Reservoir Engineering – Primary Recovery

Conversions and Constants Reservoir Fluids

1 kPa = 0.1450 psi 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 m3 = 6.2898 bbl R = 459.67 + °F 1 cp = 1.0 mPa-s 𝐵𝑔 (1 − 𝑅𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝑠 ) + 𝐵𝑜 (𝑅𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅𝑣 ൯
Reservoir Conditions Surface
1 MPa = 10 bar 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 bbl = 5.6146 ft3 K = 273.15 + °C Conditions
𝐵𝑡𝑔 =
1 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑣
Isothermal
1 atm = 14.696 psi 1 mile = 5,280 ft 1 bbl = 42 US gal °F = 1.8 °C + 32
1 atm = 1.013 bar 1 ft3 = 7.4805 gal 1 lbm = 453.592 g P > BP P < BP
2
Gas Gas
1 1.2 1 + 𝑅𝐵
Gaseous OIL 1 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑅𝑣 = 𝐵𝑡𝑔 = [=]
1 Newton = 1 x 105 dynes 1 Darcy = 9.8692 x 10-9 cm2 Standard Temperature = 60°F 1.1 𝑠𝑐𝑓
Oil
1 dyne = 2.248 x 10 lbf -6 1 Darcy = 1.0623 x 10-11 ft2 Standard Pressure = 14.696 psia 2 + 2.1
Oleic 1.1 1.1 1.1
1 g/cm3 = 62.428 lbm /ft3 Euler (γ) = 0.5772 = ln(1.781) Water density at SC = 62.37 lbm Τft 3
Oil
1.2

Piston
1 mD/cp = 6.33 x 10-3 ft2/psi-day Gravitational Constant = 9.806 m/s2 Molar Mass of Air = 28.966 g/mol Aqueous
IG Capillary Pressure creates
1000 kgΤm3 = 0.4335 psiΤft Natural logarithm base = 2.71828 VM = 379.3 scfΤlbmol @ 14.696 psia transition zone between phases
3 𝐵𝑜 (1 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖 𝑅𝑣 ) + 𝐵𝑔 (𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 ൯
1 kgΤl = 8.347 lbm Τgal Gas Constant = 8.314 Pa ⋅ m Τmol K Univ. Gas = 10.732 psia ⋅ ft 3Τlbmol ⋅ R 𝐵𝑡𝑜 =
Component Concentrations 1 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑣
Diffusivity Equation Reservoir Pressure and Temperature 𝑆𝑜 𝑆𝑔 𝑆𝑊
Legend
2.1
Gas
2.1
Mass Balance leads to Pressure 𝐶𝑜 = + 𝑅 𝐶𝑤 = 1.1 – Free Gas 2 1 + 2 𝑅𝐵
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝛼𝑃 𝑧 𝐵𝑜 𝐵𝑔 𝑣 𝐵𝑊 1.2 – Volatilized Oil 𝐵𝑜 = 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐵𝑡𝑜 = [=]
Continuity Equation Normal 2.1 – Solution Gas Oil
2.2 2.2 2.2 1.2 + 2.2 𝑆𝑇𝐵
Pressure 𝑧 = depth 𝛼𝑃 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑆𝑔 𝑆𝑜 𝑆𝑇𝐵 2.2 – Free Oil
𝜕(𝜌𝜙) Gradient 𝐶𝑔 = + 𝑅 𝐶𝑗 = 1 – Gaseous Phase (Gas + Volatilized Oil)
−𝛻(𝜌𝑢) = Gas 𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑜 𝑠 𝑅𝐵 2 – Oleic Phase (Oil + Solution Gas) 𝐵𝑜 [=] 𝑅𝐵ൗ𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝑅𝑠 [=] 𝑠𝑐𝑓ൗ 𝐵𝑔 [=]
𝑟𝑐𝑓
ൗ𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝑅𝑣 [=] 𝑆𝑇𝐵ൗ𝑠𝑐𝑓
𝜕𝑡 Kick
𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑆𝑇𝐵
0.433 if fresh H2 O
𝑓𝑡
Depth

