the most relevant. A
review was conducted under the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP, 2013) where drones are used to work in a
broad variety of ecosystems.
The topics addressed under the environmental monitoring
topic include: volcanic inspections, soil erosion, landslides or
rocky surfaces, aquatic environments, canopy in the understo-
rey, rural roads, and geological hazard analysis.
Volcanic Inspections
Volcanic inspections and monitoring are risky activities
where UAVs are appropriate tools (Smith et al., 2009). The
experiments carried out in volcanic areas are intended for
predicting eruptions and for issuing possible warning to resi-
dents. These explorations are on-going, (McGarry, 2005).
NASA (2015c) flew modified Dragon-eye drones, fixed-wing,
with a weight of 2.7 kg and payload of 500 g, for monitoring
the Turrialba Volcano in Costa Rica with the aim to study gas
emissions and ash clouds inside the volcanic plume (Wil-
liams, 2014). Pieri et al. (2014) described how to acquire
Mar 2020 17:42:02 including gases (CO , CH , H S, He)
different measurements, 2 4 2
and and
aerosols Remote
liquid (H2SOSensing
4, HCl) at the same time atmospheric
data (temperature, humidity, pressure, wind velocity) are
obtained with UAVs in the Turrilba Volcano, Costa Rica. In
this line are focused the works described in Mondragón et al.
(2015) for volcano inspections and hydrothermal alterations
at mountains of Poas and Irazu (Costa Rica) with a multi-rotor
UAV equipped with thermal and visible cameras. McGonigle
et al. (2008) conducted different experiments to measure
volcanic gases at La Fossa crater, Vulcano Island, Italy with a
multi-gas sensor (see the Chemical Sensors subsection). This
device was used in Shinohara (2013) for analyzing gas emis-
sions in Shinmoedake, Kirishima Volcano, Japan.
Amici et al. (2013) described the inspection of the Le Sa-
linelle, Italian mud volcano on the lower South West flank of
the Etna Volcano. The UAV is configured as a hexa-copter with
a 1.7 kg payload, equipped with a lightweight thermal system
of 67 g and spectral response in the range at 2 µm to 14 µm
and a PAL video camera with weight of 600 g.
Soils
Soil erosion analysis, hazard monitoring, reflectance proper-
ties, and 3D modeling are motivating applications where UAVs
can play an important role.
Frankenberger et al. (2008) evaluated the feasibility of us-
ing low-altitude (100 m) photogrammetry to assess ephemeral
gully erosion at agricultural fields after rainfall events. DEMs
were built for analysis from surface images acquired with
a commercial camera onboard an UAV and checked against
ground-based systems, such as terrestrial lidar.
Hazard monitoring, for rockslides in Randa (Wallis, Swiss
Alps), was addressed in Eisenbeiss (2009). The images were
acquired with a still video camera on-board an unmanned
helicopter.
 Land reflectance (bidirectional reflectance factor) has been
studied and different measures obtained in Hakala et al.
(2010). The UAV is a quad-rotor with 55 cm from side-to-side
and payload around 300 g. A set of images were acquired with
a CCD commercial camera with weight of 200 g, from multiple
views for subsequent analysis.
A quad-copter equipped with a commercial digital camera
was used in Carvajal et al. (2011) to characterize landslides,
with sufficient accuracy, located on the size of a road in the
Abla municipality in Almeria, Spain.
In the context of temporal image analysis, object change de-
tection is the problem addressed in Shi et al. (2011) where an
area in Guangzhou, China was studied by applying image pro-
cessing and classification techniques including principal com-
ponent analysis, Mean-Shift, and K-Means. The georeferenced
images were acquired from an UAV. A time series analysis, over
four years, was used in Turner et al. (2015) for studying land-
slides dynamics from high-resolution images captured with
a RGB consumer-grade camera onboard an octo-copter (with
payload capacity of 2 kg). They applied SfM to create DSMs.
Niethammer et al. (2011 and 2012) used a quad-rotor
equipped with a digital camera for monitoring hazards in
areas affected by landslides (Super-Sauze landslide on the
north-face in the Barcelonnette Basin in Southern French
Alps), where temporal and spatial imaging changes are ana-
lyzed and DTM built for analysis. Landslide dynamics were
also investigated in Stumpf et al. (2012 and 2013) building
maps from images and also in Huang et al. (2011) for warn-
ing and emergency purposes in highway design in China. SfM
was applied in Lucieer et al. (2014a) to obtain a 3D model of
a landslide in southeast of Tasmania based on multi-view im-
age frames obtained from an octo-copter with approximately
80 cm in diameter and TOW of 3 kg. It is equipped with an
autopilot, navigation-grade GPS receiver, and a commercial
Delivered by Genchi et al. (2015) using a hexa-copter to evaluate the
standard camera. Rau et al. (2011) used IP:a 200.23.135.16
fixed-wing UAV with
On: Mon,applicability
3 kg of payload for landslide detection American
Copyright: in Taiwan,Society
equippedfor Photogrammetry
with a consumer digital camera, a flight control computer,
a Garmin GPS receiver, and an attitude heading reference
system. An automatic algorithm was proposed based on the
object-based image analysis in advance and applying aerial
triangulation, ortho-image generation, and mosaicking. A
fixed-wing UAV with 2.4 m wingspan used in Lin et al. (2010)
for monitoring mountain hazards.
Soil monitoring was carried out in d’Oleire-Oltmanns
(2012) in the Souss Basin, Morocco in order to determine
the possible impact on soil erosion due to land leveling for
new land use. A fixed-wing aircraft with wingspan of 163
cm, length of 120 cm, and 2.3 kg of weight is employed; it is
equipped with a digital camera with 550 g.
Morillas et al. (2013) studied the surface energy balance
in Mediterranean dry-lands, considering soil and vegetation
components, and under water stress conditions. Part of this
study was carried out with an UAV, 2 m wingspan fixed-wing
with 5.8 kg TOW, equipped with a thermal camera with spec-
tral response in the range of 8 μm - 12 μm.
The identification of agricultural terraces was addressed in
Diaz-Varela et al. (2014) based on the assumption that these
areas are specific ecosystems. They applied a classification
approach based on the computation of ortho-rectified digital
surface models. The UAV carries a modified camera from RGB
to CIR by removing the internal NIR filter. The UAV platform
is a 2 m wingspan fixed-wing platform with up to one-hour
endurance at 5.8 kg TOW.
Experimental analysis based on simulated rainfall and
gully mapping were conducted by Peter et al. (2014).
Haas et al. (2014) have integrated ground surveys for
textural and morphological patterns at an alluvial fan surface
through a lightweight (1.1 kg) UAV, with a wingspan of 1.2 m
and equipped with a RGB consumer-grade camera. The goal
302 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
was to study discharges and sediment-transport capacities to
estimate the efficiency of weathering and runoff. SfM was used
as a photogrammetric technique for subsequent DEM produc-
tion. UAVs imagery and georeferencing was applied in Barreiro
et al. (2014) to obtain topographic information regarding the
runoff due to water flow during extreme rain events utilizing
photogrammetry. Simulation results defining how water can
flow into a close road was carried out.
Templeton et al. (2014) combined an environmental sen-
sor network and UAV-based imagery for studying hydrologic
processes in semiarid watersheds exhibiting a high degree of
spatial heterogeneity and seasonal evolution in land surface
characteristics from DTMs, derived from UAV images captured
with a consumer-grade camera.
As reported in Chen et al. (2014) the China Institute of
Geological Environment Monitoring conducted a research on
the characterization of the landslide at Daguangbao, which
was induced by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. The damage
pattern was analyzed by combining the pre-seismic remote
sensing image interpretation of QuickBird and SPOT5 satellite
imagery data, with post-seismic aerial imagery of the land-
slide area collected by airborne instrumentation in an UAV.
Geological structures of rocky surfaces at Piccaninny Point
on the east coast of Tasmania, Australia were studied in
Vasuki et al. (2014) for detecting faults, joints, and fractures
based on imaging analysis. Images were captured with a digi-
tal commercial camera onboard an octo-copter, where SfM is
the approach applied for 3D structure determination.
Soil erosion was also addressed by the USGS unmanned
aerial system program in USGS (2015b), more specifically
referred to monitoring the shoreline of the Missouri River on
the Lower Brule Reservation. Bioerosion, caused by burrow-
ing parrots on a cliff in Bahía Blanca (Argentina), was studied
in Ingenta
02 Mar 2020 of the 3D model based on SfM.
17:42:02
and Remote Sensing
Aquatic Environments
Aquatic environments are of particular relevance in terms of
their protection and study because they generate ecosystems,
providing protection to different species of fauna and flora. In
this regard, UAVs were identified to play an important role. Ob-
servation of rivers for detecting water pollution and green algae
coverage or monitoring river boundaries, bridges, and coast-
lines is another relevant issue in such environments. Monitor-
ing of such spaces represents a high priority challenge to detect
changes in aquatic conditions for early response or monitoring.
