Appendix A

A Historical
Introduction to Calculus

Isaac Newton first introduced the mathematical subject we now call

calculus in connection with his theory of universal gravity in the book
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathmatica first published in 1687.
Calculus involves the mathematics of infinitesimals. For example, if a
quantity (x) varies with time (t) as follows:

Eq. (A-1) x = At2

where A is a constant. An infinitesimal change in x may be expressed as:

Eq. (A-2)

∆x = A(t + ∆t)2 - At2 = A(t2 + 2t ∆t + [∆t]2) - At2

where ∆t is a very small change in t.

Dividing both sides by ∆t and letting ∆t approach zero:

Eq. (A-3) ∆x/∆t = 2At

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Newton called ∆x/∆t the fluxion of x which he designated x· .

Similarly, if x = At3, ∆x = A(t + ∆t)2 - At3, then:

Eq. (A-4) Lim ∆x/∆t = 3At2

∆t → 0

In general, if x = Atn, x· = nAtn -1. This also holds when n is negative.

That is, if x = A/t2 = At-2, then x· = -2At-3. It also follows that if x = At-3,
x· = -3At-4.

1.0 DERIVATIVE CALCULUS

Soon after Newton invented calculus, Gottfried Leibnitz (a German

mathematician) independently introduced a similar line of reasoning using
different terminology. Instead of using x· to denote the fluxion of x, he
expressed it as dx/dt and called this the derivative of x. Despite the
difference in terminology, the two systems are the same. Today, the
derivative of a quantity (s) with respect to time is sometimes written s·, but
when the independent variable is some other variable such as x, the
Leibnitz notation is used (i.e., ds/dx).
If s is a function of x as in Fig. A-1, then physically the derivative
ds/dx at a given value of x1 is the slope of the curve at x1. Similarly, if
displacement (y) is a function of time (t) as in Fig. A-2, then the derivative
dy/dt at time (t1) is the velocity (v1) at this point. Also, if velocity (v) is a
function of time (t) as in Fig. A-3, then the derivative dv/dt at a given point
t2 is the acceleration at this point. This is also equal to d(dy/dt)/dt and is
called the second derivative of y with respect to t, and is written d 2y/dt2, or
ÿ.
Figure A-4 shows the variation of a quantity (q) relative to a variable
(x) having a maximum at (1) and a minimum at (2). The slopes of the q vs
x curve at (1) and (2) will be zero (i.e., dq/dx at 1 and 2 will be zero).
 Appendix A 443

Figure A-1.

Figure A-2.
444 Engineering Problem Solving: A Classical Perspective

Figure A-3.

Figure A-4.
 Appendix A 445

When derivatives other than those involving Aqn or Aq-n are required,
they are not derived from scratch, but a table of derivatives found in many
handbooks is consulted. A few of the more common derivatives are given
below (where A is a constant, q represents some variable such as x, y, or t,
and u and v are functions of some variable).

Eq. (A-5) dA = 0

Eq. (A-6) d(Aqn) = nAqn-1dq

Eq. (A-7) d(Aq-n) = -nAq-(n + 1)dq

Eq. (A-8) d(u + v) = du + dv

Eq. (A-9) d(A + u) = du

Eq. (A-10) d(uv) = udv + vdu

Eq. (A-11) d(u/v) = (vdu - udv)/v2

Eq. (A-12) du0.5 = 0.5u-0.5du

Eq. (A-13) d(lnu) = du/u

Eq. (A-14) d(sin u) = (cos u)du

Eq. (A-15) d(cos u) = –(sin u)du

At the end of the article on electronics in Ch.10, the derivative of

E 2R/(R + r)2 with respect to R was required (E and r being held constant).
This is called a partial derivative and is designated ∂[(E2)/(R + r)2]/∂R. This
may be evaluated by use of Eq. (A-11) as follows:

∂[(E 2R)/(R + r)2]/∂R = [(R + r)2∂(E 2R)/∂R - (E 2R)∂(R + r)2/∂R]/(R + r)4

= [E 2(R + r)2 - 2E 2R(R + r)]/(R + r)4
(Eq. 10.30)
446 Engineering Problem Solving: A Classical Perspective

2.0 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integration is the inverse of differentiation. If we know the accelera-

tion of a particle is a constant (a0), and wish to know the change in velocity
(∆v) between two times (t1) and (t2) (Fig. A-5), this will correspond to the
sum of the incremental velocity differences (a0∆t) extending from t = t1 to
t = t2. That is,

2
Eq. (A-16) ∆ v1− 2 = ∑ (a0 Ät)
1

where ∑ indicates that the sum of the incremental values (a0∆t) is to be

1
taken from t = t1 to t = t2. This would be written in the terminology of
calculus as follows:

Eq. (A-17)
2
Äv1−2 = a0 dt = a0 (t2 − t1 ) [from the inverse of Eq. (A-6)]
∫
1

where ∫ resembles a S for summation and is called the integral sign.

