A.

INDIAN LANDSCAPE
Key words: vana, vatika, vinnyas
Traditional Indian concepts of Landscape emerge from a profound veneration of Nature. This is
manifested in the tradition of Tree Worship & the lives of most Indian Ascetics revolve around
their religious practice associated with one or a group of trees – Pipal tree for Lord Buddha,
Panchabati (a group of five trees) for Sri Ramakrishna. This landscape design has historically
been simple, with informal arrangements of dense plantings & clearings. In contrast, geometric
plantings are found only in agricultural landscapes of Orchards & Field Crops.
In certain passages of The Vedas, trees are invoked as “Deities”.
The oldest Hindu coins depict Holy Trees surrounded by Railings. Two Trees, The Banyan (Ficus
bengalensis) & Pipal (Ficus religiosa) were particularly venerated. Vessels made of Pipal wood
were used for ceremonial drinks & the storage of Ayurvedic Medicinal Herbs. ‘Madhubanno
vanaspati’ – was how the Vedas described Nature- meaning Trees providing with sweet fruits. In
yet another, ‘…. shanti vanaspataya…’ shows the attitude towards trees where the Vedic sage
seeks the inherent peace of the natural elements (in this case, trees) for all mortals.
The Chapter ‘Upavan Vinod’ of the RigVeda recommends the following trees for the four cardinal
directions:
EAST: Banyan or Ficus bengalensis, SOUTH: Audumbara or Ficus glomerata, WEST: the holy
Pipal or Ficus religiosa, NORTH: the auspicious Palaksha or Ficus infectoria and also cautions
against doing the reverse of this. Further, Panasa (Artocarpus), Kadamba (Anthocephalus),
amrita, kharjura (Date Palm), Jambu (Eugenia jambolana), Tilaka, Dhata, Lakucha, Jali, Vansa
(Bamboo), Jambira (Citrus), Puga (Areca), Kadali (Plantain), Tinisa (Dalbergia), Mridvi (Vine),
Ketki (Pandanus), Narikela (Coconut) etc. were also recommended.
It also advises that trees should be planted in various designs as Mandapa, Nandyavarta,
Swastika, Chaturasra, Sarvatobhadra, Vithi, Nikunja & Punjaka.

In Ancient India, there were extensive Parks, pleasure gardens on the outskirts of cities. The
Ancient Building Treatises (Shilpa Shastras) stressed that land was to be left open in the Northern
part of the Town.
‘Pramada Vana’- Private Gardens of Wealthy Merchants & Royal Palaces
‘Nagaropavana’ - Public Parks were spaciously laid out, with Orchards, Flower Gardens and
tanks containing Water Lilies, Lotuses & other flowering plants. There were also raised pedestals
under large trees for rest & meditation. The grounds were shaded by tall, broadly branching tree
such as the Mango & the Banyan. Flowers from the garden were offered to the Deities in daily
worship.
‘Vana’ or tree groves played a very important role in Indian traditional landscape as reflected in
the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata:
Ashokvana - sacred grove of Saraca indica – commonly known as Sita Ashok- where Queen Sita
was held captive by King Ravana in Lanka.
Kadambavana- sacred grove of Anthocephalus cadamba or Kadam tree - Lord Krishna’s play
zone in Vrindavana.
Vrindavana- grove of Vrinda or Tulsi –Ocimum sanctum

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Tapovana-s were Hermitage gardens with mixed fruit and flowering trees complete with wild life
like peacocks and deer.

The early Buddhist texts talk of well organized cities that have grown up in response to demands
made by increasing activities in arts, craft, trade and commerce. The city had three fundamental
concepts of planning:
• Sector planning or Pada-vinnyasa
• Road Planning or Patha vinnyasa
• Landscape planning or Uddyan-vinnyasa