𝛼𝑃 = Compressibility Factor Pressure Dependent Fluid Properties Specific Gravity

1 𝜕(𝜌𝑟𝑢𝑟 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝜙) 𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝜙) OGOC
𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑧𝑁𝑅𝑇 0.04
− = − = 0.465 if brine
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝜌𝑜
𝜌𝑤 𝑔 𝛾𝑜 =
𝑘 𝑘 𝜕𝑃 0.03 1.5 60 𝜌𝑤 𝑆𝐶
Introduce Darcy’s Law 𝑢𝑟 = − 𝛻𝑃 = − 𝜌𝐺 𝑔 OWOC 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝛼 𝑇 𝑧 Relate 𝐵𝑔 to z-factor
𝜇 𝜇 𝜕𝑟 𝜌𝑜 𝑔 𝐁𝐭𝐨 𝜌𝑔 𝑀𝑔
𝛼 𝑇 is usually 0.01 − .02°𝐹/𝑓𝑡 𝑃 𝑆𝐶 𝑧𝑇 𝑟𝑐𝑓 0.02 𝑩𝒈 0.02 1.2 1 40 𝛾𝑔 = =
𝜌𝑆𝐶 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑆𝐶 [=] 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟
Introduce Formation Volume Factor 𝐵= 𝑇 𝑃 𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝐁𝐨 𝑆𝐶
𝜌𝑅𝐶 Volumetrics 0.01 20
𝝁𝒈
𝑉𝑝 𝑆𝑜 𝑉𝑝 𝑆𝑔 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝑇 = 𝑅 BP API Gravity
Introduce Compressibility 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐴ℎ𝜙 𝑁= ൘𝐵 [=]𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝐺= ൘𝐵 [=]𝑠𝑐𝑓
𝑔
𝑜 0.01 1.1
400 800 1200 1600
141.5
𝑉𝑝 = reservoir pore volume 𝑆𝑜 = average oil saturation 400 800 1200 1600 𝐴𝑃𝐼° = − 131.5
1 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 1 Isopach Map Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi) 𝛾
𝑐𝑓 = 𝑐𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐵
𝜙 𝜕𝑃 𝑇
𝜕𝑃 𝐵 𝐴0 + 𝐴10
𝑉1 = ℎ Black Oil Phase Diagram Undersaturated Reservoir Key Properties
𝑘 2
Introduce Diffusivity Constant 𝛼= 50 Fluid Type 𝐆𝐟𝐠𝐢 𝐍𝐟𝐨𝐢 𝐆𝐩 𝐍𝐩 𝐑𝐯 𝐑𝐬
𝜇𝜙𝑐𝑡 𝐴10 + 𝐴20 Dry Gas >0 0 >0 0 0 --
𝑉2 = ℎ
1D Diffusivity Equation 2 Wet Gas >0 0 >0 >0 R vi 0
50 5 Condensate >0 0 >0 >0 >0 0
𝜕𝑃 𝛼 𝜕 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑃 40
𝑉𝑛 𝜙𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑛
= 𝑟 =𝛼 2 30 Volatile Oil 0 >0 >0 >0 >0 >0
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 20 𝑁=෎
10 𝐵𝑜 Black Oil 0 >0 >0 >0 0 >0
𝜕𝑃 0 𝑛=1
= 𝛼 𝛻2𝑃 Each contour line represents a line of Undersaturated Oil 0 >0 >0 >0 0 R si
𝜕𝑡 constant thickness in the reservoir Dead Oil 0 >0 0 >0 -- 0
Well Testing
Buildup Test Analysis
Material Balance Equation
Drawdown Test Analysis
Semi-log Plot (k & s) Semi-log Plot (k & s) 𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑜 𝑅𝑣 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑔 𝑅𝑠
𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝑜 𝜇
𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 𝐸𝑔 + 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑜 + 𝑊𝐸𝑤 + 𝑉𝑝𝑖 𝐸𝑓 + 𝑊
ด𝑒 = 𝐺𝑃 − 𝐺𝐼 + 𝑁𝑃 + 𝑊𝑃 − 𝑊𝐼 𝐵𝑤
𝑘 = 162.6 mbu = [psi/log cycle]
1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠 1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠
ℎ𝑚𝑇 𝑃𝑤𝑠,1 Free-gas Free-oil Free-water Rock Water Net water withdrawal
expansion expansion expansion expansion influx Net gas withdrawal Net oil withdrawal
Pressure

mT =[psi/log cycle] 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃1 𝑘𝑜
P1
Pressure

𝑠 = 1.151 − log + 3.23 𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 = Original free gas = 𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 = Original free oil = 𝑆𝑇𝐵 W𝑒 [=]𝑅𝐵 𝐺𝑃 = Cumulative Gas Produced = 𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝐺𝐼 = Gas Injected = 𝑠𝑐𝑓
|𝑚𝑇 | 𝜇𝑜 𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2𝜙 𝑁𝑝
𝑡𝑝 =
Well Storage 𝑘[=]𝑚𝑑 𝑞𝑠𝑐 [=]STB/day ℎ[=]𝑓𝑡 𝜇[=]𝑐𝑝 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑝𝑖 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑉𝑝𝑖 − 𝑉𝑝 1 𝜕𝜙 Aquifer Models
Transient Flow 𝛥𝑡 = 1
PSS Flow 𝑐𝑡 [=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1 𝑃[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑟𝑤 [=]𝑓𝑡 𝑊= 𝐸𝑤 = 𝐵𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 𝛥𝑃 𝐸𝑓 = ≈ 𝑐𝑓 𝛥𝑃 𝑐𝑓 ≈ 𝑐𝑝 = Pot Aquifer (Coats, 1970)
𝐵𝑤𝑖 𝑉𝑝𝑖 𝜙 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 - Assumes instantaneous response
1 10 100 1000 10000 1000 100 10 - No time dimension
time (hours) Horner time ൫𝑡𝑝 + 𝛥𝑡 )Τ𝛥 𝑡 Can combine free-water expansion and rock expansion into composite expansivity
𝑊e = 𝑊′(𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 )𝛥𝑃
Linear Plot (A & 𝐶𝐴 ) 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝑜 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝑜 𝜇
𝐴= [=]consistent units 𝑘 = 162.6 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 = 𝐸𝑜 + 𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑐𝑇 𝛥𝑃 𝐸𝑔𝑤𝑓 = 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐵𝑔𝑖 𝑐𝑇 𝛥𝑃 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 ≈ 𝐸𝑜 Fetkovitch (1971)
𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝜙𝑚𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑚𝑏𝑢
- Assumes SSS relationship
4𝐴 𝑃0 − 𝑃𝑖 162.6𝐵|𝑞𝑠𝑐 |𝜇 𝑡𝑝 + 𝛥𝑡 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐵𝑡𝑜 − 𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑔 = 𝐵𝑡𝑔 − 𝐵𝑡𝑔𝑖 𝐸𝑔𝑤𝑓 ≈ 𝐸𝑔 - Not applicable for transient response
Pressure

