The Transformative Power of Weaving, an essay by Nicola Wong.

Two opposing threads coalesce at a right angle to form a canvas plane. At

its very basic, this is the fundamental principle of weaving.

As a weave major, I am interested in exploring the transformative power of

weaving in my practice as an emerging designer and also the broader
discourse of artisanship and art. This essay investigates the transformative
power of weaving through three key themes:

i) Time honoured metaphor;

ii) Politicising materiality and process through reconceptualising
constructions of femininity, non- western cultures and modern
art, and
iii) Future potential through an exploration of domain shifts.

I) Metaphor

Weaving, as an ancient art form has long garnered the attention of scholars
and laymen alike. Our modern lexicon abounds with metaphors to weaving,
powerfully demonstrating the unifying potential of bringing divergent
principles and ideas together to form a coherent whole. Conceived of as
opposing forces of a binary system, the warp (vertical threads) and the weft
(horizontal threads) meet at a right angle to form a sturdy plane of cloth.

One only has to recall the phrase “Fabric of society’ to draw the art of
weaving to its logical conclusion. In an essay written for Sheila Hicks’
‘Weaving as Metaphor”, Art Critic, Arthur C.Danto (quoted in Hemmings (ed.),
2012: 205) situates weaving at the advent of western thought and
philosophy, employed by Plato in ‘The Republic’. Danto recounts Plato’s

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reverence for the art form of weaving and how he employs it as a metaphoric
device to explain the function of the State to a young Sophocles (Ibid: 206).
According to Plato, the primary function of the State was to creatively apply
judgement in the absence of laws to maintain societal equilibrium while
creating precedents for law and order (Ibid: 207). Plato’s allegory states;

“…Woof (weft) and warp cannot be fashioned of the same threads, but
the material of the warp must be of a superior quality-it must be tough,
you know, and have a certain tenacity of character, whereas the woof
may be softer and display a proper pliancy” (Plato quoted in
Hemmings (ed.), 2006: 208).

Considered in this way, we can conceptualise of the State represented by

the warp threads as providing structure and the bedrock upon which the
woof (weft) threads representative of the citizenry meet in the construction of
cloth. This meeting of disparate entities unified through cooperation and a
respect for their mutual domains provides for the most basic of human
needs; shelter and protection.

By employing weaving to demonstrate the function of the State, its citizenry

and the means by which a well-balanced and unified society operates,
Plato’s contention perhaps elevated weaving to the highest virtue; unity
through order and diversity.

II) Politicising materiality

The feminine presence in the discourse and application of ‘craft’ has long
been documented, debated and celebrated, making for a deeply complex
and contradictory relationship. Perhaps in no other sphere of domestic life,
with the obvious exception of child rearing has the feminine essence been so
intrinsically tied to textiles.

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Wayland Barber (in Hemmings ed., 2012) investigates the practicalities of this
gendered division of labour as reiterating the role of woman as carer and
nurturer of the young. Craft activities such as mending, embroidery,
spinning, knitting and weaving were undertaken in the home in close
proximity of the young. Due to the repetitive nature and hand-orientation of
these activities, disruptions could be frequently made without greatly
affecting the outcome (Ibid: 322).

 
(Top L) Woman embroidering, circa 1900, (Top R) Women with spinning wheels.
(Bottom R) Navajo woman weaving, (Bottom R) Knitting hands.

This historical aside provides us with a good starting point to explore how
textiles and women’s relationship with it has evolved over the last century.
The Artists discussed herein highlight how their process and approach to
materiality redefined and renegotiated the traditional confines of weaving.
This was in itself an act of beauty and also one of subversion.

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Politics of difference and the Fiber Art movement

Second-wave feminism emerged in North America in the 1960s, gaining

momentum in the 70s across the western world. This widespread social
movement sought an egalitarian redistribution of resources, political and
sexual autonomy and a repositioning of gender norms ascribed to the female
sex. Women began to reclaim their voice and space not only in the domestic
sphere but also in the public realm. Modern art became fertile ground for
women to articulate their voice in this new political era.

Against the backdrop of the reign of the Abstract Expressionism movement

(1940s-1960s), fiber emerged as a contentious medium. Up until this time,
textiles had reached its pinnacle with the first solo exhibition of Anni Albers’
work in 1949 at the Museum of Modern Art in New York (Auther, in
Hemmings ed., 2012: 215). This was monumental for primarily two reasons;
it was the first time textiles had been exhibited in the Museum of Modern Art
and it also signalled a shift in elevating textiles to that of art.

