Methodology of Conducting RESEARCH

TECK (PVT)

and Elaborating upon LTD

Interpretations of
Advanced Quantitative
Research Techniques using
SPSS Ver 22
 RESEARCH
TECK (PVT)
LTD

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
“Research is undertaken within a framework
of a set of philosophies, uses procedures,
methods and techniques that have been
tested for their validity and reliability,
and is designed to be unbiased and objective“
Research Methodologies
Ranjit Kumar(2009)
 Inquiry Mode

 Qualitative Research
 Quantitative Research
Qualitative & Quantitative
Research
“Not everything that can be counted counts and
not everything that counts can be counted.”

( Albert Einstein )
What is qualitative research?
• Qualitative research seeks out the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of its
topic through the analysis of unstructured information –
things like interview transcripts, emails, notes, feedback
forms, photos and videos. It doesn’t just rely on statistics or
numbers, which are the domain of quantitative researchers
• Qualitative research is an approach which seeks to
understand , by means of exploration, human experience,
perceptions, motivations, intentions and behavior
• It is interactive, reflexive, inductive, flexible, and holistic
method of data collection and analysis
(Bryman & Bell 2007)
What is quantitative research?
• Quantitative Research seeks out the ‘how many’, when,
‘where’ of its topic through the analysis of structured
information. It relies on statistics or numbers
• In Quantitative Research we try to quantify the variation in
the phenomenon, situation, problem or issue. Statistical
analysis is done to determine the magnitude of variation
When Should I Use Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Research- - YouTube_2.flv

Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

Qualitative Quantitative
(Usually) Non-probability based Typically a probability-based
sample sample
Non-generalizable Generalizable

Answers Why? How? Answers How many? When?

Formative, earlier phases Tests hypotheses, latter phases

Data are “rich” and time-
consuming to analyze
Design may emerge as study
unfolds
Researcher IS the instrument
Data are more efficient, but may
miss contextual detail
Design decided in advance
Various tools, instruments
employed
Research Methodology
 Concentrate on two steps

 Data collection
 Data Analysis
How to do Data Collection
STEP 1
 Which data collection tool to use?
 Only internationally accepted data collection
tools (questionnaires) should be used (due to
Reliability and Validity constraints)
 Beginners can go for Quantitative tools (make
your life simple)
STEP 2
 Modify the questionnaire as per Pakistani
environment

STEP 3
 Collect a sample of 50 only for pilot study
(use easy topic)
STEP 4
 If pilot study is successful go for field survey or
case study

STEP 5
 Determine an appropriate sample size and
select an appropriate sampling Technique
What should be the
Sample Size ?


Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
 What should be the
Sampling Technique ?
Multistage Sampling
 Convenient Sampling

 Random Sampling

 Systematic Sampling

 Stratified sampling

 Cluster Sampling

 Sequence Sampling

 Double Sampling
The Main Steps in Quantitative Research
1. Theory

2. Hypothesis (deductive stage)

3. Research design
4. Derive measures of concepts

Feedback 5. Select research sites

(inductive 6. Select research subjects/respondents

stage)
7. Administer research instruments/collect data

8. Process data

9. Analyse data

10. Findings/conclusions

11. Write up findings/conclusions Fig. 6.1

Why Measure?
• To delineate fine differences between people,
organizations, or any other unit of analysis

• As a consistent device for gauging distinctions

• To produce precise estimates of the degree of

relationship between concepts
Why Use More Than One Indicator?

• Single indicators may incorrectly classify many

individuals
• Single indicators may capture only a portion of
the underlying concept or be too general
• Multiple indicators can make finer distinctions
between individuals
• Multiple indicators can capture different
dimensions of a concept
 Psychometric Tests

 Reliability
(Cronbacks’ Alpha α)
 Validity
(Factor Loadings, CFA & EFA)
Types of Reliability
• Stability
▫ is the measure stable over time?
 e.g. test–retest method
• Internal reliability
▫ are the indicators consistent?
 e.g. split-half method
• Inter-observer consistency
▫ is the measure consistent between observers?

see Research in focus 6.5 &

6.6
Types of Validity
• Face validity
• Concurrent validity
• Predictive validity
• Construct validity
• Convergent validity
see Key concept 6.7
EFA & CFA
Basic Terminologies
 Concept (are categories for the organization of ideas and
observations)
Motivation to work
Charismatic Leadership
Competitive success
Job Satisfaction
 Variable
 Dependent Variable
 Independent Variable
 Measure & Indicator
 Dimensions & Facets
 Items
 Antecedents & Out Comes
 Construct & Model
Level of Significance
P Value
Normality
Scales of Measurement
Dichotomous
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval/Ratio
Determine the Relevant Variable
Anything that may assume different numerical values
• Dependent
• Independent
• Moderating
• Intervening
Independent variable Dependant Variable

Salary Structure Job Satisfaction

 Price

Quality

Customer Satisfaction
Brand

Services

Independent variables Dependent variable

Salary Structure Job Satisfaction

Independent variable Dependant Variable

Culture

Moderating variable
 Number of Reading
Books abilities

Independent variable Dependant Variable

 Number of Reading
Books abilities
Independent variable Dependant Variable

Parents’
Literacy

Moderating variable
 Workforce
diversity Organizational
effectiveness

Independent Dependent
variable variable
 Workforce Creative Organisational
diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent Intervening Dependent

variable variable variable
Workforce Creative Organisational
diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent
Intervening Dependent
variable
variable variable