I. Sector planning or Pada-vinnyasa:

The city should be divided into sectors (pada) which should be rectilinear in shape so that the
streets cross each other at right angles (comparable to gridiron of contemporary American city)
following the cardinal directions.
II. Road Planning or Patha vinnyasa:
It is interesting to note that a hierarchy of streets and road system was contemplated to suit the
contemporary movement pattern of that era. There were as many as five categories of roads as
mentioned in ‘Arthasashtra’ meant for different purposes:
Rajpatha- main thoroughfare for all class and all types of vehicles – widest and included the
commercial streets – 20 cubits wide, where One Cubit = stretch of a hand from elbow to fingertip
=1’-6” (Hath)
Devapatha- streets leading to main temples and also for taking out religious processions – also 20
cubits wide
Mahapatha- the road presumably that connected the main cardinal entries to a city that leads to
other cities – Highway – 30 cubits wide
Rathya- the roads meant for vehicular traffic such as wheeled carts, carriages and chariots, horse
riders etc. - 30 cubits wide
Charyia- the narrow roads meant for purely pedestrian movement - 4 cubits wide
III. Landscape planning or Uddyan-vinnyasa:
A hierarchy of planned open recreation spaces was found in various texts such as Manasara,
Sukranitisara, Agnipurana, Kamasutra, Arthasashtra and other Vastusashtras.
An abstract outline of garden art reveals that at least eight categories of Gardens were conceived.
1. Vriksha- mekhala (Green Belt) – A thick belt of trees outside the periphery of the boundary
wall of the city- Upavana. This green belt was presumably planned to cater for the various
reasons such as:
• Future extension to relieve congestion
• To retain sharp distinction between city and village
• To cater for pleasure hunting and picnic- mrigaya, vana-vihara
• To act as a first line of defense against enemy
2. Nandana-vana or God’s garden- that surrounding temple or a temple complex
3. Nagar-udyan or Public parks where pedestrians, travelers and city dwellers could enjoy nature
4. Raj-udyan or King’s palatial Garden for the King and his Courtiers to pass leisure hours
5. Pramododyan or Ladies' Garden for the Queens and their companions to play and enjoy
6. Brikshvatika or Courtyard Gardens- specially meant for ministers, administrators, Courtiers and
rich individuals
7. Griharamya or small house gardens for middle class and poor class in the space available
around their residences
8. Water Garden- consisting of pools, tanks (taala, dighi), lakes (vapi) and moat (parikha) adorned
with aquatic plants.

Grama-sannivesa (Village planning)

Griharamya : General plan of an average household:

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EAST - Tank
WEST - Bamboo groves or any small jungle area for supply of timber, firewood, bamboo for
homestead
NORTH - Garden
SOUTH - entirely open
Thus, the houses were open to the rising morning sun while blocking the western sun by tall
bamboo groves and the south was open for the summer breeze and winter sun. In a nutshell,
traditionally Indian landscapes were meant to maintain harmony between the dwelling area and
climate where dominance of natural forces and elements were recognized, respected and
worshipped.
Trees were revered for there healing qualities, water for life sustenance (‘Apah swayam
Narayana’) & Earth as ‘Mother’ for supporting all human activities.
Trees were also visualized as the ‘Grant All’ – ‘kalpataru’.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD:
Rajput miniature paintings provide a vivid depiction of the garden character of the royal gardens
with scope for interpreting the plant species, usage, preference, setting and outdoor life style of
the bygone era.

CONTEMPORARY PERIOD:
Identity of a place is derived from a particular or group of Trees like Jhautala, Bakultala, Beltala
etc.- [where ‘tala’ means shelter] in a city as well as for any particular site- for example
Dakshineshwar Temple Complex (1855 AD), North 24 parganas.
The Panchabati - The following five trees: Bata (Ficus bengalensis), Asvatthva (Ficus religiosa),
Amalaka, Vilva (Aegle marmelos) and Ashoka (Saraca indica) or, according to other opinions,
Neem (Azadirachta indica) were collectively known as 'Panchabati' in Dakshineshwar. It is
considered to be the holiest as Sree Ramkrishna practiced most of his 'sadhanas' including 'advaita
sadhana' and had many divine visions at this spot.
The Kalpataru tree - Mango tree at Cossipore Garden-house, where Sree Ramakrishna blessed
his disciples on 1st Janauary 1886, still celebrated as the ‘Kalpataru’ (i.e. Grant all) day.

