THE BEST TEST PREPARATION FOR THE GRE=- PHYSICS Joseph J. Molitoris, Ph.D. Professor of Physics . Muhlenberg College Allentown, Pennsyivania Research and Education Association 61 Ethel Road West Piscataway, New Jersey 08854CONTENTS INTRODUCTION About Research and Education Association. ‘About the Book About the Test About the Author About the Review Scoring the Exam .. GRE PHYSICS REVIEW 1 CLASSICAL MECHANICS Vectors Linear Motion. Two-Dimensional Newton's Laws Momentum. Energy and Work Harmonic Motion Collisions... Lagrangian Mechani 2 ELECTROMAGNETISM Electric Fields Capacitors .. Current and Resistance Magnetic Fields and Currents 3 ATOMIC PHYSICS Rutherford Scattering. Atomic Spectra The Bohr Atom The Laser ... 4 THERMODYNAMICS Temperature svcscreeseirne Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Heat Capacity, Specific Heat and Cp .. Heat of Vaporization and Heat of Fusion 53 Conduction, Convection and Radiation 54 Heat. Work and The Laws of Thermodynamics 55 Entropy -.5 QUANTUM MECHANICS ‘Wave Functions and Equations. 57 ‘Schrédinger’s Equation... Potential Wells and Energy Level Harmonic Oscillator. Reflection and Transmission by a Barr 6 SPECIAL RELATIVITY Time Dilation and Length Contraction .. Dynamics Lorentz Transformations .. 7 optics Mechanical Waves Ray Optics Thin Lenses . Interference .. Diffraction TABLE OF INFORMATION NOTATIONS .. FOUR PRACTICE EXAMS GRE Physics Test 1 Answer Sheet Form Detailed Explanations of Answers . GRE Physics Test 2 Answer Sheet Form Test 2 Answer Key.. Detailed Explanations of Answers GRE Physics Test 3 ‘Answer Sheet Form Test 3... ‘Answer Key.. Detailed Explanations of Answers GRE Physics Test 4 Answer Sheet Form 316 Test 4 . Answer Key. Detailed Explanations oAbout Research and Education Association Research and Education Association (REA) is an organization of educators, scientists, and engineers who specialize in various academic fields. REA was founded in 1959 for the purpose of disseminating the most recently developed scientitic Intormation to groups in Industry, gov- ernment, high schools, and universities. Since then, REA has become a successful and highly respected publisher of study aids, test preps, hand- books, and reference works. REA’s Test Preparation series extensively prepares students and professionals for the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE), the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT), the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), as well as the Test of En- glish as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and the Advanced Placement Exams. Whereas most test preparation books present a few practice exams which bear little resemblance to the actual exams, REA’s test preparation books usually present six or more exams which accurately depict the official tests in degree of difficulty and In types of questions. REA’s prac- tice exams are always based on the most recently administered tests, and include every type of question that can be expected on the actual tests. REA’s publications and educational materials are highly regarded for their significant contribution to the quest for excellence that characterizes today's educational goals. We continually receive an unprecedented amount of praise from professionals, instructors, librarians, parents, and students for our books. Our authors are as diverse as the subjects and fields represented in the books we publish. They are well-known in their respective fields and serve on the faculties of prestigious universities throughout the United States.GRE Physics About the Book This book provides an accurate and complete representation of the Graduate Record Examination in Physics. The four practice exams and review section are based on the most recently administered GRE Physics Exam. Each exam Is two hours and fifty minutes in lenath and includes ‘every type of question that can be expected on the actual exam. Follow- ing each exam is an answer key, complete with detailed explanations designed to clarify the material for the student. By studying the review section, completing all four exams, and studying the explanations which follow, students can discover thelr strengths and weaknesses and thereby become well prepared for the actual exam. About the Test The Graduate Record Examination in Physics Is offered four times a year by the Educational Testing Service, under the direction of the Gradu- ate Record Examinations Board. Applicants for graduate school submit GRE test results together with other undergraduate records as part of the highly competitive admission process to graduate school. The GRE tests are intended to provide the graduate school admissions