Rathinam et al. (2007) used a fixed wing UAV equipped with
visible and NIR imagery collection systems for identifying and
mapping a river structure, including bridges. Liu et al. (2009)
developed an UAV equipped with multispectral imagery system
for quick-response when drinking-water pollution occurs. All
sensors are integrated onboard the UAV, and the CCD-based cam-
eras were calibrated and tested along a river. Wawrzyniak et al.
(2013) used thermal imagery for water temperature prediction in
braided rivers. Flynn and Chapra (2014) used a RGB commercial
digital camera installed on a quad-rotor (with payload of 200 g)
to analyze the spatial and temporal distribution of filamentous
green algae on the Clark Fork River in western Montana.
Coastal areas in the Campania (Italy) have been scanned
in Lega and Napoli (2010) through a FLIR system onboard dif-
ferent platforms, including an ultra-light machine, a tethered
balloon, and two types of UAV: a conventional shape mini-
blimp and a Hybrid LTA (Lighter than Air) vehicle.
Fresh water wetlands areas were identified in Li et al.
(2010) with an imaging system onboard of an airship, from
which different mosaics were produced.
Surveillance for tagging free drifting icebergs was proposed
by McGill et al. (2011) using video cameras, where the access
to hidden areas in the iceberg provides excellent potential for
observation. Two UAVs with 2.0 and 2.8 m wing-span, fuel engine,
and payload of 2.27 kg were used for their high stability. They
were equipped with a video system with a small overlay board.
RGB, NIR, and thermal mosaicked images were analyzed
in Jensen et al. (2012) for determining the temperature in
streams, once the land is separated out in the image mosaics.
They used an UAV (AggieAir, 2015) for this application. This
fixed-wing platform was designed for riparian and wetlands
applications (Jensen et al., 2011) and was also used in Zaman
et al. (2011) to quantify the spread of invasive grass species,
Phragmites australis, in a large and important wetland in
northern Utah.
Sediments, oil spills, or other pollutants can be also de-
tected and tracked in aquatic environments. This task is car-
ried out in Zang et al. (2012) with a fixed-wing UAV with the
following specifications: airframe length of 1.8 m, wingspan
of 2.8 m, maximum TOW of 15 kg, and payload 3 -3.55 kg. The
UAV is equipped with a digital RGB commercial camera and a
multispectral device in the spectral range of RGB and NIR.
Monitoring of swamps was carried out in Lechner et al.
(2012); the purpose is to protect species sensitive to changes in
hydrological conditions. Object-based image analysis methods
were applied to characterize swamp land-cover on the Newnes
Plateau in the Blue Mountains near Sydney, Australia. A fixed-
wing UAV with 2 m wingspan weighing approximately 3.9 kg
was the platform used. It is equipped with a commercial cam-
era with the spectral range coverage modified by a NIR filter.
Monitoring of Eriophorum vaginatum at Mer Bleue peat-
land was carried out by Kalacska et al. (2013) because of its
relevance in methane exchanges in large areas. A rotorcraft
1.2 m long with a main rotor diameter of 1.3 m was used.
Video images were recorded in RGB to generate georeferenced
mosaics. The content of each mosaic was classified to identify
E. vaginatum tussock cover using a supervised classification
Delivered by Ingenta
approach based on multi-distance IP: cluster analysis.
200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 aircraft with wingspan
Ouédraogo et al. (2014) determined
Copyright: micro-topography
American
Society for Photogrammetry
changes in watersheds with high agricultural activity. This
study was based on the analysis of agricultural structures
(crops, furrows, ridges) affecting the topography through the
generation of high precision DEMs.
Biodiversity Analysis
From the point of view of biodiversity analysis, Getzin et al.
(2012) determined the floristic diversity in the forest under-
storey. This application is environmental monitoring where
gaps in the canopy are analyzed with the goal of preserving
structural diversity and niche differences within habitats for
stabilizing species coexistence, which was achieved utilizing
the high-resolution RGB images captured with a fixed-wing
UAV. Later, Getzin et al. (2014) have studied gap distributions
in forest canopies to determine the regeneration of trees based
on statistical analysis, which was achieved using high spatial
resolutions (7 cm/pixel) based on RGB ortho-rectified images
acquired from a UAV with weight of 6 kg and wing span of 2 m.
Also regarding biodiversity analysis, land-use change
monitoring is an important application to control greenhouse
gas emissions and biodiversity loss (Wich and Koh, 2012).
Rural Roads and Geological Infrastructures
Unpaved roads in rural environments were monitored with
the aim of identification and surface inspection (Zhang, 2014). dichroic-coated prisms to single monochrome CCDs. The multi-
The platform used was a helicopter with payload of 680 g
equipped with a digital commercial camera together with a
navigation system (GPS/INS). Also, rural roads were monitored
in Zhang (2014), where stereo-based techniques are applied to
obtain 3D orientation with a RGB camera onboard a helicopter
as an UAV. Geological hazard analysis is considered in Qian et
al. (2012) to early detection of anomalies and to prevent disas-
ters on infrastructure such as roads or bridges.
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 303
Vegetation: Classification, Coverage, and Development
Vegetation analysis, including classification and identification
(Ishihama et al., 2012), coverage, and development are also an
application area where UAVs can be used successfully. Even
at some point, kites and balloons, equipped with commercial
cameras, have been used for monitoring vegetation in perigla-
cial areas in Alaska (Boike and Yoshikawa, 2003). Ecology is
an area highly benefited by the use of UAVs where the versatil-
ity and maneuverability of such vehicles, equipped with dif-
ferent sensors, offer researchers and end users and excellent
opportunity (Anderson and Gaston, 2013).
Vegetation analysis in agriculture, forestry, and forest map-
ping is excluded here, as it was considered in the Agriculture
and Forestry Section.
Reid et al. (2011) and Bryson et al. (2010) applied texture
descriptors to classify vegetation in natural and farmland
environments from images captured with a machine vision
system installed on a fixed-wing UAV.
Rangeland ecosystems cover large areas for different uses
including natural habitat, recreational opportunities, or cattle
forage. UAVs were early identified for applications in this con-
text (Hardin and Jackson, 2005). McGwire et al. (2013) used
NDVI for comparing spatial variability in green leaf cover
of semi-arid rangeland areas based on images captured with
UAVs and Landsat Thematic Mapper with 2 cm and 30 m reso-
lution, respectively. The UAV was a 1.4 m length with a main
rotor span of 1.58 m and tail rotor span of 27 cm equipped
with a CMOS imaging chip, capturing images in wavelengths
ranges of green, red, and NIR comparable to CIR images and TM
bands 2, 3, and 4.
From the point of view of the classification paradigm, La-
liberte et al. (2011) proposed imagery to obtain orthorectified
mosaics with radiometric calibration for rangeland vegetation
classification based on rule-based approaches. A fixed-wing
Mar 2020 17:42:02 of 1.8 kg and 10 kg is the platform
used, which
wasRemote
and equipped with three sensors: a forward look-
Sensing
ing color video camera, a digital RGB camera installed on the
wing, and a multispectral (700 g) sensor on the nose, consist-
ing of six individual CMOS digital cameras, arranged in a 2 × 3
array and using filters with center wavelengths from 450 nm
- 850 nm. Rango et al. (2009), Laliberte and Rango (2009 and
2011), and Laliberte et al. (2010) proposed an image texture-
based method for determining the coverage of rangelands with
different textures by applying several scales in ortho-rectified
mosaics. The platform was also the one used in Laliberte et
al. (2011), and the classification approach used was: object-
based, rule-based, and textured-based (homogeneity, con-
trast, dissimilarity, entropy, angular second moment, mean,
standard deviation, correlation, entropy). Later, Laliberte et al.
(2011) analyzed different geometric errors of image mosaics
and classification accuracies at different levels of detail in
rangelands with the platform and sensors described above.
Different types of vegetation were classified in Arnold et al.
(2012 and 2013), through vegetation indices, based on an im-
agery multi-spectral system, consisting of three visible bands
(400 nm - 590 nm, 500 nm - 590 nm, 590 nm - 670 nm) and
two infrared bands (670 nm - 850 nm, 850 nm - 1000 nm). The
images were acquired simultaneously with multiple CCD arrays
where the incoming light is projected with specially designed
spectral system was mounted on an unmanned helicopter.