Tagore’s Concepts:
In modern times, the ancient regard for Nature is well reflected in the literary works of Sri
Rabindra Nath Tagore where he has captured the romance of Nature in his inimitable expressions,
especially in the poems and songs. The ‘vana’ concepts find reflection in the form of Tamalvana,
siulivana, taalvana, Amrabithi,
Neepobithi etc. in his various songs and poems. An Indian pioneer in Nature conservation
thoughts, Tagore’s concept of landscape finds expression in his Shantiniketan, Bolpur, West
Bengal.

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 B. 19th C. AMERICAN LANDSCAPE
i. Central Park, New York,
ii. Emerald Necklace
iii. Cal Anderson Park, Seattle
iv. Lincoln Park, Chicago
v. Golden Gate Park, California,

19th C. American landscape is marked by the evolution of public parks with a focus on the
recreational & leisure need of the citizens, their designs having largely shaped by Sir Frederick
Law Olmsted (1822 – 1905).
Frederick Law Olmsted who, for his vision and craft, is known as the father of landscape
architecture. Among his students and successors were Charles Eliot and Olmsted's sons John
Charles and Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. His firm was involved in the design of nearly 5,000
projects in 45 states and several countries. Some of his principal projects are:

Major Urban Parks : Central Park (1858); Prospect Park (1866); Delaware Park, Buffalo
(1869); South Park (later Washington and Jackson Parks and Midway Plaisance), Chicago (1871);
Belle Isle, Detroit (1881); Mount Royal, Montreal (1877); Franklin Park, Boston (1885);
Genesee Valley Park, Rochester, New York (1890); Cherokee Park, Louisville (1891). Also
notable were Riverside Park (1875) and Morningside Park (1873 and 1887) in New York and Fort
Greene Park (1868) in Brooklyn. In smaller cities, Walnut Hill Park in New Britain, Connecticut
(1870); South (now Kennedy) Park in Fall River, Massachusetts (1871); Beardsley Park in
Bridgeport, Connecticut (1884); Downing Park in Newburgh, New York (1887), and Cadwalader
Park, Trenton, New Jersey (1891).

Park Systems: Buffalo-Delaware Park, The Front, The Parade, South Park and Cazenovia Park,
and connecting parkways. Boston- the "Emerald Necklace": Charlesbank, Back Bay Fens,
Riverway, Leverett Park, Jamaica Pond, Arnold Arboretum, Franklin Park, and Marine
Park, and connecting parkways. Rochester-Genesee Valley, Highland, and Seneca Parks and
several city squares. Louisville-Shawnee, Cherokee, and Iroquois Parks, Southern Parkways and
several small city parks and squares.

Olmsted designed a number of large estates too, and with some of these he introduced
projects with public significance, particularly scientific forestry and arboretums. The outstanding
examples are Biltmore Estate in Asheville, North Carolina, and Moraine Farm in Beverly,
Massachusetts [Source: www.olmsted.org]

Central Park is a public green space and park in the heart of Manhattan in New York City.
With approximately twenty-five million visitors each year, it is the most visited urban park in the
United States. The park initially opened in 1857, on 770 acres (3.1 km2) of city-owned land. In
1858, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux won a design competition to improve and expand
the park with a plan they entitled the Greensward Plan. Construction began the same year and
was completed in 1873. It was expanded to 843 acres (3.41 km2 ; 1.317 sq mi). It is 2.5 miles
(4 km) long between 59th Street (Central Park South) and 110th Street (Central Park North), and
is 0.5 miles (0.8 km) wide between Fifth Avenue and Central Park West. It is similar in
importance to San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, Chicago's Lincoln Park, Vancouver's Stanley
Park, and Munich's Englischer Garten. Central Park, designated a National Historic Landmark in
1963, is currently managed by the Central Park Conservancy under contract with the city
government.

