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ABSTRACT
Despite almost 25 y of fish oil supplementation (FS) research in athletes and widespread use by the athletic community, no systematic reviews of FS
in athletes have been conducted. The objectives of this systematic review are to: 1) provide a summary of the effect of FS on the athlete’s physiology,
health, and performance; 2) report on the quality of the evidence; 3) document any side effects as reported in the athlete research; 4) discuss any
risks associated with FS use; and 5) provide guidance for FS use and highlight gaps for future research. Electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, Web
of Science, Google Scholar) were searched up until April 2019. Only randomized placebo-controlled trials (RCTs) in athletes, assessing the effect of
FS on a health, physiological/biochemical, or performance variable were included. Of the 137 papers identified through searches, 32 met inclusion
criteria for final analysis. Athletes varied in classification from recreational to elite, and from Olympic to professional sports. Mean age for participants
was 24.9 ± 4.5 y, with 70% of RCTs in males. We report consistent effects for FS on reaction time, mood, cardiovascular dynamics in cyclists, skeletal
muscle recovery, the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α, and postexercise NO responses. No clear effects on endurance performance, lung function,
muscle force, or training adaptation were evident. Methodological quality, applying the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale, ranged
from 6 to a maximum of 11, with only 4 RCTs reporting effect sizes. Few negative outcomes were reported. We report various effects for FS on
the athlete’s physiology; the most consistent findings were on the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, proinflammatory cytokines, and
skeletal muscle. We provide recommendations for future research and discuss the potential risks with FS use. Adv Nutr 2020;00:1–15.
Keywords: performance, injury, inflammation, mood state, recovery, DHA, EPA, exercise
Copyright
C The Author(s) on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition 2020. Adv Nutr 2020;00:1–15; doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmaa050. 1
for the respective fatty acids. EPA and DHA have been re- the electronic databases were conducted under each of the
ported to have differential effects on the antioxidant systems following specific terms—cognition, performance, injury,
and anabolic-catabolic pathways in skeletal muscle (3, 4). recovery, adaptation, skeletal muscle, muscle soreness, en-
2 Lewis et al.
n n
n n
n
n
FIGURE 1 Flow diagram of study selection criteria. RCT, randomized placebo-controlled trial.
Data synthesis and extraction provide a summary of both the significant and nonsignificant
A meta-analysis was not conducted due to the heterogeneity findings.
across studies and the variety of outcomes reported. Data
extraction captured information relating to: 1) study design Subject characteristics
(e.g., randomized, placebo-controlled trial); 2) sample char- The majority of investigations (n = 22) studied men only.
acteristics (e.g., age, sample size, sex, sport, athlete status); 3) Nine RCTs included participants of both sexes, and one RCT
health and performance variables (e.g., mood and cognition, included women only. The mean age for participants in the
cardiovascular and respiratory, skeletal muscle, immune and FS and placebo groups across the RCTs was 24.9 ± 4.5 y;
inflammation, biomarkers, physical performance); 4) fish 1 RCT failed to report the age of the participants (31).
oil dose and dosing period; 5) additions to the fish oil Athletes varied in classification, from recreational (e.g.,
(e.g., vitamin D, vitamin E, etc.); 6) measurement of n–3 noncompetitive) to elite (referring to a professional or
fatty acid biomarkers (e.g., plasma EPA and DHA); and 7) national-level competitive standard) and from a range of
nonsignificant effects and findings. summer Olympic sports (e.g., judo, swimming, cycling,
marathon) and professional sports (i.e., American football,
soccer, rugby, Australian Rules football, and basketball)
Results (Tables 1–4).