log𝐶𝐴 = log + 0.87s + 𝑃𝑤𝑠 = 𝑃𝑖 − log 𝑑𝑊𝑒

P0 1.781𝑟𝑤2 |𝑚𝑇 | 𝑘ℎ 𝛥𝑡 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑚𝑠𝑠 =[psi/hr] 𝑐𝑇 = *𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐽 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃ത
𝑑𝑡
𝐴, 𝑟𝑤2 = ft 2 ∗∗mT from semi-log plot 𝑃𝑤𝑠,1 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑘𝑜 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑠 = 1.151 − log + 3.23 Hurst and Van Everdingen (1949)
Transient Flow |𝑚𝑏𝑢 | 𝜇𝑜 𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2 𝜙
PSS Flow 𝐶𝐴 = 31.62 1:4 𝐶𝐴 = 5.38 𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑜 𝑅𝑣 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑔 𝑅𝑠 - Constant terminal-pressure solution
ℎ[=]𝑓𝑡 t 𝑝 [=]ℎ𝑟 𝑃[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑞𝑠𝑐 [=]STB/day 𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 𝐸𝑔𝑤𝑓 + 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 + 𝑊𝑒 = 𝐹 = (𝐺𝑝 − 𝐺𝐼 ) + 𝑁𝑃 + (𝑊𝑃 − 𝑊𝐼 )𝐵𝑤 - Time based (superposition principle)
0 200 400 600 1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠 1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠
time (hours) 𝐶𝐴 = 30.88 1:2 𝐶𝐴 = 22.6 - Applicable for transient and SSS flow
𝑟𝑤 [=]𝑓𝑡 𝜇[=]𝑐𝑝 𝑘[=]𝑚𝑑 𝑐𝑡 [=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1
𝐸𝑔𝑤𝑓 [=] 𝑅𝐵ൗ𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 [=] 𝑅𝐵ൗ
𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝐹 = Reservoir Voidage[=]𝑅𝐵 𝑁𝑝 = Cumulative Oil Produced = 𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝑊𝑒 = 𝐵 ෍ 𝛥𝑃𝑄𝐷 𝑡𝐷
Stages of Flow
𝑞𝑝 P/z Plot – OGIP Estimation Original Free Oil Estimation Carter-Tracy (1960)
𝑃ത 𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑡 1. Infinite Acting/Transient Flow
𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑝 ത - Constant terminal-rate solution
𝑞𝜇 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑇 𝑟 2
P - Incorporates transient and SSS flow
Water influx
𝑃(𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑃1 + 𝐸𝑖 − z - Preferred model for simulators
4𝜋𝑘ℎ 4𝑘𝑡 i No water influx
𝑃ത 𝑡 = 𝑃lim + 𝑃ത𝑝 − 𝑃lim 𝑒−𝜆 𝑡−𝑡𝑝 ∞ Drive Indices
−1 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝐸𝑖 (−𝑥) ≈ ln(𝑒 𝛾 𝑥) ഥ
𝐏 slope = 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖
𝐸𝑖(−𝑥) = ln(𝑥) + 𝛾 − ෎ 𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 𝐸𝑔
𝑛(𝑛!) Valid if 𝑥 < 0.01 𝐅 = 𝐼gd Gas cap drive
𝑛=1 𝐳 𝐹
𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑜
162.6𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝜇 𝑘 Gab = Gr Water influx = 𝐼𝑠𝑑 Solution gas drive
𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑡 ≈ 𝑃𝑖 − log 𝑡 + log − 3.23 ത 𝐹
𝑘ℎ 𝜇𝜙𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2 P No water influx
𝜕𝑃ത Field Units
z
G = OGIP Zero 𝑊𝐸𝑤 𝑉𝑝𝑖 𝐸𝑓 Formation
𝑞𝑝 = −𝑉𝑃 𝑐𝑇 intercept + = 𝐼𝑓𝑤𝑑
𝜕𝑡 2. Transitional/Late Transient Flow ab 𝐹 𝐹 drive