Lenore Tawney, a pioneering American Artist, with a career spanning over

fifty years, further muddied the waters of the art and craft debate with her
contentious ‘open warp’ weaves. These freestanding sculptural forms
challenged not only the art establishment with their purely abstract
orientation but also traditional weavers who claimed heresy for leaving large
sections of warp unwoven (Auther, ibid: 212, Wortmann Weltge, 2000; 11).
Tawney’s pursuit in expanding the medium of weaving led her to invent a
new type of reed, with an open top allowing her to stretch and constrain the
confines of the warp resulting in a looser and more organic weave structure
(Stein, 1997:30).

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Lenore Tawney featured in Life magazine, 1966.

Tawney’s work was to feature heavily in the now infamous exhibition (1968-
9), “Wall Hangings” curated by Mildred Constantine and Jack Lenor Larsen,
representing one of the first serious attempts to showcase textiles within the
modern art space (Auther, ibid: 213).

Constantine, an established Art Curator and Larson, a prominent Textile

Designer were two of the strongest proponents and advocates of the Fiber
Art movement to emerge in the 1960s. The publication of their seminal
treatise on the emerging fiber movement (1973) “Beyond Craft: The Art
Fabric” articulated the collective spirit, artistic intent and pioneering forms of
emerging textile artists from around the world (Auther, ibid: 210). This
collaborative effort represented an authentic effort on behalf of Constantine
and Larson to legitimise Fiber as an art form equal to that of painting and
sculpture. Despite this defining moment in the course of the Fiber Art
movement, Auther (ibid: 220) renders this ambitious goal as largely
unsuccessful at the time. The hierarchy of art and craft thus remained intact.

Harmony Hammond, a prominent abstract artist and feminist art theorist

asserted in her paper for the feminist publication (1977) ‘Heresies’, that
abstract art was a feminist act. Included in her definition of abstract art she
states (66-7):

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 “It is interesting to note that much of women’s past creativity, as well
as the art of non-western cultures has been abstract. I’m thinking of
the incredible pottery, quilts, Afghans, lace and needlework that
women have created.”

Hammond then goes further to proclaim that the distinction between high
and low forms of art is defined by the patriarchal power structure created
and fortified by the western male elite. Quoting Weatherford (67):

“Art history assigns creative products to two categories- fine arts and
crafts- and then certifies as legitimate only the fine arts, thereby
excluding those creative traditions of primitive people, peasants,
women and many other groups outside the mainstream of western
history”.

Rejecting this power structure, Artists such as Tawney, Anni Albers and
Sheila Hicks all actively sought co-creation with traditional weaving societies
thus forming an integral part of their textile practice.

iv) Albers / Hicks: Homage to those that came before

Anni Albers and Sheila Hicks remain perhaps the most enduring and prolific
weavers of the 20th century. Born and schooled continents apart, their paths
crossed when Anni’s husband Josef, introduced the two women.

United by a common fascination and reverence for Andean textiles, both

Artists had individually pursued knowledge of the ancient societies of the
Andes1. Here, Hicks reflects upon the ancient civilizations of the Andes which
has been the most significant influence on her work:

                                                                                                               
1  Albers was first exposed to the accomplished weaves of Andean societies while a student at the Bauhaus, when

the Primitivism art movement was popularised through several key exhibitions in Germany at the time (Gardener
Troy, 1999: 30). Hicks had already been exposed to the teachings of George Kubler in his pre-colonial art history
class at Yale, which left an enduring impression upon her as an emerging artist.  

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 “The weaving culture in the Andes is the most sophisticated weaving
culture in the world. The variety, the vocabulary, the alphabet for
constructing and imagining different ways to cross threads and
connect threads was so rich. It’s a culture that didn’t have a written
language….the vehicle that I found for my investigatory work was
following their highly developed thread cultures.” (Hicks and
Mysliwiec, 2014).

Sheila Hicks in Peru

Throughout her career, Albers rarely spoke of weaving without the utmost
praise and admiration for the work of the Andean weavers, chronicled in her
seminal book “On Weaving” (Albers, 1965). Upon moving to the United
States with husband Josef, Anni consolidated her practice as an Abstract
Artist. It was during this period, that Anni undertook her most innovative
work to date, based on travels to Mexico in 1936 where she documented the
magnificent Monte Alban (overleaf, left) in a work of the same name and its
companion piece “Ancient Writing” (overleaf, right), often conceived as a
significant turning point in the Artist’s oeuvre.