Study selection and sports
We identified a total of 137 papers using our search strategy, Methodological quality and risk of bias
of which 32 RCTs (level of evidence 1B) met the inclusion The methodological quality of the RCTs, applying the PEDro
criteria (Figure 1). The mean sample size of included studies scale (maximum score obtainable 11), ranged from a score
was 27 participants (range: 15–81 participants). of 6 (2 studies) to a maximum of 11 (1 study), with an
The 32 RCTs were grouped into the following areas (some average score of 9. Of the 32 RCTs included, 25 (75%)
studies represented twice): oxidative stress only (n = 5); were double-blind in design, 7 (20%) were single-blind, and
immunity, inflammation, and oxidative stress (n = 10); 3 incorporated a crossover design with a wash-out period
muscle recovery (n = 5); team sports and training adaptation ranging from 2 wk to 35 d (32–34). A major methodological
(n = 5); cardiovascular physiology (n = 5); cognition and flaw affecting 28 of the 32 RCTs (88%), was that the size
mood state (n = 4); respiratory health (n = 2); and injury of the treatment effect (i.e., effect sizes) was not reported.
related (n = 2) (Tables 1–4). Only significant findings are Sponsorship and research funding by the fish oil industry was
reported in the results and discussed. However, Tables 1–4 clearly reported in 7 RCTs.
4
Sex and sample Biomarkers Dosing ω-3 biomarker
Author Sport Athlete status size affected by FS period, wk Active treatment, mg/d response to FS No effect for FS2
Żebroswka et Cycling Competitive Male participants ↑NO at rest and 3 1320 EPA Not measured Endothelium
Lewis et al.
al. (32) n = 13 postexercise 880 DHA independent
vasodilatation, peak
power, TGs, LDL and
HDL cholesterol, total
cholesterol, HR, SBP,
DBP, glycerol, TAS,
PWV
Filaire et al. (35) Judo Elite Male participants ↓TGs, ↑MDA at rest 6 600 EPA Not measured GPx
n = 20 only, ↑MDA, 400 DHA
Rmax, CDmax
post-ex, ↑NO
post-ex
Filaire et al. (36) Judo Elite Male participants ↑MDA, Rmax, 6 600 EPA Not measured
n = 28 CDmax at rest, 400 DHA
and ↓post-ex Vitamin C, Vitamin E,
β-carotene
Filaire et al. (36) Judo Elite Male participants ↑MDA, Rmax, 6 600 EPA Not measured
n = 28 CDmax at rest 400 DHA
and post-ex, ↑NO
post-ex
McAnulty et al. Cycling Competitive Male and female ↑F2-isoprostane 6 2000 EPA ↑Plasma DHA (55.8%),
(37) participants post-ex 400 DHA EPA (61.5%)
n = 48
McAnulty et al. Cycling Competitive Male and female Prevented 6 2000 EPA ↑Plasma DHA (95.3%),
(37) participants F2-isoprostane 400 DHA EPA (77.8%)
n = 48 ↑post-ex Vitamins, Minerals,
Antioxidants
McAnulty et al. Cycling Competitive Male and female Prevented 2 220 EPA Not measured ORAC, ferric-reducing
(38) participants F2-isoprostane 180 DHA ability of plasma
n = 39 ↑post-ex Vitamin C, EGCG,
Quercetin, B vitamins
Martorell et al. Soccer Semiprofessional Male participants ↑RBC SOD and GRd 5 d/wk for 8 1140 DHA ↑RBC DHA (26.4%) RBC MDA, carbonyl
(39) n = 15 activity, ↓GPx wk CHO, Proteins, index, nitrotyrosine,
Almonds CAT
Ghiasvand et al. Well-trained Male participants Resting: ↑MDA 6 2000 EPA Not measured No change TNF-α
(19) Basketball n = 34
1
CAT, catalase; CDmax, maximum amount of conjugated dienes; CHO, carbohydrate; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; EGCG, epigallocatechin 3-gallate; FS, fish oil supplementation; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; GRd, glutathione reductase; HR, heart
rate; MDA, malondialdehyde; ORAC, oxygen radical absorption capacity; post-ex, postexercise; PWV, pulse wave velocity; Rmax, maximum rate of oxidation during the propagating chain reaction; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SOD, superoxide
dismutase; TAS, total antioxidant status; TG, triglyceride.
2
All nonsignificant findings for the effects of FS.