When the limits over which the summation is to be taken are indicated
below and above the integral sign, this is called a definite integral.
When limits are not specified, this is called an indefinite integral and
a constant must be added since the derivative of a constant is zero [Eq. (A-
5)]. Thus,

Eq. (A-18)

Äv1− 2 = (∫ a dt + C )
0
1− 2
= a0 t2 + C − (a0 t1 + C ) = a0 (t2 − t1 )

This is the same as the result from the definite integral [Eq. (A-17)].
Just as tables of derivatives are to be found in engineering hand-
books, tables of integrals are also available. A few of the more common
integrals are given below.
 Appendix A 447

Eq. (A-19) ∫ adu = a∫ du

Eq. (A-20) ∫ (u + v )dx = ∫ udx + ∫ vdx

Eq. (A-21) ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu

Eq. (A-22) ∫ dx/x = ln x + C = ln C ′x

Eq. (A-23) ∫ e x dx = e x + C

Eq. (A-24) ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C

Eq. (A-25) ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C

Eq. (A-26) ∫ dx /x 2 = −1/x + C

3.0 EXAMPLES INVOLVING INTEGRATION

In Ch. 2, it was found that:

Eq. (2.14) dT/T = fs dα

where fs is a static coefficient of friction.

Integrating both sides of this equation, using Eq. (A-24):

Eq. (2.15) ln T1 - ln T2 = fs(α2 - α1) = fsα

448 Engineering Problem Solving: A Classical Perspective

and

Eq. (2.16) T1/T2 = e fsα

In Ch. 2, the motion of a projectile is considered. This will now be

reconsidered in terms of definite integrals. Ignoring air drag, the projectile
in Fig. 2.10 will be subjected to a constant deceleration due to gravity
equal to -g, and:

Eq. (A-27) d 2y/dt2 = -g

Its velocity will be:

Eq. (A-28) ∫
dy / dt = − gdt = − gt

where time is taken to be zero at launch and t is some later time of interest.
The vertical displacement (y) at time (t) will be:

t
Eq. (A-29) y = − gtdt = − (gt 2 )/ 2 + Ct
∫
C

where C is the vertical velocity of the projectile at t = 0 (= v0 sin θ ), i.e.,

Eq. (2.24) y = -(gt2)/2 + v0 sin θ

Appendix B

Conversion Factors

Length: 1 in. = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m

1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.28 ft
1 mile = 5280 ft = 1.609 km
1 µin = 25 nm = 250 Å
1 Å = 10-10 m = 0.1 µm
1 µm = 40 µin. = 10-6 m

Volume: 1 ft3 = 0.0283 m3

1 U.S. qt = 9.464 × 10-4 m3
1 U.S. gal = 3.785 × 10-3 m3 = 3.785 l

Mass: 1 lb (mass) = 0.454 kg

1 dyne = 10-3 g (mass)

Density: 1 lb (mass)/in.3 = 2.768 × 104 kg/m3

1 g/cc = 103 kg/m3

Speed: 1 mph = 0.447 m/s

1 m/s = 3.281 fps

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450 Engineering Problem Solving: A Classical Perspective

Acceleration: 1 ft/s2 = 0.3048 m/s2

1 m/s2 = 3.281 ft/s2

Force: 1 lb = 4.448 N = 454 g

1 N = 0.2248 lb
1 dyne = 10-5 N

Pressure: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
103 psi = 6.895 MPa
1 dyne/cm2 = 0.1 Pa

Energy: 1 Btu = 1,065 J

1 erg = 10-7 J
1 J = 1 Nm
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
1 cal, g = 0.0012 Wh = 4.185 J

Power: 1 Btu/s = 1.054 × 103 W

1 W = 1 J/s
1 hp = 746 W

Specific Heat: 1 cal/(gC) = 4.184 × 103 J/(kg.K) = 1.73 W/(mK)

Volume
Specific Heat: 1 Btu/(in.3F) = 2.77 × 104 J/(m3K)

Thermal
Conductivity: 1 Btu/(h.ft.F) = 1.73 W/(mK)
1 cal/(s.cm.C) = 418.4 W/(mK)

Viscosity: 1 Reyn = 1 (lb.s)/in.2 = 68,950 p

1 p = 1 dyne/cm2
1 cp = 10-3 (N.s)/m2
Appendix C

Abbreviations

Å = Angstrom unit
dim. ind. = dimensionally independent
e = coefficient of linear expansion
h = hour
hp = horsepower
in. = inch
J = Joule
°K = degrees Kelvin
kg = kilogram
km = kilometer
kWh = kilowatthour
l = liter
lb = pound
m = meter
mph = miles per hour
mi = mile
N = Newtons

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452 Engineering Problem Solving: A Classical Perspective

nm = nanometer
Pa = Pascal
p = poise
psi = pounds per square inch
qt = quart
°R = degrees Rankin
s = second
W = Watts
µin. = microinch
µm = micrometer
Btu = British thermal unit
°C = degrees Celsius
cal = gram calorie
°F = degrees Fahrenheit
g = gram
gal = gallon