committee with a means of evaluating your competence in certain subject areas. Scores on the test are intended to indicate mastery of the subject matter empha- sized in an undergraduate program. The test consists of about 100 multiple-choice questions, some of which are grouped In sets and based on such materials as diagrams, experimental data, graphs, and descriptions of physical situations. Em- phasis Is placed on the ability to grasp fundamental principles of physics as well as the ability to apply these principles. Most test questions can be answered on the basis of a mastery of the first three years of undergradu- ate physics. Emphasis Is placed on the following major areas of physics and occur in the percentages indicated. These percentages reflect the relative emphasis placed on these topics In most undergraduate curricula. 1. Fundamentals of electromagnetism, Including Maxwell's equa- tions (18%) Classical mechanics (18%) ‘Atomic physics (15%) Quantum mechanics (10%) Physical optics and wave phenomena (10%) are viIntroduction Special relativity (7%) ‘Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics (7%) Laboratory methods (5%) Advanced topics: Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics, solid state physics, nuclear and particle physics and miscellaneous (10%) 9 BND About the Author Dr. Joseph Molitoris Is @ professor of Physics at Muhlenberg College in Allentown, Pennsylvania, where he teaches introductory and advanced physics. His teaching responsiblities include courses in General Physics, Modern Physics, Mechanics, Advanced Mechanics, Statistical Physics, and Nuclear Physics. After receiving his Bachelor of Science degree in Physics from Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology, Dr. Molitoris went on to receive his Master of Science degree In Mathematics from the University of North Florida, and then to obtain his Doctor of Philosophy in Physics from Michigan State University. His post-Doctoral work was performed as a fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in Frankfurt, Germany. About the Review The review in this book is designed to further your understanding of the test material. It includes techniques you can use to enhance your knowledge of physics and to eam higher scores on the exam. The review includes extensive discussions and examples to refresh your skills. Top- ies covered in the review are: Classical Mechanics + Vectors + Linear Motion + Two-Dimensional Motion + Newton's Laws + Momentum + Energy and Work + Harmonic MotionGRE Physics Collisions Lagrangian Mechanics Electromagnetism Electric Folds Capacttors Current and Resistance Circuits The Magnetic Field Magnetic Fields and Currents Atomic Physics Rutherford Scattering Atomic Spectra The Bohr Atom The Laser Thermodynamics ‘Temperature Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Heat capacity, Specific Heat and C, Heat of Vaporization and Heat of Fusion Conduction, Convection and Radiation Heat, Work and the Laws of Thermodynamics Entropy Quantum Mechanics vit Wave Functions and Equations Schrédingers Equation Potential Wells and Energy Levels Harmonic Oscillator Reflection and Transmission by a BarrierIntroduction Special Relativity + Time Dilation and Length Contraction + Dynamics + Lorentz Transformations Optics + Mechanical Waves + Ray Opties + Thin Lenses + Interference + Diffraction Scoring the Exam ‘Two types of scores are obtained from your results on the GRE Physics examination: a raw score and a scaled score. The raw score Is determined first and is then converted into the scaled score. To determine the raw score, a number of things must be done. The following equation represents the process: R - W/4 = Raw Score (round-off If necessary) First calculate the total number of wrong (W) answers. Next, calculate the total number of right (R) answers. Unanswered questions are not counted. At this point, divide the total number of wrong answers by four and: subtract this result from the total number of right answers. This ad- justment Is made to compensate for guessing. Finally, take the last result and round It off to the nearest whole number, which will be the raw score. To determine the scaled score, find the number that corresponds, to the raw score on the table on the following page.GRE Physics GRE Physics — Total Score Raw Score | Scaled Score | Raw Score | Scaled Score 84-100 990 41-42 670 83 980 40 660 81-82 970 39 650 80 960 37-38 640 79 950 36 - 630 71-78 940 35 620 76 930 33-34 610 75 920 32 600 73-74 910 30-31 590 72 900 29 580 | 1 890 28 570 69-70 880 26-27 560 68 870 25 550 67 860 24 540 65-66 850 22-23 530 64 840 21 520 63 830 20 510 61-62 820 18-19 500 60 810 17 490 59 800 