Andrade et al. (40) Swimmers Elite Male participants Resting: ↑PBMC, ↓plasma 6 950 EPA ↑Plasma total ω-3 fatty PBMC TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4,
n = 20 PGE2 , ↓IFN-γ 500 DHA acids (45.4%), EPA cortisol, insulin
(196%), DHA (96%)
Delfan et al. (41) Paddlers Elite Male participants Resting PBMCs: ↓TNF-α, 4 2400 EPA Not measured IL-4, Th1/Th2 ratio
n = 22 ↓IL-1β, ↑IL-6, ↑IL-10, 1200 DHA
↓IFN-γ
Santos et al. (42) Marathon Competitive Male participants Resting: ↑lymphocyte 8.5 300 EPA Not measured Lymphocyte death.
n = 21 proliferation; ↓IL-2, 1500 DHA Postrace lymphocyte:
↓TNF-α, ↓IL-10 IL-2, IL-4, TNF-α, IL-10
Postrace: ↑lymphocyte
proliferation
Nieman et al. (43) Cyclists Competitive Male and female 6 2000 EPA ↑Plasma EPA (311%), DHA Total blood leukocytes, CK,
participants 400 DHA (40%) CRP, ratio sIgA:protein,
n = 23 myeloperoxidase, IL-6,
IL-8, IL-1Ra, endurance
performance
Da Boit et al. (44) Athletic, Recreational Male and female ↓Total number of 16 550 EPA Not measured URTI incidence, severity
nonspecific participants symptom days 550 DHA and duration of URTI,
n = 30 Whey protein, visits to medical doctor,
Vitamin D sIgA conc. and secretion
rate
Capó et al. (45, 46) Soccer Semiprofessional Male participants ↓Post-ex MIP1-α. Post-ex 5 d/wk for 8 wk 1140 DHA ↑RBC DHA (36%) Oxidative damage in
n = 15 LPS-stimulated PBMCs: CHO, Proteins, PBMCs, ROS production
↓TNF-α, ↓IL-6, ↓TLR-4 Almonds by PBMCs. Resting and
protein concentrations postexercise plasma:
↑PBMCs UCP-3, ↓GPx IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10,
VEGF, IFN-γ , TNF-α,
IL-1α, IL-1β, TNF-β, EGF,
IL-5, IL-15, MCP-1,
GMCSF
Capó et al. (47) Soccer Semiprofessional Male participants Resting: neutrophil gene 5 d/wk for 8 wk 1140 DHA ↑RBC DHA (36%) Neutrophils: nitrate, nitrite;
n = 15 expression (IL-8, NFκB); CHO, Proteins, NO; MPO, TNF-α, gene
↑neutrophil total MPO, Almonds expression (COX2,
↑neutrophil total CAT TNF-α, MPO)
activity
Nieman et al. (48) Cyclists Competitive Male and female Resting: serum ↓CRP, 24 d 400 EPA Not measured Plasma IL-10, IL-1Ra, TNF-α,
participants plasma IL-6, total 400 DHA CK, MCP, MPO, sIgA
n = 39 leukocytes, EGCG, Quercetin protein, HSP-70
↓granulocyte oxidative
burst
Ghiasvand et al. Basketball Well-trained Male participants Resting: ↓IL-6, ↑GPx 6 2000 EPA Not measured No change GPx in
(19) n = 34 Vitamin E +/− EPA-only group
1
CAT, catalase; CHO, carbohydrate; CK, creatine kinase; COX, cycloxygenase; CRP, C-reactive protein; EGCG, epigallocatechin 3-gallate; EGF, epidermal growth factor; FS, fish oil supplementation; GMCSF, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor;
GPx, glutathione peroxidase; HSP, heat-shock protein; MCP, monocyte chemotactic protein; MIP, macrophage inflammatory protein; MPO, myeloperoxidase; PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cell; ROS, reactive oxygen species; sIgA, salivary immunoglobulin A;
Th1/2; T helper cell 1/2; TLR, toll-like receptor; UCP, mitochondrial uncoupling protein; URTI, upper respiratory tract illness; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.
2
All nonsignificant findings for the effects of FS.