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Park design: While foliage in much of the park appears natural, it is in fact almost entirely
landscaped. The park contains several natural-looking lakes and ponds that have been created
artificially, extensive walking tracks, bridle paths, two ice-skating rinks (one of which is a
swimming pool in July and August), the Central Park Zoo, the Central Park Conservatory Garden,
a wildlife sanctuary, a large area of natural woods, a 106-acre (43 ha) billion-gallon reservoir with
an encircling running track, and an outdoor amphitheater, called the Delacorte Theater, which
hosts the "Shakespeare in the Park" summer festivals. Indoor attractions include Belvedere Castle
with its nature center, the Swedish Cottage Marionette Theatre, and the historic Carousel. In
addition there are numerous major and minor grassy areas, some of which are used for informal or
team sports, some are set aside as quiet areas, and there are a number of enclosed playgrounds for
children. The 6 miles (10 km) of drives within the park are used by joggers, bicyclists,
skateboarders, and inline skaters, especially on weekends and in the evenings after 7:00 p.m.,
when automobile traffic is banned. Park valuation: The real estate value of Central Park was
estimated by the property appraisal firm, Miller Samuel, to be $528,783,552,000 in December
2005. Park management: As crime has declined in the park and in the rest of New York City,
many negative perceptions have begun to wane. The park has its own New York City Police
Department precinct (Central Park Precinct), which employs both regular police and auxiliary
officers. In 2005, safety measures held the number of crimes in the park to fewer than one
hundred per year (down from approximately 1,000 in the early 1980s). New York City Parks
Enforcement Patrol also patrols Central Park.

Emerald Necklace:

Boston's Emerald Necklace consists of a 1,100-acre chain of nine parks linked by parkways and
waterways. This linear system of parks and parkways was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted to
connect the Boston Common, which dates from the colonial period, and the 1837 Public Garden
along the Muddy River and Leverett, Willow, Ward's and Jamaica ponds through the Arnold
Arboretum to the great country park - Franklin Park. From Boston Common to Franklin Park it is
approximately 7 miles (7x1.6 Km= 11.2 Km) by foot or bicycle through the parks. The nine parks
are:
1. Boston Common,
2. Public Garden,
3. Commonwealth Avenue,
4. Mall Back Bay,
5. Fens Riverway,
6. Olmsted Park,
7. Jamaica Pond Park,
8. Arnold Arboretum,
9. Franklin Park

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The Art of the Emerald Necklace:
Frederick Law Olmsted designed the Boston Park system, popularly called the Emerald
Necklace, a string of nine continuous parks. Though he did not design the first three parks -
Boston Common, the Public Garden and Commonwealth Avenue Mall - he did envision the new
and older parks working together as a system. And he believed they should work in many ways.
Olmsted designed this park system in the later 19th century to provide a common ground to which
all people could come for healthful relief from the pollution, noise and overcrowding of city life.
Carriages, horseback riders and pedestrians could enjoy their recreations, and Bostonians could
find places for both active play and quiet contemplation. He reshaped the topography to solve
major drainage and sewage problems and to create a rustic environment. The Emerald Necklace is
considered one of Olmsted's finest works. The parks in this system are designated Boston
Landmarks and are listed on the National Register of historic Places. Today, a century after
the last of the parks was completed, they continue to attract visitors from all over the world.

1. Boston Common

Pre-dating by over 200 years, Boston Common was later

incorporated as part of the Necklace and is considered its
starting point. Established in 1634, it was originally
intended as a place for the grazing of livestock, the
training of troops, and as a public gathering place.
Today, it's still a popular gathering place, although cattle
feeding etc. were unceremoniously halted in the early
19th century.
It houses tennis courts, ball fields, the Frog Pond wading
pool, a playground and many historic monuments.

2. The Public Garden

Across Charles Street from the Common lies the next

"link" in the Necklace. The Public Garden became
America's first public botanical garden in 1837 and has
hosted the famous Swan Boats on its central lagoon since 1877. An idyllic spot for relaxing in the
sun or shade, the Garden has rich collection of botanical species, effectively labeled for the
learners. It also contains many notable statues, including a monumental example of George
Washington on his horse and a re-creation of the beloved ducklings and their mother from the
children's classic Make Way for Ducklings. Besides the boats, the lagoon is home to the stately
swans, Romeo and Juliet, as well as throngs of ducks and geese. The Arlington Green Line station
is right across the street.