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Anni Albers, Monte Alban, 1936. Anni Albers, Ancient Writing, 1936.

While deemed as ‘pictorial weaves’ by the Artist herself, these pieces display
a complex abstraction of meaning and technique. Influenced by techniques
and codified meanings exemplified by Peruvian weavers, Albers explored a
variety of methods of ‘speaking with thread’ (Gardner Troy, 1999:28). In
Monte Alban, Albers introduced the technique of ‘supplementary or floating
thread’, whereby an extra thread was inserted in the same pick as the ground
weave, allowing for a type of organic line to traverse the weave itself,
outlining the ascent of Mount Alban (Gardner Troy, 1999). In Ancient Writing
(right) Albers explored the concept of codified meanings hidden within visual
signs on the cloth itself.

Hicks and Albers both paid homage to the ancient artisans of the Andes in
their work, which remained central to their practice as textile artists. At
separate times, both artists spent considerable time travelling through Latin
America, honing their craft by learning alongside the native weavers of the
Andes. This cross-cultural exchange formed an integral part of both artists’

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work and with the progression of their careers elevated the status of the
ancient master weavers while bringing them to the attention of a new
audience.

In their reconceptualization of modern art and abstraction through the

application of ancient techniques, both Albers and Hicks were engaged in a
political act. By actively drawing attention to the skilled artisanship of the
ancient civilizations they engaged with, both artists challenged the dominant
bias of western modern art at the time. For as Chadwick (2010: 155)
discusses in relation to Hicks; “Even as her works draw on modernism’s
legacy, they challenge it cultural exclusiveness and its privileging of painting,
sculpture and the non-relational object over media identified with the
corporeal and artisanal traditions”.

Fowler (2014: 39-40) explores Hick’s elevation of the subaltern in an analysis

of some of Hick’s most prolific pieces; “The Principal Wife (1968)” and “The
Principal’s Wife goes on” (1969) two of Hicks’ first off the loom pieces.

Sheila Hicks, The Principal Wife, 1968. Sheila Hicks, Banisteriopsis, Banisteriopsis-
Dark Ink: The evolving tapestry He/She, 1965
6, installation view

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Inspired by her time spent in Morocco, where polygamy is commonly
practiced, Hicks’ intent was to document alternate methods of social
organisation different to western ideals and highlight the inherent
complexities of both. This anthropological approach to her practice is evident
in a number of her works including the woven stack “Banisteriopsis” (1965-6)
(see page 9), referring to the hallucinogenic stems and branches of the
Amazonian plant Ayahuasca. Fowler (ibid: 42-3) connects Hicks’ fascination
with the transformative properties of the plant and the ceremony attached to
it as reiterating her position on the sophistication of ‘primitive’ societies.
These pieces emerged from a cultural milieu in the West during the 1960s,
where younger generations were beginning to embrace counterculture
practices largely appropriated from primitive or tribal societies (ibid).

The legacy of Albers’ and Hicks’ work and practice transcends time and
trends; their work is still relevant today as it ever has been. As increasing
numbers of new weavers are introduced to the magnificent work of both
artists, the continuous thread connecting past with future is further
strengthened. I include myself in the new generation of weavers, who takes
great inspiration from these two visionary artists both from a technical and
philosophical perspective.

III) Domain Shifts

Richard Sennett’s ‘The Craftsman’ presents an insightful exploration into the

potential of craft to transform our everyday lives. By looking at the many
metaphors of weaving that have existed over time, Sennett (2008) holds that
much like Plato’s original contention, the bringing together of two ideas
through a process of metamorphosis has the power to create something
innovative and revolutionary (ibid: 127). Sennett (Ibid: 128) demonstrates
through the concept of weaving, (whereby the warp thread and the weft
thread meet at a right angle to form cloth) how this became a suitable
analogy for the Ancient Greeks when shipbuilding, to perfectly align the

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‘mortise and tenon joint’. This discovery enabled the seafaring Greeks to
more effectively seal their boats, resulting in a new era of discovery. Sennett
describes how these domain shifts do not come about through a process of
thinking and theorising, rather through continual use, perseverance and
developing one’s craft (Ibid). For as Lenore Tawney reflected upon her
breakthrough in her weaving (Stein: 1997:29):

“As I was weaving, the warp began to hang in places looser than the
woven part. I though to myself, it wouldn’t be any good. Then I
thought, but I don’t have to show it to anybody; it’s just for myself.
And I felt so free! I did as I wanted. And when I took it off the loom
and threw it on the floor I felt that tiny click at the heart that meant: It
was not bad. So I learnt in that place that I had the freedom to do
what I wanted.”