Sex and Mood and Cardiovascular Physical Dosing period, ω-3 biomarker No effect for FS2
Author Sport Athlete status sample size cognition and respiratory Skeletal/muscle Biomarkers performance wk Active treatment, mg/d response to FS
Lewis et al.
Jakeman et al. Athletes Recreational Male >Recovery of CMJ <1 7500 EPA Not measuredNo. Muscle soreness,
(49) participants 500 DHA Please this as CK, IL-6
n = 27 the omega, as
opposed to n-3,
this is correct as
per Professor
Calder final
edits
Lewis et al. (50) Summer Competitive Male ↓Fatigue (% drop 3 375 EPA Plasma EPA↑ MVC, squat jump,
Olympic participants Wingate 510 DHA (65.8%), DHA no CMJ, back
sports n = 31 power), ↑VL Vitamin D change squat, push-ups,
EMG endurance
performance
(time trial)
Black et al. (51) Rugby Professional- Male ↓Fatigue, ↑sleep ↓Muscle soreness ↑Mean CMJ peak 5 1102 EPA Plasma ω-3 fatty
elite participants quality force 1102 DHA acids (240%)↑
n = 20 Whey PRO,
CHO, Vitamin D
Philpott et al. Soccer Competitive Male Muscle soreness↓ ↓CK conc. 6 1102 EPA Blood ω-3 fatty CRP, MVC, soccer
(52) participants 1102 DHA acids↑ (58%) passing test,
n = 30 Whey PRO, yo-yo level 2
CHO, Vitamin D test
Gravina et al. Soccer Competitive Male and female ↑Anaerobic 4 4900 EPA Blood ω-3 fatty Respiratory
(53) participants endurance 1400 DHA acids↑ (100%) function (FEV1,
n = 26 (enhanced FVC), MVC,
training effect) 20-m sprints,
vertical jump
height, yo-yo
level 1 test
Raastad et al. Soccer Professional- Male ↓TGs 10 1600 EPA Plasma EPA V̇O2 max, running
(54) elite participants 1004 DHA (175%), DHA speed at
n = 28 (40%) ↑ anaerobic
threshold, run
time to
exhaustion
Buckley et al. Aussie Rules Professional- Male ↓DBP, ↓sub-max ↓TGs 5 360 EPA RBC EPA (116%) Run time to
(55) elite participants exercise HR 1560 DHA DHA (100%), exhaustion,
n = 25 ↑total n–3 V̇O2 /running
(74%) economy
Oliver et al. (31) American Competitive Male ↓NFL 27 2000–6000 DHA ↑Plasma DHA
football participants (98–99.9%),
n = 81 dose
dependent
Mavrogenis et All sports Recreational Male ↓Pain ↑Activity 32 d 3000 EPA Not measured
al. (56) participants 2112 DHA
n = 31 Vitamins and minerals,
GLA
1 CHO, carbohydrate; CK, creatine kinase; CMJ, counter movement jump; CRP, C-reactive protein; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; EMG, electromyography recording from vastus lateralis; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 s; FS, fish oil supplementation; FVC, forced vital capacity;
GLA, γ -linolenic acid; HR, heart rate; MVC, maximal voluntary contraction; NFL, neurofilament light; PRO, protein; TG, triglyceride; VL, vastus lateralis; V̇O2 max, maximal oxygen uptake.