Kelcey and Lucieer (2013) applied different texture de-
scriptors for describing both vegetation and non-vegetation
areas based on the co-occurrence descriptor and the random
forest machine-learning technique in ortho-mosaics. Knoth
et al. (2013) classified four different types of vegetation using
NIR imagery for monitoring restoration in cutover bogs.
Regarding the coverage analysis, Breckenridge et al. (2011)
and Breckenridge and Dakins (2011) used a camera based
system onboard a fixed-wing and a helicopter to analyze vegeta-
tion coverage in bare ground. The data provided by the UAVs
were compared against field estimates, showing good agree-
ment for the measurement of bare ground, particularly with the
helicopter. Breckenridge et al. (2012) estimated the percentage
of coverage in six different types of vegetative (live and dead
shrub, grass, forbs, litter, and bare ground). The final goal in the
above three works was to analyze the ecosystem sustainability.
Suzuki et al. (2010) determined the vegetation coverage
through visible and infrared cameras on-board a fixed-wing
UAV that allows building images mosaics with the help of the
GPS and the IMU. Strecha et al. (2012) proposed the combina-
tion of NIR and visible images to produce orthoimages and
DEMs with machine vision systems installed on UAVs. The goal
was to build vegetation maps to monitor different species.
An unmanned helicopter, with 0.57 kg weight capable
of lifting an 11.5 kg payload with a fuel engine, was used in
Xiang and Tian (2011) to monitor turf grass glyphosate appli-
cation based on multi-spectral CMOS sensor consisting of three
bands (green, 520 nm - 620 nm, red 620 nm - 750 nm, and
NIR 750 nm - 950 nm). The UAV was equipped with additional
sensors: GPS, IMU, video-transmitter, wireless router, single
board computer, and flight controller.
The third topic considered is vegetation development
from different points of view. Imagery-based data from UAVs,
combined with satellite information, were used for studying
vegetation development in braided areas in the French Alps.
The flow of rivers and wind are relevant for the transport of
seeds (Hervouet, 2011).
Lucieer et al. (2010, 2011, 2012, and 2014c) and later
Turner et al. (2014a) in a broad and extensive research, com-
piled in such references, applied SfM and SIFT techniques for
3D mapping of moss beds in Antarctica to determine their
extent along the terrain. They also obtained a thematicDelivered
map
by Ingenta
of moss health derived from the multispectral mosaic using a
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon,
Modified Triangular Vegetation Index (American
MTVI) and an indicative
Copyright: Society for Photogrammetry
map of moss surface temperature. For these tasks, they used
two UAVs depending on the goal to be achieved: (a) an electric
helicopter capable of lifting 1.5 kg; and (b) an autopilot octo-
copter with payload of 1 to 1.5 kg. Three sensors which were
used sometimes individually and sometimes all together: (a)
visible digital camera weighing approx. 355 g; (b) multispec-
tral six-band sensor with wavelengths at 530 nm, 550 nm,
580 nm, 670 nm, 700 nm, and 800 nm, determined by 10 nm
filters; and (c) a FLIR thermal sensor. A motion compensated
gimbal mount stabilizes these devices. In addition, the vigor
of these moss beds was addressed in Lucieer et al. (2014b)
using the HyperUAS (see the Multispectral and Hyperspectral
subsection). This was achieved by studying the photosyn-
thetic activity based on the ability to acquire images with
high spatial and spectral resolutions. Different experiments
were conducted to assess the performance in georeferencing
and ortho-rectification that allows the generation of precise
mosaics and DSMs. This HyperUAS allows the quantification of
chlorophyll content and biomass in pasture and barley crop
by computing optical vegetation indices with relevant traits,
namely: NDVI, transformed chlorophyll absorption in reflec-
tance index (TCARI), and optimized soil-adjusted vegetation
index (OSAVI).
Negative impact analysis relating to the invasion of grass-
land by woody shrubs was addressed in Rango et al. (2011)
with the aim of reversing this situation to the original one by
analyzing historical data. In this application, UAVs turn out to
be an excellent tool where ranchers and scientists have ex-
ploited their abilities. A fixed-wing UAV was used, equipped
with a consumer visual digital camera in the wing and a
video camera in the nose. The UAV is catapult launched using
a gasoline engine.
304 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
Bueren et al. (2015) tested and compared four (visible, vis-
ible + IR, multispectral, and hyperspectral) sensors onboard
two octo-copters to capture the reflectance from grasslands.
Their challenges and limitations were discussed.
Feng et al. (2015) have analyzed urban vegetation using
random forest and texture analysis. Off-the-shelf RGB digital
cameras, onboard a fixed-wing UAV with 2.5 m wingspan and
a length 0f 1.58 m, were used.
Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is a traditional topic in combination with
remote sensing. UAVs equipped with sufficient sensor tech-
nologies are able to obtain remote measurements from images,
which are conveniently processed in order to produce: 3D
terrain mapping with Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) or DSMs
with shapes, surface reconstruction, elevation contours, or
features. All these products are useful for cartography and
topography, where ortho-images are also final or intermedi-
ate products. Generally, photogrammetry is the support for
other applications. Sometimes, the quality of photogram-
metric products, such as orthophotos, is not always achieved
successfully because of the movement of the UAV or due to
overlapping errors that require special treatments (Samad et
al., 2013). In this regard, studies conducted toward validation
of measurements with robust processing methods are useful
to determine and obtain sufficient quality (Rieke et al., 2011;
Mesas-Carrascosa et al., 2014, Ai et al. 2015).
Figure 10 displays a DSM built from images captured with
a visible camera (Courtesy of QuantaLab-IAS-CSIC, Cordoba,
Spain). The goal of photogrammetry with respect to UAVs is to
achieve similar or higher accuracies to the ones obtained with
airborne-based systems (Haala et al., 2011; Remondino et al.,
2011; Strecha, 2011; Liu et al., 2011) where rapid rotational
or translation movements in UAVs increase the difficulty of
image orientation for subsequent processing, requiring precise
02 Mar 2020 17:42:02
registration or matching techniques. Colomina and Molina
(2014) provide and
an Remote review
extensive Sensingrelated to data processing
techniques considering that, in the context of photogramme-
try from UAVs, their performance is similar to products from
piloted, airborne-based systems. In this regard, the revision
is focused on three main topics: (a) image orientation for
navigation and camera calibration to cope with the problem
of irregularity of frames acquired from UAVs, where computer
vision techniques provide some solutions, such as SfM or
automatic tie point generation based on point detection and
descriptors with sufficient accuracies like SIFT, their variants
and many others; and (b) surface reconstruction, to obtain
DSM and ortho-photos with sufficient accuracies in point
cloud generation and densification, including multi-view
stereopsis techniques.
In the context of photogrammetry, some National Mapping
and Cadastral agencies have considered and acquired UAVs to
develop some activities and products within its competence
(Cramer et al., 2013). A brief list of some examples is as fol-
lows: spatial data infrastructures, geodesy, GIS, cartography,
topographic mapping, cadastral applications, mapping for
emergencies, erosion, or change detection. In this regard, Eyn-
dt and Volkmann (2013) reported that UAVs suitably equipped
can accomplish these tasks well. Also, Mesas-Carrascosa et al.
(2014) analyzed the potential use of very high resolution UAV
imagery to measure the area of land plots to monitor land pol-
icies. The fixed-wing UAV, with a 2 m wingspan and TOW 5.8
kg was operated by people of the QuantaLab-IAS-CSIC (2014)
team and equipped with a six-band multispectral camera.
Object reconstruction and modeling are also feasible from
remotely sensed data. An important issue addressed in pho-
togrammetry is the validation of measurements from images
for achieving the maximum accuracy possible (Gini et al.,
2013). Feature detectors (SIFT) and image matching techniques
 Figure 10. Digital Surface Model built from images captured with a visible light camera (Image courtesy of QuantaLab-ias-csic, Cordoba, Spain).

(least-squares) were evaluated in Lingua et al. (2009) for DSM
generation. The images were acquired with an off-the-shelf
visible light camera.
Progress related to machine learning-based techniques for
DSMs generation has reinforced its use for images acquired
from UAVs (Rosnell et al. 2011).
Virtual reality is another issue closely related to pho-
togrammetry. In this way, Linkugel and Schilling (2013)
Delivered by Ingenta
proposed a simulation system where a micro- UAV is used
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 in Mar
for computing 3D measures for virtual
Copyright: reality purposes.
American The
Society for
Photogrammetry
mathematical model was described, including all aerodynam-
ic parameters of the UAV toward the definition of the geomet-
ric modeling based on different sensors.