16 480 57-58 790 1445 470 56 780 13 460 55 770 12 450 53-54 760 10-11 440 52 750 9 430 51 740 8 420 49-60 730 67 410 48 720 5 400 47 710 4 390 45-46 700 2-3 380 44 690 1 370 43 680 0 360GRE PHYSICS REVIEWCHAPTER 1 CLASSICAL MECHANICS A. VECTORS A vector is a measure of both direction and magnitude. Vector variables are usually indicated in boldface, or with an arrow, such as ¥. THE COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR 4a, and a, are the components of a vector a. The angle @ is measured counter- clockwise from the positive x-axis. The components are formed when we draw perpendicular lines to the chosen axes. ‘The Formation of Vector Components on the Positive X— Yaxis The components of a vector are given by ‘A component is equal to the product of the magnitude of vector A and co- sine of the angle between the positive axis and the vector. ‘The magnitude can be expressed in terms of the components Finally the angle @ is given byGRE Physics Review Like scalars, which are measures of magnitude, vectors can be added, subtracted and multiplied. To add or subtract vectors, simply add or subtract the prospective x and y coordinates. For example, a-b>4,-b,=¢, a,b, =6, Therefore, C is the sum vector. There are 2 forms of multiplication: the dot product and the vector, or cross product. The dot product yields a scalar value: a-b=abcos® The Cross Product of two vectors yields a vector: axb=c and lel=absin@ 3 3 (a) Dot Prodict (b) cross Product Vector Multiplication ‘The direction of the Vector Product a x b = ¢ is given by the “Right Hand Rule”: 1) With a and b tail-to-tail, draw the angle @ from a to b. 2) With your right hand, curl your fingers in the direction of the angle drawn. The extended thumb points in the direction of ¢. et B The direction of the vector product, ¢=axb (|¢| = ab sin), is into the page.Classical Mechanics Properties of the Cross Product: axb=-bxa ax(b+e)=(axb)+ (axe) (a x b) = (ca) x b = a x (cb), where c is a scalar. lax bP =A2B—(a- bY B. LINEAR MOTION ‘Any object in motion has an average and an instantaneous velocity: a) _ Average Velocity vest Boa at hh 'b)__ Instantaneous Velocity V= tim # =X = yr) ano At de Just as the average and instantaneous velocities are the rate of change of Position with respect to time, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time, dey av iy, & dat dt From this, the following basic kinematic equations of motion can be derived: 1 vev,tat 2. vay? + 2a(x—x,) 3. xa tree, at 4 X=%, +h, (Vy + IE where y, and x, are initial values,GRE Physics Review C. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION For 2 dimensional, or planar, motion, simply break the velocity and accel- eration vectors down into their x and y components. Once this is done, the preced- ing one dimensional equations can apply. x A special case of 2 dimensional motion is Uniform Circular Motion. For a particle to be held on a circular path, 4 radial acceleration must be applied. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration. Centripetal Acceleration y’ a= where a = Acceleration v = Tangential Component of Velocity r = Radius of the Path For uniform circular motion, a can also be written as where T, The tangential component of the acceleration is the rate at which the par- ticle speed changes:Classical Mechanics avd my Ar ae ‘When dealing with circular motion, or other situations involving motion relative to a central force field, it is often appropriate to use cylindrical coordi- nates, where the position is a function of radius and angle (r, 8). In the case of three dimensions, the coordinates become (r, ®, z), where the z-coordinate is identical to the respective cartesian z-coordinate. In describing such motion, o represents angular acceleration do (@) do () If angular acceleration, o,, is constant, then equations correlating to those previously stated for linear motion can be shown to apply. and © represents angular velocity Similarity Table Rotational Motion Linear Motion Equivalent o = constant a = constant ® = tor v= vtat go = ete, ve tott, 2 2 0 = at',or x = vet Mae @ = o2+200 vos v2+2ar ©, = initial and final angular displacements ©, © = initial and final angular velocities. ‘Another type of coordinate system used is the spherical coordinate system, with components (p, 6, 8).GRE Physics Review y r=psing x=rcos® x=p sing cos @ Z= pcos yersin® y=psing sin® e=0 rez z=pcosd D. NEWTON’S LAWS First Law Every body remains in its state of rest or uniform linear motion, unless a force is applied to change that state. Second Law If the vector sum of the forces F acting on a particle of mass m is different from zero, then the particle will have an acceleration, a, directly