The textile future is bright

As we beyond the craft vs. art debate and into a new era of trans-
disciplinary terrain, a new generation of contemporary artists are embracing
the transformative power of weaving. Take for example the traditional woven
forms of Artist Maria Nepomuceno (http://www.victoria-miro.com/artists/37-
Maria-Nepomuceno), whose work draws upon her Brazilian craft heritage
bringing together basketry, braiding and weaving. These large- scale
biomorphic and seemingly pulsating forms vibrate with colour, texture and
delight.

Maria Nepomuceno , Untitled 2010. Maria Nepomuceno, Breathing Time, exhibition view, 2012.

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English Artist Nick Relph’s work “Tomorrow there is no recording”
(http://www.chisenhale.org.uk/archive/exhibitions/index.php?id=132)
comprises of a series of hand-woven pieces on a four- shaft floor loom and
digital imagery. Relph examines the expressive nature of textiles and the
resulting maker’s mark that inherently comes from working with fibre and the
loom. He juxtaposes this human intervention with that of digital imagery,
transforming an image into computerised perfection and accuracy.

Nick Relph, Quarterer, 2013. Nick Relph, International Waters, 2013.

Gabriel Pionkowski (http://www.mmoca.org/2013-triennial/artists/2028)

weaves ‘deconstructed paintings’. The Artist begins by deconstructing the
canvas plane by each individual thread at a time then painstakingly paints
each individual thread weaving with the canvas thread on a loom (images
overleaf).

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Gabriel Pionkowski Untitled, 2012. Gabriel Pionkowski, Exhibition view, 2012.

Unashamed of their use of fibre and traditional handmade methods, the

abovementioned Artists renegotiate materiality by synthesising traditional
methods of weaving within a conceptual framework. By pushing the
limitations of the traditional modes of weaving, these artists are in fact
engaged in a process of Sennett’s ‘domain shift’.

Weaver…

This essay began by investigating weaving as metaphor and the

pervasiveness of such an analogy in both our ancient and modern
vernaculars. As an emerging weaver and textile designer, I wanted to
explore my motivations behind undertaking such a pursuit. The historical
lineage of weaving from the Ancient Greeks and Peruvians to the Bauhaus to
contemporary artists is one of contention and underpinned by a deep
philosophical connection to warp and weft. This most basic premise
resonates with myself as a designer and a maker, where I am immediately
empowered by the act of bringing two divergent threads together to form a

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coherent whole. As a largely female endeavour, I am also aware of my role
within this gendered divide, which brings into focus my own ideals around
femininity, aesthetics and craft. I weave because I derive pleasure from it, I
love the tactile nature of working with cloth and I am also a Feminist that
appreciates and wants to cultivate beauty. I believe in the transformative
potential of weaving, to co-create, cultivate understanding and respect for
tradition and those who have gone before, whilst breaking rules and pushing
boundaries to create something innovative yet beautiful. This is my intent as
a Weaver and Designer.

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Bibliography:

Albers, Anni (1965) On Weaving, Highgate Hill, Studio Vista Limited.

Auther, Elissa (2008) “Fiber Art and the hierarchy of Art and Craft, 1960-
1980” in The Textile Reader (2012), London, Berg Publishers, pp. 201-222.

Barber, Wayland Elizabeth (1994) “A tradition with a reason”, Hemmings,

Jessica (ed.), The Textile Reader (2012), London, Berg Publishers, pp.321-
323).

Chadwick, Whitney (2010) “Ancient Lines and Modernist Cubes’, Simon,

Joan (eds.) and Faxon, Susan C (eds.), Sheila Hicks: 50 years, New Haven
and London, Yale University Press, pp. 155-192.

Danto, Arthur C (2006) “Weaving as metaphor and model for political

thought”, Hemmings, Jessica (ed.), The Textile Reader (2012), London, Berg
Publishers, pp. 205-209.