Digital elevation models and 3D mapping with DSM or DTM
production together with mosaicking with geo- and ortho-
rectification are two main topics inside photogrammetry;
both are considered separated here, although they are closely
related.
3D Mapping, Digital Surface, Elevation, and Terrain Models
Nex and Remondino (2014) and Remondino et al. (2011)
provided a review with new insights and proposal for differ-
ent photogrammetry-based applications, including 3D digital
terrain or 3D textured models. Photogrammetric approaches, in-
cluding topographic maps with slopes, have been described in
Tahar et al. (2011 and 2012) oriented to landslides applications.
Hugenholtz et al. (2013) evaluated the accuracy in DTM
production using a fixed-wing UAV that weighs less than 6.2 kg
and equipped with an off-the-shelf CCD-based visible camera.
Different works have been proposed for 3D model genera-
tion. In this regard, point cloud generation is a task of interest
for 3D mapping accuracy, a procedure for such a purpose was
proposed in Rosnell and Honkavaara (2012) with two RGB-
based digital still CCD-cameras. Two quad-copters were used,
which were able to carry 300 g and 1.2 kg payload, equipped
with cameras weighing 180 g and 448 g, respectively.
Neitzel et al. (2011) used an octo-copter (1.2 kg net weight
or TOW 2 kg with camera) for 3D mapping landfills with the
aim of determining its volume and quantity based on point
cloud computation. 3D building models are obtained in Jizhou
et al. (2004) using a fixed-wing UAV equipped with a CCD-based were built from the remotely sensed data based on different
camera. They captured oblique images to obtain relevant parts
of buildings instead of using a pair of images as usual.
Harwin and Lucieer (2012a and 2012b) applied multi-
view stereovision (MVS) techniques to obtain 3D structure
from overlapping imagery captured from multiple angles. An
octo-copter with approximate payload limit of 1 kg is the UAV
used. It was equipped with a stabilized camera mount to carry
different sensors, including a commercial digital camera. A
very dense point cloud was produced with sufficient accura-
cy. Accuracy is a central issue in photogrammetry as reported
Küng2020
et al.17:42:02
(2011a) and Vallet et al. (2011), where different
experiments
have
and been carried
Remote Sensingout with light UAVs, weighing
less than 500 g with maximum payload of 125 g. Different
methods and strategies for point cloud generation from digital
images captured with UAVs flying at relatively low altitudes
were also addressed in Siebert and Teizer (2014) for 3D map-
ping in mapping earthwork projects.
Regarding digital surface models, a laser scanner, two CCD-
based digital cameras (with weights of 500 g each) and two
infrared devices (NIR sensitivity with 500 g) were integrated
together with an IMU and GPS in Nagai et al. (2009) for such a
purpose. A 3D shape is obtained by the laser scanner as point
cloud data, texture information is acquired by the digital cam-
eras, and vegetation indexes are acquired by the IR cameras
simultaneously. The UAV is a helicopter with weight of 330 kg
and payload of 100 kg with two main rotors (4.8 m diameter)
and two tail rotors (diameter of 0.8 m).
High-resolution surface models are possible by using UAVs
flying at low altitudes. Mancini et al. (2013) developed a
method based on SfM to build such models in unstructured
coastal environments. An electric hexacopter was the UAV
used, with a 1 m diameter and total weight of approximately
5 kg, and equipped with a digital camera. Walker (2012) also
addressed the topic of coastal management applications.
In Delacourt et al. (2009) DEMs and orthorectified images,
acquired from and helicopter, are built with high spatial
resolutions (<5 cm). The system was tested on the beach of
Porsmillin (French Brittany) for the quantification of morpho-
sedimentary changes of the coastal fringe, including cross-
shore and long-shore sediment transport.
Imagery change detection techniques for topographical
reconstruction were applied in Xuan (2011), where DSMs
techniques, including: triangulation, DEM generation, ortho-
imaging, and mosaicking. Two types of UAVs were used: (a)

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 305

three blimps of nylon with helium bottles for inflating with
lengths of 12.4 m to 18.3m and payload between 6 to 15 kg;
and (b) three fixed-wing models, with lengths of 2.0 m to 2.8
m with a payload between 2 to 5 kg.
Whitehead et al. (2013) measured surface motion and
elevation changes of an Arctic glacier based on image process-
ing techniques. They used UAVs and then a piloted helicopter.
A DEM and an ortho-mosaic were generated with accuracies
comparable to those obtained from a fixed-wing UAV with
payload of approx. 0.5 kg.
Bathymetry measurements, obtained with very high spatial
resolution imagery sensors onboard UAVs, were obtained for
producing DEMs and studying the riverbed of the Ain and the
Drôme rivers in France (Lejot et al. 2007).
Aerial photography was combined with mobile lidar on
the ground for obtaining a seamless DTM with the purpose
of studying changes in river channels and their floodplains
(Flener et al. 2007).
Yun et al. (2012) and Kim et al. (2013) proposed the use of
a 3G Smart phone onboard a fixed-wing UAV, with all devices
previously calibrated, including the camera for photogram-
metric purposes. The system was programmed based on the
Android operating system.
Matsuoka et al. (2012) applied photogrammetry-based
techniques for deformation measurements, with sufficient
accuracy, of a large-scale solar power plant. They used im-
ages acquired with a calibrated, non-digital camera onboard a
quad-copter and based on a sufficient number of ground con-
trol points. Control points are relevant features in photogram-
metry for product generation as tested in Chiang et al. (2012).
An UAV with wingspan of 5 m and payload of 25 kg was used.
Manyoky et al. (2011) reported that UAVs were tested for
capturing geodata and compared with conventional acqui-
sition methods for cadastral applications. Two different
Delivered by
methods (tachymetry/GNSS and an UAVIP: ) were applied in two
200.23.135.16 On: Mon,
test areas in Switzerland: (a) a mountainous area in Krattigen;
Copyright: American Society for Photogrammetry
and (b) a suburban area in Campus Science City ETH Zurich.
Regarding the UAV, an octo-copter with payload of 500 g was
used. It was equipped with a GNSS, a barometric height sensor,
a compass, an IMU, and a commercial camera weighing 265 g.
Cadastral surveys were carried out by Cunningham et al.
(2011) in rural areas in Alaska for generating orthomosaics,
from an UAV-mounted camera, with the purpose of testing
other sensors (lidar, SAR) also for cadastral mapping. Hinsberg
et al. (2013) used images acquired from an UAV for boundary
identification, obtaining sufficient accuracies in the experi-
ments carried out in Austerlitz and the City of Nunspeet,
Netherlands. DEMs quality represents a challenge for cadastral
applications. In this regard, Berteška and Ruzgienė (2013)
have analyzed this issue using a fixed-wing UAV platform
with wingspan of 1.8 m and a take-off weight around 4 kg,
equipped with an off-the-shelf CCD-based camera.
Immerzeel et al. (2014) applied stereovision and SfM to de-
rive highly detailed ortho-mosaics and DEMs by using a fixed-
wing UAV with a wingspan of 80 cm and a take-off capacity
of 0.5 kg. It is equipped with a digital camera triggered by the
autopilot system. The goal was the observation of debris-cov-
ered tongue of the Lirung Glacier in Nepal before and after the
melt and monsoon season. Stereovision is also the technique
applied in Stefanik et al. (2011) for terrain 3D mapping. The
stabilized stereovision system consisted of two gray cameras
with a baseline of 1.5 m plus an IMU with total weight of 28 kg
onboard an autonomous helicopter with payload of 94 kg.
DSMs products were also obtained, with accuracy and
precision, in Tonkin et al. (2014) from a large glacial circle at
Cwm Idwal, North Wales, by applying SfM to images acquired
with a hexa-copter equipped with a digital RGB commer-
cial camera. High-resolution spatial analysis of mountain
306 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
landscapes was also carried out in Wundram and Loffler
(2008) based on DEM production.
Mosaicking, Ortho- and Geo-rectification
Images acquired with UAVs cover relatively small land areas;
hence, automatic mosaicking and rectification are required
for covering larger areas when required. Most applications
described above were based on mosaic and ortho-rectified
images. Here, only specific aspects regarding both topics are
addressed.
Mosaicking and ortho-rectification are products obtained
in real-time from video streams (Zhou, 2009), where the UAV
platform has 1.53 m (length) × 1.53 m (height), with wingspan
of 2.44 m, weight of 10 kg and payload of 2.3 kg. Different
efficient methods have been proposed for accuracy in the gen-
eration of such products, including SIFT for matching (Xing
et al., 2010a and 2010b; Xing, 2010; Yang et al., 2013). The
efficiency in the generation of these products with UAVs, with
relatively high ease of use, has led to considerable advances
from the point of view of remote sensing in the last few years
(Zhao et al., 2006). SIFT is also the method used in Zhang et
al. (2011) with overlapped images captured from UAVs to pro-
duce photogrammetric products.