2 All nonsignificant findings for the effects of FS.
Sex and sample Mood and Immune and Cardiovascular Skeletal/ Physical Dosing Active treatment, ω-3 biomarker No effect for FS2
Author Sport Athlete status size cognition inflammation and respiratory muscle Biomarkers performance period, wk mg/d response to FS
Raastad et al. (54) Soccer Professional-elite Male participants ↓TGs 10 1600 EPA ↑Plasma EPA V̇O2 max, running speed
n = 28 1004 DHA (175%), DHA at anaerobic
(40%) threshold, run time to
exhaustion
Buckley et al. (55) Aussie Rules Professional-elite Male participants ↓DBP, ↓sub-max ↓TGs 5 360 EPA ↑RBC EPA (116%) Run time to exhaustion,
n = 25 exercise HR 1560 DHA DHA (100%), V̇O2 /running
total n–3 (74%) economy
Hingley et al. (57) Runners and Well-trained, Male participants ↓Sub-max V̇O2 8 140 EPA ↑OM3I: 4.5% to 6% Endurance performance
cyclists recreational n = 26 during 5-min 560 DHA (time-trial), Wingate,
cycling time MVC
trial
Peoples et al. (58) Cyclists Competitive Male participants ↓Exercise HR, 8 800 EPA ↑RBC DHA
n = 16 ↑cycling 2400 DHA (41.4%), total
economy n–3 (24.3%)
(↓sub-max V̇O2 )
Żebroswka et al. Cyclists Competitive Male participants ↑V̇O2 max (+5%), ↑NO at rest, 3 1320 EPA Not measured Endothelium
(32) n = 13 FMD (%) postexercise, 880 DHA independent
↑glucose and vasodilatation, peak
FFA at rest power, TGs, LDL and
HDL cholesterol, total
cholesterol, HR, SBP,
DBP, glycerol, TAS, BM,
PWV
Fontani et al. (33) Athletics Recreational Male and female ↑Vigor, attention, ↓Homocysteine 5 1600 EPA ↓AA/EPA
participants ↓reaction time, 800 DHA
n = 33 anger, anxiety,
depression
Fontani et al. (59) Karate Competitive Male and female ↑POMS, ↓reaction 3 4800 EPA Not measured
participants time 2400 DHA
n = 18 Policosanol
Guzmán et al. (60) Soccer Professional-elite Female ↓Complex 4 3500 DHA Not measured
participants reaction time
n = 34
Black et al. (51) Rugby Professional-elite Male participants ↓Fatigue, ↑sleep ↓Muscle soreness ↑Mean CMJ 5 1102 EPA ↑Plasma ω-3 fatty
n = 20 quality peak force 1102 DHA acids (240%)
Whey PRO,
CHO, Vitamin D
Mickleborough Endurance sports Competitive Male and female ↓Urinary LTE4 and Improved lung 3 3200 EPA ↑Neutrophil EPA
et al. (34) participants ↓9α,11β-PGF2 ; function (FEV1) 2200 DHA (1206%), but no
n = 20 ↓plasma LTB4, change DHA
TNF-α, IL-1β
Tartibian et al. (61) Wrestling Recreational Male participants ↑FEV1, ↑FVC, ↑VC, 12 180 EPA Not measured FEV1% and FIV1%
n = 40 ↑MVV, 120 DHA
↑FEF25–75,
↑FIV1
Gravina et al. (53) Soccer Competitive Male and female ↑Anaerobic 4 4900 EPA ↑Blood ω-3 fatty Respiratory function
participants endurance 1400 DHA acids (100%) (FEV1, FVC), MVC,
n = 26 20-m sprints, vertical
jump height, yo-yo
level 1 test
1 AA, arachidonic acid; BM, body mass; CHO, carbohydrate; CMJ, counter movement jump; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; FEF, forced expiratory flow from 25% to 75%; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 s; FFA, free fatty acid; FIV1, forced inspiratory volume in 1 s; FMD, flow mediated
8 Lewis et al.
Cardiovascular and performance effects in endurance competitive, and professional athletes reported an effect for
athletes FS on neuromuscular performance measures, for example,
DHA is preferentially increased in skeletal muscle phospho- muscle activation, Wingate power, counter movement jumps
10 Lewis et al.
deficiency). The decision whether to use FS for rehabilitation Anecdotally, athletes sometimes consume supplements in
purposes is further complicated by the findings of recent excess of recommendations, in accordance with the “more is
experimental research using a nonsurgical unilateral limb better” mantra. Excessive FS doses over a prolonged period
12 Lewis et al.
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14 Lewis et al.
90. Fernandes AR, Rose M, White S, Mortimer DN, Gem M. Dioxins 92. Oostenbrug GS, Mensink RP, Hardeman MR, De Vries T, Brouns F,
and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in fish oil dietary supplements: Hornstra G. Exercise performance, red blood cell deformability, and
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