𝜆 - When pressure disturbance first approaches boundary 𝐆𝐏 − 𝐆𝐈 𝐄𝐨𝐰𝐟 𝑊𝑒

𝑞 = 𝐽 𝑃ത − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 - Short time period and difficult to model mathematically = 𝐼𝑛𝑤𝑑 Natural water drive
𝐺𝑟 𝐹
𝑃ത 𝑃ത 𝑃ത 1 𝑅𝐹 = 𝐹 = 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 = 0
𝑞 = 𝐽 𝑃ത𝑝 − 𝑃lim 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡−𝑡𝑝 3. Stabilized Flow = − 𝐺𝑃 − 𝐺𝐼 𝐺 Drive Indices must add up to 1.0
𝑧 𝑧 𝑖
ถ 𝑧 𝐺
Pseudo/Semi SS Steady State (SS) 𝑖 Recovery Plot applicable for undersaturated reservoirs with **Different definition can be used to
Actual intercept slope factor Volatile, Black, Undersaturated, or Dead Oils account for an artificial water drive
Closed drainage Open drainage
Performance
boundary
0<𝑓<1
boundary Productivity Index Decline Curve Analysis
𝑓=0 𝑓=1
𝐽
𝑞 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑏 𝐷𝑖 𝑡 𝑞
𝑑𝑞 𝑡
𝑁𝑝 = 𝑞𝑝 𝑡𝑝 + 𝑃ത − 𝑃lim 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡−𝑡𝑝 𝐽= [=] ODE: − 𝑞 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐷𝑖 𝑞 ; 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 @𝑡 = 0; න 𝑑𝑡 = − න 𝑏+1 𝑁𝑝 = න 𝑞(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝜆 𝑝 2𝜋𝑘ℎ(𝑃ത − 𝑃𝑤 ) 𝑃ത − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ⋅ 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖 𝑞𝑖𝑏 𝑡=0 𝑞𝑖 𝑞 𝑡=0
𝑞𝑜𝑠𝑐 =
𝑟 1 1−𝑓
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑒 − 2 − 4 +𝑠 2𝜋𝑘𝑗 ℎ (Arps, 1940) b-factor Rate 𝑞 Cumulative Recovery 𝑁𝑝 Decline Rate 𝐷
𝑤 𝐽=
𝑟 1 1−𝑓 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞
**For gas flow, replace pressure with pseudopressure: 𝜇𝑗 𝐵𝑗 ln 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑠 − 2 − 4 Exponential 𝑏=0 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 𝑒 −𝐷𝑖 𝑡 𝑁𝑝 = 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖
𝑤
𝑃
𝐷𝑖
2𝑃 2𝜋𝑘𝑗 ℎ 𝑏
𝑚(𝑃) = න 𝜕𝑃 𝐽= 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑖𝑏 𝑞
𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑝 𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑝 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝜇𝑧 1 4𝐴 Hyperbolic 0 < 𝑏 < 1 𝑞 = 𝑁𝑝 = 𝑞1−𝑏 − 𝑞1−𝑏 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑝 = 𝑃 − 𝑃lim − 𝜇𝑗 𝐵𝑗 ln +𝑠 1 + 𝑏𝐷𝑖 𝑡 1 Τ𝑏 𝐷𝑖 (1 − 𝑏) 𝑖 𝑞𝑖
𝑞𝑝 𝑖 𝐽 2 1.781𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝑤2
2 2
𝑞𝜇 𝑟1 1−𝑓 𝑟1 𝑟2 J is constant after transient flow period 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝑞
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ln − − Harmonic 𝑏=1 𝑞= 𝑁𝑝 = ln 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖
2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑟2 2 𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒 (1 + 𝐷𝑖 𝑡) 𝐷𝑖 𝑞 𝑞𝑖
Formation Skin
𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝜇𝐵 1 4𝐴 2𝜋𝑘𝑡 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝜇 1000 1000
(+)𝑆𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑞 ↓ 𝛥𝑃𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠
PSS: 𝑃𝑤𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑃𝑖 − ln + +𝑠 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑏=0 𝑏 = 0.5 𝑏=1
1.781𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝑤2
Production Rate (q)

Production Rate (q)

𝐽 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 2 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑇 𝐴 Economic Limit

𝜆= [=]𝑡 −1 𝛥𝑃𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 = 0.869|𝑚|𝑠
Recovery 𝑁𝑝

𝑉𝑝 𝑐𝑡 (−)𝑆𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑞 ↑ 100 100

4. Depletion Flow 𝑚 = transient slope
- Pwf limit reached; well′ s BHP held constant EL
10 10
- Well’s flow rate begins to decline 𝑞𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚 𝐽𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚 ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 + 𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔 As b-factor increases, well’s Economic Limit
= = EL
- Exponential decline can be derived (equations shown to the left) 𝑞𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐽𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔 ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 + 𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚 economic life increases 𝑏=0 𝑏 = 0.5 𝑏=1 𝑏=0 𝑏 = 0.5 𝑏=1
1 1 0
0 Time 0 Cumulative Recovery 𝑁𝑝 0
- Hyperbolic b-factor is empirical (refer to Decline Curve Analysis) Skin is unitless and specific to each well Time

Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff and contributions from Jenny Ryu and Matt Mlynski Contact balhoff@mail.utexas.edu with comments/suggestions
 Reservoir Engineering – Improved Recovery
Petrophysics Review Multiphase Flow
Relative Permeability Darcy’s Law for Multiple Phases Mass Balance for Multiphase Fractional Flow Derivation
𝑘𝑗 = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑗 𝑘𝑟𝑗 if constant 𝜙, 𝜌𝑗 𝑢𝑜 + 𝑢𝑤 𝜕𝑃𝑐 𝜕𝑃𝑜 𝜕𝑃𝑤
𝑘෨ 𝛻𝑃𝑗 + 𝜌𝑗 𝑔𝛻ℎ 1D flow of oil and water =1
Relative Permeability

𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑢෤𝑗 = − 𝑗 = phase Introduce capillary pressure = −
𝜇𝑗 𝜕𝑆𝑗 𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Water Wet Rock 𝜙 + =0
𝑘𝑟𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 Combine Darcy’s Law, definition of fractional flow, and capillary pressure
𝑜 < 𝑘𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑗 𝜕𝑃𝑗
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑜 1D: 𝑢𝑗 = − + 𝜌𝑗 𝑔sin𝛼 𝜕𝑆𝑗 𝜕𝑓𝑗 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝑃 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝛥𝜌𝑔
𝜇𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝜙 +𝑢 =0 1 + 𝑢𝜇𝑟𝑜 𝜕𝑥𝑐 − 𝛥𝜌𝑔sin𝛼 𝑁𝑔 =
𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤 > 0.5 when 𝑘𝑟𝑤 curve 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑜 if 1 − 𝑁𝑔 sin𝛼 if 1 𝑢𝜇𝑜
intersects 𝑘𝑟𝑜 curve 𝑓𝑤 =
𝑞𝑗 𝑢𝑗 𝑘 𝜇 𝑃𝑐 = 0 𝑘 𝜇 𝛼=0 𝑘 /𝜇
𝑢𝑗 = 𝑢 = ෍ 𝑢𝑗 𝑓𝑗 = ෍ 𝑓𝑗 = 1 1 + 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝜇𝑤 1 + 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝜇𝑤 1 + 𝑘 𝑟𝑜 /𝜇𝑜 𝛼 = rsvr dip angle
*Oil-Wet Rock is inverse 𝐴 𝑢 𝑟𝑤 𝑜 𝑟𝑤 𝑜 𝑟𝑤 𝑤