Feature matching and SfM were used in Turner et al. (2012)
for geometric correction and mosaicking. The images were
processed to create three-dimensional point clouds, which are
used to build DTMs; then, images are mosaicked. An octo-cop-
ter, with a digital commercial camera, is the UAV used with
payload limit of approximately 1 kg.
Turner et al. (2014a) applied a direct georeferencing tech-
nique by synchronizing the camera exposure time with the
position of each airframe recorded by a GPS. Image processing
techniques were used to eliminate blurry images and images
with excessive overlapping. They compared three different
Ingenta
software methods using an octo-copter with payload capability
02 to
Mar 2020 17:42:02
of up 2 kg, equipped with a commercial and stabilized digi-
tal camera. andimage
Direct Remote Sensing using the UAVs georef-
georeferencing
erencing was previously tested in Bláha et al. (2011) using and
octo-copter with payload of 500 g and equipped with a camera,
three magnetometers, a barometric altimeter, an INS and a GPS.
In the context of agriculture, an automatic image-based
UAV system was developed in Xiang and Tian (2011) to obtain
georeferenced images for mosaicking and ortho-rectification.
The system was a helicopter, a CMOS multispectral camera
ranging from 520 nm to 950 nm, an IMU, a differentially-cor-
rected GPS, a single board computer (SBC), a flight controller, a
pulse-width modulation switch, a wireless router, and a video
transmitter.
Mayr (2011) reported on the applicability of a 1.1 kg fixed
wing UAV in photogrammetry for building ortho-mosaics and
DSMs through several examples, and Gülch, (2012) for photo-
grammetric measurements using different software packages.
Regarding the orthorectification, Mesas-Carrascosa et al.
(2014) have studied the positional quality of orthophotos
obtained with an off-the-shelf commercial digital camera
onboard a quad-copter with maximum payload of 1.2 kg.
Aerial triangulation, DSM generation, and mosaicking were the
processing techniques applied.
Because of the large amount of data provided by UAVs
equipment, Stødle et al. (2014) proposed a system for 3D data
visualization based on raster maps and topography with high
performance.
Atmospheric: Observation, Air Analysis, and Pollution
New challenges in atmospheric observations are now steadily
growing within the area of UAVs, where some vehicles and
sensors have been specifically designed for such purpose.
Air concentrations of gases, aerosols, ozone concentrations,
temperature, humidity, pressure, wind fields are the most
important data collected.
 Under the ASTRA (Atmospheric Science Through Robotic
Aircraft) umbrella, the MAVIS project is in development with
the aim to equip a fleet of gliders with atmospheric instru-
ments (Sobester et al., 2011 and 2012). Gliders are released
at high altitudes and during the auto-piloted descent, they
recover data for different purposes: weather forecasting, pol-
lution, aerosol monitoring, wind speed, temperature, and
turbulences among others.
Atmospheric measurements, including temperature,
humidity, and pressure were captured for data analysis in
Corrigan et al. (2008b) along an atmospheric profile at differ-
ent altitudes. The system was described in the Atmospheric
Instrumentation subsection. These data were combined with
other data sets coming from an aerosol analyzer and a particle
counter that provided measurements of albedo, atmospheric
solar absorption, heating rates in the visible (0.4 µm - 0.7 µm)
and broadband (0.3 µm - 2.8 µm) spectral regions using verti-
cally stacked multiple lightweight UAVs (Ramana et al., 2007).
Finn and Franklin (2011) described a technique for moni-
toring the air temperature and wind fields in areas close to
the ground surface. Sound signals emitted by its engine were
transmitted using radio communications. Additionally, re-
ceivers placed on the ground captured signals coming directly
from the UAV. Differences based on the Doppler effect of both
signals allow for the temperature and wind measurements.
In an agricultural context, the potato late-blight pathogen
in the atmosphere has been tracked in Aylor et al. (2011) by
using a 3 m wing-span UAV, engine powered, equipped with
sporangia samplers mounted under the wings. Aerial concen-
trations of plant pathogenic spores at various distances from
a source of inoculum have been quantified to determine the
potential spread of a plant disease.
Berman et al. (2012) used the Off-Axis ICOS device to mea-
suring in-situ H2O, CO2, and CH4 air concentrations, primarilyby Ingenta
Delivered
for greenhouse locations and influenced areas, with the
IP: 200.23.135.16 On:pos-
Mon, 02
sibility of its application to large forest
Copyright: and remote
American locations.
Society
for Photogrammetry
The fully assembled UAV device measures approximately 30.5
cm × 30.5 cm × 28 cm and weighs 19.5 kg.
Kroonenberg et al. (2012) measured the structure param-
eter of temperature in the lower convective boundary layer
with a mini-UAV. The UAV was a wingspan of 2 m and a maxi-
mum TOW of 6 kg.
Xie et al. (2013) proposed a monitoring atmospheric en-
vironment framework based on UAVs for emergency applica-
tions. They described the platform, instruments functions,
and procedures to carry-out such missions.
Gyongyosi et al. (2013) described a weather prediction sys-
tem based on a statistical model and learning-based methods.
The UAV, with a wingspan of 3.7 m, length 1.7 m, maximum
TOW 17 kg and payload about 4 kg captures actual climatolog-
ical data around an area and the forecast is provided accord-
ing to the data and the model. Weather research and predic-
tion is documented in the report provided by Darack (2012)
where several aircrafts and sensors are mentioned.
In the project described in Daehler (2014), an UAS was
equipped with a radar unit operating in HF and VHF ranges
for collecting data from the air and the surface of the ice in
Antarctica and Greenland.
Lin and Chen (2014) proposed the use of an autopilot
helicopter to study aerosol and ozone concentrations at low
altitudes.
Atmospheric concentrations of spores of fungi belonging to
the genus Fusarium were studied in Lin et al. (2014) by using
both a terrestrial system and UAVs. The fixed-wing UAVs ex-
plored the atmosphere in an agricultural ecosystem flying 100
m above ground level and equipped with aerobiological sam-
pling devices containing large plates of 9 cm diameter similar
to the ones used in Schmale et al. (2008) and Lin et al. (2013).
The goal was to study variations with height and season and
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 307
how transport distances vary between seasons from potential
inoculum sources.
Cultural: Heritage and Archeology
Cultural heritage and archeology are two topics, sometimes
very close to each other and sometimes indistinguishable.
Both are related to human activity in the past. UAVs are con-
sidered useful tools for inspection in heritage and archeologi-
cal applications. Yan et al. (2012) discussed advantages and
shortcomings of photogrammetry at low altitudes from UAVs
in architectural heritage applications. They assumed that the
complexity of architectural heritages determines the particu-
larity of aerial photogrammetry. Also Remondino et al. (2012)
concluded that, in cultural heritage, SfM methods suffer from
lack of reliability and repeatability when complex and long
sequences of data are processed.
Cultural Heritage
Eisenbeiss et al. (2005 and 2006), and Eisenbeiss and Zhang
(2006) analyzed the generation of DSM in the cultural heritage
site of Pinchango Alto, Peru, based on multi-image matching
and registration techniques in overlapped images. The images
were acquired with an autonomous helicopter equipped with
a commercial digital camera, and the results compared against
a laser-based ground technique.
A quad-rotor, with empty weight of 585 g, maximum
payload capacity of 200 g and equipped with a CMOS-based
sensor, was the platform used in Hendrickx et al. (2011) for
heritage documentation, based on photogrammetry, in the
Tuekta area, in the Russian Altay Mountains. The goal was
to obtain two types of products: photogrammetric (DEMs and
ortho-images) and archaeological datasets (3D visualisation
and volume estimations).
Gini et al. (2012) used two digital compact cameras for
acquisition of RGB and NIR images onboard a quad-rotor; the
lastMar
one2020
modified with a filter that allows the radiation with
17:42:02
wavelengthand
greater than 830
Remote nm, with weights of 130 g and
Sensing
250 g, respectively, for 3D modeling and tree classification in
the Parco Adda Nord, (Italy).
Brumana et al. (2013) presented a work oriented to build
panoramic images for heritage simulation purposes in areas of
interest. Images acquired from the UAV were combined with
data from ground sensors with the aim of forming the pan-
oramic setup. The UAV platform was a helicopter with an over-
all weight of 7.3 kg, main rotor diameter 1,564 mm, and a 7 kg
payload. A digital camera installed on a mechanical stabilizer.