proportional to, and in the same direction as, F, but inversely proportional to mass m. Symboli- cally (if mass is constant) Third Law For every action, there exists a comesponding equal and opposing reaction, or the mutual actions of two bodies are always equal and opposing. Newton's Laws all refer to the effects of forces on particles or bodies. ‘These forces can be represented in vector form. Force . A) _ is a push or pull that a body exerts on another. B) can be represented by a vector. C) adds and subtracts vectorially.OP=4,x+d,y+dz Unit Vector: Classical Mechanics @ = distance between 0 and F op us OF. OP Ge =F (axtdy+dz) Foran“ (ax+dy+dz) Components: pele po Pee Ga a Distance: Jalsa? sa Directional Cosines of F: 1d, a=cos? a x a 1d, a B=cos" ‘y=cos Unit Vector Expressed in Terms of Angles: u=cos ax +c0s By +cos yzGRE Physics Review Relationship Between Angles: costa. + cos? B+ cost y= 1 E.. MOMENTUM LINEAR MOMENTUM: kgm ‘sec p=my — units: where p = linear momentum of particle mass of particle velocity of particle & wun NEWTON'S SECOND LAW dp _ (mv) a a where F = thenet force on the particle, LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES Total Linear Momentum P=)! meri that--+Pn ist S mypy + mgd, +. + MAU where P = total linear momentum of system PM, V, = linear momentum, mass, and velocity of ith particle, respectively. Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles (Momentum Form). F,,22 dt where F, “4, = sum of all extemal forces Momentum is conserved. The total linear momentum of the system re- mains unchanged if the sum of all forces acting on the system is zero. 10/ Classical Mechanics According to Newton's 2nd Law: i =D Fy 20 ANGULAR MOMENTUM: ‘Angular Momentum ! Vector Equation l=rxP Scalar Equation I=1P sin® where 7 = Angular momentum 7 = Radius P = Linear momentum @ = Angle formed by rand P Zp» tt ‘Angular Momentum The rotational correlation to force is Torque, which relates to angular mo- mentum by the equation. -2 To 3 Torque is simply: Paces) X (0) =T Another way of defining Angular Momentum is the Moment of Inertia times the Angular Velocity: I=l0 where 1 corresponds to mass. (@ being angular velocity)oe ae Physics Feview Determination of : Integration Method Area — General Formula: ref, 3° dA where 5 = Perpendicular distance from the axis to the area element. EXAMPLE: For a Rectangular Area | Ae i ——) x * yt dye Lop? 1y=f, by? dy= 5 bh ‘This is the moment of inertia with respect to an axis passing through the base of the rectangle. ‘Moments of Inertia of Masses: 12Classical Mechanics In Polar Coordinates, the polar moment of Inertia is noted as J. Polar Moment of Inertia: fraa be In terms of rectangular moments of inertia: L=H+l, ‘The Radius of Gyration can be determined once the moment of Inertia and the Area are known. Polar form: Relation between rectangular component form and polar form: tek k? kaki +k, Masses Impulse and Momentum Impulse-Momentum Method — An alternate method to solving problems in which forces are expressed as a function of time. It is applicable to situations wherein forces act over a small interval of time. 13GRE Physics Review Linear Impulse-Momentum Equation: fF F ar» imputse = mv, - mv, Ideal impulse produces an instantaneous change in momentum and velocity of the particle without producing any displacement. Mv,+ ZF At= My, Any force which is non-impulsive may be neglected, ¢.g., weight, or small forces. F. ENERGY AND WORK ‘The work done by a force F through a displacement dr dw =F - de in Joules. (SI units) Over a finite distance from point 1 to point 2: Waaf Pedr Work-Energy Principle Kinetic energy for a particle of mass M and velocity v is defined as Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a particle by virtue of its motion. Principle of Work and Energy — Given that a particle undergoes a dis- placement under the influence of a force F, the work done by F equals the change in kinetic energy of the particle. W,_.= (KE),- (KE), Results of the Principle of Work and Ener A) Acceleration is not necessary and may not be obtained directly by this principle. B) The principle may be applied to a system of particles if each particle is considered separately. C) Those forces that do not contribute work are eliminated. 