𝑆𝑤𝑟 1-𝑆𝑜𝑟,𝑤 3-Phase Permeability Fractional Flow – 1D Water Flood

𝑆𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑛 Water

Fractional Flow (𝑓𝑤 )

Water Saturation (𝑆𝑤 )
1-𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑟,𝑤 Water Wet Rock Mobility Ratio 𝑥𝑑 = 𝑡𝑑 𝑓𝑤′ 𝑆𝑤
Saturation 𝑆𝑤𝑓 𝑆𝑤𝑓
𝑘𝑟𝑤 is a function of 𝑆𝑤 𝜆𝑟𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑤 Τ𝜇𝑤 𝑆መ𝑤 = 𝑆𝑤,𝐵𝑇
ҧ 1 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟
𝑀= = 𝜆 = relative mobility 𝜕𝑓𝑤 𝜕𝑓𝑤 𝜕𝑆
𝑘𝑟𝑜 Τ𝜇𝑜 𝑟𝑗 𝑓𝑤′ = = 𝑆መ𝑤
Relative Permeability

𝑜 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑆𝑜 , 𝑆𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑔 𝑆𝑔 𝜆𝑟𝑜 Shock Front

𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝜕𝑆𝑤 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆𝑤 Draw BT
average 𝑆𝑤
Oil Wet Rock tangent line
𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑔 Corey Equations 𝑆𝑤𝑖 behind shock 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑆𝑤𝑟 𝑆𝑤𝑓
from
𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤 , 𝑆𝑜 𝑥𝑑𝑓
𝑆መ𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑆 𝑤𝑝
𝑥𝑑𝑓 initial 𝑆𝑤
𝑘𝑟𝑔 𝑜 𝑆𝑛 𝑜 (1 − S)𝑚
𝑘𝑟𝑜 = 𝑘𝑟𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑤 = 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑓
𝑆𝑜𝑟,𝑔 𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑆𝑜 𝑘𝑟𝑔 𝑆𝑔 Dimensionless Distance (𝑥𝑑 ) 𝑥𝑑𝑓 Dimensionless Distance (𝑥𝑑 ) Water Saturation (𝑆𝑤 )
𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑟
𝑆= Effect of Wettability Effect of Gravity Before Breakthrough
𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑟,𝑔 Mixed-Wet Rock 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑟 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟

Fractional Flow (𝑓𝑤 )

Increasing Increasing

Fractional Flow (𝑓𝑤 )

𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑆𝑜 , 𝑆𝑤 As 𝑓𝑤 curve 𝑓𝑤𝑗 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑓
water
shifts right,
reservoir α = − 15∘ 𝑆መ𝑤 = 𝑆𝑤𝑓 + (𝑓𝑤𝑗 usually 1)
𝑆𝑙𝑟,𝑔 1-𝑆𝑔𝑟 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤 , 𝑆𝑜 Fractional Flow wettability dip angle α = 0∘ 𝑓𝑤′ |𝑆𝑤𝑓
𝑆𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑛 breakthrough
Liquid 1-𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑛 1− 𝑁𝑔𝑜 𝑚
1 − 𝑆 sin𝛼 if α = 15∘
𝑆𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑛 Saturation 𝑘𝑟𝑔 𝑆𝑔 1 OW
occurs later At Breakthrough
𝑓𝑤 = WW and produce
1−𝑆 𝑚 𝛼=0 1−𝑆 𝑚 *Gas flood would 1
1+ 1+ oil quicker be inverse effect 𝑡𝑑,𝐵𝑇 =
Capillary Pressure 𝑀𝑜 𝑆 𝑛 𝑀𝑜 𝑆 𝑛 ′
𝑓𝑤𝑓 |𝑆𝑤𝑓
2𝜎cos𝜃 WW Rock 𝑜 𝛥𝜌𝑔
𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑜
𝑜 Τ𝜇
𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑤 Effect of Mobility Ratio
Effect of 𝑀𝑜 on Oil Recovery
𝑁𝑃𝑑,𝐵𝑇 = 𝑡𝑑,𝐵𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑖 = 1 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑀𝑜 =
𝑟 𝑁𝑔𝑜 = 𝑜 Τ𝜇 Breakthrough

Cumulative Oil (𝑁𝑃𝑑)

𝑢𝜇𝑜 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑜 Decreasing
After Breakthrough

Fractional Flow (𝑓𝑤 )