Candigliota and Immordino (2013a and 2013b) described
some technological issues for data acquisition in real-time
for monitoring cultural heritage. Three applications were ad-
dressed: landslide of a hill affecting a historic village center,
knowledge acquisition of a historical building for restoration,
and damage evaluation after the Emilia-Romagna earthquake.
They used a helicopter and a quad-copter equipped with
stabilized platforms to hold the camera.
Koutsoudis et al. (2014) evaluated the performance of the
SfM and dense multi-view 3D reconstruction techniques for
high building 3D models. An UAV was equipped with a three
axis pan-tilt-roll remote controlled digital camera head. The
SfM approach was applied to the reconstruction of an Ottoman
monument located in the region of Xanthi, Greece and com-
pared against a time-of-flight terrestrial 3D range scanner.
Archaeology
Early on, the use of UAVs in archaeology was considered as
promising (Schlitz, 2004). In archaeological explorations,
photogrammetric techniques are commonly used for analysis
and inventories, where 3D models (DSMs and DTMs), mapping,
mosaics or ortho-images are typical photogrammetric prod-
ucts of special interest in archaeology. In addition, thermogra-
phy was applied in this application.
 Sauerbier and Eisenbeiss (2010) proposed the use of UAVs
and photogrammetric techniques for documenting excavations and terrestrial laser scanner techniques. A quad-rotor was used
in archaeology under the assumption that inventories are
suitable and necessary, because objects continuously change.
Three case studies were documented: (a) large archaeologi-
cal site in Bhutan, explored by a quad-copter with TOW of up
to 5 kg; (b) excavation of a smaller site in the Nasca region in
Peru, containing ancient tombs with uncovered objects, with
a helicopter; and (c) a Maya site of Copán in Honduras, using
a helicopter with petrol engine, payload of 5 kg and main
rotor of 2 m. Photogrammetric techniques were applied in (a)
and (c) for 3D modeling of buildings and their remains. In (b)
only the aerial images are directly analyzed. Later, the same
authors in Eisenbeiss and Sauerbier (2011) reported about the
use of similar UAVs platforms in the Bhutan and Honduras
sites plus two additional sites in Pinchango Alto and Pernil
Alto in Peru. Commercial cameras were the sensors used.
Chiabrando et al. (2011) applied computer vision-based
techniques, including ortho-rectification, to build DSMs in two
archaeological sites of the Piedmont region in Italy. Two UAVs,
both equipped with commercial cameras, were tested for this
type of works: (a) helicopter in the Reggia di Venaria Reale
site; and (b) fixed-wing plane in the Augusta Bagiennorum.
Mosaics, DSMs, and overlaid contours based on RGB com-
mercial digital cameras were obtained in Remondino et al.
(2011) in two archaeological areas: (a) Veio and Pava (Italy)
with a quad-rotor, and (b) a Maya site in Copan (Honduras)
with an unmanned helicopter.
Mészáros (2011) used a fixed wing UAV, with 1.8 m wing-
span and weight of 0.9 kg, equipped with a RGB commercial
pocket camera (37 g) for ortho-mosaic generation in an undis-
covered archaeological site, signed by a crop-mark in moun-
tain Pilis, Hungary.
Grün et al. (2012) integrated images of different resolutions
Delivered by
(satellite, UAV, and terrestrial) to obtain a textured 3D model
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 Mar 2020 17:42:02
(DTM) of the Buddhist fortress Drapham
Copyright: Dzong located
American Society in for
thePhotogrammetry
Bumthang District, Bhutan.
Mozas-Calvache et al. (2012) proposed a method for pho-
togrammetric survey with a tethered helium balloon (2.5 m
diameter) in an archaeological site from the Tartessic epoch
in Southern Spain. They considered the undesired effects
produced in the photography acquired by these platforms
derived from uncontrolled factors, such as wind or lack of
flight control.
Brutto et al. (2012) presented DSMs and ortho-images re-
sults of the survey of the archaeological site of Himera in Sic-
ily (Italy), from images obtained through a quad-copter with
load capacity of 0.2 kg, weight 0.9 kg, and diameter of 70 cm
equipped with a commercial camera with a CCD of 7.6 mm ×
5.7 mm. In addition, DSMs and ortho-images were used in Rin-
audo et al. (2012) and tested on a Roman villa archaeological
site located in Aquileia (Italy), a well-known UNESCO World
Heritage list site. A hexa-copter, weighing approximately 650
g and maximum payload of 1 kg, equipped with a visible
CMOS sensor was used. The same products were obtained
with a quad-rotor (700 g of payload) in Seitz and Altenbach
(2011) in two sites: (a) the excavation of a wooden Roman fort
in Neuhofen, Germany; and (b) the Daramsala, “House of the
Guests” in Banteay Chhmar, Cambodia.
Different thermal (FLIR-based) and RGB images are used
in Brumana et al. (2013) for documenting the archaeological
site of Isola Comacina (Comacina Island), in the Lago di Como
(Italy) where rock structures partially buried were studied.
The UAV is an octo-copter, size of 70 cm × 60 cm, and weight
of 2 kg. A FLIR sensor was used in Poirier et al. (2013) for the
detection of archaeological buried structures onboard an octo-
copter with wingspan of about 80 cm and payload of 3 kg.
Fiorillo et al. (2013) developed reality-based 3D digital
models and ortho-images of the archaeological area of Paestum,
308 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
Italy. They integrated 3D recording techniques, photogrammetry,
for the acquisition of aerial images with payload of 1.2 kg and
equipped with a commercial color camera.
Casana et al. (2014) described a technique based on
thermography for discovering undocumented architectural
remains in the subsurface at the Chaco-era Blue J Community,
New Mexico. The UAV was an octo-copter that can lift around
2 kg of payload, with cameras mounted on an independently
operated gimbal suspended below the UAV. The gimbal is ca-
pable of a full 360º of motion, enabling cameras to be pointed
in a predetermined direction or at a specific point regardless
of the motion of the UAV.
Wildlife Conservation, Inventories, and Monitoring
Conservation and preserving ecosystems where wildlife exists
is a crucial issue. The use of UAVs for this purpose has at-
tracted the interest of researchers for several years. More than
a decade ago, Jones et al. (2006) studied during 2002 and 2003
the use of a 1.5 m wingspan UAV equipped with autonomous
control and video equipment to test the potential usefulness of
such an aircraft for wildlife research applications in Florida.
Chabot (2013) studied specifications and features of an UAV
for wildlife monitoring and survey applications. In sensitive
ecosystems, they avoid having to walk the terrain, leading
to severe damage, with footprints or ground vehicle tracks.
Biologists have an excellent tool for many of their activities,
where specific designs of UAVs have been considered (Schiff-
man, 2014; Humle, 2014; Luo, 2014). Kite aerial photography
has been used in intertidal ecosystems for mapping of plants
(micro-and macro-algae) and animals (gastropods) assemblag-
es at different spatial and temporal scales (Bryson et al., 2013).
From the remote sensing point of view, two main topics are
addressed for wildlife inventories and monitoring, specifi-
Ingenta
cally: fauna and flora.
Fauna and Remote Sensing
Large terrestrial and marine animals (elephants, rhinoceros,
bison, lions, sea lions, manatees, dugongs, bears, deer, foxes, or
whales) and bird colonies (geese, gulls) have been surveyed and
monitored using UAVs. An important role played by UAVs is that
of “aerial guardians” for the prevention of poaching. Currently,
major efforts are being made in this regard, particularly for
wildlife conservation (Yeld, 2013) and illegal fishing activities.
Large herbivores were monitored in the Gonarezhou Na-
tional Park in Zimbabwe, with the plan of studying trends,
behaviors, and changes in their populations Dunham (2012).
Elephants have been monitored and surveyed in Burkina
Faso with UAVs, where the aim consisted in determining
UAV system’s parameters (maximum altitude for discrimi-
nation, camera system geometry) for discriminating single
animals or groups at the same time the animal’s behavior was
studied when the UAV flies above (Vermeulen et al., 2013).
The UAV was a wing fixed system (catapulted through an
elastic launcher) with wingspan of 100 cm and weight 2 kg,
equipped with a commercial still digital camera. Prevention
of elephant deaths by trains is to be addressed by using UAVs
for tracking their movements with the aim of alerting the train
drivers (Bala, 2014).
A fixed-wing UAV (RPA) with wingspan of 1,960 mm and
a maximum take-off weight of 2 kg with a 350 g payload
equipped with radio control and three different types of cam-
eras (still, video, and thermal) was used to verify its ability for
rhinoceros anti-poaching tasks in cooperation with security
companies working in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South
Africa (Mulero-Pázmány et al., 2014).