Hammond, Harmony (1977) “Feminist Abstract Art- A political viewpoint”,

Heresies, New York, Heresies Collective Inc., pp. 66-70.

Hicks, Sheila and Mysliwiec, Danielle (2014), In conversation, The Brooklyn

Rail, http://www.brooklynrail.org/2014/04/art/sheila-hicks-with-danielle-mysliwiec,
accessed 08/05/2014.

Fowler, Cynthia (2014) “A sign of the times: Sheila Hicks, the Fiber Arts
movement and the language of liberation”, The Journal of Modern Craft, Vol.
7, Issue 1, March 2014, pp.33-52.

Sennett, Richard (2008) The Craftsman, Yale University Press, New Haven,
CT.

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Stein, Judith, E (1997) “The inventive genius of Lenore Tawney: reflections on
a lifetime of art” in Fiberarts, vol 24, no 2, Sept/Oct 1997: 28-34.

Troy, Gardner Virginia (1999), “Thread as text; the woven work of Anni
Albers’, Weber, Fox Nicholas (eds.) and Asbagi, Tabatabai Pandora (eds.),
Anni Albers, New York: Guggenheim Museum; London: Thames and Hudson.

Wortmann Weltge, Sigrid (2000) “Lenore Tawney: celebrating five decades of

work”, in Lenore Tawney: celebrating five decades of work, Browngrotta Arts,
Wilton, CT.

Image References:
Page 3:
Woman embroidering: “The embroidery frame”
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/98501309/, accessed 08/06/2014.

Women with spinning wheels:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Three_women_spinnin
g_wool_to_knit_socks_for_soldiers_during_World_War_I_-
_Tenterfield,_NSW,_ca._1915.jpg, accessed 12/06/2014.

Navajo Woman weaving:

http://wwwdelivery.superstock.com/WI/223/255/PreviewComp/SuperStock_
255-28424.jpg, accessed 12/06/2014.

Knitting Hands:
http://pixabay.com/en/hand-lady-woman-cartoon-knitting-29327/

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Page 5:
Lenore Tawney: Lenore Tawney, featured in Life magazine, photographed by
Nina Leen, 1966.
http://www.cathyofcalifornia.typepad.com/cathy_of_california/page/19
accessed 11/06/14.

Page 7:
Sheila Hicks in Peru
http://cathyofcalifornia.typepad.com/.a/6a00d8341c4eba53ef0176177dcfc29
70c-800wi, accessed 28/05/2014.

Page 8:
Anni Albers, Monte Alban, page 4:
http://uploads7.wikipaintings.org/images/anni-albers/monte-alban-1936.jpg.
Accessed 08/05/2014.

Anni Albers, Ancient Writing, page 4:

http://www.blackmountainstudiesjournal.org/wp/?page_id=131 Accessed
08/05/2014.

Page 9:
Sheila Hicks, The Principal’s Wife goes on
http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/sheila-hicks/the-principal-wife-1968
Accessed 08/05/2014.

Sheila Hicks, Banisteriopsis, Banisteriopsis- Dark Ink: The evolving tapestry

He/She, installation view http://the-st-claire.com/0611/0611-review3-pic2.jpg

Page 11:
Maria Nepomuceno: http://www.victoria-
miro.com/custom_images/x790/usr/library/images/main/37/mnt_07_untitled_
2008_a.jpg, accessed 08/05/2014.

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Maria Nepomuceno: http://www.turnercontemporary.org/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2012/09/2012-09-14-49833-1500px-645x483.jpg, accessed
08/05/2014.

Page 12:
Nick Relph, Quarterer:
http://www.chisenhale.org.uk/archive/exhibitions/images/02_Nick_Relph_at_
Chisenhale_Gallery_10.jpg, accessed 12/06/2014.

Nick Relph, International Waters:

http://www.chisenhale.org.uk/archive/exhibitions/images/06_Nick_Relph_at_
Chisenhale_Gallery_14.jpg accessed 12/06/2014.

Page 13:
Gabriel Pionkowski, Untitled:
http://www.mmoca.org/sites/default/files/styles/art_triennial/public/images-
artwork/Tri%201_3.jpg?itok=j7nHTq9u accessed 12/06/2014.

Gabriel Pionkowski, Exhibition View: http://cdn.c.photoshelter.com/img-

get2/I0000XvteCVfB5gY/fit=1000x750/20120328-Gabriel-Pionkowski-
025.jpg, accessed 12/06/2014.

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