14Classical Mechanics Kinetic Energy and Newton's Law: any a Fem G. > Gy (KE). where KE = a function of x. (This applies only in an inertial reference frame.) Power and Efficiency Power is defined as the time-rate of change of work and is denoted by dw/ dt, Power= Wap. y dt Mechanical Efficiency: Power out ‘Power NOTE: nis always <1. Potential Energy Potential Energy = The stored energy of a body or particle in a force field associated with its position from a reference frame. If PE represents potential energy, PE = mgh U,_,=PE),- PB, A negative value would indicate an increase in Potential Energy. ‘Types of Potential Energy include: Gravitational Potential Energy: Spring Potential Energy: Conservation of Energy ‘Conservative Case For a particle under the action of conservative forces: 15GRE Physics Review (KE), + (PE), = (KE), + (PE), = E The sum of kinetic and potential energy at a given point is constant. Equation (1) can be written as: daw? > mv? + (PE) In a conservative system, if PE = £, then V = 0. non-conservative force F” d(PE+KE)=f F’- dr The Potential Energy must be less than or equal to the Total Energy. 1) The direction of F’ is opposite to that of dr. 2) Total energy E decreases with motion. 3) Friction forces are nonconservative. G. HARMONIC MOTION @ In a non-conservative system, relating potential and kinetic energy with the Simple Harmonic Motion — Linear motion of a body where the accelera- tion is proportional to the displacement from a fixed origin and is always directed towards the origin. The direction of acceleration is always opposite to that of the displacement. Equation of motion me’ + k= 0 or x74 pr=0 where p? = k/m. General Solution of Equation (2) x=¢, sin pt +c, cos pt where c, and c, may be oblained from initial conditions. 16 Q)Classical Mechanics ‘An alternate form of Equation (2) x=x, sin (r+ 9) where x, = the amplitude, and xex, sin (pt 9) Period =1 = 2n/P Frequency, f= 1/1 = P/2x For small angles of vibration, the motion of a simple pendulum can be approximated by simple harmonic motion. Mille For small angles of vibration, g=s/1 ‘Equation of Motion: ore ono The solution is: $= 4, c08 (ot +0,) where @, = /git 6, = max amplitude of oscillation a, = phase factor The period of oscillation is: 7GRE Physics Review ‘The Spherical Pendulum refers to the simple pendulum-like arrangement, but with motion in 3-dimensions. ‘The equations of motion become: x74 (g/De=0 y+ (Q/Dy=0 with solutions: x= A.cos (or +r) y= Bcos (r+ 8) where @ = 4/g/I On the x-y plane, the motion is an ellipse. ‘Spherical Coordinates — More accurate than the previous solution. Equations of Motion: ma, = F,= Mg cos @-T ma,=F,=-Mg sing *— w7 sing cos $+ gsing =0 7“ 4 (asin? 6) = ee Forced (Driven) Harmonic Oscillator. For periodic driving force: Equation of Motion: fe. o% + 2 cose, 1 ae TH C08 @, where — @, = driving frequency F, = max. magnitude of the driving force. 18Classical Mechanics The solution will be equal to the sum of the complementary solution and the particular solution. p Fofm X = Acos of + Bsinwt + —"— cosa,t to? f oo, oe Xe Pp Resonance occurs when «,~ co. Damped Oscillator. Acommon damping force is a pace a If an object’s motion is damped in this manner, then the equation of motion is: am, f(<) £ om (5) m The critical damping coefficient is defined as Corea = aml Now, three cases must be considered with respect t0 Corea? A) Ifc>Coyoys 4, and a, are both real, the motion is nonoscillating, and the system is overdamped. The general solution is given by xede! 4 Be? B) 19GRE Physics Review ©) fe —~ %, and is known as the generalized force. Conservative Systems Forces expressed in terms of the potential energy function: =v F, where v is the potential energy. In terms of the generalized force, dy Ove “Ox, 99, ~~ 34, 23GRE Physics Review LAGRANGE’S EQUATION For a system, kinetic energy KE is T=KE=$mx; §51,2,..,3M ax, | ax, Eee ee where ‘The Lagrange equation of motion using the equations above is; 4/2). oT 5 4 (a) -2 +H RAND or if the motion is conservative and if the potential energy is a function of ‘generalized coordinates, then the equation becomes 4 (7) 0 Ww pete at \Qq7,) 94, 9g, Lagrange’s Function (L) L=T~—V where T and V are in terms of generalized coordinates. Lagrange’s Equation in Terms of L 4 (3) = dt aq’, Lagrange’s equation for non-conservative generalized forces: -o. If 2,=2 %, , where Q’ is non-conservative, then Lagrange’s equation becomes fd oi 4g OL aq, 8 ** Og, and is useful, for example, when frictional forces are present, General Procedure for Obtaining the Equation of Motion: A) Choose a coordinate system. B) Write the kinetic energy equation as a function of these coordinates. C) Find the potential energy, if the system is conservative. D) Combining these terms in Lagrange’s equation results in the equation of motion. 