3. The Commonwealth Avenue Mall

America's most strikingly beautiful residential street, "Comm. Ave.," as it's known to locals, is
divided by a stretch of green ("The Mall") that connects the Public Garden to the rest of the
Emerald Necklace. This Back Bay favorite is a virtual outdoor sculpture park, populated by a host
of monuments, including a somber firefighter's memorial commemorating the nearby Hotel
Vendome fire of 1972, in which nine Boston jakes perished. The Mall is located near the Green
Line's Arlington, Copley and Hynes/ICA stops. This tree-lined avenue links Boston Common and
the Public Garden to the city’s Emerald Necklace park system. It’s the first urban greenway built
in the U.S.

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4. The Back Bay Fens

This is where Olmsted first began to work his designs in Boston.

Formerly a swamp, the Fens was transformed by a brilliant
drainage system to control the flows of Stony Brook and Muddy
River, which empty into the area. It is a lovely garden spot, with
numerous residential vegetable and flower patches, as well as the
oldest remaining World War II Victory Garden in the country and
the colorful Kelleher Rose Garden, established in 1930. The
Fenway stop on the Green Line is nearby.

5. The Riverway

Obscure and tranquil, this hideaway is a narrow,

sunken strip of land that follows the banks of the
Muddy River, forming Boston's eastern border with
neighboring Brookline. Popular for biking, the tree-
lined Riverway is also a perfect spot for a quiet stroll
in the shade. The park is adjacent to the D Line's
Longwood stop.

6. Olmsted Park

Also straddling the Muddy River, this park features two

ponds: the larger, geese-choked Leverett Pond (more peaceful
on the Brookline side) and the secluded Wards Pond, an ideal
summer fishing hole. Originally considered part of the park
surrounding nearby Jamaica Pond, it was re-named for
Olmsted in 1900. Olmsted Park lies between two Green Line
stops: Brookline Village on the D train and Riverway on the E
train.

7. Jamaica Pond

Pristine and picturesque, this sparkling, 60-acre kettle-hole

lake was Boston's first reservoir and measures up to 90 feet
deep in some spots. Olmsted included the surrounding area as
a link in the Necklace in 1892, making only minor
modifications. A boat house, still in use, was added a few
years later. Fishing, jogging and biking are popular here
(swimming is not allowed), as well as boating. Jamaica Pond
is not only a favorite for people, but wild animals as well-
everything from deer to coyotes to wild turkeys have been
known to visit its shores.

8. Arnold Arboretum

Designed by Olmsted in collaboration with the Arboretum's original director Charles Sprague
Sargent, this 265-acre botanical garden-established in 1872 and operated by Harvard University-
was, in the words of its bequest, meant to contain "all the trees [and] shrubs either indigenous or
exotic, which can be raised in the open air." Home to species from North America and Asia, the
well-marked trails and walkways are perfect for nature walks, the botanically curious, or anyone

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who appreciates the beauty of the natural world. A
notable attraction is the Larz Anderson Bonsai
Collection, donated in 1937. The Arboretum, still a vital
botanical research center, offers free guided tours.
Harvard University's Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica
Plain, Boston, Massachusetts is one of the oldest,
largest, and most famous arboreta in the United States.
It was established in 1872 on 265 acres (107 ha) of land
in the Jamaica Plain section of Boston and was guided
for 54 years by Charles Sprague Sargent who was
appointed the Arboretum's first director in 1873.
By an arrangement with the city of Boston, the Arnold Arboretum1 became part of the famous
"Emerald Necklace", the 6.2 miles (10.0 km) long network of parks and parkways that Frederick
Law Olmsted laid out for the Boston Parks Department between 1878 and 1892.

9. Franklin Park

The largest of the Emerald Necklace's jewels, this

500-acre playground is home to a municipal golf
course, a zoo, ball fields, tennis courts, a stadium,
hiking and walking trails and the seven-acre
Scarboro Pond. The park is a bucolic summer
retreat and is also home to many free community
celebrations.