Wilkinson (2007) described different methods for image
georeferencing, acquired from UAVs, with the aim of invento-
ries of bison as part of the wildlife.
 The prestigious National Geographic magazine reported Flora
about the use of UAVs (drones) to photography the daily life Components and current capabilities of small UAVs have been
and behavior of lions (Thurston, 2014). Animals are not dis- developed specifically for wildlife and ecological surveys that
turbed, because they did not consider these devices as threats. is currently in field use for a variety of applications (Watts et
Israel (2011) proposed a technology based on geo-refer- al., 2010).
enced thermal images for detecting fawns in areas where they Monitoring vegetation and flora in rainforest areas is of
graze to avoid undesired damage. Monitoring was carried out special interest to control the vegetation status. This research
from a base station where the strips of video imagery were was carried out in Koh and Wich (2012) with a fixed-wing
received from an octo-copter. UAV weighing 650 g approx., equipped with a commercial still
But, not only wildlife on the savannah or the jungle are CMOS camera. The study site and the national park are part of
monitored with UAVs; these platforms have been used for a broader Leuser Ecosystem that contains the last few contigu-
remote monitoring marine mammals. Some reasons to use ous lowland rainforests in Sumatra. Additionally, thanks to
UAVs for this purpose were reported in Hodgson (2015). the high camera resolution, large mammals are also surveyed
Indeed, surveillance of large marine mammals was carried (elephants and orangutans).
out in Koski et al. (2009) with an UAV of 3.1 m wingspan, 1.2 Georeferenced images were acquired and processed for
m long, and 18 kg maximum gross weight, equipped with monitoring vegetation strips classified as shrubs, woody, and
a video camera. Surveys of sea lions for counting popula- tree savannah (Lisein et al., 2013). An autopilot fixed wing
tions and other observations were carried out on the coast of with a 1 m wingspan and weight of 2 kg was the platform used.
the Aleutian Islands (Walker, 2012). Because of the adverse
Urban Environments and Infrastructure
environmental conditions, several platforms (rotary and fixed
In complex urban environments, some challenges for UAVs
wing, including hand and catapult launching) were tested
are surveillance, tracking, traffic control, car counting, illegal
and evaluated for this type of environment.
construction, or building observation. These scenarios are es-
Martin et al. (2012) developed statistical models to esti-
sentially complex including occluded areas where even UAVs
mate the distribution of some hidden organisms that appear
equipped with a unique camera cannot reach or have difficult
when some factor affects the environment. They first mod-
access. Different efforts have been made to solve these kinds
eled the statistical distributions with tennis balls including a
of problems, including multi-UAV systems (Semsch, 2009).
known number of them with high probability to be occluded.
Qin et al. (2013) reported on the difficulties found in urban
The underlying idea is to establish a relation between a gradi-
environments for mapping and modeling. Georeferencing and
ent and the distribution. With this approach, they proposed to
processing were carried out with an octo-copter equipped
know the relationship between the distribution of manatees,
with a RGB camera assessing its validity against commercial
based on georeferenced images, and the water temperature,
and non-commercial software packages. This octo-copter was
which is measured in-situ and related with the captured im-
also used in Küng et al. (2011b) where automatic image pro-
ages. An electric powereded UAV used was a hand-launched,
cessing was proposed to generate building models for a final
2.7 m wingspan aircraft weighing 4.5 kg, equippedDelivered
with an by Ingenta
manual editing and refinement. The procedure was based on
off-the-shelf commercial digital camera.
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 theMar 2020 17:42:02
generation of a 3D point cloud (dense matching) which
Hodgson et al. (2013)Copyright:
surveyed dugongs
Americanin Society
their marine
for Photogrammetry andonRemote Sensing
was projected the z-axis to detect the building facades and
habitat at different flight heights at inaccessible areas avoid-
compute the primary directions in the buildings. Driveway
ing unnecessary human risks. This UAV is fuel powered, 3.11
surveillance and control represents an urban application
m wingspan weighing 13.1 kg, with maximum TOW 20.0 kg,
where UAVs have been used (Cummings, 2013).
equipped with a commercial digital camera.
Visual-based tracking and control in urban areas is an
Bears, deer, and foxes were surveyed in the snow in
important issue addressed in Campoy et al. (2009). Often, the
northwestern Miyagi, Japan (Oishi and Matsunaga, 2014).
GPS signal is lost during navigation in such urban areas; it is
Registered aerial images were captured from an unmanned
necessary to develop strategies to overcome this problem in
helicopter for automatic detection and identification based on
remote sensing applications. Three platforms were tested: two
relevant moving points.
gas powered helicopters and one electrically powered rotor-
Belugas and other baleen whales species were monitored
motion UAV. All were equipped were with visual cameras.
with a turret-based stabilized, low-cost multispectral imaging
Road information detection is another area of interest
system onboard UAVs (Schoonmaker et al., 2008).
where UAVs can play an important role for traffic monitoring
Automatic bird detection techniques based on pattern rec-
and control in Salvo et al. (2014), where a VTOL quad-rotor
ognition analysis from images captured with an UAV were ap-
with a payload of 300 g is the platform used. Street detection
plied as remote sensing approaches in Abd-Elrahman (2005),
based on video strips using color images is another applica-
where spectral similarities were exploited.
tion proposed in Candamo et al. (2009).
Sarda-Palomera et al. (2012) monitored temporal changes
Image-based change detection techniques are useful for
in breeding population size in a black-headed gull colony
identifying new configurations of urban areas caused by legal
from UAVs that allows for observation in barren or bleak areas
or illegal constructions; UAVs are suitable for early detection
without disturbance. The UAV was a fixed-wing with a 1 m
and actuation (Walker, 2012).
wingspan, weighing 2 kg, and equipped with an electric
Roca et al. (2013) proposed the use of an autopilot octo-
brushless 250 W pusher propeller. Take-off was achieved us-
copter for the inspection of outdoor facades in buildings for
ing a catapult launcher.
both structural and energy considerations. They argued that
Evaluation of an off-the-shelf UAV for surveying flocks of
these platforms are especially useful when facades are of dif-
Canada Geese and Snow Geese was carried out in Chabot
ficult access making unfeasible the full 3D characterization.
and Bird (2012), where the goal was comparing photographic
They used an UAV equipped with a Microsoft Kinect sensor
counts from repeated flybys of geese.
for the generation of 3D point clouds.
Automatic bird counting of a common gull colony was
Bulatov et al. (2011) proposed a four-step procedure (ori-
used in Grenzdörffer (2013) with two UAVs, a quad-copter and
entation, dense reconstruction, urban terrain modeling, and
an octo-copter with payloads of 1200 g and 400 g, respective-
geo-referencing) for obtaining georeferenced 3D urban models
ly. Each was equipped with individual commercial, stabilized
from video sequences, where DTM extraction, segregation of
cameras. A supervised classification approach, based on the
buildings from vegetation and tree modeling were the most
size of birds, was the method used.

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Ap ri l 2015 309

relevant operations. Automatic detection of heat loss in win-
dows by using autonomous and teleoperated helicopters was
addressed in Martinez-de-Dios and Ollero (2006).
Wefelscheid et al. (2011) used an octo-copter (1.5 kg weight
and payload of 500 g) for 3D reconstruction of buildings through
a consumer camera with prime lens and weight of 285 g.
Moranduzzo and Melgani (2014a and 2014b) used an UAV
for automatic detection of cars in visible images, captured by
a commercial camera. Feature extraction and machine learn-
ing based on support vector machines were the approaches
used. Hierarchical image processing operations were applied
expedite the car identification process.
Regarding applications in man-made infrastructures, Feng
et al. (2009) applied image processing techniques to identify a
road and its geometry from an unmanned fixed-wing platform
with weight of 40 kg, equipped with transmission and storage
capabilities. Metni and Hamel (2007) described the dynamic
of UAVs for monitoring of structures and maintenance of
bridges based on simulation results.
Rodriguez-Gonzalvez et al. (2014) proposed a methodol-
ogy for a 3D reconstruction of complex scenarios applied to
electrical substations and demonstrating that camera-based
systems onboard UAVs can compete with laser-based scanners.
An octo-copter was used for such purpose, equipped with a
stabilized platform for a visual commercial camera.