24Classical Mechanics Lagrange’s Equations with Constraints Holonomic Constraint — Constraints of the form oq 34, *7=° Non-holonomic Constraint — Constraints of the form h,3q,=0 Differential equations of motion by the method of undetermined multipli- ers: (The Non-Holonomic Case) ‘Multiply the equation by a constant A and add the result to the integrand of | Bq, de=0 Cle aa, Select A. such that the terms in brackets equals zero, Beek Bh oane0 at 2m Ag, =0 ‘There now exist m + 1 equations to obtain m + 1 unknowns, ode ‘This technique may be employed with moving constraints or with several constraints by having corresponding undetermined coefficients with correspond- ing A's in the Lagrangian equations, Qs ap ove” GRE Physics Review CHAPTER 2 ELECTROMAGNETISM A. ELECTRIC FIELDS Definition of an Electric Field FE Eq where E = Electric Field F = Electric Force 4 = Positive Test Charge 4 1, COULOMB'S LAW By definition, the force between two point charges of arbitrary positive or negative strengths is given by the Coulomb's law as follows: 2,2, 7 4ned Fok where Q, and Q, = positive or negative charges on either object in coulombs. = distance separating the two point charges. the constant of proportionality (4ne,)“' = 9 x 10 newton-meter* / coul, permittivity in free space 8.854 x 10" Fm NOTE: € = ¢, €, for media other than free space, where €, is the relative permit- tivity of the media, The force F can be expressed in vector form to indicate its direction as follows: 2,2 26Electromagnetism ‘The unit vector a, is in the direction of d =pfat Tal @ Naturally, Q, and Q, can each be either positive or negative. As a consquence of this, the resultant force can be either positive (repulsive) or negative (attrac- tive). Flux By definition, the electric flux, y (from Faraday’s experiment), is given by v=o where Q is the charge in coulombs. ‘The electric flux density D is a vector quantity. In general, at a point M of any surface S (see figure), Dds cos @ = dy, (where ay is the differential flux through the differential surface ds of M, and @ is the angle of D with respect to the normal vector from ds). (NOTE: is the case where D is normal to ds and the direction and magnitude of the electric flux density varies along the surface.) normal vector 2. GAUSS’S LAW Gauss’s law states that the net electric flux passing out of a closed surface is equal to the total charge within such surface. Hence, since dy=D-ds y=] D-as and by Gauss’s law, where Q,is the total number of charges enclosed by the surface. 27GRE Physics Review Application of Gauss’s Law ‘The following spherical surface is chosen to enclose a given charge to be determined: Q, spherical i: closed Br*Bn surface ‘ x e Applying Gauss’s law. The charge Q, enclosed by the spherical surface is 2.=$D- ds where ds in this case is equal to 4nr* (NOTE: r is the radius of the sphere). Hence, Q,= Dan? and _ 2 Oo ar Since electric field intensity E is equal to 2, 4ne,d and d is equal to r in this case, then D = ¢,E. Some hints for choosing a special Gaussian surface: A) The surface must be closed. B) D'remains constant through the surface and normal to the surface. C) Dis either tangential or normal to the surface at any point on the surface. It is easier in solving a problem if we can choose a special Gaussian surface. In other words, this surface should be chosen to conform to the flux at any given point on the closed surface about the charge. 3. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL, ENERGY AND WORK Electric Potential Difference Wan Vem To units: Volts 28Electromagnetism where V, = Electric Potential at Point B V, = Electric Potential at Point A Wy, = Work Done by External Force Go = Electrical Test Charge More generally: ‘The potential difference between two points p and p’, symbolized as V,,, (or $p’p) is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge by an external force from the initial point p to the final point p’. Vp=-f, E-d=V,-V, ‘The unit for potential difference is the Volt (V) which is Joules/coulomb. B. CAPACITORS ‘The Capacitance of two oppositely charged conductors in a uniform dielec- tric medium is Q cey, ‘The unit for capacitance is the Farad (F) c Fey where Q = the total charge in either conductor. V, = the potential difference between the two conductors. EXAMPLE: ‘Capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor: Hl #4. onductor surface Po tt tt + tee0/ is the permittivity of the homogeneous dielectric D=p, (On lower plate: D,=D,=p,GRE Physics Review D, is the normal value of D. On upper plate: considering conductor planes of area S are of linear dimensions much greater than d. Total energy stored in the capacit Af ek Swell vy Ee ae as 1 == CV, 2 ov,= O g C x= vi- Multiple dielectric capacitors SL / nes plates: Cap ‘A parallel-plate capacitor containing two dielectrics with the dielectric interface parallel to the conducting plates; C= 1K (d,/ €,S) + (d,/ €,5) }.Electromagnetism 2,8 g=t a, V, = A potential difference between the plates = £4, +E 4, sl