3. THE CAL ANDERSON PARK, SEATTLE

Cal Anderson Park is a public
park in Seattle, Washington's
Capitol Hill that includes Lincoln
Reservoir and Bobby Morris
Playfield. It covers an area of
7.37 acres.
The famed Olmsted Brothers (FL
Olmsted Jr. & Charles Olmsted)
designed the park, as part of their
many works in the Seattle area.
Its design features include:

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An Arboretum is an area devoted to specimen plantings of trees and shrubs. Distinct from a forest, nursery or park,
it is in a sense an outdoor museum of trees. It is a place where many varieties of trees are grown for research,
educational, and ornamental purposes; where trees and shrubs are cultivated for exhibition.
The word arboretum means a botanical collection (etum) of trees (arbor). Specimens from around the world may be
brought together into one location. A common design for arboretums is to make several groups of trees according to
different characteristics such as whether they are edible, scented, native, ethnobotanical, conifers, and so on. There
may be an area specially created for children.
Similar types of collections include pinetums (conifers), viticetums (a vinery/vines) and fruticetums (shrubs).
Since arboretums can also be used as research stations, many are run by universities. They can help preserve
endangered species and study their genetics, perform experiments and educate the public.

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The north end of the open park features a large mountain-shaped water fountain feeding a shallow
texture pool, a reflecting pool, and a wading pool. The south end features the lighted Bobby
Morris Playfield. The wading pool operates in the summer months from 12 noon to 7 p.m.
Other features:
• shelter house
• plaza
• children's play area
• caged tennis courts
• basketball courts

4. THE LINCOLN PARK, CHICAGO

Lincoln Park, named after Abraham Lincoln, is Chicago's largest public park and the second
most visited park in the United States.
Lincoln Park is a 1,208 acre (4.9 km², 1.8875 mi², 488.86 ha) park along the lakefront of
Chicago, Illinois' North Side, facing Lake Michigan.
The north side of the park is characterized by parkland, beaches, recreational areas, nature
reserves, and harbors.
The park's recreational facilities include 15 baseball areas, 6 basketball courts, softball fields,
soccer fields, 35 tennis courts, 163 volleyball courts, field houses, a target archery field, a driving
range and golf course.

The park also includes

a number of harbours
with boating facilities,
as well as public
beaches.
There are landscaped
gardens, public art
(statues), bird refuges, a
zoo, the Lincoln Park
Conservatory, the
Alfred Caldwell Lily
Pool, and a theater on
the lake with regular
outdoor performances
during the summer.
• Beaches
• Golf
• Boating
• Chicago lake front trail
• Wildlife

5. THE GOLDEN GATE PARK, CALIFORNIA

Golden Gate Park, located in San Francisco, California, is a large urban park consisting of 1,017
acres (411.6 ha) or about 4 Sq. Kms. of public grounds. Configured as a rectangle, it is similar in
shape but larger than Central Park in New York, to which it is often compared. It is over three
miles (4.8 km) long east to west, and about half a mile (0.8 km) north to south.

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With 13 million visitors annually, Golden Gate is the fifth most-visited city park in the United
States after Central Park in New York City, Lincoln Park in Chicago, and Balboa Park and
Mission Bay Park in San Diego.

Engineer William Hammond Hall prepared a survey and topographic map of the park site in 1870
and became its commissioner in 1871. The park drew its name from nearby Golden Gate Strait.
The plan and planting were developed by Hall and his assistant, John McLaren. The initial plan
called for grade separations of transverse roadways through the park, as Frederick Law Olmsted
had provided for Central Park, but budget constraints and the positioning of the Arboretum and
the Concourse ended the plan.
The first stage of the park’s development centered on planting trees in order to stabilize the dunes
that covered three-quarters of the park’s area. By 1875, about 60,000 trees, mostly Eucalyptus
globulus, Montere pine, and Monterey cypress, had been planted. By 1879, that figure more than
doubled to 155,000 trees over 1,000 acres (400 ha). Later, McLaren scoured the world for trees,
by correspondence.
In 1903, a pair of Dutch-style windmills were built at the extreme western end of the park. These
pumped water throughout the park. Most of the water used for landscape watering and for various
water features is now provided by groundwater from the city's Westside Basin Aquifer.
However, the use of highly processed and recycled effluent from the city’s sewage treatment
plant, located at the beach some miles away to the south near the San Francisco Zoo, is planned
for the near future.
Main Attractions of the Park include:
1. Music concourse area
2. Fine arts museum
3. Japanese Tree garden
4. Conservatory of flowers
5. Arboretum
6. Stadium
7. Stow lake with water fall
8. Boating facility
9. Polo fields
10. Dutch style windmills
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