Conclusions and Future Trends
This work provides an overview of papers and publications
on the status of remote sensing applications based on UAVs:
extensively UAS, as special RPA systems. Over 600 studies,
coming from peer-reviewed works and relevant websites have
been reviewed to provide this overview. The proliferation of
repositories and databases containing links to papers, Delivered
proj-
by Ingentawhile companies are taking on new initiatives and
ects, and publications is overwhelming; the amount
IP: 200.23.135.16of mate-
On: Mon,
rial they contain makes it almost impossible
Copyright: Americanfor a Society
completefor Photogrammetry
referencing (Science.gov Alliance, 2015).
The progress made in recent years regarding this topic
to create this overview becomes clear. Indeed, an important
number of proposals have been studied and international
events are held periodically on this topic (ARSS, 2014). This
overview starts with a brief description of platforms and its
use in remote sensing. Sensors technologies, instruments, and
their abilities for capturing information for remote sensing
purposes have also been presented. An extensive review was
carried out through different applications in a variety of areas
where these systems are being adapted to traditional remote
sensing applications.
Some conclusions can be considered after this overview.
First, platforms and sensors are converging towards each oth-
er to accommodate an ever increasing demand for use. Sen-
sors and platforms are being matched in every way; an similar
example of this fusion can be found in the remotely control
applications based on Smart phones (Parrot, 2015). More and
more areas of application appear demonstrating where UAVs
become efficient. Second, this technology has allowed for the
development of numerous methods, procedures, and strate-
gies specifically adapted for these systems from a unique
perspective of the problem to be solved. Third, successes
obtained together with economical aspects derived from their
relatively low cost are enhancing their use and extending the
range of performance and applications.
For over a decade, Petrie (2001) said the future of UAVs
looked promising in remote sensing, confirmed more recently
by Tully (2013). In this regard, the relative low cost with
respect to the benefits obtained provides a promising future
projection. AUVSI (2015) reported on the economic impact of
UAVs integration in the United States based on potential mar-
kets, including precision agriculture, safety, and many others.
310 A pri l 2 015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
According to Hambling (2014), the future outlook for
the development of UAVs is in cooperation with rapid and
efficient operations. This aspect is of particular interest for
disaster monitoring, where the main goal is to cover the larg-
est area as possible. Surveillance, monitoring, crop pollina-
tion, and traffic control appear as promising areas, all from
the remote sensing point of view. Apart from the above, new
insights and perspectives are continuously appearing as re-
ported in Handwerk (2013).
Miniaturization of UAVs can be a part of some roles, from
the point of view of remote sensing, there are some opportu-
nities oriented to the development of very small UAVs, like the
ones imitating birds (Betriu, 2014), equipped with legs that
can perch on branches in the trees. Micro-drones (µ-drones)
or micro-air vehicles (MAVs) are insect-sized “aircrafts”
which are being included in the new era of remote sensing.
They were proposed several years ago with promising expec-
tations (Nonami, 2007).
Nevertheless, industrial development will occur in both,
platforms and associated elements, to form the full UAV
system (remote control station, communication links or air
traffic control) and integrated in the national airspace systems
(Lasica, 2013).
Mass-media and general media are contributing positively
in the dissemination of UAVs as future systems in several ap-
plications, including remote sensing. The Guardian (Napoli,
2012), Reuters (Krishnamurthy, 2013), El Mundo (Treceño,
2013), Antena3 TV (2015), and Expansión (2015) are some
examples of general newspapers, news agencies, and TVs.
Specific sites can be found at Energy Global (Rehn, 2014),
Gunderson (2014), or James (2014).
As a result, the population is becoming aware of UAVs,
contributing new ideas according to the needs expressed or
detected,
undertaking
02 Mar 2020new17:42:02
challenges with impact on the economy
(Hall and Coyne, and2014).
Remote Sensing
Based on some existing studies (GAU, 2014), the compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) in the UAV remote sensing market
is 5.39 percent over the period 2013 to 2018. Due to this in-
crease, it is expected the advent of new applications in remote
sensing with UAVs, as well as the improvement and outperfor-
mance of the existing ones (Zhang and Wu, 2014).
Acknowledgments and Disclaimer
Thanks to the following persons, companies and institutions
that kindly and selflessly have provided the material exhib-
ited in the different figures included in this review, allowing
for the illustration of unmanned platforms and results derived
from the remote sensing applications.
They are listed in the order they appear in the paper: (a) ISCAR-
UCM Group Madrid, Spain, with special thanks to active mem-
bers J.M. Cruz, J.A. López-Orozco, and E. Besada in the project
entitled Autonomous System for Locating and Acting in the
Face of Sea Pollutants (DPI2013-46665-C1), funded by the
Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competition, where UAVs
and UGVs work together and in collaboration; (b) CartoUAV, La
Coruña, Spain; (c) AirRobot GmbH & Co. KG, Arnsberg, Ger-
many; (d) QuantaLab-IAS-CSIC, Cordoba, Spain; (e) A. Arjonilla;
eDroniX, Madrid, Spain; (f) J.R. Martínez-de-Dios and A. Olle-
ro; Robotics, Vision, and Control Group, University of Seville,
Seville, Spain; (g) L. Wallace and A. Lucieer, University of
Tasmania, Australia; and (h) F. López-Granados and J.M. Peña;
Institute for Sustainable Agriculture, CSIC-Córdoba, Spain.
Also this document was prepared with economic support
of the European Community, the European Union and
CONACYT under Grant No. FONCICYT 93829.
Special thanks to referees for their help, constructive criti-
cism, and suggestions on the original version of this paper.
 In this overview references to papers, authors, products,
organizations, institutions, companies, associations, trade-
marks, newspapers, news agencies, TVs and others, do not
mean author’s endorsement or the University Complutense of
Madrid where the author is employed. There is no discrimi-
nation in any case, since the author has made an exhaustive
search from all available sources of information on the topics
unmanned aerial vehicles (systems) or remotely piloted sys-
tems involved in remote sensing areas and tasks. It has been
researched in preference over the last decade and especially
in the most recent years where there have been significant ad-
vances in remote sensing based on unmanned aerial platforms
Apologize, once again, for any omission.
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Appendix A - List of Acronyms

AGL Above Ground Level
ALS Airborne Laser Scanning
ALTM Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper
AS Altitude Sensors
ASTRA Atmospheric Science Through Robotic Aircraft
AUVSI Association for Unmanned Vehicle
Systems International
Delivered by Ingenta
BBCS Blackboard communication system
IP: 200.23.135.16 On: Mon, 02 Mar 2020National Aeronautics and Space Administration
CAGR Compound Annual Growth
Copyright: Rate Society for Photogrammetry
American
BRDF Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function
CCA Civil Aviation Authority
CCD Charge Coupled Device
CF Compact Flash
CIR Color Infrared
CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
CSIC Spanish National Research Council
CWSI Crop Water Stress Index
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DSM Digital Surface Model
DTM Digital Terrain Model
EOS Electro-Optical-System
FLIR Forward Looking Infrared
FMCW Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave
FOV Field of View
FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array
GCP Ground Control Points
GCS Ground Control Station (System)
GDS Geomagnetic Direction System
GPS Global Positioning System
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GIS Geographic Information System
HS3 Hurricane Severe Storm Sentinel
IAS Institute for Sustainable Agriculture
ICOS Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy
IHM Interface Human Machine
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
INS Inertial Navigation Sensors
INTA National Institute for Aerospace Technology
ISCAR System Engineering, Control,
Automation and Robotics
LARS Low Altitude Remote Sensing
MALE Medium Altitude-Long Endurance
MAVIS Massive Airspace Volume Instrumentation System
MAVs Micro Air Vehicles
MCCFS Multi-Channel Chemical Filter Sampler
MEMS Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
MTVI Modified Triangular Vegetation Index
MVS
Multi-View Stereovision
NASA
17:42:02
NDVI Normalized
and Remote Difference
SensingVegetation Index
NEC Nippon Electric Company
NIR Near Infra-Red
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
OSAVI Optimized Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index
RFID Radio Frequency Identifiers
RPAs Remotely Piloted Aircrafts
RTKGPS: Real-Time Kinematic Global Positioning System
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
SBC Single Board Computer
SD Secure Cards
SfM Structure from Motion
SIFT Scale Invariant Feature Transform
SLAM Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
S/MUAS Small and Mini-Unmanned Aerial Systems
TCARI Transformed Chlorophyll Absorption
in Reflectance Index
TOW Take-Off Weight
UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
UASs Unmanned Aerial Systems
UCM University Complutense of Madrid
UGVs Unmanned Ground Vehicles
UHF Ultra High Frequency
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
USVs Unmanned marine Surface Vehicles
VCSEL Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser
VHALE Very High Altitude-Long Endurance
VHF Very High Frequency
VTOL Vertical-take-off-and-landing
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WMS Wavelength Modulation Spectroscopy
WSN Wireless Sensor Networks

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