a) +e) C. CURRENT AND RESISTANCE DEFINITIONS Current: i= amperes where i = Electric Current q = Net Charge t = Time Current Density and Current: = Am ‘m? I*q iperes/ where j = Current Density i = Current A = Cross-sectional Area. Mean Drift Speed: vet ne where v, = Mean Drift Speed J = Current Density n = Number of atoms per unit volume. ci]GRE Physics Review Resistance: R=~% Qhms (9) where R = Resistance V = Potential Difference i = Current Resistivity: one Ohm- meters (Qm) where p = Resistivity E = Electric Field j = Current Density Power: tp 2 VW? Pevi=PR=Y waus(w) where P= Power 1 = Current V = Potential Difference R = Resistance D. CIRCUITS Electromotive Force, EMF(e) where Current in a Simple Circult where © = Electromotive Force w = Work Done on Charge q = Electric Charge >lo i = Current € = Electromotive Force R = ResistanceElectromagnetism Rraa = R, +R, +R,) Q (in series) R, Let. ) (in parallel) The Loop Theorem AV, +AV, + AV, . For a complete circuit loop EXAMPLE Simple circult with resistor Vyse-iR=+ir Then e-iR-ir =0 NOTE: If a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the voltage change is represented as a voltage drop, ~ iR. A change in voltage while traversing the EMF (or battery) in the direction of the EMF is a voltage rise +€. Circuit With Several Loops Lin=0 EXAMPLE titindGRE Physics Review Muttiloop circuit RC CIRCUITS (RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS) RC charging and discharging Differential Equations R444 e=R 74% (Charging) O=R Bed (Discharging) An RC circuit Charge in the Capacitor a=(co(I- ) (Charging) a=(Ceye® Discharging) Current in the Resistor Je (Charging) (E)e# (Discharging) where — e = 2.71828 (Exponential Constant)Electromagnetism KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW ‘The algebraic sum of all currents entering a node equals the algebraic sum of all currents leaving it. » Li,=0 = KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (SAME AS LOOP THEOREM) ‘The algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed loop is zero. THEVENIN’S THEOREM In any linear network, it is possible to replace everything except the load resistor by an equivalent circuit containing only a single voltage source in series with a resistor (R, Thevenin resistance), where the response measured at the load resistor will not be affected. Tinear_ -—x Active hteework y Procedures to Find Thevenin Equivalent: 1) _ Solve for the open circuit voltage V,_ across the output terminals. Vie Vu 2) — Place this voltage V,, in series with the ‘Thevenin resistance which is the resistance across the terminals found by setting all independent voltage and current sources to zero. (i.e., short circuits and open circuits, respectively.) RLC CIRCUITS AND OSCILLATIONS ‘These oscillations are analogous to, and mathematically identical to, the case of mechanical harmonic motion in its various forms. (AC current is sinu- soidal.) SIMPLE RL AND RC CIRCUITS Source Free RL CircuitGRE Physics Review Properties: Assume initially i(0) = /,, di =Ri+L Sexo, A) ty =Ritl B) (ate =e", ‘t= time constant -4 ©) Power Pye PR=12Re we, D) Total energy in terms of heat in the resistor = W,="/, Lie Source Free RC Circuit a(t) —e cavity gx Properties: Assume initially v(0) = V, wey A) C+ EHO. B) v(t)= v(O)et/¥O = Ve-t/ FC, ot 4 in dt+ (R=0 it) = 1) THE RLC CIRCUITS Parallel RLC Circuit (source free) Circuit Diagram: KCL equation for parallel RLC circuit: av dt -i(t, c= Va -iec 2 and the corresponding linear, second-order homogeneous differential equation is dv idiv_ Cate Etp AoElectromagnetism General Solution: ss 1 2 VaAe! +Aze?, 1 1y_1 ths if.) 4 Sa" oRe (are) Lc or S\a=-at a? - a," where 0: = exponential damping coefficient neper frequency 1 2RC and @, = resonant frequency 1 * Vie eritically damped vit) \derdampea (8) COMPLETE RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUIT ‘The general equation of a complete response of a second order system in terms of voltage for an RLC circuit is given by, St Sat v@)=V, + Ae! +Be? forced response natural response = (Le., constant for DC excitation) NOTE: A and B can be obtained by 1) Substituting vat t= 0° 2) Taking the derivative of the response, i.e., av Pu0+s,Ac¥ 45,8 0% Grothe +5 where # at 1=0° is known.GRE Physics Review E. THE MAGNETIC FIELD Force in a magnetic field Fy=qvxB where F, = Force on particle due to field Charge on particle ¥ = Velocity of particle B = Magnetic field F. MAGNETIC FIELDS AND CURRENTS THE BIOT-SAVART LAW Hol sin od ee 4n r where B = Magnetic field », = Permeability constant i = Current through a wire 1 = Length of wire 1 = Distance from assumed point charge to a point in the magnetic field © = Angle between r and the direction of