GCPY 220

WEEK 2
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS
Genetic Problems
■ Genetics plays a major role in development. Certain genetic
problems impact the growth of a developing child in the womb. For
example:-
■ Down Syndrome (trisomy): This is caused by an extra copy of the
21 chromosomes (meaning there are three chromosomes instead
of the usual two). Characteristics of Down syndrome include
flattened facial features, heart defects, and intellectual impairment.
The risk of having a child with Down syndrome increases with
maternal age.
Inheritable disease:
■ A number of illnesses can be inherited if one or both
parents are carriers of a gene for the disease. Example
sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, and Tay-Sachs disease.
Medical tests often is necessary to determine carrier of
specific gene disease.
■ Sex Chromosome Abnormalities: At least 1 in every 500
newborns have either a missing X chromosome or an
additional sex chromosome resulting in Klinefelter
syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, or Turner syndrome as the
case may be.
■ Kleinfelter's syndrome is caused by an extra X
chromosome and is characterized by a lack of
development of the secondary sex characteristics and as
well as learning disabilities.
■ Fragile X syndrome is caused when part of the X chromosome is
attached to the other chromosomes by delicate string of molecules
that it seems in danger of breaking off. The impact vary from mild to
severe intellectual disability in both male and female.
■ Turner syndrome occurs when only one sex chromosome (the X
chromosome) is present. It affects only females and can result in
short stature, a "webbed" neck, and a lack of secondary sex
characteristics. Turner syndrome is associated with psychological
impairments such as learning disabilities and difficulty recognizing
emotions conveyed through facial expressions.
Genetic Inheritance

■ Genotype implies all the genes that a person

inherited. Phenotype on the other hand refers to
how these genes are actually expressed.
Phenotype involves physical traits such as height
and color of the eyes and also nonphysical traits
such as personality.
Infectious Diseases

■ Many diseases can affect prenatal development. If a

mother for example contracts rubella (German measles)
early in her pregnancy, her child might suffer blindness,
heart abnormalities, and brain damage. Other infectious
diseases that can impact a growing fetus include syphilis,
toxoplasma, and varicella zoster (chicken pox)
Medications

■ Certain medications such as some anticonvulsants,

ACE-inhibitors (a type of blood pressure medication),
statins (cholesterol-lowering medications), isotretinoin
(anti-acne), warfarin (blood thinner), methotrexate and
others potentially influence fetus abnormal development or
fetus termination. To avoid such dangers, doctors and drug
manufacturers give warnings concerning drugs women
who are pregnant or who may become pregnant should
avoid.
Maternal Psychoactive Substance use

■ Maternal drug use such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, inhalants,

marijuana and tobacco, etc., have harmful effects on prenatal
development. Smoking for example, is linked to low birth weight
resulting in a weakened immune system, poor respiration, and
neurological impairment. Alcohol use can lead to fetal alcohol
syndrome, which is linked to heart defects, body malformations,
and intellectual disability. The use of cocaine and
methamphetamine is also linked to fetal low birth weight and
neurological impairment.
Nutrition/Maternal diet

■ Nutrition plays significant role in child development.

Deficiency of proper nutrition leads to abnormal
development. Malnutrition can lead to still birth, premature
birth and or prolong labour as well as intellectual and
physical retardation.
■ It is important that expectant mother feeds on a balance
diet as this will eventually help provide nutrients for the
fetus for proper development. Poor nutrition by the mother
consequently may expose her to infirmity, prolonged labor,
blood shortage, physical weakness, rickets and stillbirth.
Age of the mother

■ Normal age of child bearing for mothers is between

20 and 35 years. The older the mother, the more
difficult the pregnancy and the higher the mortality
rate. It is believed that children born after the age
of 40 have higher proportion of retardation,
prolonged labor and physical defects.
■ Exposure to radiation
Excessive exposure to infrared radiation (x-ray) severely
cause malfunction of the brain and deformation.

■ Poverty
Poverty may cause expecting mother to deny herself
proper and nutritive diet, adequate medical diagnosis or
professional assistance which consequently impact the
development of the fetus
■ Stress
Mothers with stress by means of economic
problems or social disruptions are said to have
malnourished children right from the womb.
Methodological approaches to Developmental
Psychology
■ Various standardized (scientific) methods are used in studying
developmental psychology. We will consider a few.
■ Natural Observation:
This is a process of observing the behavior of a child in the natural
setting or using the responses of the child to assess the changes
or developmental patterns of the child. Observation can either be
either controlled or uncontrolled.
Controlled observation is when a child is aware that he/she is been
observed. This could lead to a lot of pretense. Uncontrolled
observation implies that the child is not aware of the observation.
This brings a more objective study.
■ Interview:
This involves a face to face interaction between the Psychologist and the
child under investigation. Processes of interview are:
It must be under a conducive environment where the child is relaxed.
The responses must be interpreted by the interviewer to reach a
conclusion
It be organized in a clean environment
It could be a structured or unstructured interview. In a structured
interview, the questions are given to the child prior to the time of
interview to enable the child prepare for responses. This could lead to
a lot of biases. Unstructured interview on the other hand is conducted
without a prior knowledge to the child. This process allows the child to
freely express him/herself in the best way he can.
■ Cross-sectional studies:
This involves focusing on characteristics and behavioral
patterns of groups of people of different ages.
Advantages:
■ It is quick since the data is gathered at the same time from
different age groups
■ Specific behavioral pattern can be studied in details
■ It is less expensive
■ It reduces attrition of participants
Disadvantages:
■ Selection of participants of different ages who share
same study characteristics could be difficult.
■ It might be difficult to determine whether changes
that occur are as a result of ageing process or
experience since the subjects might from the same
cultural background.
■ Questionnaire:
This is a method that involves systematic presentation of
questions to elicit responses from study group. The
questions must be standardized, reliable and valid.

■ Experimentation:
This method involves manipulation of variables. Usually
experimentation contains more the one group of
participants.
■ Longitudinal study:
This is an investigation conducted over a long period of time
(years) on the same study group. This method has some
advantages and disadvantages

■ Baby biography:
This entails keeping detailed record of the child’s behavior
and developmental stages from time of birth. The advantage
is that it is insightful however it could be subjective.
■ Retrospective study:
This method involves recollection of past events by parents,
care givers, peer group, significant others, etc. concerning
the subject been investigated. It is inexpensive, not difficult
to collect information, reduces time wasting although
perception of the informant may be bias or inaccurate.