𝑃𝑐 (𝑆𝑤 ) = 𝑃𝑛𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 𝑀𝑜
Important Definitions 1
𝑛𝑤 = non-wetting phase 𝑡𝑑 = ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑁𝑃𝑑 = 𝑆𝑤
𝑥 𝑢𝑡 Pore Volumes 𝑓𝑤′ |𝑆𝑤𝑝
𝑥𝑑 = t𝑑 = [=]PVI Injected Mo =100
𝑃𝑐 (𝑧) = 𝛥𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑧 𝐿 𝜙𝐿 Mo =10 𝑓𝑤𝑗 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝
Mo =1
ҧ = 𝑆𝑤𝑝 +
𝑆𝑤 (𝑓𝑤𝑗 usually 1)
𝐵𝑜 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑃𝑑 Decreasing 𝑀𝑜 𝑓𝑤′ |𝑆𝑤𝑝
𝑃𝑐 𝑘 𝑊𝑂𝑅 = 𝑁𝑃 = [=]STB Mo =0.1
𝐽(𝑆𝑤 ) = 𝐵𝑤 1 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝 𝐵𝑜
𝜎 𝜙 Pore Volumes Injected (t 𝑑 ) ҧ = avg. 𝑆𝑤 in swept area
𝑆𝑤

𝑃𝑐1 𝑘2Τ𝜙2 Well Patterns Buckley-Leverett Extension to 2-D

= Rules of Thumb Definitions 𝑊𝑖 < 𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 < 𝑊𝑖 < 𝑊𝑖,100 𝑊𝑖 > 𝑊𝑖,100 𝐸𝐴 = 1
𝑃𝑐2 𝑘1 Τ𝜙1
- For viscous oil (NI/NP) < 1 𝑊𝑖 1 .0317 0.30223 1−𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇
𝑄𝑖∗ = = 𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 = 0.546 + + − .005097𝑀𝑠ҧ 𝑄𝑖∗ = 𝑄𝑖,𝐵𝑇
∗
1 + 𝑎1 𝑒 −𝑎1 𝐸𝑖 𝑎2 − 𝐸𝑖 𝑎1 0.274
Permeability Variations Darcy’s Law Variations - For low viscosity oil or 𝑉𝑝 𝐸𝐴 𝑓𝑤′ |𝑆𝑤2 𝑀𝑠ҧ 𝑒 𝑀𝑠ത 𝑊𝑖,100 = 𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑒
condensate (NI/NP) > 1 𝑎1 = 3.65𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 𝑎2 = 𝑎1 + ln 𝑊𝑖 Τ𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇
𝑘 𝜕𝛷 𝑄𝑖∗ = effective 𝑡𝑑 ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 = 𝑁𝑃,𝐵𝑇
𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 𝑆𝑤𝑓 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑖,100
σ 𝐿𝑖 Horizontal 𝑢=− 𝛷 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ - For similar fluid viscosities 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 + 0.274ln 𝑊𝑖 Τ𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑄𝑖∗ = 𝑄𝑖,100
∗
+
𝑘ത = Variation
𝜇 𝜕𝑥 (NI/NP) = 1 𝜆𝑟𝑤 + 𝜆𝑟𝑜 |𝑆𝑤𝑓
ҧ 𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑉𝑝
𝐿 𝑀𝑠ҧ = ∗ ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
෍ 𝑘𝑖 Forcheimer 𝜆𝑟𝑤 + 𝜆𝑟𝑜 |𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑄𝑖,𝐵𝑇 = = 𝑆𝑤𝑓 ҧ = 𝑆𝑤2 + 𝑄𝑖∗ 1 − 𝑓𝑤2
ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝐸𝐴 𝑉𝑝 ; 𝑆𝑤2
𝑁𝑃 = 𝑆𝑤2
𝑖 Producer 𝑉𝑝 𝐸𝐴 𝑊𝑂𝑅
(valid at high flow rates, Re>1) 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤2 =
Injector ҧ = 𝑆𝑤5
𝑆𝑤2 ҧ = 𝑆𝑤
ҧ ҧ = 𝑆መ𝑤
𝑆𝑤𝑓 𝜕𝑁𝑃𝑢 1 0.274𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑆𝑤𝑓 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝
𝜕𝑁𝑃𝑢
1− ൗ𝜕𝑊 𝑊𝑂𝑅 + 1
σ 𝑘𝑖 ℎ𝑖 Vertical 𝜕𝑃 𝜇 𝑢 𝑖
𝑘ത = − = + 𝛽𝜌𝑢2 5-spot =
ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑊𝑂𝑅 =
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁𝑃𝑢
σ ℎ𝑖 Variation 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑆𝑤2 = 𝑆𝑤5 = 𝑆𝑤𝑝 = 𝑆𝑤 |𝑥𝑑 =1 𝜕𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖 𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 𝑆𝑤𝑓 1 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝 1 − 𝑃𝑢ൗ𝜕𝑊 + ൗ𝜕𝑊 ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑉𝑝
𝑁𝑃 = 𝑆𝑤2
(NI/NP) = 1 𝑖 𝑖
𝛽 material constant; depends on pore structure