the element NOTE: Hp = 4mx1077 im Integral form: ip dl’ xa, Babel, ant where primed terms refer to points along the source of the field, AMPERE’S LAW The line integral of the tangential component of B is exactly equal to the current enclosed by that path. $B-dL=I Curl of a Vector Field. The curl of any vector is defined as a vector where the direction is given by the right-hand rule and the magnitude is given by the limit of the quotient of the 38Electromagnetism closed line integral and the area of the enclosed path as the area approaches 0. H-dL (curl H), = lim eaaae asco AS, As, is the area enclosed by the closed line integral, and n is any component; this is normal to the surface enclosed by the closed path. STOKE'S THEOREM fF dl={, (VxF)-ds F is any vector field, s is a surface bounded by /. It gives the relation between a closed line integral and surface integral. By using the Divergence Theorem and Stoke's theorem we can derive a very important identity: v-VxAs0 where A = is any vector field, MAGNETIC FLUX AND MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY B=, H, Bis the magnetic flux density in free space. ‘Unit of B is webers per square meter (wb / m*) or Tesla (T) a new unit. = 4 mx 10” H/m (permeability of free space) His in amperes per meter (A/m). $B as=0 ‘This is Gauss’s law for the magnetic field _— V-B=0 after application of the divergence theorem. This is the fourth and last equation of Maxwell. FARADAY'S LAW Faraday’s Law can be stated as follow:GRE Physics Review ‘The minus sign is by Lenz's Law which indicates that the induced emf. is always acting against the changing magnetic fields which produce that e.m-f. Faraday's law describes the relationship between Electric and Magnetic Fields. INDUCTANCE (1) Unit of inductance is H which is equivalent to wb / A. Applications Inductance per meter length of a coaxial cable of inner radius a and outer radius b, Ho qe g Him. A toroidal coil of N turns and JA, where RK = Mean radius of the toroid. Different expressions for inductance: Wy Le Pa eae 1 Plog (7% A) dy 1 LaF lf a xtpavs {A xm a] 1 Lea [asa bath (laaae #) 34Electromagnetism ‘Mutual inductance between circuits 1 and 2, where MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS Auniliary equations relating D and E: Maxwell's equations in integral form: Na 92 2 7, N = the number of turns tana ha (#H, Hy) dv Lye ky ‘Maxwell's equation in differential form: vee VxHes+ VvV-D=p v-B=0 D=cE D=e,E+P B=yH B=y,(H+M) J=oE J=pU F= p(B +U xB) gE. au--| 2 ds $u-ai-r+) 4 2 ds $d-ds={ pa $B-ds=0 atGRE Physics Review ‘These four integral equations enable us to find the boundary conditions on B, D, H and E which are necessary to evaluate the constants obtained in solving ‘Maxwell's equations in partial differential form. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Maxwell's Equations in Phasor Form: VxH,=joe,E, VxE,=-jop,H, V-E,=0 V-#H,=0 ‘Wave equations: VxVxE,=V(V-E,)-V'E,=-jo,VxH, =o71,¢,E,=-VWE,. VE,=- 01,5, ve _ WE, FE, FE. aoe Oy =e) En For vE, FE, dy? az? ie., E, independent of x and y. This can be simplified to vE =~ OWE, Ew az? E,= E,, cos[a(t — 2 /I,e,) ] and E,.= a am cos[o(t +24/¥&)] E,= value of E, atz=0,t=0. Velocity of the travelling wave: To find the velocity U, let us keep the value of £, to be constant, thereforeElectromagnetism Take differentials; we have lis at— 7 dz=0 az aU in free space. 1 s Velocity of light = U = Jen" 3x10" m/s Hoe ‘Wave length The field is moving in the ling wave. Form of the H field: direction with velocity U. It is called a travel- If E, is given, H, can be obtained from VxE,=-jou,e,H, OE, . Fem on Ey BA nr =E,(-jofiere * °° is a constant where Sot where 1) = The intrinsic impedance: It is the square root of the ratio of permeability to permittivity and is measured in Q. n, = (22 =3770 £q ‘1, = Nof free space.GRE Physics Review The term uniform plane wave is used because the Hand E fields are uni- form throughout any plane, Z = constant, and itis also called a transverse electro- magnetic (TEM) wave since both the E snd H fields are perpendicular to the di- rection of propagation. uniform TEM wave.CHAPTER 3 ATOMIC PHYSICS A. RUTHERFORD SCATTERING Alpha p >. Particle @ Is the scattering angle and b Is the Impact parameter In this collision, it is assumed that the nucleus has sufficient mass as to not be moved by the alpha particle. In this case, the energy of the alpha particle stays the same. It follows that the magnitude of the momentum remains constant P\=P,=mv ‘Therefore by the Law of sines: Solving for the change in momentum: Ap = 2m sin( 2) It can also be shown that the scattering angle @ can be determined by the equation: where = the alpha particle energy. 45