Managerial
expertise

Moderating Variable
Differentiating between Different types of
Quantitative Analysis

1. Content Analysis
2. Conducting Secondary Data Analysis and
Cross Cultural Comparisons
3. What is Meta Analysis
4. Primary Data Analysis
Types of Quantitative Analysis

1. Uni-variate Analysis
2. Bivariate Analysis
3. Multivariate Analysis
Univariate Analysis Authored by
David McHugh

Univariate analysis refers to the analysis of one variable at a

time. The commonest approaches are as follows:

• Frequency tables • Measures of

central tendency:
• Diagrams: ▫ Arithmetic mean
▫ Bar charts ▫ Median
▫ Pie charts ▫ Mode
▫ Histograms
• Measures of
dispersion:
▫ Range
▫ Standard deviation
 Frequency Table Showing Reasons for Visiting
the Gym
Reason n per cent

Relaxation 9 10

Maintain or improve fitness 31 34

Lose weight 33 37

Build strength 17 19

TOTAL 90 100

Table 14.2
Frequency Table Showing Ages of Gym
Members
Age n per cent

20 and under 3 3

21–30 39 44

31–40 23 26

41–50 21 24

51 and over 3 3

TOTAL 89 100

Table 14.3
Bar Chart Showing Main Reasons for Visiting
the Gym
35
30
25
Count

20
15
10
5
0
Relaxation Maintain or Lose weight Build strength
improve fitness
Main reasons for visiting the gym

Fig. 14.2
Pie Chart Showing Main Reasons
for Visiting the Gym

Build strength Relaxation

19% 10%

Maintain or
improve fitness
34%
Lose weight
37%

Fig. 14.3
Histogram Showing the Ages of Gym Visitors

45
40
35
30
Count

25
20
15
10
5
0
20 and 21--30 31--40 41--50 51 and
under over
Ages of Gym Visitors

Fig. 14.4
Bivariate Analysis
• Bivariate analysis is concerned with the
analysis of two variables at a time in order to
uncover whether the two variables are related

• Main types:

▫ Contingency tables
▫ Pearson’s r
▫ Spearman’s rho
▫ Phi and Cramér’s V
▫ Comparing means and eta
 Methods of Bivariate Analysis
Nominal Ordinal Interval/ratio Dichotomous
Nominal Contingency table Contingency table Contingency table Contingency table
+ chi-square (χ2) + chi-square (χ2) + chi-square (χ2) + chi-square (χ2)
+ Cramér’s V + Cramér’s V + Cramér’s V. + Cramér’s V
If the interval/ratio
variable can be
identified as the
dependent variable,
compare means + eta

Ordinal Contingency table Spearman’s rho (ρ) Spearman’s rho (ρ) Spearman’s rho (ρ)
+ chi-square (χ2)
+ Cramér’s V

Interval/ratio Contingency table Spearman’s rho (ρ) Pearson’s r Spearman’s rho (ρ)
+ chi-square (χ2)
+ Cramér’s V.
If the interval/ratio
variable can be
identified as the
dependent variable,
compare means +
seta

Dichotomous Contingency table Spearman’s rho (ρ) Spearman’s rho (ρ) phi (φ)
+ chi-square (χ2)
+ Cramér’s V
Fig. 11.5
Contingency Table Showing the Relationship
Between Gender and Reasons for Visiting the Gym
Reasons Gender

Male Female

No. % No. %

Relaxation 3 7 6 13

Fitness 15 36 16 33

Lose weight 8 19 25 52

Build strength 16 38 1 2

TOTAL 42 48

Table 14.4
 Comparing Subgroup Means: Time Spent on
Cardiovascular Equipment by Reasons for Going to the
Gym

Time Reasons
Relaxation Fitness Lose Build Total
weight strength
Mean number of 18.33 30.55 28.36 19.65 26.47
minutes
spent on
cardiovascular
equipment
n 9 31 33 17 90

Table 14.5
 Three Contexts for Multivariate Analysis

• Mutivariate analysis entails the simultaneous analysis of

three or more variables. There are three main contexts
within which multivariate analysis might be employed:

1. Could the relationship be spurious?

2. Could there be an intervening variable?

3. Could a third variable moderate the relationship?

A Spurious Relationship

Leadership style

Employee Job
commitment satisfaction

Fig. 14.10
 Intervening Variables

• Piercy, Haris, and Lane (2002) suggest that higher

levels of market orientation are associated with
higher levels of employee motivation, satisfaction,
and commitment, which in turn leads to enhanced
organizational performance. Employee attitudes are
thus an intervening variable:

market orientation → employee attitudes → organizational performance

Statistical Significance
• The chi-square test
▫ establishes how confident we can be that there is a
relationship between the two variables in the population

• Correlation and statistical significance

▫ provides information about the likelihood that the coefficient
will be found in the population from which the sample was
taken

• Comparing means and statistical significance – the F

statistic
▫ expresses the amount of explained variance in relation to the
amount of error variance
 Type 1 and Type 2 Errors
Error

Type I Type II
(risk of rejecting the (risk of confirming the
null hypothesis when null hypothesis when
it should be confirmed) it should be rejected)

0.05
Greater Lower
risk risk
p level

0.01 Lower Greater

risk risk
 Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis
WHY SPSS?
Q&A