Klinkenberg Effect
Reservoir Simulation
ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 Radial
𝑘ത = (valid for gas flow at low pressure) Analytical (Continuous) Solution Numerical (Discrete) Solution Heterogeneities
ln 𝑟𝑖 Τ𝑟𝑖−1 Variation
෍ 𝑘𝐿 = liquid perm 𝑃, 𝛷, 𝑆𝑤 , 𝐵
𝑘𝑖 𝑏
𝑘𝑔 = 𝑘𝐿 1+ P P Pi n==grid
time step
𝐴, 𝑘, 𝜇
𝑃 𝑘𝑔 = gas perm P ( x, t ) block 𝒊 𝒊+𝟏 𝒊+𝟐 𝑖=1
Geometric
𝑘ത = 𝑘𝑖 𝑘𝑖+1 . . . 𝑘𝑛 1Τ𝑛 Mean 𝑘𝐿 [=]𝑘∞ b factor important when k < 10md
𝑘𝑟 (𝑆𝑤,𝑖 ൯ 𝑘𝑟 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴 Variables
𝑇𝑖+1 = 𝑇= change from
Miscible Displacement x 𝑘𝑟 (𝑆𝑤,𝑖+1൯ 2 𝜇𝐵 1 𝛥𝑥 1 𝜇𝐵𝑤 𝛥𝑥 block to block
𝑖+2 𝑖+2
Mechanisms of Mixing Convection - Dispersion Finite Differences Approximation Upwinding Harmonic Mean
1. Molecular Diffusion 𝐷𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝐷 𝜕𝐶𝐷 1 𝜕 2 𝐶𝐷 1 ″ 1
𝐷𝑚 𝐷𝑚 𝑎 + − =0 Taylor Series: 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓 (𝑥)𝛥𝑥 2 + 𝑓"′(𝑥)𝛥𝑥 3 +. . . 𝑘𝑟 𝑆𝑤,𝑖+1
𝐷𝑒 = = 𝐹= 𝑚 𝜕𝑡𝑑 𝜕𝑥𝑑 𝑁𝑃𝑒 𝜕𝑥𝑑2 2! 3! if 𝛷𝑖+1 > 𝛷𝑖
𝑘𝑟 𝜇 𝑃𝑖+1 𝐵 𝑃𝑖+1 𝑘𝐴 2𝑘𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑘𝑖+1 𝐴𝑖+1
𝜏 𝐹𝜙 𝜙 = =
𝜏 = tortuosity 1 𝑥𝑑 − 𝑡𝑑 Type Deriv. FD Approximation Error 𝜇𝐵 𝑖+1 𝑘𝑟 𝑆𝑤,𝑖 𝛥𝑥 1
𝑖+2
𝑘𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝛥𝑥𝑖+1 + 𝑘𝑖+1 𝐴𝑖+1𝛥𝑥𝑖
𝐶𝐷 (𝑥𝑑, 𝑡𝑑 ) = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2 if 𝛷𝑖 > 𝛷𝑖+1
Diffusion and Dispersion 2 2 𝑡𝑑 Τ𝑁𝑝𝑒 𝜕𝑃 𝑃(𝑡 + 𝛥𝑡) − 𝑃(𝑡) 𝜇 𝑃𝑖 𝐵 𝑃𝑖
Forward 𝑂(𝛥𝑡)
Dispersion 𝑢 𝜕𝑡 𝛥𝑡
Diffusion controls 𝑣= 𝑒 𝑥𝑑𝑁𝑃𝑒 𝑥𝑑 + 𝑡𝑑 2nd term Radial Solution
𝐾𝐿 controls 𝜙 + 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2 𝑡𝑑 Τ𝑁𝑃𝑒 negligible 𝜕𝑃 𝑃(𝑡) − 𝑃(𝑡 − 𝛥𝑡) 𝑞𝑤 𝜇𝐵𝑤 𝛥𝑥 req 𝛥𝑥
𝐾 = dispersion Backward 𝑂(𝛥𝑡) 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑙 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑞𝑤 = −𝐽𝑙𝑤 (𝑃𝑙 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 ൯
coefficient 𝜕𝑡 𝛥𝑡 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐(𝑛) = 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓(𝑛)
ln(𝑣)
𝜕𝑃 rw q2 𝛥𝑥
𝑃(𝑡 + 𝛥𝑡) − 𝑃(𝑡 − 𝛥𝑡)
2. Convective Mixing (Dispersion) 𝑐 − 𝑐𝑖 𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶𝐷 |𝑋𝑑 =1 Centered 𝑂(𝛥𝑡 2 )
𝜕𝑡 2𝛥𝑡
Longitudinal 𝐾𝐿 = 𝐷𝑒 + 𝛼𝐿 𝑣 𝛽𝐿 𝐶𝐷 = 𝜋 2𝜋ℎ 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦
𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 𝐶𝐷 = 0.5  when  𝑡𝑑 = 1 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝛥𝑥𝑒 −2 ≈ 0.2𝛥𝑥 𝐽𝑙𝑤 = P2
𝜕2 𝑃 𝑃(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥) − 2𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑃(𝑥 − 𝛥𝑥) 𝜇𝐵𝑤 ln 𝑟𝑒𝑞 Τ𝑟𝑤 + 𝑠
Transverse 𝐾𝑇 = 𝐷𝑒 + 𝛼 𝑇 𝑣 𝛽𝑇 Centered 𝑂(𝛥𝑥 2 ) Pl
Pulse/Slug Injection (from time 0 to 𝑡𝑠 ) 𝜕𝑥 2 𝛥𝑥 2
𝛼 = dispersivity 𝐾𝐿 >> 𝐾𝑇 Pwf
1 𝑥 − 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 ) 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 1ൗ
𝐷𝑒 = effective diffusivity 𝛽𝑇 ≅ 1.2 1ൗ 1ൗ 2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓 𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛
Explicit: ֊ =֊
𝑷 + 𝛥𝑡𝑩−1 ֊
𝑸 − 𝑻֊
2 2
2 𝑷 𝑷 Boundary Condition 𝑘𝑦 Τ𝑘𝑥 𝛥𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 Τ𝑘𝑦 𝛥𝑦 2 rw req 𝛥𝑥
3. Small Scale Permeability Variations
4𝐾𝐿 (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 ) 4𝐾𝐿 𝑡
r𝑒𝑞 = 0.28 1ൗ 1ൗ
−1 Dirichlet 𝑃(0, 𝑡) = 𝑃𝐵1 𝑘𝑦 Τ𝑘𝑥 4
+ 𝑘𝑥 Τ𝑘𝑦 4
Effect of Peclet Number 𝑢𝐿 𝐿 ֊𝑛+1 1 1 ֊𝑛 ֊
𝑁𝑃𝑒 = ≡ Implicit: 𝑷 = 𝑻+ 𝑩 𝑩𝑷 +𝑸 𝑃0 + 𝑃1
𝑁𝑃𝑒 = 10 𝜙𝛫𝐿 𝛼𝐿 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 0 1 𝑃𝐵 = ; 𝑃0 = 2𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃1 IMPES (Implicit Pressure and Explicit Saturation)
2
Concentration 𝐶𝐷

𝑁𝑃𝑒 = 100 𝑥 𝑢𝑡
𝐶𝐷 = 0.9
𝑁𝑃𝑒 = 1000 𝑥𝑑 = 𝑡𝑑 = Crank-Nicholson 𝜃 = 0.5 Pressure (solve implicitly) Saturation (solve explicitly)
𝐿 𝜙𝐿 Neumann 𝜕𝑃Τ𝜕𝑥 = 0
1 𝑛+1 1 𝑛 𝐁 𝑛+1 𝐁
𝑩 ֊ 𝑩 − 𝜃𝑻 ֊
𝑷 +֊
𝑡𝑑 = 0.5 𝑃𝑁 − 𝑃𝑁+1 𝐓+𝐉+ 𝐏 = 𝐏𝑛 + 𝐐 𝑛+1 = 𝐒𝑛 + 𝐝−1 −𝐓 𝐏𝑛+1 + 𝐐
𝐒𝑤 𝑤 − 𝐂𝑡𝑤 𝐏
𝑛+1 − 𝐏𝑛
𝑥𝑑 |𝐶𝐷=0.1 − 𝑥𝑑 |𝐶𝐷=0.9 = 𝛥𝑥𝑑
1−𝜃 𝑻+ 𝑷 = 𝑸 N N+1 = 0; 𝑃𝑁 = 𝑃𝑁+1 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 𝑤 12 𝑤
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑥
𝛥𝑥𝑑 = width of mixing zone 𝐵𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑉𝑖 𝜙𝑖 𝑐𝑡,𝑖
𝐶𝐷 = 0.1 Stability 𝐓 = 𝐓𝑤 + 𝐓 𝐉 = 𝐉𝑤 + 𝐉 𝐐 = 𝐐𝑤 + 𝐐 𝐁𝑖 =
Explicit Method CFL Condition 𝐵𝑤 𝑜 𝐵𝑤 𝑜 𝐵𝑤 𝑜 𝐵𝑤
𝑡𝑑
𝛥𝑥𝑑 = 3.625 𝛼𝛥𝑡 𝑢𝛥𝑡 **Necessary for 𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝜙𝑖
𝑁𝑃𝑒 𝜂≡ ≤ 0.5 (1D) <1 𝐂𝑡𝑤,𝑖 = 𝑆𝑤,𝑖 𝑐𝑤,𝑖 + 𝑐𝑟,𝑖 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤 + 𝑐𝑜 𝑆𝑜 + 𝑐𝑅 𝒅12,𝑖 =
Dimensionless Distance 𝑥𝑑 𝛥𝑥 2 𝛥𝑥 stability of IMPES 𝐵𝑤,𝑖 𝛥𝑡

Improved Oil Recovery

Stages of Recovery Effect of Trapped Capillary Desaturation Curve
Primary Recovery 3D Cumulative Oil Recovery
Gas on Residual Oil
𝑁𝑝𝑑 = 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝐼 (𝑆𝑜𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟 ൯ Water-Wet (Lake, 2014)
Natural Flow Artificial Lift Hydraulic Fracturing WF
𝐸𝐴 = Areal Sweep Efficiency 𝐸𝐷 = Displacement Efficiency O
Secondary Recovery w W O

𝐸𝐼 = Vertical Sweep Efficiency

WF
Waterflooding Pressure Maintenance O W O
Area contacted by fluid Amount of oil displaced w G G
Tertiary Recovery (EOR) EA = ED =
IOR

Total area Total moveable oil  Oil-Wet

Cross−sectional area contacted by fluid WF
Prod. Thermal Gas Injection Chemical Other EI = O W
Total cross−sectional area W O
- Steam - Carbon Dioxide - Alkali - Microbial
- Hot Water - Hydrocarbon - Surfactant - Acoustic 𝑆𝑜𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜ҧ WF
- Combustion - Nitrogen Flue - Polymer 𝐸𝐴 is a 𝑓 𝑀𝑠ҧ , 𝑡𝑑 , pattern 𝐸𝐷 = W 𝑢𝜇
**Oil Saturation constant during Primary Recovery IOR: Improved Oil Recovery Adapted from SPE-SPE-8490B, 87864 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑟 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟 O W
G O G 𝑁𝑣𝑐 = [=] (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠Τ𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠)
𝜎
Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff and contributions from Jenny Ryu and Matt Mlynski Contact balhoff@mail.utexas.edu with comments/suggestions